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ENGLESKI JEZIK I

ELEKTROTEHNIKA

2016/17
Ksenija Mance

The Faculty of Engineering in Rijeka

The University of Rijeka
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Some useful phrases for your discussion

LECTURE 1 7
Placement Test; Listening Comprehension
Where Does English Come from?
LECTURE 2 8
American English vs. British English

LECTURE 3 Engineering Ethics

Writing an Abstrac 32

LECTURE 4 BASICS of Electrical engineering 78

Electron theory 98
LCTURE 5 Conductivity
Atoms and Interactions

Isolators, conductors and Semiconductors 102

LECTURE 6 Film Discussion
Plural of Nouns

Magnetic Materials and Electromagnetism

GRAMMAR REVISION
CONTINUOUS AND PERFECT ASPECTS
LECTURE 7 120
GRAMMAR REVISION
PASSIVE ASPECTS
LECTURE 8 154
PRELIM 1 - GRAMMAR EXAM
LECTURE 9 166

LECTURE 10 Hydroelectric and solar power generation 170

Energy Conversion - Thermodynamics

LECTURE 11 Capacity, Lenz’s Law 206

LECTURE 12 Bioengineering 214

LECTURE 13 VICIOUS CIRCLE - WRITING AN ESSAY 222

PRELIM 2 - TERMINOLOGY EXAM

LECTURE 14 Ohm’s Law 234
Alternating Current
LECTURE 15 240
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INTRODUCTION
„My class you will learn to think for yourself again. You will learn to savor
words and language. No matter what anybody tells you, words and ideas
can change the world.“
Robin Williams as English Teacher John Keating
DEAD POETS SOCIETY, 1989

Each unit of these texts is an interdisciplinary look at a topic which provides a

focus for debate. My aim is to provide a good, intellectually challenging language
education. All areas including engineering, engineering ethics, technology,
language arts, social studies, mathematics, science and business English are
covered.

I suggest techniques involving all students as active participants in selecting

topics and materials.

“Cooperative learning, put quite simply, is a type of instruction wherby students

work together in small groups to achieve a common goal. Cooperative learning
has become increasingly popular as a feature of Communicative language
teaching (CLT) with benefits that include increased student interest due to the
quick pace of cooperative tasks, improved critical thinking ability, and the
opportunity to practice both the productive and receptive skills in a natural
context. The array of benefits extend beyond increased language learning to
include increased self-esteem and tolerance of diverse points of view.” (Johson
and Johnson 1989; Kagan 1995; McCafferty, jacobs, and iddings 2006; Slavin
1995).

Johnson and Johnson (1999) indicate “five features of a successful cooperative

learning activity:

1 students learn that their success depend upon working together

interdependently
2 students are individually accountable while achieving group goals
3 students support and assist one another’s success through face-to-face
interactions
4 students develop social skills by cooperating and working together effectively
5 students as a group have the opportunity to reflect on the effectiveness of
working together”.

“When these principles are realized, cooperative learning creates a rich

environment for students to learn language and simultaneously develop their
capacities for collaborative twnty-first-century communication and problem
solving.”
English Teaching Forum, Volume 47, Number 4, 2009

I also suggest techniques as elicitation – the process of drawing out something, of

provoking a response. Using elicitation as a questioning strategy in the language
classroom focuses discussion on the learners – on their ideas, opinions,
imagination, and involment.
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Classroom discussions that use elicitation as a technique allow students to draw

on what they know – on existing schemata/scaffolding – and provide for a rich
sharing of ideas within sociocultural context (Huong 2003).

Classroom discussions can so build on the experiences and language of learners

by inviting them to discuss their experiences. I would also like to use students as
resources by letting them share their knowledge and expertise with others in the
class emphasizing their experience and knowledge and taking the focus off of the
text as the source of authority. Therefore, elicitation helps learners become more
self-reliant. The student could help by sharing their ideas, interests, and aims and
by being engaged members in collaborative learning.
Through the strategies of elicitation, gapping extension or adaption, students
interact more, construct solutions together and with this e-mail book have the
tools to participate in and contribute to their education.

My students will also be systematically „taught” English grammar and creative

writing.

Therefore, my curriculum was developed to provide students of all the necessary

support in the form of the group work, i.e. roundtable discussion, which could
give them opportunities to speak in front of a small audience with confidence,
enlarge their vocabulary and give them chances to learn from classmates - their
colleagues. Any 'general statement' whether such a statement is made on human
behaviour, art, science or history must be questioned.

Man's knowledge of his world could be built up by analytical observation and

pieced together rather like a jigsaw puzzle. Our history has taught us that
objective observation is impossible because of the various strata of human and
individual consciousness. Therefore, involving the science, technology and social
studies, we not only lighten the curriculum and ideas but also allow students to
see natural ties across curriculum and across cultures.

I would also like to stress the genius of students by having students engage in this
curriculum, dialogue with each other, sharing their attitudes and experiences with
each other. We emphasize communication, scientific outlook, and deep insight
into various phenomena by reassessing the common views and outlooks.

Various units that are presented emphasize more student-centred approach that
may fit their interests. Students shouldn’t be afraid of holistic approach, an
approach from various standpoints and an approach including activities such as
listening, watching movies, reading, writing and discussing. So, they should not
be afraid of reassassing. Therefore, I offer you various texts, texts with various
registers, styles and standpoints.

In the end, you might also share with me how you go implementing your English.

I wish you all a happy, healthy and prosperous new academic year full of exciting
opportunities, high motivation, goodwill, good feelings, good intentions and good
communication

Your teacher of English

Senior lecturer Ksenija Mance
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SOME USEFUL PHRASES FOR YOUR DISCUSSION

Making a point/Stating an argument

What’s your opinion / point of view …. ?

How do you feel about ….?
What do you think of ….?
In my opinion . . ..
From my point of view ….
I reckon ….
Personally, I think/ feel . . .
I believe (that). . .
The point is this: ...
If you ask me. I think. . .
I'd like to say this: .. .
As far as I'm concerned, ...
But speaking of it, could you tell me ….
It seems to me that …..
As I see it, ….

Clarifying

What I said/meant was: .. .

I did not say. . . . What I did say was. . .
I think you (must have) misunderstood me/what I said.
Let me repeat/rephrase what I said.
I'm not saying that. What I am saying is (that)...
Yes, but don't forget I was only referring to.. .

Disagreeing with an argument

(I'm afraid) I disagree.

On the other hand, of course, ...
That's not (entirely) true, . ..
I can't possibly agree with/accept that.
I hate to disagree with you, but. . .
Yes/All right, but don't you think.. .

Asking for an opinion

Well? What do you think?

Do/Don't you agree?
What's your view (then)?
How do you see it (then)?
Let's have your opinion.
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Challenging an argument

That can't be (true/right).

But what about. . . ?
What's your answer to that?
Do you mean to tell me that. . . ?
Are you seriously suggesting that. .. ?
If you don't. . ., then you should say what you mean.

Agreeing with an argument

Quite. Exactly. That's (very) true.

So (do) I. Neither/Nor (do) I.
I entirely agree. I agree with you entirely.
You're absolutely right.
That's a good point.
I couldn't agree with you more.
That's just what I think.
How interesting.

Interrupting an argument

Excuse me, did you say/do you mean (that). . .

Before you make your next point. ..
So what you're saying is (that)...
Qome to the point! What you really think k (that)...
Does this make sense to you?
Hoping to hear from you again before long.
I must go home immediately, give my apologies to Mister XY
That’s it. It was on the tip of my tongue.
I can’t help thinking …
I don’t doubt that

You have Some Difficulties in Understanding

What Your British or American Friends Say

Did you understand what I said?

No, I’m sorry but I didn’t quite catch what you said.
I beg your pardon?
No, I’m afraid I didn’t understand.
No, I’m sorry, but I missed what you said.
Would you say it again, please?

Summarizing a discussion
Then we agree.
(Basically), we're in agreement.
(I think) we'd better agree to differ.
Can you admit that you are wrong?
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LECTURE 1

Section 1
An Introductory Lecture to the Course as a Whole

Section 2
Placement Tests
Listening Comprehension Test -
A talk about human brain
Assignment- brain dominance test on-line

Section 3
Where does English come from?
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LECTURE 2

Section 1
Where Does English Come From?

Section 2
The American Language
American English versus British English
Additional Texts - PRESENTATIONS

Section 3
Articles (Grammar File I)
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The English language has come a long way since it first

took shape in the island of Britain, sometime in the 5th
century AD. It took another 700 years of evolution
before it sounded anything like the English we
recognise today. And when Shakespeare was writing,
in what is often thought of as the golden age of the
language, only about four million people spoke it.
Now in the early 21st-century, English has become the
pre-eminent global language. Nearly a quarter of the
world’s population is estimated to have some
knowledge of English and 400 million people speak it
as their mother tongue.
If beings from outer space landed on Earth tomorrow
they would most likely assume that the human
language was English.
What is the future of the language?
Will it be more important than ever or could it be
supplanted as the global lingua franca by another
language – German, Spanish or Chinese perhaps or
even by the artificial language Esperanto?
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Read and write notes!

