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Lab Experiment I

Personality Traits, Free Association Test and Reaction Time

Problem

To study free associations of subject from list of 100 standard words and analyze the

result according to the nature of response and reaction time.

Introduction

Personality

The word “personality” originates from the Latin word persona, which means “mask.”

Personality as a field of study began with Hippocrates, a physician in ancient Greece, who

theorized that personality traits and human behaviors are based on four separate temperaments

associated with four fluids of the body known as “humors”. This theory, known as humorism,

proposed that an individual’s personality was the result of the balance of these humors (yellow

bile, black bile, phlegm, and blood), which corresponded to four dispositions (grumpy,

melancholy, calm, and cheer, respectively). While this theory is no longer held to be true, it

paved the way for further discoveries and insight into human personality.

An individual’s personality is the combination of traits and patterns that influence their behavior,

thought, motivation, and emotion. It drives individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in

specific ways; in essence, it is what makes each individual unique. Over time, these patterns

strongly influence personal expectations, perceptions, values, and attitudes.

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One way to make personality research more manageable is to divide it into organized

chunks. Rather than trying to look at every possible aspect of personality at the same time,

personality research proceeds along different theoretical avenues. Some researchers examine the

biological underpinnings of personality, others look at developmental trajectories, others

examine how the environment affects personality, and others study how people differ in how

they perceive and process information, and still others – and all of them, in some sense – seek to

discover and assess the basic psychological dimensions along which individuals differ. All of

these areas of research are similar in that they focus on individual differences and patterns of

behavior, but are guided by different paradigmatic frameworks that specify which phenomena

are the focus of attention (e.g., particular traits and behaviors) and which mechanisms are used

for explanation (e.g., genes vs. the environment vs. cognition). The basic approaches to studying

personality are biological, psychoanalytic, humanistic, learning-based, cognitive, and trait-based

(Funder, 2007).

Although the different approaches sometimes compete with one another for the ultimate

status of explaining everything there is to know about personality, the reality is that different

research questions are better addressed through different paradigmatic perspectives. For

example, the principles of behaviorism can be used to explain how gambling behavior is

maintained, but say nothing about why those who have gambling addictions are often unable to

admit that they have a problem. In contrast, psychoanalysis has much to say about denial and

other defense mechanisms, but offers little toward understanding how the intermittent

reinforcement schedule associated with gambling can make this maladaptive behavior so

persistent. For this reason, it makes more sense to view each approach as useful for addressing

its own key concerns, rather than viewing them as mutually exclusive alternatives.
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Assessment of personality

In this experiement the neo five factor inventory was used to assess the personality traits

of a subject.

Neo Five Factor Inventory

Introduction

The NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) is a personality inventory that examines a

person's Big Five personality traits (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion,

agreeableness, and neuroticism). In addition, the NEO PI-R also reports on six subcategories of

each Big Five personality trait (called facets).

1. Openness to Experience

Openness to experience has been described as the depth and complexity of an

individual’s mental life and experiences (John & Srivastava, 1999). It is also sometimes called

intellect or imagination. Openness to experience concerns people’s willingness to try to new

things, their ability to be vulnerable, and their capability to think outside the box.

2. Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness is a trait that can be described as the tendency to control impulses and

act in socially acceptable ways, behaviors that facilitate goal-directed behavior (John &

Srivastava, 1999). Conscientious people excel in their ability to delay gratification, work within

the rules, and plan and organize effectively.

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3. Extroversion

This factor has two familiar ends of its spectrum: extroversion and introversion. It concerns

where an individual draws their energy from and how they interact with others. In general,

extroverts draw energy from or recharge by interacting with others, while introverts get tired

from interacting with others and replenish their energy with solitude.

 Socialness

 Assertiveness;

 Merriness;

 Outgoing nature;

 Energy;

 Talkativeness;

 Ability to be articulate;

 Fun-loving nature;

 Tendency for affection;

 Friendliness;

4. Agreeableness

This factor concerns how well people get along with others. While extroversion concerns

sources of energy and the pursuit of interactions with others, agreeableness concerns one’s

orientation to others. It is a construct that rests on how an individual generally interacts with

others.

The following traits fall under the umbrella of agreeableness:

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 Altruism;

 Trust;

 Modesty;

 Humbleness;

 Patience;

 Moderation;

 Tact;

 Politeness;

 Cheerfulness;

5. Neuroticism

Neuroticism is not a factor of meanness or incompetence, but one of confidence and

being comfortable in one’s own skin. It encompasses one’s emotional stability and general temper.

These traits are commonly associated with neuroticism:

 Moodiness;
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 Jealousy;

 Testiness;

 Fear;

 Nervousness;

 Anxiety;

 Timidness;

 Wariness;

 Self-criticism;

 Insecurity;

 Instability;

 Oversensitivity.

History

Historically, development of the Revised NEO PI-R began in 1978 with the publication

of a personality inventory by Costa and McCrae. These researchers published three updated

versions of their personality inventory in 1985, 1992, and 2005 which are called the NEO PI,

NEO PI-R (or Revised NEO PI), and NEO PI-3, respectively. The revised inventories feature

updated norms. The inventories have both longer and shorter versions with the full NEO PI-R

consisting of 240 items and providing detailed facet scores, whereas the shorter NEO-FFI (NEO

Five-Factor Inventory) has only 60 items (12 per domain). The test was originally developed for

use with adult men and women without overt psychopathology. It has also been found to be valid

for use with children.

Forms and Administration

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In the most recent publication, there are two forms for the NEO, self-report (form S) and

observer-report (form R) versions. Both forms consist of 240 items (descriptions of behavior)

answered on a five-point Likert scale. Finally, there is a 60-item inventory, the NEO FFI. There

are paper and computer versions of both forms. The manual reports that administration of the full

version should take between 30 and 40 minutes. Costa and McCrae reported that an individual

should not be evaluated if more than 40 items are missing. They also state that despite the fact

that the assessment is "balanced" to control for the effects of acquiescence and nay-saying, that if

more than 150 responses, or fewer than 50 responses, are "agree" or "strongly agree," the results

should be interpreted with caution. Scores can be reported to most test-takers on "Your NEO

Summary," which provides a brief explanation of the assessment, and gives the individuals

domain levels and a strengths-based description of three levels (high, medium, and low) in each

domain. For example, low N reads "Secure, hardy, and generally relaxed even under stressful

conditions," whereas high N reads "Sensitive, emotional, and prone to experience feelings that

are upsetting." For profile interpretation, facet and domain scores are reported in T scores and are

recorded visually as compared to the appropriate norming group.

Reliability

The internal consistency of the NEO scales was assessed on 1,539 individuals. The

internal consistency of the NEO PI-R was high, at: N = .92, E = .89, O = .87, A = .86, C = .90.

The internal consistency of the facet scales ranged from .56 to .81. The internal consistency of

the NEO PI-3 was consistent with that of the NEO PI-R, with α ranging from .89 to .93 for the

five domains. Internal consistency coefficient from the facets, with each facet scale comprising

fewer items than each of the Big Five scales, were necessarily smaller, ranging from .54 to .83
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Validity

A number of studies evaluated the criterion validity of the NEO. For example, Conard

(2005) found that Conscientiousness significantly predicted the GPA of college students, over

and above using SAT scores alone. In a study conducted in Seville, Spain, Cano-Garcia and his

colleagues (2005) found that, using a Spanish version of the inventory, dimensions of the NEO

correlated with teacher burnout. Neuroticism was related to the "emotional exhaustion"

dimension of burnout, and Agreeableness, with the "personal accomplishment" burnout

dimension. Finally, Korukonda (2007) found that Neuroticism was positively related to computer

anxiety; Openness and Agreeableness were negatively related to computer anxiety.

Free Association

A simple technique of psychodynamic therapy, is free association, in which a patient

talks of whatever comes into their mind.

This technique involves a therapist reading a list of words (e.g.. mother, childhood, etc.)

and the patient immediately responds with the first word that comes to mind.  It is hoped that

fragments of repressed memories will emerge in the course of free association.

Free association may not prove useful if the client shows resistance, and is reluctant to

say what he or she is thinking.  On the other hand, the presence of resistance (e.g., an excessively

long pause) often provides a strong clue that the client is getting close to some important

repressed idea in his or her thinking, and that further probing by the therapist is called for.Freud

reported that his free associating patients occasionally experienced such an emotionally intense

and vivid memory that they almost relived the experience.  This is like a "flashback" from a war

or a rape experience. Such a stressful memory, so real it feels like it is happening again, is called
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an abreaction.  If such a disturbing memory occurred in therapy or with a supportive friend and

one felt better--relieved or cleansed--later, it would be called a catharsis..

Freud proposed the technique helped prevent three common issues in therapy:

1. Transference. The process of transferring feelings one has for one person to a

different person.

2. Projection. The process of projecting one’s own qualities onto someone else.

3. Resistance. The practice of blocking out certain feelings or memories.

Laws of Association

The Laws of Association explain how we learn and remember things. The philosopher

Aristotle came up with the three basic Laws of Association: law of contiguity, law of similarity,

and law of contrast.

The law of Contiguity.

The Law of Contiguity is considered a keystone of most scientific theories of learning,

memory, and knowledge. In general, the Law of Contiguity states that after events occur together

(in spatio-temporal proximity), the reoccurrence of only one event evokes the 'memory' of the

others.

The law of Similarity.

The law of similarity suggests that similar items tend to be grouped together. For example, if a

number of objects in a scene are similar to one another, you will naturally group them together

and perceive them as a whole.

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What does it look like? a '+' ain't it

The Law of Similarity states that when two things are very similar to each other, the

thought of one will often trigger the thought of the other. For example, when we think of coffee,

we often think of tea as well. Similarity experiences tend to suggest each other. An object

perceived tends to revive another object with resembles it and was perceived in the past. In such

ideal revival one object may recall another with which it has never been connected in previous

experience. The Law of Similarity can work only when there is partial difference between two

similar things (e.g., the photo and the person). Two perfectly identical things cannot suggest each

other. They may be mistaken for each other.

The law of Contrast. The Law of Contrast states that the thought of something is likely to

trigger the thought of its direct opposite. For example, when we hear the word "hot," we often

think of the word "cold."

The heat of summer suggests the cold of winter. Peace suggests war; war suggests peace.

But the Law of Contract is not now recognized as a fundamental Law.

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Subconscious

The first level of consciousness, The preconscious, according to Freud, is the area that lies

between conscious awareness and the unconscious. When thoughts are in the preconscious they

are not at the conscious level nor are they buried in the unconscious but they are in between and

can be retrieved or called into consciousness. According to Freud, this is an area where thoughts

stay temporarily, not permanently.

Preconscious Memories refer to memories of past events that are not present in the day-to-day

consciousness but can be retrieved when and as necessary. These are like memories of events or

items from childhood that are not necessary to life, but are there if a person is thinking about

their childhood.

The subconscious is the part of our mind that is not in current awareness. It is the part of

unconsciousness that is not being focused on and is lying dormant. It is impossible to hold the

entirety of our knowledge in direct focus in our minds at the same time so we need to store

memories and knowledge. This storage is known as the subconscious, the term being coined by

Pierre Janet. The subconscious stores all of your memories, beliefs, previous experiences, the

people/places you have seen, and the skills you have acquired. Information in the subconscious

cannot be recalled easily, they are buried deep within our minds (or repressed).For example, one

may not be thinking (conscious) of his address but readily recalls it when asked. Data that cannot

be recalled with effort at a specific time but that later may be remembered are retained on an

unconscious level.

Conscious
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The next level of consciousness from which we receive guidance is the conscious state,

the rational awareness that usually guides our daily decisions. When we receive input from the

senses, analyze the facts, and make decisions based on this information, we are using this

conscious level of guidance. This process is also strongly affected by the opinions of others,

which can cloud our ability to draw true guidance. Dividing and separating the world into

either/or categories, the conscious level of awareness is problem-oriented. It’s difficult to be

completely certain of decisions drawn from this level, because the analytical mind can see all the

possible solutions. But ultimately it doesn’t have the ability to distinguish which one is best.If we

rely exclusively on the conscious mind, we may find ourselves lacking in certainty and slipping

into a state of perpetual indecision.

Superconscious

Intuition and heightened mental clarity flow from superconscious awareness. The

conscious mind is limited by its analytical nature, and therefore sees all things as separate and

distinct. We may be puzzled by a certain situation, but because it seems unrelated to other

events, it’s difficult to draw a clear course of action.

By contrast, because the superconscious level of consciousness is unitive and sees all

things as part of a whole, it can readily draw solutions. In super consciousness the problem and

the solution are seen as one, as though the solution was a natural outgrowth from the problem.

Word Association
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In a word association test, the researcher presents a series of words to individual

respondents. For each word, participants are instructed to respond with the first word (i.e.,

associate) that comes to mind. Freud believed that such responses provided clues to peoples'

personalities (free association). Cognitive psychologists, however, use this procedure to

investigate how semantic information is stored in memory. Studies have demonstrated that word

associations are almost always based on a word's meaning, as opposed to its physical properties.

For example, a typical response to the word KNIFE might be FORK or perhaps SPOON, but not

WIFE or LIFE. Over the years, psychologists have collected word association norms that

describe the relative frequencies with which various responses are given to different words.

These frequencies are then used as a measure of the associative strength between the words. If

90% of a large sample of people give the word DOCTOR as a response to the word NURSE, this

percentage (90) is used as an index of the associative connection between DOCTOR and

NURSE.

Another way of determining the strength of an association is to measure how much time

it takes to produce a response in a word association test. High frequency associates are also the

ones with the fastest reaction times.Word association is connected with the work that Carl

Gustav Jung was engaged in at the Burghölzli Psychiatric Clinic of the University of Zurich in

the early stages of his career (Jung, 1917/1926/1943). Under the directorship of Eugen Bleuler,

the Burghölzli Psychiatric Clinic was an international center of excellence in psychiatric research

at the turn of the century. Jung became director of research on the Word Association Test. This

test usually consisted of a hundred stimulus words that were read out singly to a subject who was

to "answer as quickly as possible with the first word that occurs to you." The reaction time,
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verbal response, and test behavior were recorded and analyzed. Verbal responses were classified

according to several linguistic categories.

The test was used to diagnose psychological typology and psychopathology. The

Word Association Test (WAT) was based on earlier theories of the association school of

psychology, which studied the laws of mental associations. Jung introduced significant

innovations to this method. In addition to the cognitive dimensions, he emphasized the emotional

aspects involved. He noted that the words to which subjects offered unusual responses were

connected with themes having an emotional impact on them. He found that subjects invariably

do not have conscious control over their responses. Therefore, he argued, this method was

tapping both conscious and unconscious phenomena. He found that clusters of ideas, images, and

words loaded with much affect (positive or negative) interfered with the ego (as the coordinating

agency) by producing unusual responses. He called these clusters complexes. Jung used Freud's

theories of repression to account for the autonomous nature of complexes. Freud praised Jung for

providing experimental proof of the existence of the unconscious, welcoming him in the early

psychoanalytic movement as a much needed hard-nosed scientist. Although the

term complex was used by Freud and Josef Breuer earlier, it was with Jung's meaning that it

finally entered the psychoanalytic vocabulary. Jung and his associates applied the Word

Association Test to many psychiatric contexts, including forensic diagnoses, publishing some

remarkable cases of successful detection.

