Chapter 12 - Electricity

Introduction
Electricity originated from the Greek words “Electrica” and “Elektron”.
The Greek Philosopher Thales was the first to observe the attracting capacity of certain
materials when rubbed on other materials.
Gilbert classified these materials as Vitreous and Resinous.
These names were later changed to positive and negative charges.

Frictional Electricity
Fur, Flannel, Wax, Glass, Cotton, Paper, Silk, Human skin, Wood, Metals, Rubber, Resin,
Amber, Sulphur, Ebonite.
If any two materials in this series are rubbed against each other the element occurring first in
series will acquire positive charge and the element occurring later will acquire negative
charge.

Fundamental Laws of Electrostatics

There are two kinds of charges- positive and negative.
Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.

Coulomb’s Law
F α (q1q2)/r2
The electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between a pair of charges is directly
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
F = (Kq1q2)/r2
K is the constant of proportionality and is equal to 9 × 109 Nm2/C2 for free space.
For similar charges the force is repulsive and for dissimilar charges it is attractive.

Charge Conservation
When an ebonite rod is rubbed with fur, the ebonite rod acquires negative charge and the fur
acquires positive charge. This means electrons have moved from fur to ebonite. The net charge
in the system remains the same. So charges are neither created nor destroyed but transferred
from one material to the other.

Insulators and Conductors

Insulators are bad conductors of charges but they can be charged easily by friction.
Conductors allow free flow of charges.

Current
Current is the rate of flow of charge.
If q is the charge in coulomb and t is the time is seconds then current I=q/t
The SI unit of current is ampere (A).
Current is a scalar quantity.

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Symbols used in electric circuit

Electric
Function/Description Symbol
Component
A connecting wire is represented by a straight
line. It is usually made of copper and is provided
Connecting wire
with insulation to make electrical connections
between two points.
The resistor is represented by a zip zap line. Two
thick dots at the ends represent brass terminals to
Resistor which a wire is fixed. The resistor wire is
generally made from alloys, such as nichrome,
manganin, constantan and eureka.
A thin long line represents the positive terminal
of a cell, whereas thick and short line represents
Cell
negative terminal of the cell. Source of electrical
current.
Fuse To limit the current in an electric circuit

Plug key To make or break electric circuit for long time

A combination of two or more cells. Here the
Battery cells are arranged in series. Source of electrical
current.
An electric device, such as incandescent lamp, is
lamp, glow lamp, or fluorescent lamp that emits
Electric bulb
light when voltage is applied across the
terminals.
Connecting
Wires connected together
wires
Connecting
Wires crossing without being connected
wires
It is a device used for measuring potential
Voltmeter difference between two points in an electric
circuit

It is a device used for measuring current in an

Ammeter
electric circuit

Alternating A current which changes its direction rapidly on

current its own is called alternating current.

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A diagram which shows how different components in a circuit have been connected using
conventional symbols for the components is called a circuit diagram.

Electrical Potential
Electric potential is the work done in carrying a unit positive charge from infinity to a point.
If W is the work done q is the charge, then electric potential V = W/q
The SI unit of electric potential is Volts (V)
Electric Potential Difference
The electric potential difference between two points is the work done in carrying a unit positive
charge from one point to the other.
The electric potential difference between points A and B
VAB = Work done to carry charge q from A to B / charge q
The SI unit of electric potential difference is Volts (V)
Electric Potential energy
Electric potential energy is the work which has to be done to bring charges to their respective
locations against the electric field with the help of a source of energy.
This work done is stored in the form of potential energy of the charges.
Ohm’s Law
Under similar physical conditions, the current flowing through a wire is directly proportional to
the difference in potential applied across its ends.
IV
V = I × R, where R is the resistance offered.

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Resistance
Resistance is the opposition to the flow of current.
The SI unit of resistance is OHM (Ω)
1 ohm is the resistance offered by a wire carrying 1 A current when 1 V is applied across its ends.

Factors Affecting Resistance

The resistance of a conducting wire depends on:
Nature of the material of the wire (Resistivity- Ω)
Length of the wire (l)
Cross-sectional area of the wire (A)
R = Ω (l/A)

Resistivity
The resistance offered by a wire of unit length and unit cross-sectional area is called resistivity.
The SI unit of resistivity is ohm-meter (Ω − m).
Resistivity is also referred to as specific resistance.
Reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity.
Conductivity, Ω = 1/ Ω Ω.
SI unit of conductivity is ohm-1 m -1 or mho-m-1

Effect of Temperature
The resistivity of a conductor increases linearly with increase in temperature.
The resistivity of an insulator increases with increase in temperature.
The resistivity of a semiconductor decreases with increase in temperature.
Resistivity of an alloy increases with increase in temperature.

Semiconductors and Superconductors

Materials having resistivity between that of an insulator and a conductor are called
semiconductors.
Materials which lose their resistivity at low temperatures are called super conductors.

Resistances in Series
If resistances R1, R2 and R3 are connected in series the equivalent resistance R s = R1 + R2 + R3

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Resistances in Parallel
1
If resistances R1, R2 and R3 are connected in parallel the equivalent resistance Rp is given by R =
p

(1/R1) + (1/R2) + (1/R3)

Electrical Energy
Because of the existence of resistance to the flow of current work has to be done in order to
maintain the flow of current.
Since the potential difference V is the work done to carry unit positive charge from infinity to a
point, the work done to carry a charge q is given by:
W= qV
But I = q/t
So W = ItV
Since V = I R
W = I2Rt = V2t/R
This work done is stored as energy.
SI unit of electrical energy is Joule.

Joule’s Law of Heating

When a current I flows through a resistor R heat is produced.
H = I2Rt, this is Joule’s law of heating.

Electric Power
The rate at which electric energy is consumed is called electric power.
Power = work done/time.
P = W/t = V × I = I2 R = V2R
SI unit of electric power is Watt.

Calculation of Power for House Hold Electricity

Kilowatt hour (kWh) is the commercial unit for electrical energy
1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J
No. of units of electricity consumed in a household = no. of kWh
Total cost of electricity = total units × cost per unit of electricity

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Fuse Wire
The wire which melts, breaks the circuit and prevents the damage of various appliances in
household connections is called a fuse wire
A fuse wire is made of an alloy of aluminium, copper, iron and lead
The thickness of the fuse wire increases the maximum safe current that can flow through it

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