Where does English come from?

English is not the language that has always been spoken in the British Isles, nor indeed is it the
only language that is spoken there today. English was originally a foreign language, imported
by foreign invaders. These invaders were two Germanic tribes living in what is now Northern
Germany, along the North Sea coast. They were called the Angles and the Saxons, and they
spoke different dialects of the same language. It is from these dialects that the modern English
has descended.

Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, as historians of the language prefer to call it, remained the
language of English from about A.D. 450 to about A.D. 1150. The reason why it is not still the
language of England is that there were two more foreign invasions of the Island by people
speaking different tongues - first the Northman or Vikings from Denmark, and then the
Normans from Normandy in France.

The result of these further invasions, particularly the second by the French-speaking Normans
in A.D. 1066, was to modify Old English very considerably, and turn it, in the course of the
next three centuries, into a compound language which is known as Middle English. Middle
English is recognizably the ancestor of the English spoken, today (which Old English is not,
and it was the common language of the inhabitants of England from about A.D. 1150 to about
A.D. 1500.

As there were no more foreign conquests of the Island the language was from then on able to
develop under its own impetus. There were no more radical changes and so the Middle English
merged imperceptibly into the Early English of Shakespeare's age and then into the language
spoken now.

Anglo-Saxon is now, of course, a dead language, but a good deal of its vocabulary has
survived, in one form or another, to the present day. Most of the very common words in
modern English are Anglo-Saxon in origin: nouns like father, mother, food, drink, bed, hunger
most of the propositions and conjunctions, and nearly all of the strong verbs. When it was
mixed with Norman French there were three main results: the grammar was simplified, the
pronunciation and spelling became -and still are- much more complicated, and the vocabulary
was enormously extended. French is a Latin language so the major part of the English
vocabulary is now Latin in origin. That is also one reason why there are so many synonyms. In
pairs of words like "wed" and "marry", “fat” and "corpulent", and "lively" and "vivacious", the
first word is derived from Anglo-Saxon, the second, from Latin.

A language never stands still. It is always changing and developing. These changes are rapid in
primitive societies, but slow in advanced ones, because the invention of printing and the spread
of education have fixed traditional usage.

D.H. Spencer and A.S. Hornby

Assignment 1: Note taking

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Assignment 2: Cover up this passage, write down what you hear

and check your dictation.

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Assignment 3: Vocabulary practice

Find words or phrases in the text which mean the same as the following:
a) from/in the beginning
b) have as ancestors, pass by inheritance, come from earlier times
c) during
d) language, one's mother language
e) much; a great deal
f) made up of two or more combined parts
g) forerunner
h) defeat or overcome enemies (vb.)
i) conquering a country (n.)
j) enlarge
k) since then
l) impulse
m) slightly, gradually and not perceivable
n) greater or more important part
o) words that that join other words, clauses, e.g. and, but, or.

Assignment 4: Explain the functions or aspects of the underlined verbs.

English is not the language that has always been spoken in the British Isles, nor indeed is it the
only language that is spoken there today. English was originally a foreign language, imported
by foreign invaders. These invaders were two Germanic tribes living in what is now Northern
Germany, along the North Sea coast. They were called the Angles and the Saxons, and they
spoke different dialects of the same language. It is from these dialects that the modern English
has descended.
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Assignment 5: Put the articles where necessary.

........ English is not ....... language that has always been spoken in ......... British Isles, nor
indeed is it ...... only language that is spoken there today. ....... English was originally .......
foreign language, imported by ....... foreign invaders. These invaders were ....... two Germanic
tribes living in what is now ....... Northern Germany, along ....... North Sea coast. They were
called ....... Angles and........ Saxons, and they spoke different dialects of ....... same language.
It is from these dialects that ....... modern English has descended.

....... Anglo-Saxon, or ........ Old English, as ....... historians of ....... language prefer to call it,
remained ....... language of ....... English from about A.D. 450 to about A.D. 1150. The reason
why it is not still ....... language of ....... England is that there were two more foreign invasions
of ....... Island by people speaking ....... different tongues - first ....... Northman or ....... Vikings
from Denmark, and then ....... Normans from ....... Normandy in France.

The result of these further invasions, particularly ....... second by ....... French-speaking
Normans in A.D. 1066, was to modify ....... Old English very considerably, and turn it, in the
course of ....... next three centuries, into ....... compound language which is known as .......
Middle English. Middle English is recognizably ........ ancestor of ....... English spoken, today
(which Old English is not, and it was ....... common language of ....... inhabitants of England
from about A.D. 1150 to about A.D. 1500.

As there were no more foreign conquests of ....... Island ........ language was from then on able
to develop under its own impetus. There were no more radical changes and so ....... Middle
English merged imperceptibly into ........ Early English of Shakespeare's age and then into .......
language spoken now.

Anglo-Saxon is now, of course, ....... dead language, but ....... good deal of its vocabulary has
survived, in one form or another, to ....... present day. Most of ....... very common words in
........ modern English are Anglo-Saxon in origin: nouns like father, mother, food, drink, bed,
hunger most of ....... propositions and conjunctions, and nearly all of ....... strong verbs. When
it was mixed with ....... Norman French there were ....... three main results: ....... grammar was
simplified, ....... pronunciation and ....... spelling became -and still are- much more
complicated, and ....... vocabulary was enormously extended. ........ French is ....... Latin
language so ....... major part of ....... English vocabulary is now ....... Latin in origin. That is
also one reason why there are so many synonyms. In pairs of ....... words like "wed" and
"marry", “fat” and "corpulent", and "lively" and "vivacious", ........ first word is derived from
Anglo-Saxon, ....... second, from Latin.

........ language never stands still. It is always changing and developing. These changes are
rapid in ....... primitive societies, but slow in ....... advanced ones, because ....... invention of
....... printing and ....... spread of ........ education have fixed ......... traditional usage.

Assignment 6 :
What about the use of the article with the names of countries and languages?

Repeat plural of nouns.

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Informative Text
Assignment 1.
Listen to the tape and jot down the subtitles for the passages
in question forms.

Where does English come from?

Up to now nobody has been able to count all the languages spoken in the world today. But there must
be about 3,000, two of which are far more common than any of the others: Northern Chinese, which is
spoken by almost six hundred million people, and English, which is spoken by three hundred and
sixty million people in Europe, India, Africa, America, Australia and New Zealand; 1,000 among
American Indians, 750 in Sub-Sahara, 150 in India, 750 just on one island: New Guinea. Though
international conferences are often conducted simultaneously in three or four languages, more often
than not scientists and politicians from Russia, Japan, Germany, India, France and some remote
African state will speak English together.

…………………………………………………………………………………............
However, English is not the language that has always been spoken in the British Isles, nor
indeed is it the only language that is spoken there today. So, where have all the English
words come from? Only very few have survived from the time when Britain was inhabited
by the Ancient-Britons, a Celtic tribe. They were masters of the island from the 6th century
B.C. up to 55 B.C. when the island was invaded by the Romans, who ruled the country for
several centuries. During that time Britain, was a province of the Empire, but very few Latin
words from that period have remained: castra (a camp) appears in Lancaster, Leicester,
Gloucester and Worcester; strata (a paved way) in Stratford, etc. By the fifth century the
Roman Empire was falling to pieces, and the occupying forces had left the country.

…………………………………………………………………………………...........
English as a separate identifiable language is over 1,200 years old. As it was originally a
foreign laguage, imported by foreign invaders, English, like German, belongs to a group of
related languages which may ultimately be said to have descended from Common Germanic
(or proto-Germanic) as a distinct branch of the Indo-European group of languages. Ethnic
and linguistic differentiation within the Germanic language community sooner or later put an
end to the original unity.

…………………………………………………………………………………...........
So, it all began with the biggest invasion of all, the invasion of the island of Britain by three
Germanic tribes from northern Europe — the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, in the year
499 A.D. — Anno Domini. Although the Island had been inhabited since pre-historic times
— indeed Stonehenge was built by ancient Britons some 3,500 years ago — the beginning of
English dates from this invasion, when the pagan adventurers from Denmark and the
lowlands of the Continent, what is now Northern Germany, along the North Sea coast, drove
the native Celts and Romans out of what is now England, into the mountains and protective
regions of Wales, and Scotland where the Celtic languages have survived, as in Brittany
(France). The languages that these invaders spoke were three forms of Germanic; they spoke
different dialects of the same language which had many words in common. It is from these
dialects that the modern English has descended.
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………………………………………………………………………………………
From the tribe of Angles comes the name Englalond, Land of the Angles, and the name of
the language — but it was primarily the dialect of the West Saxons which became the
standard speech, and developed into Old English. The first written records in English date
from 700 A.D. and about this time Britain was invaded yet again by Scandinavian
adventurers — the Vikings.