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Reaction Time:

Reaction time is a measure of how quickly an organism can respond to a particular

stimulus. Reaction time has been widely studied, as its practical implications may be of great

consequence, e.g. a slower than normal reaction time while driving can have grave results.

Effect of Personality on Reaction Time:

Personality has a great influence on reaction time of the individual including factors of

neuroticism, extroversion and introversion. Extroverts have faster reaction time as compared to

introverts who have moderately take more time.Association used to link two stimuli.

There are four type of association

 Association by Continuity

 Association by Contrast

 Association by Cause and Effect

 Association by Similarity

Participant

Name: M.A.

Age: 21

Gender: male

Experimenter

Name:Z. H
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Age: 21

Gender: male

Apparatus

 List of 100 words

 Stop watch

 Paper

 Pencil

 Eraser

Procedure

The participant was brought into the lab and seated comfortably. Verbal consent was

taken from the participant before starting the experiment. The participant remained blindfolded

throughout the experiment. The personality of the individual is determined through the NEO FFI

scale. A list of 100 words is read to the participant. The participant forms associations with each

word and the experimenter notes down the association as well as the time taken for the response.

In order to conduct this experiment, subject volunteered to participate. The participant was

brought into the experimental lab and were seated comfortably. Verbal consent was taken from

the participants before starting the experiment. All the participants were handed the NEO-FFI to

do. Response sheet were taken after they have completed the NEO-FFI. Raw score of the

participant were taken who have very high or very low score.
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Results

Table 1: personality traits of subject

Scale Raw Score t-score Interpretation

Neuroticism 28 45 Average
Extraversion 26 46 Average
Openness to 25 25 Average

experience
Agreeableness 28 28 Average
Conscientiousness 24 24 Very low
Discussion

Average score on neuroticism means the subject is calm, relaxed and free of worry. She

often gets worry on others but has only usual periods of unhappiness that most women

experience. Average score on extraversion means warm and affectionate toward others. Average

score on openness to experience means the subject is some what open. She considers day

dreaming a waste of time. Average score on agreeableness means she considers opinion of

human nature. The low score on conscientiousness means the subject is not rational in making

decisions

Conclusion

T –scores on neo five factor inventory describe the individual’s personality traits. The low score

on conscientiousness means the subject is not rational in making decisions.

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Results

Table No. 1

Sr.
Words Response Time Association
No.
1 Table Chair 0.66 Contiguity
2 Dark Stars 1.46 Contiguity
3 Music Atif 1.17 Contiguity
4 Sickness Disease 1.91 Similarity
5 Man Cruel 1.44 Contiguity
6 Deep Valley 14.24 Contiguity
7 Soft Hard 0.77 Contrast
8 Eating Food 1.43 Contiguity
9 Mountain High 3.05 Contiguity
10 House Family 2.96 Contiguity
11 Black White 1.53 Contrast
Sr.
Words Response Time Association
No.
12 Mutton Hunger 2.65 Cause and effect
13 Comfort Sleep 1.42 Contiguity
14 Hand Bangles 1.49 Contiguity
15 Short Baby 1.13 Contiguity
16 Fruit Apple 3.96 Similarity
17 Butterfly Beautiful 2.49 Contiguity
18 Smooth Hard 2.71 Contrast
19 Command Officer 3.36 Contiguity
20 Chair Table 1.24 Contrast
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21 Sweet Mithai 2.34 Contiguity

22 Whistle Music 2.51 Similarity
23 Women Kind 1.50 Contiguity
24 Cold Coffee 2.36 Contiguity
25 Slow High 1.47 Contrast
26 Wish Captain 2.45 Contiguity
27 River Death 2.07 Contiguity
Sr.
Words Response Time Association
No.
28 White Girl 1.50 Contiguity
29 Beautiful Babies 3.12 Contiguity
30 Window Door 2.72 Contrast
31 Rough Page 1.52 Contiguity
32 Citizen People 2.46 Similarity
33 Foot Pile 1.55 Contiguity
34 Spider Insect 2.36 Similarity
35 Needle Stitch 2.94 Cause and effect
36 Red Ink 1.64 Contiguity
37 Sleep Dreams 1.99 Contiguity
38 Anger Fear 2.23 Cause and effect
39 Carpet Blanket 3.58 Contrast
40 Girl Boy 6.18 Contrast
41 High Low 1.54 Contrast
42 Working Playing 1.24 Contrast
43 Sour Sweat 4.16 Contrast
Sr. Words Response Time Association
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No.
44 Earth Sky 2.33 Contrast
45 Trouble Life 2.31 Cause and effect
46 Soldier Dream 2.21 Contiguity
47 Cabbage Vegetable 0.96 Similarity
48 Hard Soft 2.19 Contrast
49 Eagle Fly 4.16 Contiguity
50 Stomach Organ 2.27 Similarity
51 Stem Bark 3.3 Similarity
52 Lamp Light 1.54 Cause and effect
53 Dream Sleep 2.18 Cause and effect
54 Yellow Blue 2.01 Contrast
55 Bread Breakfast 1.67 Contiguity
56 Justice Layer 1.60 Cause and effect
57 Boy Girl 1.90 Contrast
58 Light Lamp 1.79 Cause and effect
59 Health Wealth 1.71 Contiguity
Sr.
Words Response Time Association
No.
60 Bible Holy book 1.21 Similarity
61 Memory Wealth 1.80 Similarity
62 Sheep Animal 2.07 Similarity
63 Bath Clean 2.11 Cause and effect
64 Cottage Royal 2.13 Contiguity
65 Swift Slow 1.80 Contrast
66 Blue Yellow 1.98 Contrast
67 Hungry Food 3.08 Cause and effect
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68 Priest Hindu 5.55 Contiguity

69 Ocean Sea 1.41 Similarity
70 Head Hijab 1.22 Contiguity
71 Stove Burner 2.74 Similarity
72 Long Short 1.61 Contrast
73 Religion Islam 1.70 Contiguity
74 Whiskey Drugs 1.93 Contiguity
75 Child Cute 1.22 Contiguity
Sr.
Words Response Time Association
No.
76 Bitter Sweat 3.01 Contrast
77 Hammer Instrument 2.33 Contiguity
78 Thirsty Water 1.71 Cause and effect
79 City Sialkot 2.22 Contiguity
80 Square Box 2.12 Contiguity
81 Butter Blue band 1.91 Contiguity
82 Doctor Life saver 1.81 Contiguity
83 Loud Music 2.44 Contiguity
84 Thief Robbery 4.15 Cause and effect
85 Lion Animal 1.89 Similarity
86 Joy Sorrow 2.07 Contrast
87 Bed Sleep 1.95 Cause and effect
88 Heavy Overweight 2 Similarity
89 Tobacco Drugs 2 Similarity
90 Baby Old 1.73 Contrast
91 Moon Sun 1.73 Contrast
Sr. Words Response Time Association
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No.
92 Scissors Instrument 2.54 Similarity
93 Quiet Loud 3.10 Contrast
94 Green Plants 1.78 Contiguity
95 Salt Sweat 1.37 Contrast
96 Street Dogs 3.68 Contiguity
97 King Father 2 Contiguity
98 Cheese Pizza 2.06 Contiguity
99 Blossom Spring 2.48 Similarity
100 Afraid Snakes 3.74 Cause and effect
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Table No. 2

Results for free association

Type of association No. of responses Average time for each

Association (sec)

Contiguity 44 2.05

Contrast 22 2.38

Similarity 18 1.70

Cause and Effect 16 2.12

Total No. of Responses 100

The association (contiguity) has maximum no. of responses that is 44. Maximum time

was taken for contrast that is 2.38 seconds. Least time was taken for response on similarity which

was 1.70 seconds.

Discussion

In WAT officers will check the mentality of candidates. This test will show your personal

life that how you think about the problems or how you experience the day to day things. Freud

believed that such responses provided clues about people personalities and in Freud’s term it is

called free association. Cognitive psychologists used this test to know about memory. However,

they use this procedure to investigate how semantic information is stored in memory. As the

results show the association (contiguity) has maximum no. of responses that is 44. Maximum

time was taken for contrast that is 2.38 seconds. Least time was taken for response on similarity
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which was 1.70 seconds. The participant has association of congruity which is experiences which

happen together, or which closely follow one another, tend to cohere and form an association.

Experiences which occur together either simultaneously or in close succession tend afterwards to

revive one another.

Conclusion

Table shows the results, as participant has free association of contiguity. And total no of

responses is 100. And average time taken by the participant is 2.05, 2.38, 1.70, and 2.12 for each

association respectively. The client gave the responses maximum on contrast association. And

minimum time was taken for similarity responses by the client.

Lab Experiment II

Taste Detection of Sweet Taste in Plain Water

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Problem statement

The purpose of this experiment was to find out the absolute threshold for taste of

sweetness in water. A quantity of sugar was added to water and detection 50% of the time was

considered to be the absolute threshold for sweet water.

Introduction

3.1 Taste

Taste is the sensation produced when a substance in the mouth reacts

chemically with taste receptor cells located on taste buds in the oral cavity, mostly on the tongue.

Taste, along with smell (olfaction) and trigeminal nerve stimulation determines flavors of food or

other substances. Humans have taste receptors on taste buds and other areas including the upper

surface of the tongue and the epiglottis. The gustatory cortex is responsible for the perception of

taste.

3.2 Taste receptors or buds

In the human body a stimulus refers to a form of energy which elicits a physiological or

psychological action or response. Sensory receptors are the structures in the body which change

the stimulus from one form of energy to another. This can mean changing the presence of a

chemical, sound wave, source of heat, or touch to the skin into an electrical action

potential which can be understood by the brain, the body’s control center. Sensory receptors are

modified ends of sensory neurons; modified to deal with specific types of stimulus, thus there are

many different types of sensory receptors in the body. The neuron is the primary component of

the nervous system, which transmits messages from sensory receptors all over the body.
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Taste is a form of chemoreception which occurs in the specialized taste receptors in the

mouth. To date, there are five different types of taste receptors known: salt, sweet, sour, bitter,

and umami. Each receptor has a different manner of sensory transduction: that is, of detecting the

presence of a certain compound and starting an action potential which alerts the brain. Smith and

Margolskee claim that "gustatory neurons typically respond to more than one kind of stimulus,

(allthough each neuron responds most strongly to one tastant". Researchers believe that the brain

interprets complex tastes by examining patterns from a large set of neuron responses. This

enables the body to make "keep or spit out" decisions when there is more than one tastant

present. "No single neuron type alone is capable of discriminating among stimuli or different

qualities, because a given cell can respond the same way to disparate stimuli. As

well, serotonin is thought to act as an intermediary hormone which communicates with taste cells

within a taste bud, mediating the signals being sent to the brain. Receptor molecules are found on

the top of microvilli of the taste cells.

3.3 Sweetness.

Sweetness is produced by the presence of sugars, some proteins, and a few other

substances. It is often connected to aldehydes and ketones, which contain a carbonyl

group. Sweetness is detected by a variety of G protein-coupled receptors coupled to a G

protein that acts as an intermediary in the communication between taste bud and

brain, gesturing. These receptors are T1R2+3 (heterodimer) and T1R3 (homodimer), which

account for sweet sensing in humans and other animals.

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3.4.Threshold

The point at which a physiological or psychological effect begins to be produced. Or a

level, a point, or a value above which something is true or will take place and below which it

is not true or will not take place.

3.4.1 Differentiate Threshold. It is a minimum distance between two kinds at which

subject perceives them on two separate points.

3.4.2 Taste threshold. The absolute taste threshold refers to the minimum amount of

taste needed to detect its presence in sensory perception. These thresholds vary due to different

factors, such as type of stimuli, how they are measured, and viscosity, and temperature, presence

of other taste stimuli and the area of the tongue where the taste is detected. 

3.4.3 Stimulus Detection. In the method of limits, stimuli are presented in a graduated

scale, and participants must judge whether they detected the stimulus or not. The researcher

hopes to pick a value that is readily detected and a value that is never detected and then several

values between. These values are then presented in order, going from the most intense to the

least intense, a descending staircase, and from least intense to most intense, an ascending

staircase.

In this experiment, we will start with a descending staircase. Since the most intense

stimulus is readily detectable, you should have no trouble responding with a yes you detected it.

The next stimulus to be presented will be the next most intense. If you detect that stimulus, you

will again respond with a yes. Then the next most intense stimulus will be presented. This series

will be continued until you respond with a no you did not detect the stimulus. This response is

called a crossover point as you have crossed from detection over to non-detection.
 28

Then a descending staircase will begin with the least intense stimulus. You should not be

able to detect in and respond with a no you did not detect it. Then the next more intense stimulus

in the series will be presented. This series will continue until you respond that you did detect the

stimulus. This response is also a crossover response as you have crossed from non-detection over

to detection. These two types of staircases, descending and ascending, will continue until you

have completed all that the experiment requires. Your threshold is the average of these crossover

points.

3.5 Description

Absolute detection of sweetness in water was examined in this experiment. In other

words we wanted to find out what is the quantity of sugar is required to detect sweetness in

water.

Method

3.6 Instruments

Disposable cups, water, sugar, measuring instrument, pen, marker, paper.

3.7 Subject

Five subjects from hostel and department were taken for the experiment.

3.8 Procedure
 29

In order to conduct the experiment, we took five subjects. We set up an environment

where we kept five disposable cups. One contained simple water and the other four contained 1\4

of tea spoon, half tea spoon, 3/4 tea spoon, and 1 full tea spoons of sugar mixed in water. Then

the subjects were asked to taste the water and detect the presence of sugar. When they detect the

sugar at the lowest sweetness, we marked it as minimum threshold. When they confirm more

sweetness in the next cup, it was noted as their maximum threshold. Five trials were taken from

each subject.

Subject

Name S.M.

Age 21

Gender Female

II

Name Z.H

Age 21

Gender male

III

Name M.A

Age 22

Gender male

IV

Name S.M

Age 21
 30

Gender Female

Name A.S

Age 21

Gender Female

3.9 Experimenter

Name: S.M

Age: 21

Gender: male

Education: MSc

3.9.1 Apparatus. Sugar, water, beaker and measuring instrument, pencil, paper.

3.10 Procedure

In order to conduct this experiment, 6 subjects volunteered to participate. The subjects

were briefly explained about the experiment. Then 5 beakers of water were taken and marked as

1, 2, 3,4 and 5 for the convenience of the experimenter. Water in beaker 1 contain 1/4 tsp sugar,

2nd beaker contain 1/3 tsp of sugar, 3rd beaker contained less than 1/2 tsp of sugar, 4th beaker

contained 1 tsp of sugar and 5th beaker contained 1 ½ tsp of sugar. The subject was unaware of

the amount of sugar in water. Then they were randomly asked to taste the water, then they were

inquired whether they detected the taste of sugar or not. 5 trials for each solution were taken.

Responses of subjects were noted, a table was constructed in order to mark the readings, the

point at which the subject couldn't detect the taste was marked as "0" and the point at which the
 31

subject detect taste marked as "1". After that the subject was doing the experiment again and now

the subjects were asked to tell on which point they feel the 2 nd high taste of sugar and this time

they start with the point where they ended the previous experiment. In the end percentage of all

the readings were taken in order to determine the absolute threshold and difference in thershold

of the subject's sense of taste.

