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-percentages are used a great deal in everyday living, and you will often be
asked to find the percentage of a quantity or amount of money. This can be done
in one of three ways:
(i) Change the percentage to its fraction form with a denominator of 100, cross
out common factors and then multiply
(ii) Where possible change the percentage to its simplified fraction form and then
multiply
(iii) Change the percentage to its decimal form and then multiply
REMEMBER:
OF in maths means MULTIPLY.
Example 1
Find 25% of 300.
Method (i)
25/100 × 300
= 25 (300/100)
= 25 (3)
= 75
Method (ii)
25% = ¼ (as a simplified fraction)
¼(300)
= 300/4
= 75
Method (iii)
25% = 0.25 (as a decimal)
Manual computation:
300
× 0.25
----------
1500
6000
----------
7 5.0 0
Remember:
hundredths × units = hubdredths
Note:
It doesn't matter which of the methods you use, although one of the first two
methods would probably be used by most people.
Example 2
Find 40% of 30 apples.
Method (i)
40/100 (30)
= (4/10)(30)
= 4(3)
= 12
Method (ii)
40% = 2/5 (as a simplified fraction)
2/5 (30)
= 2 (30/5)
= 2 (6)
= 12
Example 3
Find 12½ % of 200.
Method (ii) is easier to use here.
12½ % = 1/8
⅛(200)
= 200/8
= 25
Important Conversions to Memorize
Percentage/Decimal/Fraction/Simplified Fraction
I. Essential to know
25% = 0.25 = 25/100 = 1/4
50% = 0.50 = 50/100 = 1/2
75% = 0.75 = 75/100 = 3/4
100% = 1.00 = 100/100 = 
1
20% = 0.20 = 20/100 = 1/5
40% = 0.40 = 40/100 = 2/5
60% = 0.60 = 60/100 = 3/5
80% = 0.80 = 80/100 = 4/5
II. Optional to know
33⅓ % = 0.333... = 33⅓ /100 = 1/3
66⅔ % = 0.666... = 66⅔ /100 = 2/3
12½ % = 0.125 = 125/100 = 1/8
37½ % = 0.375 = 375/100 = 3/8
62½ % = 0.625 = 625/100 = 5/8
87½ % = 0.875 = 875/100 = 7/8
Note:
0.333... & 0.666... are both infinite decimals. To show an infinite decimal, we
write
"..." at the end. This is also good for when you get bored writing all the
digits of a lengthy finite decimal.
Another way to write an infinite decimal with a repeating pattern is
to draw a bar over the part that repeats.
Simple Interest
When money is deposited into a Bank, Building Society or other Savings Account,
then one can earn a certain amount of interest on the capital or principal
invested. In reverse, if a person borrows money (for a car, house, etc.) then they
have to pay the bank interest on the amount borrowed. The interest paid is
expressed as a percentage rate per year. The words "per year" are usually
shortened to p.a. (per annum from Latin).
Formula
Interest = Principal × rate × time
I = Prt
Example (i)
Mary has $300 in her Building Society savings account. If the interest rate is 13%
p.a. how much interest will she earn after 5 years?
Given
P = $300
r = 13% or 13/100
t = 5 years
Solution
I = Prt
I = ($300)(13%)(5years)
I = (300)(13/100)(5)
I = (300/100)(13)(5)
I = 3(65)
I = $195
Mary will earn $195 interest at the end of 5 years.
Example (ii)
Greg deposits $2000 in his Bank savings account which pays interest at 12% p.a.
How much interest will he get after 9 months?
Given
P = $2000
r = 12% or 12/100
t = 9 mos. or 9/12 or 3/4 year
I = Prt
I = ($2000)(12%)(9mos.)
I = (2000)(12/100)(3/4)
I = (2000/100)(12/4)(3)
I = 20(3)(3)
I = $180
Note:
The interest rate is calculated per year (p.a.) Therefore all months have to first
be changed to a fraction of a year. 9 months = 9/12 of a year = 3/4 of a year.
Practice Questions
1. Jimmy has $200 in a savings account which pays interest at 10% p.a. How
much interest will Jim earn in (a) 1 year? (b) 2 years? (c) 3 years?
2. Ann spends 8% of her savings on a T-shirt which costs $15.00. How much did
Ann have saved before she bought the T-shirt?