………………………………………………………………………………………...
Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, as historians of the language prefer to call it, remained the
language of English from about A.D. 450 to about A.D. 1150.
The Germanic tribes took over very little from the Celtic or Latin apart from a few place
names. Different though it is from "Old English", modern English contains many words
from it. Indeed, most of the vital every day words are of Germanic origin:

and, bright, come, find, good, hand, in, Tuesday, through, two, under, was, we,
well, when,

all of which remind us of German words which we, too, use every day.
The reason why it is not still the language of England is that there were two more foreign
invasions of the Island by people speaking different tongues - first the Northman or Vikings
from Denmark, and then the Normans from Normandy in France.

………………………………………………………………………………………
Toward the end of the eighth century the Danish Vikings started invading the coast of
England and settled among the natives. This was quite natural since the languages spoken
by the Danes were not unlike the language spoken by the Angles and Saxons, all these
languages being of Germanic origin. However, a very large number of new words were
added:

call, fellow, get, hit, knife, leg, skin, sky, Thursday, happy, wrong, egg, bank.
After some 200 years of fighting with the Anglo-Saxons, the Vikings came to an agreement
with the Saxon King, Alfred the Great, to divide the island — the Saxons in the west — the
Scandinavians, who were Norse speaking, in the east. England was therefore bi-lingual until
the two groups, through intermarriage, became one people. The linguistic blend of Saxon
and Norse was also a marriage. In the verb to be, for example, the third person singular he is
is pure Saxon, but the plural, they are pure Norse. The word wife is Saxon, but the word
husband came from the Norse — arm from the Saxon, but leg from the Norse. Duru was
the Saxon word for door, but vindu was the Norse word which gave us window — so from
this marriage, we have one language which we call Old English. It was a very complicated
language compared to modern English: it was highly inflected — that is, had many different
endings for all words as in Latin or modern German and Russian. It also gave grammatical
gender to nouns — masculine, feminine and neuter — like modern German — and not only
did it have singular and plural, but a third form called the dual form to indicate precisely two
— no more and no less. For example, in addition to the pronouns I and we in the first
person, Old English had wit which means the two of us... both of us... you-and me but not
them.
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Many words in Old English are still close enough to modern English for us to understand
them. See if you can guess what these Old English words mean:

Thencan cild wifmann muth nosu god niht

Perhaps you could hear that thencan is the verb to think, cild in modern English is child,
wifmann became woman, muth — mouth, nosu — nose, god niht — good night.

But most of Old English is unintelligible today without studying it as a separate language.
Anglo-Saxon is now, of course, a dead language, but a good deal of its vocabulary has
survived, in one form or another, to the present day. Most of the very common words in
modern English are Anglo-Saxon in origin: nouns like father, mother, food, drink, bed,
hunger most of the propositions and conjunctions, and nearly all of the strong verbs.

………………………………………………………………………………………

The next invasion of Britain — and incidentally the last foreign invasion of the island in
English history — was in the year 1066. This invasion was far-reaching in many ways: the
invading forces were again Scandinavians, but with a difference — these Norsemen called
Normans — came from the north coast of France and were French speaking. Their leader
William of Normandy, known as the Conqueror, conquered the Anglo-Saxons and had a
claim on the throne of England. As his forces were victorious, William established himself
as king and set about building London's two greatest tourist attractions: The Tower of
London and. Westminster Abbey. Norman French became the language of the court, the
aristocracy of England, and the country once again became bi-lingual. We often say
“history repeats itself” and this is just what happened to the language: in the course of 300
years, Old English absorbed Norman French and emerged as one language, much as had
happened with Saxon and Norse before. Linguistically, the Norman Conquest meant the
domination in England of a non-Germanic language, which over a period of almost three
and a half centuries was to play a significant (although progressively decreasing) role as a
means of communication among certain sections of the population. Unlike the Germanic
Conquest of the larger part of Britain in the fifth and following centuries and the later
Scandinavian invasions, the establishment of Norman rule in England did not lead to large-
scale immigration and mass settlements of compatriots of the conquerors.

……………………………………………………………………………………….
As a consequence of the Norman Conquest, political and economic power became
concentrated in the hands of a small group of great feudal landlords, which included the
king himself, the clergy and the vassals of the king (feudal aristocracy).
The Normans were descendants of the "Norsemen" who had come from Scandinavia and
settled in the north of France. They had adopted French as their language. William set up a
kingdom on the island, and for three hundred years all the kings and the nobility spoke
Norman-French. Thus two languages were spoken from 1066 till early in the fourteenth
century. The result of this invasion was to modify Old English very considerably, and turn
it, in the course of the next three centuries, gradually into a compound language which is
known as Middle English.

………………………………………………………………………………………
 16

Middle English is recognizably the ancestor of the English spoken today (which Old
English is not), and it was the common language of the inhabitants of England from about
A.D. 1150 to about A.D. 1500.
When Anglo-Saxon was mixed with Norman French there were three main results: the
grammar was simplified, the pronunciation and spelling became - and still are - much more
complicated, and the vocabulary was enormously extended. French is a Latin language so
the major part of the English vocabulary is now Latin in origin. That is also one reason
why there are so many synonyms. In pairs of words like:

wed - marry, fat – corpulent, lively – vivacious, child – infant, freedom –

liberty, love – charity, a hearty welcome – a cordial reception, the first word is
derived from Anglo-Saxon, the second, from Latin.

Norman French enriched the language and gave English its unique blend of Germanic
and Latinate structures and vocabulary. This is why today we can say the world's
population or the population of the world and why only English has different words
to distinguish the names of animals from their flesh which we eat: from the cow, we get
beef; from the calf we get veal; from the sheep, mutton; from the pig, pork; and from the
deer, venison. The names of the animals are Saxon, and the words for the meat are from
French. This is not only interesting as a point of language, but as a point of sociology,
because it reflects that the animals were raised by farmers who spoke Old English, but
eaten by the aristocrats who spoke French.

……………………………………………………………………………………
Because England was bi-lingual, many phrases appeared in the language which
contained one word of Saxon origin coupled with a word of the same meaning, coming
from French — such as law and order. This way everybody knew the meaning, whether
they only understood the Old English word law or they only understood the French ordre
— order. Many of these set phrases dating from the Middle Ages are just as common
today in modern English. How many politicians in Britain and in the U.S.A. call for
more law and order at election time! In the U.S. Senate, as in the British Parliament,
there is a ways and means committee to find the methods of achieving a goal. The word
ways from the Saxon — the word means from the French — the phrase ways and means
still common after some seven or eight hundred years in the language. This merger of
Saxon and Norman French we call Middle English. Bilingualism obviously remained a
more or less widespread phenomenon in the ranks of the lesser nobility throughout most
of the thirteen century and could even be found in the fourteenth century. But on the
whole, the importance of French in England was declining rapidly in the course of the
fourteenth century (especially the latter half) until it approached the status of an
“ordinary” foreign language in the early fifteenth century, which is about three hundred
and fifty years after the Battle of Hastings.

……………………………………………………………………………………
The first great English poet, Geoffrey Chaucer, wrote in Middle English in the 14th
century — about the same time as Dante Alighieri and Boccaccio. His best known work,
The Canterbury Tales was written in 1386 and its vocabulary reflects the blend of the
two language sources. In the following century, the printing press arrived in England and
libraries were founded at Oxford, Cambridge and in London.
The first printer, William Caxton, began to stabilize the written language and its spelling,
when he set up his printing press in the precinct of Westminster Abbey. Even by the 15th
century, Old English seemed a foreign language to him. The language was changing
even in his lifetime, which is what he wrote in 1490. As there were no more foreign
conquests of the Island the language was from then on able to develop under its own
impetus.
 17

There were no more radical changes and so the Middle English merged imperceptibly
into the Early English of Shakespeare's age and then into the language
spoken now.

……………………………………………………………………………………
The English language was destined to become still richer — and more hybrid. The
Renaissance in 1500 brought about the rediscovery of the classics, and English was
greatly enriched by a profusion of words directly taken from Latin and ancient Greek.
Words of Greek and Latin origin were adopted in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, it has
been said that the greater part of the classical dictionaries was poured into the English
language at this time and even today when a new word is needed to name a new thing,
Latin or Greek words, or syllables may be used: cinema, telephone, bicycle, television
(which is a mixture of Greek tele = from a far and Latin visus = vision), – from Latin,
words like accommodate, capable, persecute, investigate – and from Greek, words like
apology, climax, physical, emphasis and so on.