3.11 Results

Subject

0.25tsp 0.75 0.75 tsp 1 tsp JND

sugar sugar sugar

1 No O.75 No No 0.75

2 Yes 1 No No 0.75

3 No 0.75 No No 1

4 No 1 No No 0.75

5 No 0.50 Yes No 1

6 Yes No No No 0.50

Sugar intake & Threshold point of

subject Absolute Second Difference
Individuals
Threshold threshol threshold

d point

1 0.50 0.75 0.25

2 0.25 0.75 0.5
3 0.50 1 0.25
4 0.50 0.75 0.5
5 0.75 1 0.25
6 0.25 0.50 0.25
 32

3.12 Discussion

The subject’s absolute threshold for sweetness is less than half tsp but it differs from

individual to individual depending upon the amount of sugar intake. In this experiment the

subjects takes two tsp of sugar in tea. While, when we see the threshold point of all the 7

subjects, average threshold point is 1/2th tsp of sugar but the normal intake of sugar varies.

3.13. Conclusion

The subject’s absolute threshold for sweetness is less than half tsp but it differs from

individual to individual depending upon the amount of sugar intake. In this experiment the
 33

subjects takes two tsp of sugar in tea. While, when we see the threshold point of all the 7

subjects, average threshold point is 1/2th tsp of sugar but the normal intake of sugar varies.

Lab Experiment III

Muller Lyer Illusion

Problem Statement
 34

Inverted arrow line seems longer than arrow headed line.

Introduction

The Muller-Lyer illusion is a well-known optical illusion in which two lines of the same

length appear to be of different lengths. The illusion was first created by a

German psychologist named Franz Carl Muller-Lyer in 1889.

The Müller-Lyer illusion is an optical illusion consisting of three stylized arrows. When

viewers are asked to place a mark on the figure at the midpoint, they invariably place it more

towards the "tail" end.

A variation of the same effect (and the most common form in which it is seen today)

consists of a set of arrow-like figures. Straight line segments of equal length comprise the

"shafts" of the arrows, while shorter line segments (called the fins) protrude from the ends of the

shaft. The fins can point inwards to form an arrow "head" or outwards to form an arrow "tail".

The line segment forming the shaft of the arrow with two tails is perceived to be longer than that

forming the shaft of the arrow with two heads.Hence some experts consider perception as:

Sensation + Meaning = Perception (Khalil & Shahnaz, 2008).

Perception

Perception refers the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory

information in order to represent and understand the environment. All perception involves
 35

signals in the nervous system, which in turn result from physical or chemical stimulation of the

sense organs. Perception can be split into two processes. Firstly, processing sensory input which

transforms the low-level information to higher-level information. Secondly, processing which is

connected with person's concept and expectations (knowledge), and selective mechanisms

(attention) that influence perception. Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous

system, but subjectively seems mostly effortless because this processing happens outside

conscious awareness (Schacter, 2011).

The process of perception begins with an object in the real world, termed the distal stimulus

or distal object. By means of light, sound or another physical process, the object stimulates the

body's sensory organs. These sensory organs transform the input energy into neural activity a

process called transduction. This raw pattern of neural activity is called the proximal stimulus.

These neural signals are transmitted to the brain and processed. The resulting mental re-creation

of the distal stimulus is the perception. Perception is sometimes described as the process of

constructing mental representations of distal stimuli using the information available in proximal

stimuli (Bernstein, 2010).

In the image above, which line appears the longest? For most people, the line with the fins of the

arrow protruding outward appears to be the longest while the line with the arrow fins pointing

inwards appears shorter. While your eyes might tell you that line in the middle is the longest, the

shafts of both lines are exactly the same length.

First discovered in 1889 by F.C. Muller-Lyer, the illusion has become the subject of considerable

interest and different theories have emerged to explain the phenomenon.

 36

Optical illusions can be fun and interesting but they also serve as an important tool for

researchers. By looking at how we perceive these illusions, we can learn more about how

the brain and perceptual process work. However, experts do not always agree on exactly what

causes optical illusions, as is the case with the Muller-Lyer illusion.

The Size Constancy Explanation

According to psychologist Richard Gregory, this illusion occurs because of a

misapplication of size constancy scaling. In most cases, size constancy allows us to perceive

objects in a stable way by taking distance into account.

In the three-dimensional world, this principle allows us to perceive a tall person as tall

whether they are standing next to us or off in the distance. When we apply this same principle to

two-dimensional objects, Gregory suggests, errors can result.

Other researchers contend that Gregory's explanation does not sufficiently explain this

illusion. For example, other versions of the Muller-Lyer illusion utilize two circles at the end of

the shaft. While there are no depth cues, the illusion still occurs. It has also been demonstrated

that the illusion can even occur when viewing three-dimensional objects.

The Depth Cue Explanation

Depth plays an important role in our ability to judge distance. One explanation of the

Muller-Lyer illusion is that our brains perceive the depths of the two shafts based upon depth

cues. When the fins are pointing in toward the shaft of the line, we perceive it as sloping away
 37

much like the corner of a building. This depth cue leads us to see that line as further away and

therefore shorter.

When the fins are pointing outward away from the line, it looks more like the corner of a

room sloping toward the viewer. This depth cue leads us to believe that this line is closer and

therefore longer.

The Conflicting Cues Explanation

An alternative explanation proposed by R. H. Day suggests that the Muller-Lyer illusion

occurs because of conflicting cues. Our ability to perceive the length of the lines depends on the

actual length of the line itself and the overall length of the figure.Since the total length of one

figure is longer than the length of the lines themselves, it causes the line with the outward-facing

fins to be seen as longer."Many visual illusions might be so effective because they tap into how

the human brain reflexively processes information. If an illusion can capture attention in this

way, then this suggests that the brain processes these visual clues rapidly and unconsciously.

This also suggests that perhaps optical illusions represent what our brains like to see," explained

researcher Dr. Michael Proulx.

Types of Perception

Visual perception. Visual perception refers to the brain's ability to make sense of what the

eyes see. This is not the same as visual acuity which refers to how clearly a person sees.

Depth perception. Depth perception is the visual ability to perceive the world in three

dimensions, coupled with the ability to gauge how far away an object is. Depth perception, size,

and distance are ascertained through both monocular (one eye) and binocular (two eyes) cues.
 38

Monocular vision is poor at determining depth. When an image is projected onto a single retina,

cues about the relative size of the object compared to other objects are obtained. In binocular

vision, these relative sizes are compared, since each individual eye is seeing a slightly different

image from a different angle.

Depth perception relies on the convergence of both eyes upon a single object, the relative

differences between the shape and size of the images on each retina, the relative size of objects in

relation to each other, and other cues such as texture and constancy. For example, shape

constancy allows the individual to see an object as a constant shape from different angles, so that

each eye is recognizing a single shape and not two distinct images. When the input from both

eyes is compared, stereopsis, or the impression of depth, occurs.

Color perception. Color is the visual sensation, associated with a part of the field of view

that appears to the eye to be without structure, through which this part can be distinguished from

another unstructured neighbouring area when observed with a single, unmoving eye

Visual perception. Visual perception is the ability to perceive our surroundings through

the light that enters our eyes. The visual perception of colors, patterns, and structures has been of

particular interest in relation to graphical user interfaces (GUIs) because these are

perceived exclusively through vision. An understanding of visual perception therefore enables

designers to create more effective user interfaces.

Haptic perception. means literally the ability "to grasp something". Perception in this case

is achieved through the active exploration of surfaces and objects by a moving subject, as

opposed to passive contact by a static subject during tactile perception.

 39

False perception. False Perception is a general term that includes any experience in which

there is a mis-perception of a stimulus. This mis-perception may be due to properties of the

stimulus and its surrounding context that make it more likely that it will be

incorrectly perceived (i.e., an illusion).

Illusion

Illusion, a misrepresentation of a “real” sensory stimulus—that is, an interpretation that

contradicts objective “reality” as defined by general agreement. For example, a child who

perceives tree branches at night as if they are goblins may be said to be having an illusion with

external stimuli that press against the skin).

Muller Lyer Illusion

The Muller-Lyer illusion is a well-known optical illusion in which two lines of the same

length appear to be of different lengths. The illusion was first created by a

German psychologist named Franz Carl Muller-Lyer in 1889.

The Müller-Lyer illusion is an optical illusion consisting of three stylized arrows. When

viewers are asked to place a mark on the figure at the midpoint, they invariably place it more

towards the "tail" end

According to psychologist Richard Gregory, this illusion occurs because of a misapplication

of size constancy scaling. In most cases, size constancy allows us to perceive objects in a stable

way by taking distance into account. In the three dimensional world, this principle allows us to

perceive a tall person as tall whether they are standing next to us or off in the distance. When we
 40

apply this same principle to two-dimensional objects, experimenter suggests, errors can result

(Kendra 2015).

Participant

Name: Z.H.

Age: 21years

Gender: male

Education: M.Sc

Experimenter

Name: M.A.

Age: 21 years

Gender: male

Education: MSc

Apparatus

Muller Lyer Card, Paper, Pencil and Calculator.

Procedure

After impartation of the instructions the constant side of the card was handed over in the

left hand, while the movable side was pulled outward maximally. The subject started sliding
 41

inward the moving side with his right hand. When the subject felt that the line is equal to the

other (standard line), the error and variability was measured on the scale printed at the backside

of the figure. The test is repeated ten times and every time error and variability was measured

and entered in the table.

While holding the constant side of the card in the right hand the subject tried to make the

moving line to the standard line with her left hand. With this hand ten trials were completed.

Errors and variability were also recorded.

After these twenty trials the standard line was placed in the left hand with moving line

completely inserted in the pocket of the figure. This time the subject with right hand pulled out

the sliding part till the two lines appeared her equal. After ten trials with this hand, the constant

(standard line) figure was held by the right hand and the subject pulled out the inserted line with

opposite hand till it appeared her equal to the standard line. After the completion of the 40 trials,

measured errors were tabulated for the determination of the constant error and point of subjective

equality.

4.8 Results

Muller Layer illusion occurs when variable line seem to equal with the standard line. It

was hypothesized that inverted arrow line seems longer than arrow headed line.

Trials Right Hand Left Hand

Ascending Descending Ascending Descending

(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

1 3.8 4.2 4.5 4.5

 42

2 4.0 4.2 4.5 4.3

3 4.0 4.0 4.3 4.2

4 4.2 4.0 4.8 4.5

5 4.1 4.0 4.5 4.6

6 4.0 4.0 4.5 4.5

7 4.0 3.9 4.5 4.5

8 4.5 4.0 4.5 4.5

9 3.8 4.0 5.0 4.5

10 3.9 4.0 5.0 4.5

Total M1= 4.03 M2=4.03 M4=4.61 M5=4.46

Average of Ascending Trials

M1= 4.03 cm M3=4.61 cm

Point of Subjective Equality (PSE) = Right Ascending + Left Ascending/2

= 4.03 + 4.61/2

= 8.64/2

(PSE) = 4.32 cm
 43

Interval of Uncertainty (IU) = 4.03 – 4.61

IU = 0.58 cm

Differential Threshold (DL) = IU/2

= 0.58/2

DL = 0.29 cm

Average of Descending Trials

M2 = 4.03 cm M4 = 4.46 cm

Point of Subjective Equality (PSE) = Right Descending + Left Descending/2

= 4.03 + 4.46/2

= 8.49/2

(PSE) = 4.25 cm

Interval of Uncertainty (IU) = 4.03 – 4.46

IU = 0.43cm

Differential Threshold (DL) = IU/2

= 0.43/2

DL = 0.22 cm

4.9 Discussion
 44

The illusion is the misinterpretation of the perception. The present results shows that

subject perceive two lines to be different as in fact they are equal. The total of right-hand

ascending is M1= 4.03, total of right hand descending M2= 4.03, total of left hand ascending is

M3= 4.61 and the total of left hand descending is M4= 4.46.

The point of subjective equality (PSE) of ascending trial is 4.32, Interval of uncertainty

(IU) is 0.58 and Difference threshold (DL) is 0.29 respectively.

The point of subjective equality (PSE) of descending trial is 4.25, Interval of uncertainty

(IU) is 0.43 and Difference threshold (DL) is 0.22 respectively

4.10 Conclusion

According to the subject both lines were not equal and equal them on certain point

but both lines were same or equal. Subject felt the line equal with the standard line due to its

arrow. But the fact is that arrows were the reason of illusion. Subject feels illusion every time

during matching the line.

References

Khalil, H., & Shahnaz, R. (2008). An Approach to Psychology for degree

classes: The carvan press

Schacter, D. L., Guerin, S. A., & Jacques, P. L. S. (2011). Memory distortion: An

 45

adaptive perspective. Trends in cognitive sciences, 15(10), 467-474.

Lab Experiment IV

Inattentional and attentional Learning

Problem Statement
 46

The purpose of this experiment was to find out the role of intention in the learning. It was

examined by showing pictures in two phases. In the first phase, the participant was not asked to

memorize the pictures but told first in the second phase. At the end of both phases, participant

was asked to recall the pictures.

Introduction

Learning

Learning, the alteration of behavior as a result of individual experience. When an

organism can perceive and change its behavior, it is said to learn.

Attentional Learning

Attentional learning is the "persistent, continual process to acquire, understand, and use a

variety of strategies to improve one's ability to attain and apply knowledge" (American

Accounting Association, 1995). According to Bereiter & Scardamella, 1989), intentional

learning refers to "cognitive processes that have.

Inattentional Learning

Unintentional learning is also called as incidental learning and is defined as the learning

of one stimulus feature while concentrating on another stimulus feature too. A little more

specific connotation of incidental learning is that it involves the learning of formal aspects

through a center of attention on semantic aspects. Incidental learning can occur in many modes

inclusive of observations, communications with colleagues about tasks or projects, experiencing

mistakes, assumptions and adapting to new situations. A reactive component of incidental

learning occurs in the middle of a task completion action when there is little time to think.
 47

Incidental learning has also been portrayed as implicit when knowledge is acquired independent

of conscious attempts to learn. A little broader meaning of incidental learning is taken in a

pessimistic way as it is the learning without the intent to learn.

Description

Attentional and Inattentional learning was examined in this experiment. In other words,

we wanted to find out the role intention in learning.

Experimenter

Name : M.A.

Age : 22 years

Gender: male

Education: M.Sc.

Subject

Name Z.H

Age 21

Gender male

Apparatus

Pencil, paper, scenario based pictures, Score-sheet, Stop watch and pencil

Procedure
 48

The experiment consisted of two phases. Phase 1 was designed to check the participant’s

unintentional learning. Participant was shown six different cards each based on different

scenario. Each card was shown for 10 seconds. Participant was not asked to memorize the

content of pictures in the exact same sequence and the response was recorded.

