Quality Control CH.
10
What is Quality Control?
A process that evaluates output relative to a standard and takes
corrective action when output doesn’t meet standards
If results are acceptable no further action is required
Unacceptable results call for correction action
Phases of Quality Assurance
Inspection
Inspection issues:
1. How much to inspect and how often
2. At what points in the process to inspect
3. Whether to inspect in a centralized or on-site location
4. Whether to inspect attributes or variables
Where to Inspect in the Process
Typical Inspection Points:
Raw materials and purchased parts
Finished products
Before a costly operation
Before an irreversible process
Before a covering process
Centralized vs. On-Site Inspection
Effects on cost and level of disruption are a major issue in selecting
centralized vs. on-site inspection
Centralized
Specialized tests that may best be completed in a lab
More specialized testing equipment
More favorable testing environment
On-Site
Quicker decisions are rendered
Avoid introduction of extraneous factors
Quality at the source
Statistical Process Control (SPC)
Quality control seeks
Quality of Conformance
A product or service conforms to specifications
A tool used to help in this process:
SPC
Statistical evaluation of the output of a process
Helps us to decide if a process is “in control” or if
corrective action is needed
Process Variability
Two basic questions: concerning variability:
1. Issue of Process Control
Are the variations random? If nonrandom variation is
present, the process is said to be unstable.
2. Issue of Process Capability
Given a stable process, is the inherent variability of the
process within a range that conforms to performance
criteria?
Variation
Variation
Random (common cause) variation:
Natural variation in the output of a process, created by
countless minor factors
Assignable (special cause) variation:
A variation whose cause can be identified.
A nonrandom variation
Sampling and Sampling Distribution
SPC involves periodically taking samples of process output and
computing sample statistics:
Sample means
The number of occurrences of some outcome
Sample statistics are used to judge the randomness of process
variation
Sampling Distribution
A theoretical distribution that
describes the random variability of
sample statistics
The normal distribution is commonly
used for this purpose
Central Limit Theorem
The distribution of sample averages
tends to be normal regardless of the
shape of the process distribution
Control Process
Sampling and corrective action are only a
part of the control process
Steps required for effective control:
Define: What is to be controlled?
Measure: How will measurement be
accomplished?
Compare: There must be a standard of
comparison
Evaluate: Establish a definition of out of control
Correct: Uncover the cause of nonrandom variability and fix it
Monitor: Verify that the problem has been eliminated
Control Charts:
The Voice of the Process
Control Chart
A time ordered plot of representative
sample statistics obtained from an
ongoing process (e.g. sample means), used to distinguish
between random and nonrandom variability
Control limits
The dividing lines between random and nonrandom
deviations from the mean of the distribution
Upper and lower control limits define the range of
acceptable variation
Errors
Type I error
Concluding a process is not in control when it actually is.
The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when the
null hypothesis is true.
Manufacturer’s Risk
Type II error
Concluding a process is in control when it is not.
The probability of failing to reject the null hypothesis
when the null hypothesis is false.
Consumer’s Risk
Control Charts for Variables
Variables generate data that are measured
Mean control charts
Used to monitor the central tendency of a process.
“x- bar” charts
Range control charts
Used to monitor the process dispersion
R charts
Establishing Control Limits
k
å xi k
x = i =1 å Ri
k R = i =1
w h e re k
x = A v e ra g e o f s a m p le m e a n s
w h e re
x i = m ea n o f s am p le i R = A v e ra g e o f sa m p le ra n g e s
k = n u m b er o f s am p les R i = R an g e o f sa m p le i
Factors for 3-s control limits for x, and R charts
X-Bar Chart: Control Limits
Used to monitor the central tendency of a process
x - c h a r t C o n t r o l L im it s
U C L x
= x + A 2 R
L C L x
= x - A 2 R
w h e re
A 2 = a c o n t r o l c h a r t f a c t o r b a s e d o n s a m p le s iz e , n
Range Chart: Control Limits
Used to monitor process dispersion
R C h a r t C o n t r o l L im it s
U C L R = D 4 R
L C L R = D 3 R
w h e re
D 3 = a c o n t r o l c h a r t f a c t o r b a s e d o n s a m p le s iz e , n
D 4 = a c o n t r o l c h a r t f a c t o r b a s e d o n s a m p le s iz e , n
Using Mean and Range Charts
To determine initial control limits:
Obtain 20 to 25 samples
Compute appropriate sample statistics
Establish preliminary control limits
Determine if any points fall outside of the control limits
If you find no out-of-control signals, assume the process is
in control
If you find an out-of-control signal, search for and correct
the assignable cause of variation
Resume the process and collect another set of observations on
which to base control limits
Plot the data on the control chart and check for out-of-control
signals
Control Charts for Attributes
Attributes generate data that are counted.
p-Chart
Control chart used to monitor the proportion of defectives
in a process
c-Chart
Control chart used to monitor the number of defects per
unit
Use a p-chart:
When observations can be placed into two categories.
Good or bad
Pass or fail
Operate or don’t operate
When the data consists of multiple samples of several observations
each
p-chart Control Limits
T o t a l n u m b e r o f d e f e c t i v e s
p =
T o t a l n u m b e r o f o b s e r v a t i o n s
p (1 - p )
U C L p = p + z ( )
n
p (1 - p )
L C L p = p - z ( )
n
Use a c-chart:
Use only when the number of occurrences per unit of measure can be
counted; non-occurrences cannot be counted.
Scratches, chips, dents, or errors per item
Cracks or faults per unit of distance
Breaks or Tears per unit of area
Bacteria or pollutants per unit of volume
Calls, complaints, failures per unit of time
U C L c = c + z c
L C L c = c - z c
Managerial Considerations
At what points in the process to use control charts
What size samples to take
What type of control chart to use
Variables
Attributes
Process Capability
Once a process has been determined to be stable, it is necessary to
determine if the process is capable of producing output that is within
an acceptable range
Tolerances or specifications
Range of acceptable values established by engineering
design or customer requirements
Process variability
Natural or inherent variability in a process
Process capability
The inherent variability of process output (process width)
relative to the variation allowed by the design
specification (specification width)
Cp : Process Capability Ratio
U TL - LTL
C p =
6
w h e re
U T L = u p p e r t o l e r a n c e ( s p e c i f i c a t io n ) l im i t
L T L = l o w e r t o l e r a n c e ( s p e c i f i c a ti o n ) l im i t
• For a process to be deemed to be capable, it must
have a capability ratio of at least 1.33.
(30 parts/million are not within specifications)
• 6s has a process capability ratio of 2.
(3 parts/million are not within specifications)
Cpk : Process Capability Index
Used when a process is not centered at its target, or nominal, value
C pk = m i n {C pu ,C pl }
ìU T L - x x - L T L ü
= m in í , ý
î 3 3 þ
Improving Process Capability
Simplify
Standardize
Mistake-proof
Upgrade equipment
Automate
Operations Strategy
Quality is a primary consideration for nearly all customers
Achieving and maintaining quality standards is of strategic
importance to all business organizations
Product and service design
Increase capability in order to move from extensive use of
control charts and inspection to achieve desired quality
outcomes