The flood of words from Latin and Greek did not end with the Renaissance and whenever
we have needed a new word or name, we have tended to look to the classics to provide it –
from Greek: aerodrome, telegraph and telephone; from Latin: escalator, penicillin and
the prefix mini – for cars and skirts, for example.
There are words of Italian origin (concerto, pavement, and potato), Dutch origin
(dock, yacht) or words taken from the Indian languages, Turkish, Arabic, Persian,
Russian, Chinese, Portuguese, Spanish and various African languages.

………………………………………………………………………………………
But back to the 16th century now, for what could be one of the greatest influences on the
English language – the birth of William Shakespeare in 1564 – appropriately enough on
the 23rd of April, the day dedicated to St. George – Patron Saint of England. Curiously
enough, Shakespeare also died on the 23rd of April, 52 years later. It will forever be a
mystery how this man, of modest education became the greatest poet of the English
language and the world’s most produced playwright. It has been said that in the nearly 400
years since his death there has never been a day when one or more of Shakespeare’s plays
has not been played somewhere in the world.
But even more important, perhaps, was his contribution to the language. However
poorly educated a native English speaker may be, he cannot help using the words and
phrases created by Shakespeare – they are too much a part of English. Shakespeare gave
the language, through his inventive genius, so many words, phrases and memorable
sayings which simply didn’t exist before.
Today English is the richest language in the world. There are about 800 000 words. But
don't worry: you needn't learn all of them. The average speaking vocabulary of a well-
educated person is 5 000 words. And if you are able to use 2 000 common English words,
you can always make yourself understood and you will get along wonderfully.

........................................................................................................................
A language never stands still. It is always changing and developing. It is also a very
variable social phenomenon in the sense that it varies through time. For language to keep
functioning as an efficient instrument of mutual communication among the members of a
continually changing society, it must constitute a system which is non-static, dynamic
flexible and open in character. It originates and develops in the process of social
interaction between the members of a community. These changes are rapid in primitive
societies, but slow in advanced ones, because the invention of printing and the spread of
education have fixed traditional usage.
Adapted from Speak Up
 18

ASSIGNMENT 2
After listening comprehension exercise answer the following
questions in pairs!

1. Where is English mainly spoken?

2. What was the biggest invasion of Britain?
3. Who were the first foreign invaders?
4. In which parts of Great Britain have the Celtic languages still survived?
5. How is Anglo-Saxon language called by the historians?
6. State why this language is not still the language of England?
7. State some words of Germanic origin.
8. What happened after the conquest by the Northman or Vikings from Denmark?
9. What was the name of the language spoken by the Vikings?
10. What do you know about bilingualism in Great Britain?
11. What happened after William’s conquest?
12. Why it is said that history repeats itself?
13. Why is language important from sociological standpoint?
14. What languages is the present-day vocabulary of English composed of?
15. Give some examples of two words of different origin for the same thing and for the
same concept.
16. When were words of Greek and Latin origin adopted?
17. We are not free to say just what we like. Ordinary everyday conversation is narrowly
determined. It is a sort of roughly prescribed social ritual in which you generally say
what your friends expect you to say.
18. So, the world is indeed a stage and society is the author of the play. The grown man
in a modern society has to play many parts, and unless he knows his roles and his
lines he is no use in the play. If you do not know your part, there are no clues for the
other and no place for his lines either. The play then just falls through.
19. This is a sort of paraphrasing and analogy of Shakespeare’s lines from As You Like
It, II, 7, 139;
All the world’s a stage,
And all the men and women merely players:
They have their exits and their entrances;
And one man in his time plays many parts.
 19

Core Text
THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE

America is a nation of immigrants — a melting pot of English,

French, German, Italian, Spanish, Scandinavian, African and many
other cultures. As the country absorbed these various peoples and
turned them into Americans, most lost their native language and
customs. But no ethnic group left the American language
untouched. American English grew in vitality and variety along with
the nation itself.

The first English settlers to reach America arrived in Virginia in 1607 and in
Massachusetts in 1620. They all spoke the English of the early seventeenth
century — the language of Shakespeare and Milton. Most of them came
originally from the south and south east of England. Although some of them
had spent some years of exile in Holland they spoke with the accents of the
southern part of their home country. To a large extent they kept that form of
speech, but they soon learned to give old words new uses. They also took words
from the local Indian languages for plants and animals that were new to them.

Until the Declaration of Independence in 1776 over two thirds of the settlers in
what later became the U.S. came from England. After that date many other
peoples came to make a new life for themselves in the New World. These
included Irish, French, Germans, Dutch. Italians, Slavs, and Scandinavians. All
these peoples gave new words to the language of North America. The French
gave such words as “chowder” and “prairie”. “Sleigh” came from the Dutch
settlers. The Afro-Americans who had been taken from Africa as slaves to work
on the rice and cotton plantations added words and structures from their own
native languages. Some people today think that the very American expression
“O.K.” comes from a similar African expression which was brought to America
by the Afro-Americans.

Although all these people contributed in various ways to the language which
was to become American English, there is one man who can be singled out as
the person who did most to give American English an identity of its own. He
was Noah Webster (1758-1843) He worked as a teacher, lawyer, journalist
and essayist; he wrote on many subjects, but his two best-known works were
his “Blue-Backed Speller” (1783) — (a book with a blue cover used to teach
and improve spelling) and his “American Dictionary of the English Language”
(1828). He is largely responsible for the differences which exist today between
British and American spelling.

Webster had a practical approach to language and he simplified many of the

traditional English spellings. For example, he wrote favor, humor, and labor
for the English favour, humour and labour. Since Webster's time many of his
spellings have become acceptable in England, such as author, tailor and visitor.
Public, jail and cider in their original English versions were publick, gaol and
cyder. But there are other differences apart from vocabulary between American
and British English.
 20

The idioms of American slang are often very different from those we have in
Britain. For example, Cool it!, which is a way of telling someone to calm down.

Also, like the early settlers, Americans today are constantly inventing new
words and usages to meet their needs. They have given us the verb to televise
from the noun television and combined the words sport and broadcast to give
us sportcast.

From American English we have all learned that we park our cars. In fact the
word park was used in a slightly different way in Shakespeare's time, but the
Americans have revived it and given it a new meaning.

In terms of pronunciation, there are three main types in America. These are
New England, General American and Southern. General American is by far the
most widely used. New England is the pronunciation which was used by John
F. Kennedy. President Carter, who comes from Georgia, speaks with a Southern
accent. If you listen to a recording of these two presidents you will be able to
hear the difference quite clearly. Some American pronunciations are related to
English ones. Americans say the words dance, fast and grass like people from
the North of England — with a short a. But in spite of many small variations
the three American accents do not differ greatly from one another. One reason
for this is that an important fact of American life has always been travel. People
have moved to wherever work could be found and this has tended to level out
differences in pronunciation. There are more differences in pronunciation
between the various areas of Britain than there are in the whole of North
America.

During the twentieth century the differences between American and British
English seem to have been getting smaller. The reasons for this include the
interchange of books and newspapers and the large numbers of American
soldiers who came to Britain in the two World Wars, importing many American
expressions. But more important today are the films, television and radio
programmes which can bring the latest American slang to Britain instantly.

There are words from many different languages in English: from Latin, French
and Danish as a result of invasions throughout history, from colonized countries
like India, but also from America and many other countries.
No other language has been so quick or willing to let itself be influenced by
other languages. If the English stumble on to a new food or thing or concept,
then the word for it is quickly and wholly taken over.

From the Italians, we have piano, opera, soprano, umbrella, influenza,

fresco etc.
Two Italian navigators have a special place of honor in the American language.
The name of Christopher Columbus lives on in the District of Columbia,
Columbus Day and many other towns and cities named Columbus. Amerigo
Vespucci' the first navigator to recognize America as a new continent, gave us
our name from his first name. Later Italian immigrants brought us the names of
familiar foods like pizza, spaghetti, and tutti-frutti ice cream.

From Spain we have cigar, cigarette, cork, cargo and embargo.

 21

Spanish has contributed more words to American English than any other
language. The Spaniards had an early start at it, since they were the first
Europeans to explore much of the American continent. They gave the names to
many of the natural phenomena they saw such as alligators, buffalo, and the
mesa (a high, wide tableland).

In the Southwest, which borders on Mexico, Spanish words are used for food.
Later immigrants to the U.S. from Puerto Rico and Cuba also brought more
Spanish words into the language.

From Portugal, we have our marmalade, verandah etc.

From Mexico come cocoa, chocolate and tomato.
The words hammock, hurricane and maize came to England from the Caribbean.
Pyjamas, shampoo, bungalow and punch all came from India.
The words caravan and bazaar came from Persia.
Bamboo and gong are Malaysian words.