 Phase 2 was carried out to check the participant’s intentional learning. Participant was

shown six different situational pictures. Each card was shown for 10 seconds. Participant was

asked to memorize the words in the exact same sequence, and the experimenter made sure to

inform the participant that she/he will later be tested on his/her memorization. The response was

then recorded

Results

In-attentional Table

Pictures Description Average time

1 No description 4 sec
2 Fully description 6 sec
3 Fully description 4 sec
4 Partially described 7 sec
5 Partially described 5 sec
6 Partially described 8 sec
Result indicate that participant showed full description on picture number 2,3. Partial

description on 4,5,6. And no description on picture

Attentional table

Picture no Description Average time

1 Full description 4 sec
2 Partial description 6 sec
3 No description 7 sec
4 Full description 7 sec
5 Full description 5 sec
6 Full description 6 sec
 49

Result indicate that participant showed full description on picture number 1,4,5,6. Partial

description on 2 And no description on picture 3

Discussion

Result indicate that participant showed full description on picture number 2,3. Partial

description on 4,5,6. And no description on picture 1 in non-attentional learning group and

Result indicate that participant showed full description on picture number 1,4,5,6. Partial

description on 2 And no description on picture 3 in attentional group

Conclusion

The subject was able to recall the pictures in a better way when told about to

memorize beforehand. Hence, more learning occurs with intention than without intention.
 50

References

Khalil, H., & Shahnaz, R. (2008). An Approach to Psychology for degree

classes: The carvan press

Schacter, D. L., Guerin, S. A., & Jacques, P. L. S. (2011). Memory distortion: An

adaptive perspective. Trends in cognitive sciences, 15(10), 467-474.

Gregory, R. L. & Colman, A. M. (1995). Sensation and perception. U.S.A. Longman Publishing

Hopkins et al. (1893). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA:

Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1.

Munn, L.N. & Fernoid, D.L., (1969). Introduction to psychology (3rd ed.). India: Oxford & IBH

publishing co
 51

Tesser, A., Schwarz, N. (2002). Intra individual processes. Retrieved on Nov 13, 2008 from

http://books.google.Boron, W.F., E.L. Boulpaep. 2003. Medical Physiology. 1st ed.

Elsevier Science USA

Zhao, Grace Q.; Yifeng Zhang; Mark A. Hoon; Jayaram Chandrashekar; Isolde Erlenbach;

Nicholas J.P. Ryba; Charles S. Zuker (October 2003).

Boeree, G. C. (2000). Psychology: The Beginnings. Retrieved From

http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Laws%20Of%20Associa ion

Cherry, K. (2015). What is learning? Retrieved form

http://psychology.about.com/od/lindex/g/learning.htm

Sharma.A. (2015).Learning. Retrieved from

http://www.psychologydiscussion.net/learning/learning-meaning-nature types-and-`

theories-of-learning/652

Costa, P. T.; McCrae, R. R. (1976). "Age differences in personality structure: A cluster analytic

approach". Journal of Gerontology. 31 (5): 564–570. doi:10.1093/geronj/31.5.564.

PMID 95 Briggs, S. R. (1989). Buss, D. M.; Cantor, N. (eds.). The optimal level of

measurement for personality constructs. Personality psychology: Recent trends and emerging

directions. NY: Springer-Verlag. pp. 246–260.

Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). NEO PI-R professional manual. Odessa, FL:

Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.

 52

McCrae R. R.; Costa P. T.; Martin T. A. (2005). "The NEO PI-3: A more readable

revised NEO personality inventory". Journal of Personality Assessment. 84 (3): 261–270.

McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T., Jr., (2010). NEO Inventories: Professional manual. Lutz,

FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.

McCrae, Robert R.; Costa, Jr., Paul T.; Martin, Thomas A. (2005). "The NEO–PI–3: A

More Readable Revised NEO Personality Inventory, Journal of Personality Assessment". 84 (3):

261–270.

McCrae, Robert R.; Martin, Thomas A.; Costa, Paul T. (2005-12-01). "Age

Trends and Age Norms for the NEO Personality Inventory-3 in Adolescents and Adults".

Assessment. 12 (4): 363–373.

Preparation for Pigeon Experiments

Anatomy and sensory capacities of Pigeon Brain

Anatomy of brain will help us to understand working of avian brain.

The Avian Nervous System consists of

 central nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord

 peripheral nervous system, including cranial and spinal nerves, autonomic nerves and

ganglia, and sense organs

The functions of the avian nervous system are to

 53

 obtain (via sensory receptors) information about the internal and external

environment

 analyze and, as needed, respond to that information

 store information as memory and learning

 coordinate outgoing motor impulses to skeletal muscles and the viscera (smooth

muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands)

Due to common ancestry, the brains of reptiles & birds are similar. However, birds have

relatively larger cerebral hemispheres & cerebella. In addition, birds have larger optic lobes &

smaller olfactory bulbs.

The avian brain includes:

 medulla - part of the brainstem; includes neurons that help control heart rate,

respiration, & blood pressure

 optic lobe - part of the midbrain; relatively large in birds compared to other

vertebrates (reflecting the importance of vision for most birds)

 cerebellum - involved in the coordination of skeletal muscle activity; relatively large

(reflecting the need for precise coordination of muscle activity during flight)

 cerebrum - consisting of 2 cerebral hemispheres plus olfactory lobes; the olfactory

lobes are relatively small in most birds (suggesting a poor sense of smell, but some

birds do have a well-developed sense of smell).

54
 55

Sense organs

Tactile organs - touch receptors (Herbst corpuscles, which are similar to Pacinian corpuscles)

are abundant in the bills of some birds, such as waterfowl and shorebirds, and in the tongues of

other birds, such as woodpeckers. Additional touch/pressure receptors (Merkel cells) are found in

the dermis (skin) of birds.

The Pigeon Possesses Following Exteroceptors:

1. Sense Of Touch (Tactile Organs)

 56

These are poorly developed in birds due to feathery covering of the body. Tactile organs

of pigeon remain confined to the bill and tongue of pigeon. The cere is a sensitive soft fold of

skin at the base of the upper beak in pigeons, is said to have a stimulating effect during love

making. The corpuscles of Grandry in the bill of ducks and other birds are probably tactile

receptors.

2. Sense of taste (Gustatory Organs)

Sense of taste and smell are little developed. The sense organs of taste, the taste buds, occur in

limited number on the dorsal surface of tongue. The sense of taste is poorly developed in

pigeons.

3.Sense Of Smell (Olfactory Organs)

Birds are usually unable to distinguish delicate odors, and on the whole their sense of smell is

very poor, as flying animals cannot depend on smell. The nasal cavity is large but the olfactory

epithelium is restricted. Birds use the nose to test air coming from the internal nostrils. In kiwis,

olfactory sense is well developed. These birds are nocturnal and terrestrial.

4.Sense Of Hearing (Auditory Organs Or Ears)

The sense of hearing is acute in most birds. Its auditory sense organs, the ears, serve their dual

function of equilibrium and hearing. Auditory organs consist of a fundamental ear, the internal

ear or membranous labyrinth and middle ear or tympanic cavity, like mammals. But, unlike

mammals they lack external ear.

5. Visual Organs or Eyes:

 57

Birds depend more on their eyes than on the other senses. The eyes are extremely large. The eyes

of hawks and owls are larger than in man. The eyes of pigeon are well developed and are very

large in correlation with an aerial life for a precise vision over considerable distances.

Before starting experiment certain arrangements and preparations were made by the

experimenter i.e. arranging the cage for keeping the pigeon, food to feed the pigeon, proper place

for keeping it, weighing box to weight the pigeon and Skinner box for the actual experiment.

Purchase of the pigeon

The pigeon was purchased from the open birds-market; therefore no knowledge was

present about the pigeon (such as its breed and weight) other than its age and sex. The pigeon

was female, one and a half year old at the time of purchase. It was a healthy pigeon of white and

grey color.

General Care and Housing

The pigeon was placed in a separate cage in animal lab of Institute of Applied

Psychology. The lab in which pigeon is housed was dry, well-illuminated and free from noise

and pollution. It was tried to maintain the environment of the lab suitable for keeping pigeon safe

and sound. The containers in which food and water was given were made of plastic and were

fitted in the net of the cage. When the pigeon was brought to the laboratory proper food and

clean water was given to it. The cleanliness of the cage was maintained on daily basis so that

pigeon could not get any contamination from the surroundings. For the experimental purpose, a

suitable and healthy environment with appropriate facilities was given to the pigeon.

Handling

In catching, holding, or carrying a pigeon it is important to support the bird and to keep

its wings folded. Avoid sudden movements and loud noises for these will produce emotional
 58

behavior in pigeon. In holding a pigeon have the bird’s head facing toward experimenter and his

tail away from her. If the pigeon is facing away, the hand will force its wrists (wing butts). If the

pigeon’s facing is toward the experimenter, the wing butts will lay in the natural position.

Support the pigeon in the palms of hands, holding down his wings with the thumbs and securing

his legs between first and second fingers. A pigeon has strong legs and if he placed his feet

against the palm of the hand and the experimenter will probably be unable to hold her. Hold the

pigeon firmly but gently with his breast against the heel of the hands. If he struggles, frighten to

hold slightly, even though the first reaction may be to let go. When transferring a pigeon to

another person, do not release the hold until the other person has the pigeon securely in hand.

Ad Libitum Weight

When a pigeon has free access to food and his weight becomes approximately constant,

he has reached what is called his ad libitum weight (Reese, 1964).

Calculation of Ad libitum weight

For the first few days after the pigeon arrived in the laboratory she was given clean water

all time. Pigeon’s weight was recorded on daily basis. This record was written in the note book

of the lab where the pigeon was housed. The experimenters weighed the pigeon in a covered box.

When the pigeon’s weight became almost consistent then his weight of last three days was added

and divided by 3. Then ad libitum weight was calculated.

Date Weight in grams (g) Amount fed

10-11-2018 234 Free food
11-11-2018 235 Free food
12-11-2018 235 Free food

The calculation of ad lib weight of pigeon was as follows:

Formula
 59

Ad lib weight = D1 + D2 + D3
3
Calculation

Ad lib weight = 234 + 235 + 235

3
Ad lib weight =235grams

Calculation of Experimental Weight

Once the ad lib weight was determined, it was necessary to take the pigeon to the

experimental weight to start experimentation. To calculate the experimental weight ad lib weight

was divided by 100 and multiplied by 80. The pigeon’s experimental weight was 187 grams.

Experimental weight= Ad lib weight /100 x 80

= 2.34/100 x 80 = 188 grams

Five (5) grams food was given one time a day to reduce the weight of the pigeon to the

experimental weight. The food quantity was not strictly maintained but varied about two to three

grams based on the condition of the pigeon to attain the experimental weight Pigeon was

weighed every day to keep in record its weight and to know that when it will reach its

experimental weight.

Weight Reduction

The weight of the pigeon was planned to reduce so that it reaches its experimental weight

and 4 grams of food was given one time a day. But at this amount of food, he was not losing his

weight as required so the amount of food as reduced to 3 grams and then reached at his

experimental weight.

Table 1
 60

Weight Chart of Pigeon

Date Weight (Grams) Amount of food fed (Grams)

07-11-2019 240 g Free food
08-11-2019 235 g Free food
09-11-2019 235 g Free food
10-11-2019 230 g Free food
11-11-2019 205 g 4
12-11-2019 200 g 3
13-11-2019 191 g 3
14-11-2019 192 g 2
15-11-2019 188 g 2
16-11-2019 185 g 2
17-11-2019 185 g 2
18-11-2019 185 g 2
19-11-2019 184 g 2
20-11-2019 183 g 2
21-11-2019 215 g 2

Chamber Adaptation

When pigeon reached at the experimental weight, before starting the experiment,

experimenter gave pigeon chamber training so that pigeon familiarize with chamber

environment. In chamber adaptation food was presented to the pigeon in the container in which

he eat food in cage. The container was placed under the house light of Skinner box. Food was

placed before placing the pigeon in box. House light was on. The weight of the pigeon was

measured and placed the pigeon in Skinner box. Pigeon was allowed to eat food form the

container in the presence of house light. This was done for the purpose that pigeon get

familiarize with Skinner box environment. On the first day, pigeon took 10 seconds to look at the

wall he was facing i.e. the wall containing magazine. Food was not in magazine but in the

container. After a while, pigeon start eating from the container and eat for 2 minutes

continuously. After that pigeon start exploring the Skinner box and insert his mouth in magazine.
 61

Pigeon again start eating from the container and eat for 1 minute. This whole process took 15 to

20 minutes. Chamber adaptation lasts for 3 days.

Table 2

Weight in Chamber Adaptation

Weight (grams)
Date Before After

11-11-2019 235g 233g

12-11-2019 237g 235g

13-11-2019 233g 230g

 62

Magazine Training

"In experimental conditions, magazine training provides the animal with experience of using

the mechanism (a feeder normally)."

Magazine Training

After chamber adaptation, the next step is magazine training. In magazine training the

pigeon learn to eat food from the magazine in the presence of house light. The chamber was

cleaned and house was on. Pigeon was placed in the chamber after noting the weight. Chamber

training lasts for 6 days because it’s difficult for the pigeon to get used to eat form the magazine

in 5 seconds. Magazine opened for 5 seconds and then closes for next five seconds. Number of

trials varies in each day. It is referred to the process by which the pigeon is trained.

Day 1
 63

The pigeon was placed in the chamber and food was provided in the magazine. The weight

of the pigeon was 235g.When the pigeon was first placed in the chamber, it stood looking at the

back wall for about 7 seconds. Then it moved around the chamber and peaked at floor where

food container was placed the previous day. The first trial went unnoticed. The magazine was

turned on for five seconds and then it was turned off for the next 5 seconds. The pigeon turned

and again face the black wall. The second trial was also futile. When the magazine was turned

off for the third trial, it groomed its wings with its beak. On the forth trial, when the magazine

was turned on, it was startled by it sound. In the 5 th and 6th trial, it roamed around in the chamber.

It was closer to the magazine on 7th but it got startled due to the sound of magazine and turned its

back towards the food magazine. It continued to look at the back wall but then turned and

noticed something near the food magazine on 14 th trial. On 15th trial, it jumped on the sound of

magazine, looked at surroundings and peeked wall near the food magazine. It groomed its wings

with its beak and when magazine was turned on for 17th trial, it was startled again.

Magazine Training

After the pigeon had successfully adapted to the chamber during chamber adaptation, the

process of magazine training began. Magazine training usually refers to the process by which the

pigeon is trained to eat its food from the food magazine. Pigeon took 3 days to get trained for the

magazine. Usually pigeons get use to with the magazine in two days, but in some cases, they take

more time and thus the magazine training was done for three days.

Magazine Training Day 1

At first the pigeon was weighed and was approximately 235 grams. The Skinner box was

made ready i.e. cleaned from inside, checking of lights, functionality of switchboard, filling of

the food magazine etc. The team of experimenters distributed the responsibilities of duties which
 64

were to be simultaneously performed during the experiment. The following duties were

distributed amongst the team members: operating switchboard, observing the pigeon’s behavior,

and controlling time for food magazine.

After distributing and understanding the above-mentioned duties, the initial trials of the

magazine training were started. The house light was turned on and remained on during all the

trials. The pigeon was put in the Skinner box. There was a total of 15 trials. The key light or

magazine light was turned on for approximately 5 seconds and was remained off for 5 seconds.

Gradually, the pigeon became responsive and started eating food from the magazine. After five

trials, the pigeon became familiar of taking food from the magazine. At the end of the training

the pigeon was returned to its cage.