3. A real estate salesman gets 4½ % commission on the value of each house he
sells. How much commission does he get paid for selling house worth $286,400?
Counting and Probability
II. Combinations
- When finding permutatios, we are interested in number of ways of ordering
elements of a set. In many counting problems, however, order is not
important.For example, a poker hand is the same hand regardless of how it is
ordered. A poker player who is interested in the number of possible handa wants
to know the number of ways of drawing five cards from 52 cards, without regard
to the order in which the cards of a given hand are dealt. We now develop a
formula for counting in situations such as this, in which order doesn't matter.
A combination of r elements of a set is any subset of r elements from the set
(without regard to order). If tge set has n elements, then the number of
combinations of r elements is denoted by C(n, r) and is called the "number of
combinations of n elements taken r at a time."
For example, consider a set with the four elements, A, B, C, and D. The
combinations of these four elements taken three at a time are
ABC
ABD
ACD
BCD
The permutations of these elements taken three at a time are
ABC ABD ACD BCD
ACB ADB ADC BDC
BAC BAD CAD CBD
BCA BDA CDA CDB
CAB DAB DAC DBC
CBA DBA DCA DCB
We notice that the number of combinations is a lot fewer than the number of
permutations. In fact, each combination of three elements generates 3!
permutations. So
C(4, 3)
= P(4, 3) / 3!
= 4! / [3! (4 - 3)! ]
= 4×3×2×1 / [(3×2×1)×1]
=4
In general, each combination of r objects gives rise to r! permutations of these
objects. Thus
C(n, r)
= P(n, r) / r!
= n! / [r! (n - r)! ]
The key difference between permutations and combinations is "order." If we are
interested in ordered arrangements, then we are counting permutations; but if
we are concerned with subsets without regard to order, then we are counting
combinations. Compare Examples 5 and 6 below (in which order doesn't matter)
with examples 1 and 2 in Lesson 10.1 Permutations (in which order does matter).
Example 5
A club has nine members. In how many ways can a committee of three be
chosen from the members of of this club?
Solution: We need the number of ways of choosing three of the nine members.
Order is not important here, because the committee is the same no matter how
its members are ordered. So we want the number of combinations of nine
objects (the club members) taken three at a time. This number is
C(9, 3)
= 9! / [3! (9 - 3)! ]
= 9! / [ (3!)(6!) ]
= (9×8×7) / (3×2×1)
= 84
Example 6
From 20 raffle tickets in a hat, four tickets are to be chosen at random. The
holders of thr winning tickets are to be awarded free trips to the Bahamas. In
how many ways can the four winners be chosen?
Solution: We need to find the number of ways of choosing four winners from 20
entries. The order in which the tickets are chosen doesn't matter, because the
same prize is awarded to each of the four winners. So we want the number of
combinations of 20 objects (the tickets) taken four at a time. The number is
C(20, 4)
= 20! / [4! (20 - 4)! ]
= 20! / [4! × 16!]
= (20×19×18×17) / (4×3×2×1)
= 4845
If a set has n elements, then C(k, n) is the number of ways of choosing k
elements from S, that is, the number of k-lement subsets of S. Thus the number
of subsets of S of all possible sizes is given by the sum
C(n, 0) + C(n, 1) + C(n, 2) + ... C(n, n) = 2^n
A set with n elements has 2^n subsets.
Example 7
A pizza parlor offers the basic cheese pizza and a choice of 16 toppings. How
many different kinds of pizza can be ordered at this pizza parlor?
Solution: We need the number of possible subsets of 16 toppings (including the
empty set, which corresponds to a plain cheese pizza). Thus 2^16 = 65,536
different pizzas can be ordered.
PROBLEM SOLVING with Permutations and Combinations
-The crucial step in solving counting problems is deciding whether to use
permutations, combinations, or the Fundamental Counting Principle. In some
cases the solution of a problem may require using more than one of these
principles. Here are some general guidelines to help us decide how to apply
these principles.
GUIDELINES for Solving Counting Problems
1. Fundamental Counting Principle
-When consecutive choices are being made, use the Fundamental Counting
Principle.
2. Does the Order Matter?
-When we want to find the number of ways of picking r objects from n objects,
we need ti ask ourselves, "Does the order in which we pick the objects matter?"
*If the order matters, we use PERMUTATIONS.
*If the order doesn't matter, we use COMBINATIONS.