Australia provided boomerang, kangaroo and cockatoo.

From the Dutch we have yacht, deck, skipper, and cruise, smuggle and sketch.
In the seventeenth century, New York City was known as New Amsterdam. The
early Dutch settlers on the East coast introduced into the language such words as
boss, hunky (which has become hunky-dory = fine, satisfactory), and Santa
Claus from Sant Klaas , or Saint Nicholas. Because American colonists
appreciated Dutch baking, the language picked up words like cookie, from the
Dutchword for little cake and waffle, a crisp pancake baked in a waffle iron.

And we shouldn't forget that large numbers of Germans emigrated to the States
during the nineteenth century, bringing with them the food and customs of their
homeland. Frankfurters and hamburgers are two of the most popular American
foods today. We also love to eat pretzels, pumpernickel, sauerkraut and other
treats purchased at a delicatessen.
frankfurter — a small sausage also known as a wiener or hot dog
hamburger — a ground beef sandwich, from Hamburg.
Also, from the German come Rucksack, Wanderlust, Weltanschauung,
Kindergarten and Schadenfreude.

There are still countless words alive from the old language of the British Isles,
Celtic:
ass, cairn, clan, plaid, flannel, druid, bard, galore and, of course, whisky.
The English language has never stood still. It is still changing: it is shaped by
those who speak it all the time.

The Jewish immigrants loaned us schnozzle, bagel and nosh. The

Scandinavians brought a smorgasbord of foods and customs with them. Some
of the words which survived the suppression of the native African languages are
gumbo and voodoo.
 22

pretzel a brittle, salted cracker in form of a loose knot

pumpernickel rye bread
sauerkraut sour cabbage
delicatessen a store that sells food delicacies
schnozzle a large nose
bagel a hard, chewy bread
nosh a snack between meals
smorgasbord a buffet offering a wide variety of foods
gumbo a thick soup
voodoo magic or sorcery
District of Columbia the area of land on which the nation's
capital,Washington, is situated.
tutti-frutti all fruits

French explorers left an early mark on the American language as well. In

Canada and the northern part of the U.S., French trappers and fur traders known
as voyageurs, or French-Canadian boatsmen and fur traders who explored much
of the American continent for the first time carried their language with their
canoes from river to lake and across portages, i.e. land between lakes over
which boats have to be carried. These same adventurers gave the vast grassland
in the continental interior its name — the prairie.

Way down in New Orleans, the French established their customs and language,
e.g. Mardi Gras, Fat Tuesday, or Shrove Tuesday before Lent has become a
time when the city erupts into a festival of merrymaking and parades. In the
French Quarter of the city, residents-and tourists dine on excellent French
cuisine.

Some passages are adapted from the text written by HUGH CORRIGAN in BBC English

Abstract
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 23

Jot down British equivalents for the American words in the text .

BRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH

Listening to spoken English, can you tell American from British English?
Do you prefer the sound of British to American English? If so, why? And why not?

So, which is correct - "theater", .or "theatre", "center" or "centre", "labor" or "labour" color/colour,
fiber/fibre, neighbor/neighbour, sulfur/sulphur, favorite/favourite?

But this variety is not only confusing for the reader. For a copy editor, the differences between the
two versions of English can be a nightmare. Most people know that the Americans say "sidewalk"
for the British "pavement", or "subway" for "underground"; for example, in the past we've had
"bond" (BE bail), "dumpster" (BE rubbish container, skip) or "realtor" (BE estate agent), all words
which are not used in Britain.

It can work the other way too - when listening to two English girls discussing a new rucksack one
had bought, an American bystander said: "Pardon me (American for excuse me), what's a
rucksack?" She only knew "backpack".

Often when a letter is doubled in British English, it appears singly in American English, for
example: traveling/travelling, instalment/installment. But just when you think you've understood
the trick, they then double a letter where the British only have one, as in enroll/ enrol. A word like
program/me presents the problem that even the British use the shortened version in the world of
computers.

You'll read words like "percent", "defense", "check", "movie" in an article on New York, but "per
cent", "defence" "cheque" and "film" in one from London.
The United States and Britain are two countries divided by a common language. An American
colleague recalls a Canadian friend of his mother who tried to buy diapers in a store during a visit
to the United States. She asked the clerk for "nappies". The clerk gave her napkins. The woman
said, no, she wanted "nappies". The clerk kept handing her napkins. They did eventually straighten
it out. Lucky for the woman's baby.

Sometimes we run into trouble when we write our stories. We avoid the word "mad" because it
means "crazy" to a Briton but means "angry" to Americans. When writing about parliaments and
their doings Americans stay away from the verb "table", which means "introduce legislation" to
the British colleagues but means "postpone action" to the Americans.

Actually, it's a complete myth that American English is much richer and more varied than British
English. The British absorb all the Americanisms, and then add a medley of regional and slang
variations of their own. "American English" (AE) and "British English" (BE) means that when I
mention a "truck" for my American clients, I must render that is a "lorry" for my British
customers.

Similarly, an American "undershirt" is a British "vest", an American "buddy" is a British "mate".

Then there is the problem of spelling, with Britain's "labour" becoming America's "labor", as just
one example.
We have to worry about group nouns, which in AE generally take a singular verb but in BE a
plural verb. Thus, in AE "the government has" but in BE, "the government have", although a
change may be forthcoming -I heard a BBC "news reader" (in AE, "news announcer") use the
singular the other night.
 24

ASSIGNMENT 4
Write American counterparts for the following grammatical structures,
words, and spelling:

British English American English

I've lost my umbrella. Have you seen it?
I've just had lunch.
She has already left.
She hasn't finished her work yet.
Have you ever ridden a donkey?
I have never seen it before.
British speakers have a bath, a shower, a holiday, a break but American speakers
Which film shall we watch?
We needn't hurry.
She demanded that I should apologise.
They insisted that it should be well organised.
My friend was injured and taken to hospital.
I went to prison to visit him.
She often goes to church.
Dinamo/ the team /like government/ police/ family are doing well.
At the weekend/at weekends
At the front/at the back
Do you live in this street?
Do you get on well with your new colleague?
My bedroom looks great now that it has been done up.
It has got better, it was burnt, spelt etc.
Please write to me soon.
Please, fill in this form.
She turned (a)round.
Apologise, organise, specialise
travelling, cancelling
theater, centre, labour
colour, fibre, neighbourgh
sulphur, favourite
pavement, underground
Excuse me, what's a backpack?
installment
enroll
to program a computer
per cent, defence, cheque and film
mad
to table
mate
news reader
 25

ASSIGNMENT 5

Jot down British equivalents for the following words:

PLACES FOOD

apartment — can (of solid food)—

baby carriage— candy—
doctor's/dentist's office— cookie—
drugstore— crackers—
elevator— dessert—
hall, hallway— French fries—
hardware store— fruit and vegetable store—
intersection— jello (gelatin dessert)—
mailbox— ground beef—
the movies— molasses syrup—
one-room apartment, studio— potato chips—
orchestra (seat) (in a theater)— powdered/confectioner's sugar—
overpass—flyover rare (meat)—underdone
parkway— string beans—
pedestrian crossing—
sidewalk— PERSONAL ITEMS
store—
streetcar— bangs (of hair)—
subway— cuffs—
toilet (bathroom)—lavatory diaper—
traffic circle—roundabout nail polish—
yard— pants—
pantyhose—
raincoat—mackintosh (mac)
USEFUL OBJECTS ready to wear—off the peg
run (in a stocking)—
absorbent cotton— suspenders—
ballpoint—biro turtleneck (sweater)—
eraser— vest—
faucet— undershirt—
flashlight— zipper—
garbage can, trash can— sneakers -
loose leaf notebook, binder— ring book, ring binder athletic shoes-
package—
rubber band— PEOPLE
shopping bag— buddy-
slingshot—catapult attorney, lawyer—barrister or solicitor
spool of thread— faculty (of university)—staff
stove— graduate student—postgraduate student
thread— guy—chap (spoken), fellow (written)
thumbtack— janitor—
water heater— patrolman (police)—
wrench— cop, policeman—
salesperson—
 26

ASSIGNMENT 6. Fill in the correct British equivalent from the

list below for each italicized American word. The following
description is written in American English.