Day I

Table 1

Trials and Responses of first Day of Magazine Training

Trials Pecks Reinforcement (sec)

1 -- 5
2 - 5
3 - 5
4 - 5
5 - 5
6 - 5
7 - 5
8 - 5
9 - 5
10 - 5
11 - 5
12 - 5
13 - 5
14 - 5
15 - 5
16 - 5
17 - 5
18 - 5
19 - 5
 65

20 - 5
21 - 5
22 - 5
23 - 5
24 - 5
25 - 5
26 - 5
27 - 5

28 - 5
29 - 5
30 - 5

Note: VITI=variable inter trail interval

At first the pigeon was weighed and was approximately 235g. Then the Skinner box was

made ready i.e. cleaned from inside, checking of lights, functionality of switchboard, filling of

the food magazine etc. The team of experimenters distributed the responsibilities of duties which

were to be simultaneously performed during the experiment. The following duties were

distributed amongst the team members operating switchboard, observing the pigeon’s behavior,

and controlling time for food magazine.

After distributing, the initial trials of the magazine training were started. The house light

was turned on and remained on during all the trials. The pigeon was put in the Skinner box.

There were a total of 30 trials. The key light or magazine light was turned on for approximately

10 seconds after the pigeon started responding. There was a time lapse of 7-10 seconds between

all the trials after the pigeon started responding. The pigeon was very active, he responded in the

first trail. In first 5 minutes he did not give any response, but after 5 minutes he began to eat

continuously, and completed 30 trails in 15 minutes.

Magazine Training Day 2

 66

Magazine Training Day 2 was performed in a more restricted and formal environment.

The time was distributed between the 20 trials so that a total time lapse between the trials was 10

seconds. The pigeon was put in the Skinner box. There were a total of 30 trials. The key light or

magazine light was turned on for approximately 5 seconds.

Table 2

Trials and Responses of Second Day of Magazine Training

Trials Pecks VITI Reinforcement (sec)

1 4 3 5
2 6 5 5
3 11 7 5
4 13 4 5
5 14 6 5
6 11 3 5
7 13 7 5
8 11 5 5
9 12 6 5
10 8 3 5
11 8 7 5
12 8 4 5
13 8 5 5
14 9 3 5
15 8 7 5
16 7 3 5
17 7 4 5
18 5 7 5
19 4 3 5
20 7 5 5
21 6 4 5
22 5 7 5
23 9 6 5
24 8 3 5
25 8 6 5
26 7 7 5
27 7 5 5
28 9 3 5
29 6 4 5
30 8 7 5
 67

Note: VITI=variable inter trail interval

Magazine Training Day 3

On the third day of magazine training, the same process was repeated but in a more

constrained and proper environment. Variable Inter Trial Interval (VITI) was calculated on

second day unlike the first day. The time was distributed between the 30 trials so that a total time

lapse between the trials was 15 minutes. Throughout the experimental procedure of third day,

keen observation and careful recording was made. It was observed that the pigeon did not show

any type of hesitation, or confusion. He immediately started pecking the magazine and started

taking food from magazine without fear.

Trials and Responses of third Day of Magazine Training

Trials Pecks VITI Reinforcement (sec)

1 4 3 5
2 6 5 5
3 11 7 5
4 13 4 5
5 14 6 5
6 11 3 5
7 13 7 5
8 11 5 5
9 12 6 5
10 8 3 5
11 8 7 5
12 8 4 5
13 8 5 5
14 9 3 5
15 8 7 5
16 7 3 5
17 7 4 5
18 5 7 5
19 4 3 5
20 7 5 5
21 6 4 5
22 5 7 5
23 9 6 5
24 8 3 5
25 8 6 5
 68

26 7 7 5
27 7 5 5
28 9 3 5
29 6 4 5
30 8 7 5

Note: VITI=variable inter trail interval

On the third day of magazine training, the same process was repeated but in a more

constrained and proper environment. Variable Inter Trial Interval (VITI) was calculated on third

day unlike the first and second day. The time was distributed between the thirty trials so that a

total time lapse between the trials was 15 minutes. He immediately started pecking the magazine

and started taking food from magazine without fearing.

Discussion

Pigeon adapted in the chamber very well. Pigeon magazine training was done in three

sections in three consecutive days. Pigeons are usually magazine trained before they are trained

to peck a response key for food reinforcement. Pigeon was successfully trained at the end of the

3rd session and became ready for further experiments.

 69

References

Jarvis, k. (2005). Avian brains and a new understanding of vertebrate brain evolution . Nature

Reviews Neuroscience 6:151-159. Retrieved from http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong.

Sultan, F. (2005). Why some bird brains are larger than others . Current Biology 15: R649

R650 Retrieved from http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/birdbrain/article.

 70

Experiment No.1

Behavior Shaping through Continuous Reinforcement

Problem statement

To find out that whether behavior gets strengthen by the process of continuous

reinforcement.

Shaping

Shaping is the process of reinforcing successively closer and closer approximations to a

desired terminal behavior. 

There are specific steps to follow in the process of shaping behaviours.

1. Reinforce any response that in some way resembles the terminal behaviour.

2. Reinforce the response that closely approximates the terminal behaviour (no longer

reinforcing the previous reinforced response).

3. Reinforce the response that resembles the terminal behaviour even more closely.

4. Continue reinforcing closer and closer approximations to the terminal behaviour

5. Reinforce only the terminal behaviour.

Shaping is a conditioning method much used in animal training and in teaching nonverbal

humans. It depends on operant variability and reinforcement, as described above. The trainer

starts by identifying the desired final (or "target") behavior. Next, the trainer chooses a behavior

that the animal or person already emits with some probability. The form of this behavior is then

gradually changed across successive trials by reinforcing behaviors that approximate the target
 71

behavior more and more closely. When the target behavior is finally emitted, it may be

strengthened and maintained by the use of a schedule of reinforcement.

Introduction

Learning is the relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to

experience. There are two types of learning namely, classical and instrumental conditioning.

1. Classical Conditioning

The Classical Conditioning Theory was proposed by a Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov.

According to this theory, behavior is learnt by a repetitive association between the response and

the stimulus. The classical conditioning theory is based on the assumption that learning is

developed through the interactions with the environment. Also, the environment shapes the

behavior and internal mental state such as thoughts, feelings; emotions do not explain the human

behavior.

Classical conditioning is a form of learning whereby a conditioned stimulus (CS)

becomes associated with an unrelated unconditioned stimulus (US) in order to produce a

behavioral response known as a conditioned response (CR). The conditioned response is the

learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.

Components of classical conditioning

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus which initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention

Unconditional Stimulus (UCS)

Any stimulus that can evoke a response without the organism going through any previous

learning
 72

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

The unlearned response that occurs naturally in reaction to the unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that after becoming associated with the unconditioned

stimulus eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response

Conditioned Response (CR)

An automatic response established by training to an ordinarily neutral stimulus

2. Instrumental conditioning

B.F. Skinner is referred to as the father of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning

also called instrumental conditioning is a learning process through which the strength of a

behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment. It is also a procedure that is used to bring

about such learning.

Reinforcement

The term reinforce means to strengthen, and is used in psychology to refer to anything

stimulus which strengthens or increases the probability of a specific response. There are two

types of reinforcement

1. Partial reinforcement

Partial reinforcement, unlike continuous reinforcement, is only reinforced at certain

intervals or ratio of time, instead of reinforcing the behavior every single time. This form

of scheduling reinforcement after certain number of correct responses or certain interval of time

is also termed as intermittent reinforcement. This type of reinforcement is regarded more

powerful in maintaining or shaping behavior.

 73

2. Continuous reinforcement

An animal/human is positively reinforced every time a specific behavior

occurs, e.g., every time a lever is pressed a pellet is delivered, and then food
delivery is shut off.
 Response rate is SLOW
 Extinction rate is FAST
Hypothesis

Behavior gets strengthened through successive approximations by using continuous

reinforcement.

Method

Subject Male pigeon

Apparatus

 Cage

 Food

 Skinner box

 Stop watch

Experimenters Students of MSC lll

Procedure

Firstly, the Skinner box was prepared for the experiment. The panel was checked whether

it is operating or not and the magazine was filled with food weight of 4 grams. The chamber was

cleaned out before experiment started. The house light was on before experiment had started

while the amber light was off. The pigeon was weighed and when he was on experimental

weight experiment was started. Then he was put in the Skinner box. The experiment was

conducted in a dark room and silence was maintained throughout the experiment. As pigeon was

placed in Skinner box, house light turned off and amber light turned on. The starting time of the
 74

experiment was noted. Experiment was conducted in a group. Therefore, different group

members were assigned different responsibilities like, one experimenter was controlling the

panel (operate stimulus key and magazine key), other was observing the behavior of the pigeon,

and the third one recording the time and responses of the pigeon. Total thirty trials were given to

the pigeon. Whenever, the pigeon pecked on the amber light, it was reinforced with food through

magazine for 5 seconds. At first the pigeon was reinforced when it looked at the amber light in

order to condition its behavior with the amber light. Whenever it pecked in the origin of the light

even though not directly at the amber light, it was reinforced immediately but those were not

considered trials. Later on, when its response got closer to the pecking response, only the

pecking on the amber light was reinforced and did not continue to reinforce looking and pecking

around the amber light.

In session 2 also, total thirty trials were given to the pigeon. But in second session, it

learned that pecking on amber light will be rewarded. When it pecked on the amber light, it was

reinforced only at that time and the reinforcement with food through magazine was given for 5

seconds. Pigeon responded very fast on second session even pecking too much anxiously to get

reward as its behavior was fully conditioned. And at the end of the session, the behavior of the

pigeon was reinforced as after the removal of the reinforcement it began to peck exactly on

amber light within 1 sec.

 75

Results

Table 1

Trials and Responses of 1st session of Behavior Shaping through Continuous

Reinforcement

No of Trials No of pecks VITI(sec) Reinforcement (sec)

1 1 52 5
2 2 4 5
3 1 4 5
4 2 10 5
5 3 10 5
6 2 19 5
7 3 19 5
8 2 4 5
9 2 6 5
10 2 12 5
11 2 12 5
12 1 12 5
13 3 12 5
14 2 16 5
15 2 17 5
16 2 16 5
17 3 9 5
18 3 12 5
19 2 7 5
20 3 7 5
21 3 10 5
22 2 10 5
23 2 8 5
24 2 6 5
25 3 6 5
26 1 7 5
27 2 5 5
28 2 4 5
29 1 4 5
30 2 5 5

31 5 5
2
32 5 5

33 2 3 5
 76

Note: VITI=variable inter trail interval

These results clearly show that the pigeon start peck on the stimulus key i.e. light, during the

initial trails. At the start of the session he responded, as we were shaping his behavior so through

successive approximations we started reinforcing him and he also respond well.

Table 2

Average Results of Pecks and VITI of Session 1 (N=30)

Trials Pecks VITI seconds

1-10 4.9 12.1

11-20 2.7 12
21-30 5.8 5.5

Graph 1

Average of Pecks in first Session of Continuous Reinforcement (N=30)

Pecks
7

0
1 - 10 11- 20 21- 30 31-40 41-50

Pecks
 77

Graph 2

Average of VITI in seconds in first Session of Continuous Reinforcement (N=30)

VITI
14

12

10

0
1 - 10 11 - 20 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50

VITI

This table shows the number of pecks on light by the pigeon and the time of

reinforcement given to the pigeon over 50 trials. In the start of the experiment the pigeon’s

pecking on the light was less and then gradually increased as the experiment progresses. The

pigeon was very active and respond quickly when light presented to her. The minimum number

of pecks was one and the maximum number of pecks was nine.

Table 3

Trials and Responses of 2nd session of Behavior Shaping through Continuous

Reinforcement

No of Trials No of pecks VITI Reinforcement (sec)

1 3 4 5
2 3 3 5
3 3 3 5
4 2 2 5
5 3 1 5
6 2 6 5
 78

7 2 3 5
8 2 4 5
9 3 5 5
10 3 5 5
11 2 5 5
12 3 5 5
13 3 5 5
14 3 5 5
15 2 3 5
16 3 2 5
17 3 3 5
18 2 4 5
19 2 4 5
20 3 2 5
21 3 3 5
22 3 3 5
23 2 3 5
24 2 4 5
25 2 3 5
26 3 3 5
27 3 3 5
28 2 3 5
29 2 3 5
30 3 3 5

This table shows the number of pecks on light by the pigeon and the time of

reinforcement given to the pigeon over 43 trials. The pigeon was very active and respond quickly

when light presented to her. The minimum number of pecks was two and the maximum number

of pecks was seven.

Table 4

Average Results of Pecks and VITI of Session 2 (N=30)

Trials Avg.0f Pecks VITI seconds

1-10 4.7 3.6
11-20 3.4 3.8
21-30 4.5 3.1
 79

Graph 3: Average of Pecks in second Session of Continuous Reinforcement (N=30)

pecks
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1 -10 11 -20 21- 30 31- 40

pecks

Graph 4

Average of VITI in seconds in second Session of Continuous Reinforcement (N=30)

 80

VITI
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1 - 10 11- 20 21 - 30 31 -40

VITI

Discussion

The hypothesis has been proved that behavior gets strengthened through successive

approximations by using continuous reinforcement. The pigeon took less time and pecked more

in day 2. In the start of first session of this experiment, the pigeon pecked on the other sides of

amber light. But after some trials, the pigeon started to peck on the light.

Conclusion

Behavior has strengthened through continuous reinforcement. The pigeon can learn to

perform the desired response by behavioral shaping through continuous reinforcement. The

results indicate that with continuous reinforcement, the behavior of the pigeon is modified on the

basis of reward.
 81

References

Chance, J. (1979). Experimental Psychology. USA: McGraw Hill Company

Hergenhahn, B. R., & Olson, M. H. (1993). An Introduction to Theories of Learning (4th ed).

USA:Prentics hall, inc.

Klein, S. B. (2002). Learning principles and applications (4th ed.) .New York: McGraw-hill

companies, inc.
 82

Experiment No. 2

Behavior Shaping through Partial Reinforcement

Problem Statement

To investigate whether the behavior of the pigeon is strengthened or not through partial

reinforcement using ratio schedule.

Introduction

Partial reinforcement, unlike continuous reinforcement, is only reinforced at certain

intervals or ratio of time, instead of reinforcing the behavior every single time. ...

The definition of partial reinforcement as inconsistent or random reinforcement of responses

could complicate the matter in a learner's point of view

It is not necessary to reinforce every correct response in order for learning to occur

(Loudon, 2001).Reinforcement is a term in operant conditioning for the process of increasing the
 83

rate or probability of a behavior (e.g. pulling a lever more frequently) by the delivery or

emergence of a stimulus (e.g. a candy) immediately or shortly after the behavior, called a

"response," is performed. A reinforcer is the stimulus, event, or situation that is presented or

otherwise emerges when the response behavior is performed. There are two basic types of

reinforcers - primary and secondary. Primary reinforcers are unlearned events that, by virtue of

their biological importance, serve as consequences that increase the likelihood the behavior that

precedes them will occur again. Secondary or "conditioned" reinforcers are neutral events that

have acquired reinforcing potential because they have been matched (paired) with primary

reinforcers or previously established secondary reinforcers.