Example 8
A group of 25 campers consists 15 women and 10 men. In how many ways can a
scouting party of 5 be chosen if it must consist of 3 women and 2 men?
Solution: Three women can be chosen from the 15 women in the group in C(15, 3)
ways, and two men can be chosen from the 10 men in the group in C(10, 2) ways.
Thus by the Fundamental Counting Principle the number of ways of choosing the
scouting party is
C(15, 3) × C(10, 2)
= [(15×14×13)/(3×2×1)] [(10×9)/(2×1)]
= 455 × 45
= 20,475
Example 9
A committee of seven - consisting of a chairman, a vice chairman, a secretary,
and four other members - is to be chosen from a class of 20 students. In how
many ways can this conmittee be chosen?
Solution: In choosing the three officers, order is important. So the number of
ways of choosing them is
P(20, 3) = 6840
Next, we need to choose four other students from the 17 remaining. Since order
doesn't matter in this case, the number of ways of doing this is
C(17, 4) = 2380
Thus by Fundamental Counting Principle the number of ways of choosing this
committee is
P(20, 3) × C(17, 4)
= 6840 × 2380
= 16,279,200
Example 10
Twelve employees at a company picnic are to stand in a row for a photograph. In
how many ways can this be done if
a. Jane and John insist on standing next to each other?
b. Jane and John refuse to stand next to each other?
Solution:
(a) Since the order in which the people stand is important, we use permutations.
But we can't use the formula for permutations directly. Since Jane and John
insist on standing together, let's think of them as one object. Thus we have 11
objects to arrange in a row, and there are P(11, 11) ways of doing this. For each
of these arrangements, there are two ways of having Jane and John stand
together: Jane-John or John-Jane. Thus by Fundamental Counting Principle the
total number of arrangements is
2 × P(11, 11)
= 2 × 11!
= 79,833,600
(b) There are P(12, 12) ways of arranging the 12 people. Of these, 2 × P(11, 11)
have and John standing together (by part (a)). All the rest have Jane and John
standing apart. So the number of arrangements with Jane and John apart is
P(12, 12) - 2 × P(11, 11)
= 12! - 2 ×11!
= 399,168,000
Practice Questions
Combinations
1. In how many ways can a committee of three members be chosen from a club
of 25 members?
2. A student must answer seven of the ten questions on an exam. In how many
ways can she choose the seven questions?
3. A hamburger chain gives its customers a choice of ten different hamburger
toppings. In how many different ways can a customer order a hamburger?
4. A class has 20 students, of whom 12 are females and 8 are males. In how
many ways can a committee of five students be picked from this class under
each condition?
(a) No restriction is placed on the number of males or females on the committee.
(b) No males are to be included on the committee.
(c) The committee must have three females and two males.
5. A committee of six is to be chosen from a class of 20 students. The committee
is to consist of a president, a vice president, and four other members. In how
many different ways can the committee be picked?
6. In how many ways can a committee of four be chosen from a group of ten if
two people refuse to serve together on the same committee?
Counting and Probability
I. Permutations
- A permutation of a set of distinct objects is an rordering of these objects. For
example, some permutations of letters ABCDWXYZ are
XAYBZWCD
ZAYBCDWX
DBWAZXYC
YDXAWCZB
How many such permutations are possible? Since there are eight choices for the
first position, seven for the second (after the first has been chosen), six for the
third (after the first two have been chosen), and so on, the Fundamental
Counting Principle tells us that the number of possible permutations is
8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1
= 40,320
This is same reasoning with 8 replaced by "n" leads to the following observation:
The number of permutations of n objects is n!.
How many permutations consisting of five letters can be made from these same
eight letters? Some of these permutations are
XYZWC
AZDWX
AZXYB
WDXZB
Again, there are eight choices for the position, seven for the second, 6 for the
third, five for the fourth, and four for the fifth. By the Fundamental Counting
Principle the number of such permutations is
8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 = 6720
In general, if a set has "n" elements, then the number of ways of ordering "r"
elements from the set is denoted by P(n, r) and is called "the number of
permutations of n objects taken r at a time."
We have just shown that P(8, 5) = 6720. The same reasoning that was used to
find P(8, 5) will help us find a general formula for P(n, r). Indeed, there are n
objects and r positions to place them in.