We took the freeway 1 …………………………..… out of New York

but soon got onto a smaller divided highway 2 ………………….
……………….. …………… in New Jersey. The traffic was heavy and
cars and trailer trucks 3 …………………….…….. ……………..…
kept passing 4........................................................ us.
Soon, ahead of us, we saw a detour 5…………………………… sign
just before a traffic circle 6……………………………… . It was
confusing, so we pulled off the road into a gas station ……………....
……………….. . We asked for some gas …………………… and
directions. The attendant washed our windshield ……………
……………… opened the hood ………….……… to check the oil,
and gave us directions. He pointed to a stop light ……………….
………… where a truck ………. was turning left. He said that was
the correct route. After carefully watching the rear view mirror
…………… ……………….. we pulled back on the road.

articulated lorries, bonnet, diversion, petrol,

dual carriage-way, garage, motorway,

overtaking, lorry, windscreen, roundabout,

traffic light, wing mirror

freeway – highway with several lanes

articulated lorries – zglobom vezani kamion
trailer truck – transport vehicle hauled by a truck
bonnet – poklopac auto-motora, hauba
(dual) carriage – way – BE cesta, trak na kolniku, divided highway
diversion – skretanje;
traffic diversions e.g. when traffic is directed by different routes because of
road repairs
motorway – autostrada, road built especially for fast traffic, with dual
carriageways and going over or under other roads.
roundabout – zaobilaznica,
detour – eg., a way used when the main road is blocked; diversion
traffic light – prometno svjetlo, semafor
traffic circle - roundabout

26
 27

ASSIGNMENT 7
Discuss the following:

 Is English replacing other languages?

 Worldwide over 340 million people speak English. The number of people who
speak English as a second or foreign language will exceed the number of native
speakers.

 English has a large and extensive vocabulary, of which 80% is foreign – it

borrows from Spanish, German, French, Hebrew and Arabic, Bengali and
Chinese – it is unique in history.

 English is inherently a borrowing and an Anglicising language. Ever since its

earliest beginnings it has been part of the nature of the English language to
incorporate ideas, concepts, expressions from other societies and to make them
part of English.

 Noboy guards the purity of the language.

 There is no standard pronunciation, but – unity of grammar.

There is no Academy or other authority for English which determines the
norm; The norms of English are, in practice, set in relation to the NS or NNS
usages outlined above: that is to say, each community sets its own goals and
targets, usually without conscious decision. At the same time, there exists an
unspoken mechanism, operated through the global industry of English teaching,
which has the effect of preserving the unity of English in spite of its great
diversity.

 For throughout the world, regardless of whether the norm is native-speaker or

non-native-speaker variety, irrespective of whether English is a foreign or a
second language, two components of English are taught and learned without
variation: these are its grammar and its core, basic vocabulary.
 English is not a property of only a few countries.
 Will English exert pressure toward global uniformity? Is the future predictable?
 English is keeping its monopoly and may form an oligopoly or a fearful
construction, a supranational language that all people would have to learn.
Paraphrase the following:
A language of the world could end as a fearful construction, with rules all its
own, bearing no clear mark of any one national language. All human beings
would have to learn it, in addition to their own languages, and none would have
an advantage over others by the mere accident of place of birth. Lingua terra
could end up with a vocabulary, a flexibility, a richness, surpassing any other,
so that it could develop a mighty literature of its own.

 Can we have any other global language?

 Economics and demogaphics will have more influence on language than
governments’ political powers.

27
 28

ASSIGNMENT 8

How was English imported from

Britain into Australia?
Why did the British become interested in Australia?
What port did Sidney develop from?
Who were the first settlers?
What did the Government take care of?

A stream of adventures and rebels from other parts of

the world poured into the newly-discovered continent. Scots,
Irish, English and others driven from the land by the industrial
revolution, which created an army of the poor, left Europe for
Australia with its seemingly* endless, empty expanses*.
The loss of their American colonies made British take a
more serious interest in Australia, but at first, because of its
great distance, it did not seem a very attractive economic
proposition*. This distance was an advantage, though, for
other purposes.
In may 1787, a fleet of eleven vessels under the
command of Captain Arthur Phillip set sail from England with
1 500 people on board, more than half of them felons. After an
arduous voyage lasting eight months, the ships put in at
Botany bay, where the passangers disembarked. A few days
later they were transported to port Jackson, which was to grow
into the largest Australian city, SIDNEY. Captain Arthur
Phillip was named first governor of New South Wales, a new
British colony. The British government could now breathe a
sigh of relief, for it had found a solution for the overcrowding
in prisnons by transporting convicts to Australia. It seems,
though, that care was always taken to include a certain
proportion of honest folk, ordinary immigrants, in the
convoys.
*seemingly - apparently
*expanse – wide and open area
*proposition – matter to be dealt with
*felon – person guilty of felony, major serious crime, e.g. murder, armed robbery,
arson

28
 29

ASSIGNMENT 9
Insert articles where necessary
…… Spreading of ……. English throughout …. World

….. English language was carried around ….. globe by

…. . English merchants and ….. explorers; its roots were
firmly fixed in many parts of ….. new continents by …..
permanent settling there of ….. whole communities of
….. people from ….. British Isles who took with them
their institutions, their traditions and their way of life.
Though ….. spreading of ….. language through other
countries of ….. vast British Empire of ….. 19th century
was of ….. completely different nature, linked as it was
to ….. overwhelming power of ….. Britain's economic,
political and military strength, its influence and utility
have not been refused. On ….. contrary, …… language
and ….. concepts it conveys form one of ….. most
important links in ….. free association of …..
Commonwealth countries.
….. cause for ….. English as ….. international means
of ….. communication seems, nowadays, to have been
taken up by ….. England's most rebellious off-spring:
….. United States. ….. US position as one of …..
world’s superpowers, its wealth and economic power,
reaching world-wide through its international companies,
its advanced technology, political and military power,
have given ….. English language ….. good lead over
other national languages which are also competing for
….. first place as ….. global tongue of communication.

29
 30

ASSIGNMENT 10

a) Insert the definite article where necessary

_____ Technical English as used in _____ fundamentals of electrical engineering is
exemplified by _____ selection of basic original texts. ____ focus of pedagogical attention is
not so much directed to _____ subject-matter of _____ articles but more to ___ linguistic
explanation of ____ organization of ___ discourse structure as used in _____ engineering
English, _____ development, distribution and location of ____ information data, ____
rhetorical devices, all this with ___ aim of improving students’ orientation and
comprehension of an engineering text. ____ rhetorical introduction given in ____ foreword
indicates ____ important features of ___ text comprehension. In ___ pedagogical materials
following ____ texts an attempt is made to embrace _____ different aspects of logical and
rhetorical devices used in ___ texts to consolidate ___ use of syntax and lexis as used in ___
context.

b) Insert the definite article where necessary

_____ engineer’s creations are of ____ steel, ___aluminum, ____ glass, ____ glass fibre, ___
plastics, ___ concrete and every other material used by ____ Man.
_____ engineer must have a deep knowledge of these materials and may be skilled at
fashioning them: but to do so is not his job. His own tools are a drawing board and notebook,
____ pencils and pens, ____ slide rulers, ____ typewriter, ____ test equipment, ____
computer, ____ instruments and dozens of volumes of reference books, ____ catalogues and
____ articles from _____ technical press.

c) Insert the definite article where necessary

1 While John was going to _____ hospital to see _____ friend, he involved in _____ car
accident and was taken to _____ hospital in _____ ambulance.

2 “What is your brother going to do when he leaves _____ school? Going to ____
University? “
“No, he has a mind to go into _____NATO Army.”

3 You know that we never stay in _____ town on _____ Saturdays and Sundays. We
leave _____ town on _____ Friday evening and spend ______ week-end in our cottage on
_____ outskirts of _____ town of Rijeka.

4 The use of ____ nuclear bombs would spell disaster for _____ mankind. Ever since the
terrible experience in Hiroshima and Nagasaki ______ man has been trying to get more and
more powerful bombs although he knows that _____ use of _____ nuclear bombs would spell
disaster for ______ mankind.

5 “Tonight’s concert at _____ Ivan Zajc is dedicated to _____ music of _____ 19th
century. Shall we go?”
“Yes, if only you can get _____ tickets. “

6 _____ Heaven knows how much that poor old woman has been suffering. _____ life
has been hard on her. If there's a person that deserves _____ Heaven, that is her.

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7 _____ Netherlands are so called because a part of their territory is below _____ sea
level.

8 _____ Niagara Falls are _____ massive waterfalls on _____ Niagara River, straddling
_____ international border between _____ Canadian province of _____ Ontario and _____
U.S. state of _____ New York.

9 _____ Plitvice Lakes lie in _____ basin of _____ karstic rock, mainly _____ dolomite
and limestone, which has given rise to their most distinctive feature.