Schedules of Partial Reinforcement

1. Fixed Ratio Schedules (FR)

In a fixed ratio schedule, the subject is reinforced after a fixed number of responses

(Nicholas, 2009).On a fixed ratio schedule, reinforcement is contingent upon a fixed,

predictable number of responses (Powell, Symbaluk, & Honey, 2009).

For example a subject on a fixed ratio -10 schedule will be reinforced every tenth time

the desired response is emitted, independently of how long it took to do so.

2. Variable Ratio Schedules (VR)

This form of reinforcement is more common in the natural environment. In a variable

 84

ratio schedule the number of responses and the delivery of reinforcement changes from time to

time (Nicholas, 2009).On a variable ratio schedule, reinforcement is contingent upon a varying,

unpredictable number of responses (Powell, Symbaluk, & Honey, 2009).

For example a subject on variable ratio schedule may be reinforced after ten responses, then

after the next five, and then after the next fifteen. Although the number of responses per

reinforcement is not fixed, they are averaged to a certain value.

3. Fixed Interval Schedules (FI)

Reinforcement in interval schedules is not tied to the subject’s behavior. In a fixed interval

schedule the first response occur after a fixed amount of time has elapsed is reinforced. Two

conditions must be satisfied for a fixed interval schedule: the prescribed interval must have

elapsed and the subject must make a response (Nicholas, 2009).On a fixed interval schedule,

reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a fixed, predictable period of time

(Powell, Symbaluk, & Honey, 2009).

For example a subject on a fixed interval-60 schedule will be reinforced for the first

response occurring after an interval of 60 seconds.

4. Variable Interval Schedules (VI)

In a variable interval schedule, reinforcement follows the first response after a variable

amount of time has elapsed. Although the interval in between reinforced responses is not fixed,

it is averaged to a certain value (Nicholas, 2009). On a variable interval schedule,

reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a varying, unpredictable period of

time.
 85

Experiment no. 3

Behavior Shaping Through Fixed Interval Reinforcement

Hypothesis

Behavior gets strengthened by using partial reinforcement with a fixed interval schedule.

Method

Subject Male Pigeon

Apparatus  Cage

 Food

 Water
 86

 Skinner box

 Stop watch

 Weight machine

 Paper and Pencil

Experimenters
Students of MSC III
Procedure

To start the experiment Skinner box was prepared and checked whether there is any

problem in it or not and duties were equally assigned to all group members. Before placing

pigeon in Skinner box, weight of the pigeon was measured. After that pigeon was placed inside

the Skinner box. The pigeon was given duration of five seconds to peck on amber light then the

food was provided to the pigeon through magazine chamber for approximately 10 seconds. All

trials were repeated with the same procedure. Readings of all the trials were noted properly.

Experiment was conducted in which 30 trials were given in two sessions. After conducting

experiment, weight of pigeon was measured again. Experiment was performed in two sessions.

The results of both sessions are given below in tabular form.

Results

Table 1

Trials and Responses of 1st session of Behavior Shaping through Partial Reinforcement

(Fixed ratio)

No of Trials VITI Additional No of Pecks Reinforcement

(sec) seconds (sec)

1. 6 - 7 10
2. 6 - 6 10
3. 6 - 10 10
4. 6 - 6 10
 87

5. 6 - 7 10
6. 6 - 6 10
7. 6 - 4 10
8. 6 - 5 10
9. 6 - 7 10
10. 6 - 9 10
11. 6 - 7 10
12. 6 - 8 10
13. 6 - 7 10
14. 6 - 9 10
15. 6 - 6 10
16. 6 - 5 10
17. 6 - 10 10
18. 6 - 6 10
19. 6 - 9 10
20. 6 - 9 10
21. 6 - 5 10
22. 6 - 7 10
23. 6 - 10 10
24. 6 - 7 10
25. 6 - 7 10
26. 6 - 6 10
27. 6 - 7 10
28. 6 - 6 10
29. 6 - 8 10
30. 6 - 7 10

This table shows the fixed number of seconds and additional seconds taken by the pigeon

to peck on the light, VITI and the time of reinforcement given to the pigeon over 30 trials. In the

experiment the pigeon took no additional seconds to peck on light. The pigeon was very active

and responded quickly when light was presented to her.

Table 2

Average of Trials and pecks in first session of fixed ratio (N=30)

VITI (sec) Trials No. of pecks

3.2 1-10 6.7

 88

3.8 11-20 7.6

3.3 21-30 7.0

Graph 1

Average of Trials and Pecks in first session of fixed ratio (N=30)

Pecks
8

0
1- 10 11 -20 21- 30

Pecks

Table 3

Trials and Responses of 2nd session of Behavior Shaping through Partial Reinforcement

(Fixed ratio)

No of Trials VITI Additional No of Pecks Reinforcement

(sec) Pecks (sec)

1. 6 - 5 10
2. 6 - 5 10
3. 6 - 5 10
4. 6 - 9 10
5. 6 - 7 10
6. 6 - 6 10
7. 6 - 9 10
8. 6 - 5 10
9. 6 - 5 10
10. 6 - 4 10
11. 6 - 4 10
 89

12. 6 - 6 10
13. 6 - 4 10
14. 6 - 4 10
15. 6 - 5 10
16. 6 - 6 10
17. 6 - 5 10
18. 6 - 6 10
19. 6 - 5 10
20. 6 - 8 10
21. 6 - 5 10
22. 6 - 7 10
23. 6 - 6 10
24. 6 - 10 10
25. 6 - 7 10
26. 6 - 5 10
27. 6 - 10 10
28. 6 - 7 10
29. 6 - 8 10
30. 6 - 7 10

. This table shows the fixed number of seconds and additional seconds taken by the

pigeon to peck on the light, VITI and the time of reinforcement given to the pigeon over 30

trials. In the experiment the pigeon take no additional seconds to peck on light. The pigeon was

very active and respond quickly when light presented to her.

Table 4

Average of Trials and Pecks in second session of fixed ratio (N=30)

Trials VITI (sec) No. of pecks

1-10 3.3 6.0
11-20 3.8 5.3
21-30 3.9 7.2
 90

Graph 2

Average of Trials and Pecks in second session of fixed ratio (N=30)

Pecks
8

0
1- 10 11 - 20 21 - 30

Pecks

Discussion

`The hypothesis has been proved that behavior gets strengthen through successive

approximation by using partial reinforcement (fixed interval). Pigeon’s behavior showed that she

had good adaptive skills like quick responding at day 2. Pigeon was easily trained and took less

time after continuous experimentation.

Conclusion

Behavior gets strengthened through continuous reinforcement and number of pecks has

increased in the second day.

 91

Experiment 4

Behavior Shaping through Variable Ratio

Hypothesis

Behavior gets strengthen through using variable ratio.

Method

Experimenter Students of M.Sc. III (Mor.)

Subject Female Pigeon

Apparatus Skinner box, Stop watch, Food grains for pigeon, Torch light, Paper and Pencil.

Procedure

On third day the experiment was done again on interval Schedule but time varied, not

fixed, like food was given after 4 seconds, 5 seconds and so on to 8 seconds. Before starting

experiment the pigeon’s weight was noted, that was 204 grams 9 grams more than the

experimental weight. After that pigeon was placed inside the Skinner box 30 trials were taken.

The amber light remained on and when pigeon pecked on the light food was given to him

through magazine. When magazine was on then amber light was off. Then food was provided to

the pigeon through magazine chamber for 10 seconds. Third trial Hypothesis

Behavior gets strengthened by using partial reinforcement with a variable ratio schedule.

Method

Subject Male Pigeon

Apparatus  Cage

 Food

 Water

 Skinner box
 92

 Stop watch

 Weight machine

 Paper and Pencil

Experimenters Students of MSC lll
Procedure

Experiment was performed in two days. On first day before starting the experiment,

functioning of Skinner box was properly checked. Magazine was filled with food. It was made

sure that no grain of food was on the floor of Skinner box. All the group members were assigned

different responsibilities for example to control the panel, to record timing, to count number of

pecks etc. Then pigeon was weighed, brought to the experimental room and was put in the

Skinner box. The door of Skinner box was closed and experiment was started. As soon as the

pigeon entered the Skinner box, its behavior observation was started. The responses of pigeon

were also noted when pigeon started pecking on amber light.

The behavior of pigeon was shaped through partial reinforcement i.e. variable interval.

The pigeon in variable interval schedule was reinforced for the first response occurring after 5±2

seconds. So when the time completed, it was reinforced i.e. the magazine light was switched on

and food was accessible to pigeon. The pigeon was allowed to eat for only five seconds. After

five seconds the magazine light was switched off and food was no longer accessible to pigeon.

Here first trial was completed and second trial was started. In the second trial, again the pigeon

was reinforced after variable intervals. In the same way thirty trials were completed on day 1of

reinforcement on a variable interval schedule. The behavior of pigeon was observed and

recorded during each trial. Pigeon was active, giving very quick responses and was keeping

vigilant eye on light while it was taking food from magazine.

 93

After completing thirty trials the pigeon was taken out from Skinner box and weighed

again to make sure that it did not eat more food than required. Then it was brought back to its

home cage.

On day 2 the same procedure was repeated and the response of the pigeon was noted.

Weight of the pigeon was recorded both after and before. No food was given to pigeon during 24

hours gap of session 1 and session 2 because the hunger drive had to be used as a motivation

force to eat food during experiment.

Results

Table 1

Trials and Responses of 1st session of Behavior Shaping through Partial Reinforcement

(Variable ratio)

No of Trials VITI Additional No of Pecks Reinforcement

(sec) seconds (sec)

1. 6 - 4 10
2. 8 - 7 10
3. 5 - 9 10
4. 7 - 14 10
5. 4 - 11 10
6. 5 - 2 10
7. 8 - 9 10
8. 6 - 12 10
9. 4 - 8 10
10. 5 - 10 10
11. 7 - 11 10
12. 4 - 10 10
13. 5 - 8 10
14. 8 - 12 10
15. 6 - 4 10
16. 7 - 16 10
17. 4 - 13 10
18. 5 - 12 10
19. 8 - 6 50
20. 7 - 4 10
 94

21. 6 - 9 10
22. 8 - 14 10
23. 7 - 12 10
24. 6 - 6 10
25. 5 - 11 10
26. 4 - 10 10
27. 7 - 5 10
28. 8 - 8 10
29. 6 - 11 10
30. 5 - 11 10

This table shows variable seconds and additional seconds taken by the pigeon to peck on the

light, VITI and the time of reinforcement given to the pigeon over 30 trials. In the experiment the

pigeon take no additional seconds to peck on light. The pigeon was very active and respond

quickly when light presented to him.

Table 2

Average of Pecks and VITI in seconds of first session of variable interval (N=30)

Trials Pecks VITI seconds

1-10 8.6 6.3
11-20 9.6 6.1
21-30 9.7 6.2

Graph 1

Average of Pecks in first session of variable interval (N=30)

 95

Pecks

9.8
9.6
9.4
9.2
9
8.8
8.6
8.4
8.2
8
1 - 10 11 - 20 21 - 30

Pecks

Graph 2

Average of VITI in seconds of first session of variable interval (N=30)

VITI
6.35

6.3

6.25

6.2

6.15

6.1

6.05

6
1- 10 11- 20 21- 30

VITI

Table 3

Trials and Responses of 2nd session of Behavior Shaping through Partal Reinforcement

(Variable ratio)
 96

No of Trials VITI Additional No of Pecks Reinforcement

(sec) seconds (sec)

1. 4 - 5 10
2. 5 - 7 10
3. 6 - 8 10
4. 8 - 7 10
5. 7 - 9 10
6. 4 - 4 10
7. 8 - 6 10
8. 7 - 10 10
9. 5 - 8 10
10. 6 - 8 10
11. 6 - 8 10
12. 5 - 9 10
13. 8 - 6 10
14. 4 - 4 10
15. 7 - 5 10
16. 6 - 8 10
17. 8 - 4 10
18. 7 - 7 10
19. 5 - 11 10
20. 4 - 9 10
21. 6 - 9 10
22. 8 - 5 10
23. 5 - 10 10
24. 4 - 9 10
25. 7 - 7 10
26. 8 - 12 10
27. 6 - 7 10
28. 7 - 4 10
29. 4 - 9 10
30. 5 - 9 10

This table shows the variable seconds and number of pecks on light by the pigeon, VITI

and the time of reinforcement given to the pigeon over 30 trials. The pigeon was very active and

respond quickly when light presented to him.

Table 4

Average of Pecks and VITI in seconds of second session of variable ratio (N=30)
 97

Trials Pecks VITI seconds

1-10 7.2 6.0
11-20 7.1 6.0
21-30 8.1 6.0

Graph 1

Average of Pecks in second session of variable ratio (N=30)

Pecks
8.2

7.8

7.6

7.4

7.2

6.8

6.6

6.4
1- 10 11- 20 21- 30

Pecks

Graph 2

Average of VITI in seconds of second session of variable ratio (N=30)

 98

VITI
7

0
1- 10 11- 20 21- 30

VITI

Discussion

The hypothesis has been proved that behavior gets strengthen by using partial

reinforcement (variable interval). Pigeon’s behavior showed that he had good adaptive skills like

quick responding at day 2. Pigeon was easily trained and took less time after continuous

experimentation.
 99

References

Bernstein, D. A. (2013). Essentials of Psychology. USA: Cengage Learning

Bruno, F. J. (2002). Psychology: A Self Teaching Guide. New Jersey: John Wiley &

Sons, Inc.

Chance, P. (2009). Learning and Behavior: Active learning edition. USA: Wadsworth

Cengage Learning

Charles, M. G. (2010). Psychology for Nurses. India: Pearson Education

Kalat, J. (2013). Introduction to Psychology. USA: Cengage Learning

Klein, S. B. (2002). Learning Principles and Applications. USA: McGraw-Hill

Companies

Nicholas, L. (2009). Introduction to Psychology. Cape Town: Juta and Company Ltd.

Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes. UK: Oxford University Press.

Powell, R. A., Symbaluk, D. G., & Honey, P. L. (2009). Introduction to learning and
 100

behavior. USA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning

Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and Human behavior. New York: Macmillan.

Experiment no. 5

Stimulus Generalization Experiment

Problem statement

To make the pigeon learn the phenomenon of stimulus generalization by equally

rewarding on either yellow light or red light.

Introduction

Stimulus generalization occurs when an organism responds to a stimulus in the same way

that it responds to a similar stimulus. This occurs during the classical conditioning process

(Skinner, 1963).

Two forms of learning were brought into the laboratory at the close of the nineteenth

century that is classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning is the type

of learning in which a neutral stimulus (such as experimenter’s footsteps) comes to bring about a

response after it is paired with stimuli (such as food) that naturally bring about that response. The
 101

procedure by which a neutral stimulus, one that does not elicit a reflex response, becomes a

conditional stimulus for that response is called classical conditioning. Operant conditioning is

learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable

or unfavorable consequences. Unlike classical conditioning, in which the original behaviors are

the natural, biological responses to the presence of some stimulus such as food, water or pain,

operant conditioning applies to voluntary responses, which an organism performs deliberately, to

produce a desirable outcome (Paul, 1979).