Thus there are n choices for the first position, n - 1 choices for the second, n - 2
choices for the third, and so on. The last position can be filled in n - r + 1 ways.
By the Fundamental Counting Principle,
P(n, r) = n(n-1)(n-2) ... (n-r+1)
= [n(n-1)(n-2)...(n-r+1)(n-r)...3×2×1 ] / [(n-r)...3×2×1
= n! / (n - r)!
The number of permutations of n objects taken r at a time is
P(n, r) = n! / (n - r)!
Example 1
A club has nine members. In how many ways can a president, vice president, and
sectetary be chosen from the members of this club?
Solution: We need the number of ways of selecting three numbers, in order, for
the positions of president, vise president, and secretary from the nine club
members. This number is
P(9, 3)
= 9! / (9 - 3)!
= 9! / 6!
= (9×8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1) / (6×5×4×3×2×1) 
= 9×8×7
= 504
Example 2
From 20 raffle tickets in a hat, four tickets are to be selected in order. The
holder of the first ticket wins a car, the second a motorcycle, the third a bicycle,
and the fourth a skateboard. In how many different ways can these prizes be
awarded?
Solution: The order in which the tickets are chosen determines who wins each
prize. So we need to find the number of ways of selecting four objects, in order,
from 20 objects (the tickets). This number is
P(20, 4)
= 20! / (20 - 4)!
= 20! / 16!
= 20×19×18×17
= 116,280
Distinguishable Permutations
If we have a collection of ten balls, each a different color, then the number of
permutations of these balls is P(10, 10) = 10!. If all ten balls are red, then we
have just one diatinguishable permutation because all the ways of ordering
these balls look exactly the same. In general, in considering a set of objects,
some of which are of the same kind, then two permutations are "distinguishable"
if one cannot be obtained from the order by interchanging the positions of
elements of the same kind.
For example, if we have ten balls, of which six are red and the other four are
each a diffirent color, then how many distinguishable permutations are possible?
The key point here is that balls of the same color are not distinguishable. So
each rearrangement of the red balls, keeping all the other balls fixed, gives
essentially the same permutation. Since there are 6! rearrangements of the red
balls for each fixed position of the other balls, the total number of
diatinguishable permutations is 10! / 6!. The same time of reasoning gives the
following general rule:
Distinguishable Permutations
-If a set of n objects consists of k different kinds of objects with n_1 of the first
kind, n_2 objects of the second kind, n_3 objects of the third kind, and so on,
where n_1 + n_2 + ... n_k = n, then the number of distinguishable permutations of
these objects is
n! / [(n_1)!(n_2)!(n_3)!×...(n_k)!
Example 3
Find the number of different ways of placing 15 balls in a row given that 4 are
red, 3 are yellow, 6 are black, and 2 are blue.
Solution: We want to find the number of distibguishable permutations of these
balls. By the formula this number is
15! / [(4!)(3!)(6!)(2!)]
= 6,306,300
Suppose we have 15 wooden balls in a row and four colors of paint: red, yellow,
black, and blue. In how many different ways can the 15 balls be painted in such a
way that we have 4 red, 3 yellow, 6 black, and 2 blue balls?
A little thought will show that this number is exactly the same as that calculated
example 3. This way of looking at the problem is somewhat different, however.
Here we think of the number of ways to "partition" the balls into four groups,
each containing 4, 3, 6, and 2 balls to be painted red, yellow, black, and blue
respectively. The next example shows how this reasoning is used.
Example 4
Fourteen construction workers are to be assigned to three different tasks. Seven
workers are needed for mixing cement, five for laying bricks, and two for
carrying the bricks to the bricklayers. In how many different ways can the
workers be assigned to these tasks?
Solution: We need to partition the workers into three groups containing 7, 5, and
2 workers, respectively. This number is
14! / [(7!)(5!)(2!)]
= 72,072
Practice Questions
Permutations
1. In how many different ways can a president, vice president, and secretary be
chosen from a class of 15 students?
2. In how many ways can a president, vice president, secretary, and treasurer be
chosen from a class of 30 students?
Distinguishable Permutations
3. In how many different ways can four pennies, three nickels, two dimes, and
three quarters be arranged in a row?
4. Eight workers are cleaning a large house. Five are needed to clean windows,
two to clean the carpets, and one to clean the rest of the house. In how many
different ways can these tasks be assigned to the eight workers?