10 _____ lakes are divided into _____ 12 Upper Lakes (Gornja jezera) and _____ four
Lower Lakes (Donja jezera).

d) Insert the definite article where necessary

Nikola Tesla was _____ inventor and _____ mechanical and electrical engineer. Born in
__Smiljan, ___Croatian Krajina, ____Austrian Empire. Tesla is often described as ____ most
important scientist and inventor of ____ modern age, a man who "shed light over ____ face
of ____Earth". He is best known for many revolutionary contributions in the field of
____electricity and _____ magnetism in _____ late 19th and early 20th centuries. ____
Tesla's patents and theoretical work formed _____ basis of modern alternating current electric
power (AC) systems. After his demonstration of ____wireless communication (radio) in
1894 and after being ___ victor in _____ "War of Currents", he was widely respected as one
of _____ greatest electrical engineers who worked in _____America. Much of his early work
pioneered modern electrical engineering and many of his discoveries were of groundbreaking
importance. During this period, in _____ United States, _____Tesla's fame rivaled that of any
other inventor or scientist in _____ history or _____popular culture, but due to his eccentric
personality and his seemingly unbelievable and sometimes bizarre claims about _____
possible scientific and technological developments, Tesla was ultimately ostracized and
regarded as _____ mad scientist.

e) Insert either the definite or indefinite article or leave the space

blank (zero articles).

Shell structure of the atom

_____ formerly accepted theory as to _____ structure of _____ atom postulated that _____
electrons move about _____ nucleus somewhat as _____ planets move about _____ sun in
_____ solar system. For _____ purposes of _____ visualization, it is still convenient to think
of _____ electron as _____ point mass, _____ nucleus. From this standpoint _____ electrons
will be found to occupy _____ quantized energy levels (called _____ orbits or _____ orbitals)
which define certain energy band. These shells possess _____ increasingly greater "radii"
measured from _____ nucleus. _____ innermost shell is designated as _____ K shell; the
following are _____ L, M, N, O, electrons per shell respectively of 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8. _____
number of electrons in _____ shell is limited according to _____ Pauli exclusion principle.
As _____ elements increase in _____ atomic number Z (_____ number of _____ positively
charged protons in _____ nucleus and hence also _____ number of _____ electrons possessed
by _____. neutral atom), they generally fill _____ shells in _____ orderly fashion but _____
discrepancies occur because _____ electrons, relatively far out from _____ nucleus are
screened from _____ charge on _____ nucleus and effectively "see" _____ smaller nucleus
charge. _____ screening causes the discrepancies from _____ normal filling of _____
electrons.

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LECTURE 3
Section 1
OATH OF THE ENGINEER

Section 2
What is engineering?
Listening Comprehension

Section 3
Modals

Section 4
How to write an abstract

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Section 1

CORE TEXT 1
OATH/FAITH OF THE ENGINEER
I am an Engineer. In my profession I take deep pride, but without
vainglory; to it I owe solemn obligations that I am eager to fulfil.

As an Engineer, I will participate in none but honest enterprise. To

him that has engaged my services, as employer or client; I will give
the utmost of performance and fidelity.

When needed, my skill and knowledge shall be given without

reservation for the public good. From special capacity springs the
obligation to use it well in the service of humanity: and I accept the
challenge that this implies.

Jealous of the high repute of my calling, I will strive to protect the

interests and the good name of any engineer that I know to be
deserving; but I will not shrink, should duty dictate, from disclosing
the truth regarding anyone that, by unscrupulous act, has shown
himself unworthy of the profession.

Since the Age of Stone, human progress has been conditioned by the
genius of my professional forebears. By them have been rendered
usable to mankind Nature's vast resources of material and energy.
By them have been vitalized and turned to practical account the
principles of science and the revelations of technology. Except for
this heritage of accumulated experience, my efforts would be feeble.
I dedicate myself to the dissemination of engineering knowledge,
and. especially, to the instruction of younger members of my
profession in all its arts and traditions.

To my fellows I pledge, in the same full measure I ask of them,

integrity and fair dealing, tolerance and respect, and devotion to the
standards and the dignity of our profession; with the consciousness,
always, that our special expertness carries with it the obligation to
serve humanity with complete sincerity.

Note: The "Faith of the Engineer" was presented to the Eleventh

Annual Meeting of Engineers Council for Professional Development by
the Committee on Principles of Engineering Ethics and received
unanimous approval

Hippocratic Oath is the oath generally taken by students receiving a

medical degree: it is attributed to Hippocrates and sets forth an ethical
code for the medical profession.

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Assignment 1
Translate this oath and discuss it
Study this WORDLIST

canon general standard or principle by which something is

judged; the canons of conduct (norma, mjerila)
ethics science of morals
uphold, upheld, upheld support or approve
impartial fair in giving judgments not favoring one more than
another (nepristran)
strive, strove, striven struggle
vainglory extreme vanity or pride in oneself; excessive elation
or pride over one’s own achievements and abilities;
boastful vanity, empty pomp or show;
(pobjedonosnos, taština, hvalisavost)
jealous of taking watchful care; solicitous or vigilant in
maintaining or guarding something;
vigilant keenly watchful to detect danger, awake and alert
solicitous careful
forebear ancestor, forefather (predak)
revelation revealing, making known of something secret or
hidden
feeble weak, without energy
disseminate distribute or spread widely ideas, doctrines
pledge promise
solemn (uzvišen, svečan)
obligation moral responsibility
enterprise a business firm
spring, sprang, sprung to make known or cause to appear suddenly,
unexpectedly
shrink, shrank, shrunk to draw back, withdraw, to move back and away
commitment a pledge or promise to do something

Justify the use of the PASSIVE in the following paragraph

and turn the sentences into the ACTIVE:
Since the Age of Stone, human progress has been conditioned by the genius of my
professional forebears. By them have been rendered usable to mankind Nature's vast
resources of material and energy. By them have been vitalized and turned to practical account
the principles of science and the revelations of technology.

......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................

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ENGINEERING ETHICS
By Senior lecturer Ksenija Mance

1. INTRODUCTION

The “Oath of the Engineer”, was presented to the Eleventh Annual Meeting of the Engineers'
Council for Professional Development by the Committee on Principles of Engineering Ethics
and received unanimous approval. The American Engineers' Council for Professional
Development or simply, the Engineers' Council for Professional Development, ECPD was
established in June 1932. Conversely, a formalized engineering oath of ethics does not exist
in Croatia. Besides, there are no professional oaths in Croatia except for the “Hippocratic
Oath”, also called the Geneva’s Oath, established in 1948.

2. ETHICS OF THE ENGINEER’S OATH

The engineering profession is a prestigious vocation and calling, which is of paramount

importance for our society. However, engineers should neither show excessive elation and
pride over their own achievements in their profession, nor keep monopoly of the profession
as a status symbol. The moral responsibility and obligations toward society as a whole come
first. Most codes emphasize professional prestige rather than moral responsibility, obligation,
environmental stability and sustainability promotion. The term“sustainable development”,
first popularized by the World Commission on Environment and Development, sponsored by
the United Nations, is defined as “development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”[5]

The welfare of the public i.e. the public good (opće dobro) should be held paramount by the
engineers. What is implied by the public good? The semantic meaning of the public good
implies an ethical notion of “the good” and welfare in political decision-making and this
meaning should not be confused with the economic concept of public goods (javna dobra)
although these two concepts are very similar. The public good encompasses public health and
welfare programs, education, research and development, national and domestic security,
roads, and a clean environment.
One example of an irrational approach to the public good and irrational development of
public goods (pay attention to various meanings of these two phrases) is the Three Gorges
Dam in China, which spans the Yangtze River. With the reservoir over 600 km long, it is
known as the largest hydroelectric river dam and the largest hydro-electric power station in
the world. Although there are economic benefits of flood control and hydroelectric power, a
lot of ethical issues have been raised, because the impact of the dam on the environment is
irreversible; the region's wildlife, water quality, local residents valuable archeological and
cultural sites, as well as ecological damage like landslides, soil erosion, water pollution,
conflicts caused by land and water shortage have all been affected.
We wonder if our environment can be sacrificed in exchange for temporary economic
prosperity. Anyway, should this oath of the engineer be modified to include a reference to the
environment?
As an example, we can mention the American Society of Civil Engineering (ASCE) Code,
which states that engineers should be committed to improving the environment to enhance the
quality of life and that engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the
public and shall strive to comply with the principles of sustainable development in the
performance of their professional duties.

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The IEEE code of Ethics, (The IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,
Inc.) the world's leading professional association for the advancement of technology, states
that the members of the IEEE commit themselves to the highest ethical and professional
conduct and agree to accept responsibility in making decisions consistent with the safety,
health and welfare of the public, and to disclose promptly factors that might endanger the
public or the environment; it was approved by the IEEE Board of Directors in 2006.
So, the word environment is explicitly mentioned. The oath of the engineer has a short
linguistic form and, therefore, requires effective semantic and clear communication that
should not result in lack of communication or under-estimation of the canons of ethics. When
a new technology is introduced, its potential unintended consequences are unknown until
decades later.