The first type classical conditioning was developed by Pavlov. It is a type of learning in

which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that

naturally brings about that response (Nevid, 2009). The second type operant conditioning or

instrumental conditioning was developed around the same time as Pavlov's theory by Thorndike,

and later expanded upon by B. F. Skinner. It is the process of learning by which a response is

strengthened by means of manipulating the consequences of the response (Nevid, 2009).

Behavior shaping, stimulus generalization, stimulus discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous

recovery all are fundamental concepts of operant conditioning.

Stimulus generalization is the process of the transfer of a response learned to one

stimulus to a similar stimulus. In instrumental or operant conditioning; responses learned in the

presence of one stimulus will also be made in the presence of other, similar stimuli. The amount

of generalization depends on the similarity of the stimuli (Morgan, King, Weisz and Schopler,

1986). Generalization occurs when an organism makes the same response to similar stimuli.

Generalization allows for continuity in behavior. It allows the person to respond automatically in

new settings and with new people because of the similarities with prior situations. In

generalization, a behavior may be performed in more than one situation.  For example, the rat
 102

who receives food by pressing one lever may press a second lever in the cage in hopes that i will

receive food (Navid, 2009).

Hypothesis

Stimulus S1 (Yellow Light) and S2 (Red Light) are equally rewarding to strengthen the

behavior.

Method

Subject : Pigeon
Experimenter : Students of MSC lll
Apparatus :  Page Pencil

 Skinner box

 Cage

 , Food

 Weight box

 Weighing machine

 Stopwatch
Procedure

The process of the Stimulus generalization of pigeon was completed in two sessions. The

pigeon was fully prepared for the experiment. The experiment Lab was fully equipped and well

organized. The apparatus Skinner box was working properly throughout the experiment. There

was no disturbance regarding the apparatus as the pigeon felt comforting during the whole

experiment. Experiment was performed in groups so all the experimenters were fully vigilant

during the experiment and the responsibilities were assigned to the group members. The

individual responsibilities were carried out very competently and proficiently. The pigeon was

taken out of the cage and was weighed before the experiment. The food was put in the food

magazine of the Skinner box. Free food was put in the magazine. The pigeon was then placed in
 103

the Skinner box and his behavior observation started. The house light was switched off and

stimulus key (red light) was switched on. It was decided earlier that yellow light light was stated

as S1 and red light was stated as S2. Each of the stimulus key remained on for 5 seconds. The

pigeon pecked on S1 and was rewarded for 6 seconds. Both lights were randomly switched on

according to a schedule of yellow and red key lights which was prepared earlier. In session 1

total 30 trials were given 15 trials of yellow light and 15 trials of red light. After 30 trials pigeon

was taken out from Skinner box and the pigeon was weighted. Next day in session 2 same

procedures was repeated. Thus total 60 trials (30 trials in session 1 and 30 trials in session 2)

were given.

Results

Table 1

Trials and Responses of 1st session of Stimulus Generalization

No of Trials Stimulus Key No of Pecks on Light VITI Reinforcement

1 Y //// 5 5
2 Y //// 6 5
3 Y /// 6 5
4 R //// // 5 5
5 R //// // 6 5
6 Y //// 5 5
7 R //// 8 5
8 Y //// /// 4 5
9 Y //// /// 4 5
10 R //// 6 5
11 Y //// /// 5 5
12 R //// / 5 5
13 R //// / 3 5
14 Y //// /// 4 5
15 R //// 4 5
16 Y //// /// 4 5
17 R //// /// 6 5
18 Y // 6 5
19 R //// //// / 7 5
 104

20 Y //// /// 6 5
21 R //// // 4 5
22 Y //// //// 3 5
23 Y //// //// / 5 5
24 R //// / 6 5
25 Y //// //// 4 5
26 Y //// /// 4 5
27 Y //// /// 4 5
28 R //// /// 5 5
29 R //// /// 2 5
30 R //// // 4 5
Note: VITI=variable inter trail interval, G=green, R=red

This table shows the color of light presented, pecks on light by the pigeon, VITI and the

time of reinforcement given to the pigeon over 30 trials. R represent red light and A is the

symbol of amber light. In the start of the experiment the pigeon’s pecks on the amber light was

more than the pecks on red light. But as the experiment progresses, the number of pecks on both

lights becomes almost equal. The pigeon was very active and respond quickly when light was

presented to him.

Table 2

Average of Pecks and VITI Of first Session of Generalization over 30 Trials (N=30)

Trials Yellow Light Red Light

Pecks VITI(sec) Pecks VITI(sec)
1-10 4.8 5 4.8 6.3
11-20 6 5 6 5
21-30 7.8 4 6.4 4.2

Graph 1
 105

Average of Pecks for yellow and Red Light on first Session of Generalization (N=30)

PECKS
9
8
7
6
5
PECKS

4
3
2
1
0
1 - 10 11 - 20 21 - 30
TRIALS

Amber Light Red Light

Graph 2

Average of VITI for Yellow and Red Light on first Session of Generalization (N=30)
 106

VITI
7

4
VITI

0
1 - 10 11 - 20 21 - 30
TRIALS

Amber Light Red Light

Table 3

Trials and Responses of Second session of Stimulus Generalization

No of Trials Stimulus Key No of Pecks on Light VITI Reinforcement

1 Y //// // 23 5
2 Y //// //// 4 5
3 R //// // 4 5
4 R //// //// /// 8 5
5 Y //// / 4 5
6 R //// / 5 5
7 R //// / 3 5
8 Y //// // 4 5
9 Y //// / 3 5
10 R //// // 5 5
11 Y //// /// 4 5
12 R //// //// /// 6 5
13 Y //// //// // 5 5
14 Y //// //// //// / 6 5
15 R //// //// 5 5
16 Y //// //// / 5 5
17 R //// //// / 6 5
18 Y //// /// 5 5
19 Y //// // 4 5
20 Y //// //// 4 5
 107

21 R //// //// 6 5
22 R //// //// 5 5
23 Y //// / 5 5
24 R //// //// / 7 5
25 R //// //// / 6 5
26 Y //// //// //// / 7 5
27 Y //// //// / 5 5
28 R //// //// 6 5
29 R //// // 6 5
30 R //// /// 7 5
This table shows the color of light presented, pecks on light by the pigeon, VITI and the

time of reinforcement given to the pigeon over 30 trials. R represent red light and A is the

symbol of amber light. In all trials, the number of pecks by the pigeon on both lights was almost

equal. The pigeon was very active and responded was quickly when light presented to him.

Table 4

Average of Pecks and VITI Of second Session of Generalization over 30 Trials (N=30)

Trials Yellow Light Red Light

Pecks VITI(sec) Pecks VITI(sec)
1-10 5 7.6 6.6 5
11-20 8.5 4.7 9.3 5.7
21-30 9 5.7 7.8 6.1

Graph 3

Average of Pecks for Yellow and red Light on second Session of Generalization (N=30)
 108

PECKS
10
9
8
7
6
PECKS

5
4
3
2
1
0
1 - 10 11 - 20 21 - 30
TRIALS

Amber light Red Light

Graph 4

Average of VITI in seconds for Yellow and red Light on second Session of Generalization

(N=30)

VITI
8

4
VITI

0
1 - 10 11 - 20 21 - 30
TRIALS

Amber Light Red Light

 109

Discussion

The experiment showed the significant results. Results suggested that the hypothesis was

proved that Stimulus S1 (Amber light) and S2 ( Red light) are equally rewarding to strengthen the

behavior. Pigeon learned to give response on both stimuli.

Conclusion

When two stimulus of similarity were used to reinforce, the pigeon generalized its

response.

Experiment no.6

Stimulus Discrimination Experiment

Problem statement

To ascertain the potential difference between stimulus S1 (Yellow light) and stimulus S2

(Red light) in strengthening the behavior.

Introduction

In classical conditioning, discrimination is the ability to differentiate between

a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned

stimulus. In operant conditioning, discrimination refers to responding only to the discriminative

stimulus and not to similar stimuli. In classical conditioning, for example, stimulus

generalization would involve being unable to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus and

other similar stimuli

 110

Stimulus discrimination is a tendency to respond differently in two similar (but not

identical) stimuli. Discrimination is the ability to differentiate two similar things or to learn to

respond a specific situation and not to other stimulus. In classical conditioning discrimination is

the process of learning to make one response to one stimulus and another response or no

response to another stimulus. This is also what discrimination means in operant conditioning. It

is developed in instrumental or operant conditioning when differences in reinforcement

accompany different stimuli (Morgan, King, Weisz & Schopler, 1986).

In a sense discrimination is the opposite of stimulus generalization. The method of

achieving discrimination is simply to reinforce responses to one particular stimulus and not the

others. For example a person or animal may learn to respond to a positive stimulus when

responses are reinforced and not to respond a negative stimulus when responses are not being

reinforced. In operant conditioning terminology the positive stimulus is also called S D and

negative stimulus is known as S∆ (Morgan, King, Weisz & Schopler, 1986). Stimulus

discrimination in instrumental or operant conditioning is also referred to as stimulus control of

behavior.

The differential responding on two stimuli also indicates that the pigeon were treating

each stimulus as different from the other. This is called stimulus discrimination. An organism is

said to exhibit stimulus discrimination if it responds differently on two or more stimuli. Stimulus

discrimination and stimulus control are the two ways of considering the same phenomenon. One

cannot have one without the other. If an organism does not discriminate between two stimuli, its

behavior is not under control of those cues (Domjan, 2010).

Although responses tend to occur to stimuli other than those to which they have been

conditioned, this tendency is less than that to stimuli other than those to which they have been
 111

conditioned. Thus opposite to stimulus generalization there is a process, called respondent

stimulus discrimination, which is defined as the tendency for a conditioned response not to occur

to a stimulus other than the stimulus to which it was conditioned. Respondent stimulus

discrimination can be enhanced by altering the conditioned stimulus with another stimulus, while

following the conditioned stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus but not following the other

stimulus with unconditioned stimulus. For example using a dog as the experimental subject, we

might alternatively follow the sound of a high pitched bell with meat and the sound of a low

pitched bell with nothing. The result would be that the dog would salivate copiously to the high

pitched bell and salivate very little or not at all to the low pitched bell. In this experiment, the

high pitched bell is called a positive conditioned stimulus and the low pitched bell is a negative

conditioned stimulus (Pear, 2001). Stimulus discrimination in daily life allows us to differentiate

between threatening and non-threatening stimuli. For example, through repeated non-eventful

encounters with certain breeds of dogs, we may learn to respond with fear to a large dog of an

unfamiliar breed but not to the friendly Labrador that lives next door (Nevid, 2009).

Hypothesis

Stimulus S1 (yellow light) and stimulus S2 (red light) are not potentially equivalent in

strengthening the behavior.

Method

Experimenters : Students of MSC lll

Subject : Male Pigeon

Apparatus :  Cage

 Food

 Skinner box

 Stop watch
 112

 Weight machine

 Paper and Pencil

Procedure

Experiment was performed in two sessions on two consecutive days. In session 1 before

the start of the experiment, functioning of chamber/Skinner box was properly checked. Magazine

was filled with food. It was made sure that no grain of food was on the base of Skinner box. All

the group members were assigned different responsibilities, for example to control the panel, to

record timing, to count number of pecks etc. After the pigeon was weighted, it was brought to the

experimental room and was kept in the Skinner box. The house light was already on. It was

decided that the red light will be non-rewarding stimulus and the yellow key light will be

rewarding stimulus and each light will be kept on for 5 seconds. Firstly the yellow light was

switched on for 5 seconds. As the pigeon pecked on the light, it was reinforced and numbers of

pecks were noted. After that, the red light was on for 5 seconds, when the pigeon pecked on the

red light, reinforcement (food) was not given. Both lights were randomly switched on according

to a schedule of red and yellow lights which was prepared earlier. In session 1 total 30 trials were

given. By keeping in view the weight of pigeon reinforcement was given for 10 seconds. After

60 trials pigeon was removed from Skinner box. Next day in session 2 same procedures was

repeated. Thus total 60 trials (30 trials in session 1 and 30 trials in session 2) were given.

Results

Table 1

Trials and Responses of 1st session of Stimulus Discrimination

No of Trials Stimulus Key No of Pecks on Light VITI Reinforcement

 113

1 Y //// 2 10 sec
2 G //// 4 -
3 G //// //// / 2 -
4 Y //// / 3 10 sec
5 Y //// 4 10 sec
6 G //// /// 2 -
7 Y //// //// 4 10 sec
8 G //// /// 2 -
9 Y //// / 4 10 sec
10 Y //// //// //// 6 10 sec
11 G //// // 6 -
12 Y //// /// 2 10 sec
13 G //// //// // 7 -
14 G //// /// 3 -
15 Y //// // 1 10 sec
16 Y //// // 3 10 sec
17 G //// //// 5 -
18 G //// //// / 4 -
19 Y //// //// // 5 10 sec
20 Y //// //// // 5 10 sec
21 G //// / 6 -
22 Y //// //// //// / 3 10 sec
23 G //// / 4 -
24 Y //// //// 3 10 sec
25 G //// / 5 -
26 Y //// /// 5 10 sec
27 G //// 3 -
28 Y //// /// 2 10 sec
29 G //// 4 -
30 G //// // 2 -
31 Y //// /// 4 10 sec
32 Y //// //// 4 10 sec
33 Y //// //// 3 10 sec

This table shows the color of light presented, pecks on light by the pigeon, VITI and the

time of reinforcement given to the pigeon over 60 trials. A represents amber light and G is the

symbol of green light. In the initial trials, when the green light was presented, the pigeon pecked

four times on the light but the food was not given. As the experiment progresses, number of

pecks on the amber light increased but the number of pecks on green light decreased and

eventually leads to 0 pecks on the green light. The pigeon responded quickly when light was
 114

presented to him. The minimum number of pecks on amber light was four and the maximum

number of pecks on amber light was twelve. The minimum number of pecks on green light was

zero and the maximum number of pecks on green light was ten. The maximum VITI was eight

and the minimum VITI was zero.

Table 2

Average of Pecks and VITI Of first Session of Discrimination over 60 Trials (N=30)

Trials Yellow Light Green Light

Pecks VITI(sec) Pecks VITI(sec)
1-10 6.3 3.6 6.8 2.5
11-20 7.8 3.2 8.0 5.2
21-30 8.7 3.3 4.8 4

Graph 1

Average of Pecks First Session of Discrimination on yellow and green Light (N=30)

PECKS
10
9
8
7
6
PECKS

5
4
3
2
1
0
1 -10 11 -20 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 51 -60
TRIALS

Amber Light Green Light

Graph 2
 115

Average of VITI in seconds of First Session of Discrimination on yellow and green Light

(N=30)

VITI
7

4
VITI

0
1 -10 11 - 20 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 51 - 60
TRIALS

Amber Light Green Light

Table 3

Trials and Responses of 2nd session of Stimulus Discrimination

No of Trials Stimulus Key No of Pecks on Light VITI Reinforcement

1 Y //// /// 3 10
2 G - 6 -
3 G // 3 -
4 Y //// /// 3 10
5 G - 5 -
6 Y //// / 2 10
7 G - 6 -
8 Y //// // 2 10
9 Y //// //// // 5 10
10 G - 4 -
11 Y //// //// // 2 10
12 G - 5 -
13 G - 4 -
14 Y //// //// / 3 10
 116

15 Y //// // 3 10
16 Y //// //// / 7 10
17 G - 3 -
18 Y //// / 2 10
19 G - 5 -
20 G - 3 -
21 Y //// //// /// 5 10
22 Y //// //// / 5 10
23 G - 5 -
24 G - 6 -
25 Y //// //// / 2 10
26 G - 7 -
27 Y //// // 3 10
28 Y //// //// / 4 10
29 G - 6 -
30 Y //// //// // 5 10
This table shows the color of light presented, pecks on light by the pigeon, VITI and the

time of reinforcement given to the pigeon over 60 trials. A represents amber light and G is the

symbol of green light. In the initial trials, when the green light was presented, the pigeon did not

pecked the light and the food was not given. The minimum number of pecks on amber light was

five and the maximum number of pecks on amber light was eleven. The minimum number of

pecks on green light was zero and the maximum number of pecks on green light was two. The

maximum VITI was seven and the minimum VITI was two.

Table 4

Average of Pecks and VITI Of second Session of Discrimination over 30 Trials (N=30)

Trials yellow Light Green Light

Pecks VITI(sec) Pecks VITI(sec)
1-10 7 3 0.4 0.6
11-20 7.8 3.4 0 0
21-30 9 4 0 0

Graph 3

Average of Pecks of Second Session of Discrimination on yellow and Green Light (N=30)
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PECKS
10
9
8
7
6
PECKS

5
4
3
2
1
0
1 - 10 11 - 20 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 51 - 60

TRIALS

Amber light Green light

Graph 4

Average of VITI in seconds of 2nd Session of Discrimination on yellow and Green Light

(N=30)

VITI
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
PECKS

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1 - 10 11 - 20 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 51 - 60
TRIALS

Amber light Green light

Discussion
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The experiment showed the significant results. Results suggested that the hypothesis was proved

that S1 (Amber light) and S2 (Green light) are not potential equally to strengthen the behavior.

Pigeon learned to give response on amber light but no response on green light.

References

Nevid, J. (2009).Essential of psychology: Concepts and Applications .Cengage learning.

Skinner, B. F. (1963). Operant Behavior. American Psychologist, 18, 503–515.

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Experiment no. 7

Stimulus Extinction

Problem Statement

To weaken the learned behavior through extinction

Introduction

Extinction is an important event of operant conditioning. This phenomenon highlights the

tendency of an individual to forget a learned behavior. Hence, this experiment was conducted to

investigate about the validity of this procedure.

Extinction

Extinction is the decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no

longer presented with the conditioned stimulus. When presented with the

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conditioned stimulus alone, the individual would show a weaker and weaker response, and

finally no response

Procedural variation in extinction

Extinction can be occurred through two procedures, which are following,

 The positive reinforce is no longer delivered after the behavior.

 The aversive stimulus is no longer removed after the behavior.

Factors affecting extinction process

Two important factors influencing the extinction process are

The reinforcement schedule before extinction

The reinforcement schedule partly determines whether extinction results in a rapid

decrease in the behavior or a more gradual decrease. When a behavior is continually reinforced,

it often decreases more gradually once the reinforcement is terminated. This occurs because the

change from reinforcement to extinction is more discriminable (there is a larger contrast) when a

behavior is reinforced every time, then when only some occurrences of the behavior result in

reinforcement.

The occurrence of reinforcement after extinction

A second factor that influences extinction is the occurrence of reinforcement after

extinction. If reinforcement occurs in the course of extinction, it takes longer for the behavior to

decrease. This is because reinforcement of the behavior, once extinction has been started,

amounts to intermittent reinforcement, which makes the behavior more resistant to extinction. In

addition, if the behavior is reinforced during an episode of spontaneous recovery, the behavior

may then increase to its level before extinction (Raymond, 2008).

Hypothesis
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The behavior which is not reinforced extinct gradually

Method

Subject Male Pigeon

Experimenters Students of MSC lll

Apparatus

Skinner box, food, stop-watch, paper, pencil, weighing instrument and cage

Procedure

Pigeon’s weight was noted down before starting the experiment. The pigeon was taken to

the laboratory for experiments. Its weight was approximately to the experimental weight.

Extinction of the learned behavior was done adequately. The Pigeon was fully prepared for the

experiment. The room was fully darkened and free from all distractions. An experiment was

performed in a group so all the experimenters were fully vigilant. Before the experiment, all

responsibilities were assigned to the group members. House light remained off during the

experiment while chamber light was kept on for five seconds after the interval of five seconds,

30 trails are completed with pigeon until pigeon stop pecking on the light. During all these trails

no food were provided to the pigeon. After making pigeon to learn, that pecking on the light is

no longer rewarding. Pigeon was removed from Skinner box and placed in the cage. After next

three days pigeon was provided with food in the cage to ensure the completion of process of

extinction, but his weight was measured before and after providing food to him.

Results

Table 1

Trials and Responses of session of Extinction

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No of Trials Stimulus Key No of Pecks VITI Reinforcement

1 Chamber light //// / 5 sec 0
2 Chamber light //// / 5 sec 0
3 Chamber light // 5 sec 0
4 Chamber light // 5 sec 0
5 Chamber light // 5 sec 0
6 Chamber light //// / 5 sec 0
7 Chamber light //// / 5 sec 0
8 Chamber light //// / 5 sec 0
9 Chamber light /// 5 sec 0
10 Chamber light //// // 5 sec 0
11 Chamber light //// // 5 sec 0
12 Chamber light // 5 sec 0
13 Chamber light /// 5 sec 0
14 Chamber light //// / 5 sec 0
15 Chamber light //// 5 sec 0
16 Chamber light //// / 5 sec 0
17 Chamber light //// 5 sec 0
18 Chamber light //// / 5 sec 0
19 Chamber light - 5 sec 0
20 Chamber light - 5 sec 0
21 Chamber light - 5 sec 0
22 Chamber light //// 5 sec 0
23 Chamber light - 5 sec 0
24 Chamber light //// / 5 sec 0
25 Chamber light //// / 5 sec 0
26 Chamber light //// // 5 sec 0
27 Chamber light //// 5 sec 0
28 Chamber light // 5 sec 0
29 Chamber light - 5 sec 0
30 Chamber light /// 5 sec 0
This table shows the color of light presented, pecks on light by the pigeon, VITI and the

time of reinforcement given to the pigeon over 40 trials. A represents amber light. In the initial

trials, when the amber light was presented, the pigeon number of pecks was more on the light but

the food was not given to him. As the experiment progresses, number of pecks on the amber light

decreased eventually leading to 0 pecks on the amber light. The pigeon was very active and

respond quickly when light presented to him. The minimum number of pecks was zero and the

maximum number of pecks was six. The maximum VITI was five and the minimum VITI was

zero.
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Table 2

Average of Trials and Responses of Extinction Session (N=30)

Trials Amber light

Pecks VITI(sec)
1-10 4 5
11-20 3.4 5
21-30 3.1 5
Graph 1

Average of Pecks of yellow Light in session of Extinction (N=30)

Pecks
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
PECKS

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1 - 10 11 - 20 21 - 30 31 - 40
Trials

Pecks

Graph 2

Average of VITI in seconds of yellow Light in session of Extinction (N=30)

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VITI
6

0
1 - 10 11 - 20 21 - 30 31 - 40

VITI

Discussion

Analysis of results showed that the hypothesis is accepted and the pigeon’s response

progressively decreased and at the end extinction occurred successfully. By performing this

experiment, it was confirmed that if the reinforcement is not given to the pigeon, he will stop

responding to stimulus (pecking behavior on the light). At start, he was responding appropriately

and at the end of experiment, extinction in responses occurred. There was discontinuity in his

responses but on last trials he learned that reinforcement will not be given now and he stopped

responding on key lights. Therefore, desired behavior, extinction, occurred.

References
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Hergenhahn, B. R., & Olson, M. H. (1993). An Introduction to Theories of Learning (4th

ed). USA:Prentics hall, inc.

Miltenberger, G. R. (2008). Behavior Modification: Principles and Procedures (5th ed.).

Retrieved http://books.google.com.pk/

Piecere, C. D. & Cheney, W. D. (2004). Behavior Analysis and Learning. Retrieved

http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=FPoAhhubTcIC&printsec=frontcover#v=o

epage&q&f=false

Experiment no. 8
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Spontaneous Recovery

Problem statement

To recover pigeon’s previous pecking behavior on light.

Introduction

Spontaneous recovery is a term first associated with Ivan Pavlov and a learning process

called classical conditioning. Pavlov conducted a series of experiments where the focus was

learning and training conditioned responses. From his experiments he found that spontaneous

recovery was the reappearance of a Conditioned Response (CR) that had been extinguished. In

other words, it no longer occurred. Specifically, Pavlov found that spontaneous recovery can

occur after a period of not being exposed to the Conditioned Stimulus (CS). This period is called

spontaneous because the response seems to reappear unexpectedly

Spontaneous recovery is a term associated with learning and conditioning. Specifically,

spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a response (a Conditioned Response; CR) that had

been extinguished. The recovery can occur after a period of non-exposure to the Conditioned

Stimulus (CS). It is called spontaneous because the response seems to reappear out of nowhere.

Operant conditioning can be described as a process that attempts to modify behavior

through the use of positive and negative reinforcement. Through operant conditioning, an

individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence. Behavior that

is followed by unpleasant consequences tends not to be repeated and thus not learned”. Positive

reinforces are favorable events or outcomes that are given to the individual after the desired

behavior. This may come in the form of praise, rewards, etc. Negative reinforces typically are

characterized by the removal of an undesired or unpleasant outcome after the desired behavior. A
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response is strengthened as something considered negative is removed. The goal in both of these

cases of reinforcement is for the behavior to increase.

The first type classical conditioning was developed by Pavlov. It is a type of learning in

which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that

naturally brings about that response (Nevid, 2009). The second type operant conditioning or

instrumental conditioning was developed around the same time as Pavlov's theory by Thorndike,

and later expanded upon by B. F. Skinner. It is the process of learning by which a response is

strengthened by means of manipulating the consequences of the response (Nevid, 2009).

Behavior shaping, stimulus generalization, stimulus discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous

recovery all are fundamental concepts of operant conditioning.

Once a conditioned response has been extinguished through extinction phenomenon, it

does not vanish forever.

Spontaneous recovery refers to the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest

period or period of lessened response. If the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are

no longer associated, extinction will occur very rapidly after a spontaneous recovery. (Cherry,

2016).

This phenomenon demonstrates that extinction is not the same thing as unlearning. While

the response might disappear, that does not mean that it has been forgotten or eliminated. After a

conditioned response has been extinguished, spontaneous recovery may gradually increase as

time passes. However, the returned response will generally not be the same strength as the

original response unless additional conditioned takes place. Numerous cycles of extinction

followed by recovery usually result in progressively weaker responses. Spontaneous recovery

may continue to take place, but the response will be less intense (Cherry, 2016).
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Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of an extinguished response after the passage

of time, without further training. Spontaneous recovery in operant conditioning is the

reemergence of conditioned responses which have previously undergone extinction training

(Skinner, 1979).

Hypothesis

It takes less time to learn the behavior second time.

Method

Subject : Male Pigeon

Experimenters : Students of MSC lll

Apparatus :  Cage

 Food

 Water

 Skinner box

 Stop watch

 Weight machine

 Paper and Pencil

Procedure

First of all, the chamber was ready for conducting the experiment. Duties and

responsibilities were assigned to all the group members for doing experiment, like who

will control the panel, will reinforce, will observe the behavior of the pigeon, stopwatch

control, and note down the all responses (Pecks). After weighing the pigeon, the pigeon
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was brought in the experimental laboratory for conducting the experiment. Pigeon was

placed in chamber for the experiment purpose.

Starting time of the experiment was noted. There were no fixed or variable

intervals. Whenever the pigeon pecked on the light, reinforcement was provided. Total 30

trials were taken for completing the experiment. Pecking responses were noted during

every trial. Time was noted by using stopwatch, which the pigeon took after taking

reinforcement for very next peck on the light. Behavioral observations were noted during

the whole experiment by one of the group member. During the very first trial, the pigeon

pecked at the light only in two seconds. The pigeon was reinforced whenever it pecked

on the light. All the 30 trials were taken in the same way and responses were noted.

After completing 30 trials, the pigeon was brought from the chamber box out

carefully and weighed again for seeing how much the pigeon had eaten. After weighing,

the pigeon was put into the cage. No food was provided in the cage.

Results

Table 1

Trials and Responses of session of Spontaneous Recovery

No of Trials No of Pecks on Light VITI Reinforcement

(sec)
1 //// / 5 -
2 //// 5 -
3 //// //// / 5 -
4 //// /// 5 -
5 //// //// 5 -
6 //// //// 5 -
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7 //// //// /// 5 -

8 //// //// 5 -
9 //// //// / 5 -
10 //// /// 5 -
11 //// 5 -
12 //// //// // 5 -
13 //// /// 5 -
14 //// / 5 -
15 //// //// / 5 -
16 //// //// / 5 -
17 //// //// / 5 -
18 //// 5 -
19 //// // 5 -
20 //// // 5 -
21 //// /// 5 -
22 //// /// 5 -
23 //// //// / 5 -
24 //// / 5 -
25 //// /// 5 -
26 //// 5 -
27 //// //// // 5 -
28 //// 5 -
29 //// //// 5 -
30 //// / 5 -

This table shows the number of pecks on light by the pigeon and the time of

reinforcement given to the pigeon over 30 trials. The pigeon was very active and responded

quickly when light was presented to him. The minimum number of pecks was four and the

maximum number of pecks was eleven.

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Table 2

Average of Pecks and VITI in seconds of First Session of Spontaneous Recovery over 30

Trials (N=30)

Trials Pecks VITI seconds

1 – 10 7.6 5
11 – 20 6.9 5
21 – 30 6.6 5

Graph 1

Average of Pecks in Session of Spontaneous Recovery (N=30)

Pecks
7.8
7.6
7.4
7.2
No of Pecks

7
Pecks
6.8
6.6
6.4
6.2
6
1 - 10 11 - 20 21 - 30
No of Trials

Graph 2

Average of VITI in seconds in Session of Spontaneous Recovery (N=30)

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VITI
0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2
VITI
VITI

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
10 20 30
No of Trials

Discussion

The results of the experiment showed that hypothesis is fully accepted. The pigeon’s

behavior of pecking on the light reappeared in the experiment. On the first trial, the pigeon move

around and then pecked on amber light. Reinforcement was immediately given and then pigeon

started pecking on the amber light (when presented) in the same way that she has learned. By

performing this experiment, it was proved that extinction does not erase what has previously

been learned (conditioned response

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References

Hergenhahn, B. R., & Olson, M. H. (1993). An introduction to theories of learning(4th ed). USA:

Prentics hall, inc.

Kosslyn, S. M. Rosenberg, R. S. (2006). Psychology in Context. Person education, inc.

Retrieved http://books.google.com.pk/

Rescorla, R. (2010). Spontaneous Recovery. Retrieved http://learnmem.cshlp.org/content/

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