That is why we have to improve the understanding of new technology, technical competence,
and its appropriate application.
When implementing new technologies, engineers must consider physical and environmental
safety. In this context, we have to keep in mind that Man and the environment significantly
influence one another. Everything is closely intertwined and the earth’s interconnected
ecosystems are under extreme pressure. That is why the responsibility of the engineering
profession is to sustain the balance in nature. “Life and the environment evolve together as a
single system so that not only does the species that leaves the most progeny tend to inherit the
environment but also the environment that favors the most progeny is itself sustained.” [7]
James Lovelock formulated the Gaia Hypothesis, which provides an interesting idea of the
interaction of physical, chemical, geological and biological processes on Earth.

Ethical standards are embodied in the oath of the engineer and it is implied that if one’s
manager, employer or superior do not act to undo, curb or mitigate dangers of serious
personal or social damage, it is necessary to offer honest criticism or even “blow the whistle”,
so as to reduce the risk, to acknowledge and correct errors, violations or negative
consequences as much as possible. The ethical inner judgment should be the final decisive
guide in deciding whether or not to “blow a whistle”. Being a matter of integrity and honesty,
ethical principals should always take greater priority. Engineering professionals must
minimize malfunctions, any serious harm to others, any environmental impact and if
necessary, advice should be sought from other engineering professions. To avoid causing
harm to society, engineering professionals have enormous responsibility to define appropriate
and inappropriate use of engineering resources, systems and technology.

Does human progress represent conflicts of values? Technology was seen by our ancestors as
a force for controlling a hostile nature and not as a threat or harm that could be inflicted upon
nature. The oath focuses on our professional forefathers i.e. on the past.

However, engineers have obligations to future generations who could be harmed by

irresponsible engineering activities. It may take decades and generations for products and
facilities to have adverse effects; e.g. according to United Nations Environment Programme,
(Ozone Secretariat) air pollution and global warming are instances where the damage done
today is so irreparable that even if we begin to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases and
ozone layer depletion now, the effects will be felt over the next 300 years. Definitely, human-
induced climate change has ethical dimensions.

Engineering professionals have a responsibility to share technical knowledge and

professional development, not only with younger members, colleagues and co-workers but
also with the public.

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Professional competence, personal accountability for professional work, confidentiality of

information, honesty, integrity and fair dealing and the contributions of others must be
honored, properly credited and obligated not only by the oath of the engineer but also by
contract or by law. Bribery must be rejected and malicious action such as injuring others
avoided. All persons will be treated equally without regard to age, gender, race, religion,
disability, or national origin. Immoral and unethical rules and laws must be challenged by all
engineers.

In conclusion we can say that the existing oath’s wording is inadequate in addressing many
engineers as guardians of the environment for future generations. The political expression
public good and the expression humanity neither place the ecological consciousness of the
engineers in the first place nor address the problem of maintaining environmental quality
properly.

Consequently, professional normative standards are not abstract moral philosophies. An oath
of the type that is discussed in this article, determines the „ethical foundation“ of a
profession, in terms of the actual content or meaning of the words that are uttered. In this
case, one can see that it gives engineers an ethical grounding which they can rely upon, or
refer to, in terms of ethical decision making whilst carrying out their professional career.
Taken from Engineering Review

Some additional information can be found on:

http://www.ieee.org/about/ethics/index.html
http://www.ieee.org/about/corporate/governance/p7-8.html

Assignment 2
Answer the following questions.

 What is the „Faith of the Engineer“? What does this oath determine?
 The principle line of argument we offer is that the oath's wording does not pay
enough attention to the environment. Where are these „gray areas“ of this oath?
 Should the oath treat the ethical duty that engineers have towards the environment?
 Is the code deficient in terms of the attention it pays to the environment?
 How could you substantiate your argument?
 Can the wording public good be misinterpeted?
 Consider the complexity of the tripartite relation between „society“, „the
environment“ and „the engineer“, which can provide fuel for further discussion.
 Do engineers need to be aware as to how their work will affect society in the future?
 When we take into consideration that engineers are often unable to predict with
certainty as to how their projects will affect the environment in the long term, does
one become aware of how balancing the needs between society and the environment
is an extremly tricky one?

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 We are therefore compelled into thinking more about how engineers have to find the
difficult balance between attending to the needs of present society and the needs of
society in the future? This raises a number of moral/ethical questions about whose
interests engineers should primarily serve (present society or future generation).
Discuss this argument.
 The wording of this oath is a thought-provoking because of our wider concern about
the place of ethics in the engineering profession. Discuss this viewpoint.
 What would you say about the actual practice of taking an oath?
 Does an oath of the type presented in this article determine the „ethical foundation“
of a profession, in terms of the actual content or meaning of the words that are
uttered.
 Does it give an ethical grounding which engineers can rely upon, or refer to, in terms
of ethical decission making whilst carrying out their profession.
 It also highlights to those taking the oath that they have an ethical responsibility in
their professional career.
 Would you feel more like engineers or would you feel the same if you were required
to take the oath? Compare it with other professions (such as medicine).

DICTATION

Engineers should now strive to comply with the principles of

sustainable development and be morally obliged to provide and
maintain healthy environment for future generations. Also, adverse
consequences of technology can nowadays be regarded as ethically
unacceptable because technology is nothing more than an area of
interaction between ourselves as individuals and our environment.
Thus, engineers need to be aware as to how their work will affect
society in the future.

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Section 2
Images of smoking chimneys and steamy factories seem out of place in the
world of 21st century, but this was public face of industry around the turn of the last
century, as six key sectors positioned themselves for take-off. The electronics,
aircraft, chemical, pharmaceutical, automotive and energy industries have
revolutionized life in the course of the 20th century, and the revolution within the
industries themselves are happening at an ever-faster rate.
We can start with electronics because it contributes so heavily to the other
five, and because it epitomizes the accelerating rate of change in industry as a
whole.
The first useful valve was developed in 1907, followed by the emergence of the
transistor after World War Two, the silicon chip in the ‘60s and since then a
succession of advances in computer technology. The whole term electronics is
getting out of date, because the industry is moving towards working with light.
Just about everything with which we come into contact in everyday life, from
headache tablets to jumbo jets, is a product of one of these six industries. Industry
and engineering collectively and at times individually are also likely to reflect and
influence global economics and politics.
The aircraft industry was in any case moving from a defence-based to a
mass-transit industry, developing more sophisticated civil aircraft for ever-growing
lists of customers.
The Wrright Brothers made the first flight in 1903. Not so long ago only four-
engined aircraft were deemed safe enough to cross the Atlantic; now two engines
are considered sufficient. The fact is that you can pack an aircraft with technology,
but does it necessarily make it a better aircraft?
And can the industry ensure that people are trained to the necessary
sophisticated hardware?
The chemical industry has come a long way from the 1900s and the
emergence of viscose, rayon and Bakelite. The industry is fighting to keep pace with
new environmental demands by working on production of, say, bio-degradable
plastics or – to cater for animal-free diets – artificial fats.
Some large companies are moving away from “bulk” and towards the more
expensive “fine” chemicals, such as the raw materials needed for pharmaceuticals.
The pharmaceutical industry has come a long way since the introduction of
aspirin in 1899, with companies using advances in biotechnology to control the
deseases of old age and to combat epidemics. It is spending ever-incresing sums of
money on developing the new drugs vital for its future.
Environmentalist have long lobbed the automotive industry to produce
vehicles able to run without burning fossil fuels. The race to produce a genuinely
competitive electric car goes on.
Industrial revolutions concern not only the products but the methods of
production.
So, Henry Ford launched the model T in 1907, and cars contain the same
basic elements today as they did then. What has hanged dramatically, however, is
the means of production. We now have robots replacing people and “just-in-time”
mass production.
Without energy none of the other industries can survive, let alone advance.
No other industry so affects governments’ social and economic policy. That the
planet’s natural energy resources are limited is a fact of life. It is not so much a
question any more of “if” our oil and coal supplies cease, but “when”? And, mor
important, what are we going to do when they are gone?

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Core Text 2
WHAT IS ENGINEERING?

ASSIGNMENT 1
Write subtitles in question forms.

…………………………………………………………………………….
Whether building bridges, designing machines, developing new materials or
constructing complex electronic devices, the engineer is a central figure in
the progress of a modern industrial society.
…………………………………………………………………………..

Engineers produce most of Man's material wealth, change the face of the Earth,
create every new product of modern technology and increasingly make life easier
and more convenient.

....................................................................................................................

According to one wit: "an engineer does for twenty-five pence what any fool
could do for fifty." In the same vein, an aeronautical engineer is described as "a
man who designs a part weighing eight ounces that any fool could design to
weigh a pound." Clearly, engineers have to be cost conscious, and some have to
be weight conscious; but all have to be ecology and energy conscious. Are they
really energy minded? Do all of them think twice about all the energy they use
and waste?

…………………………………………………………………………….

Certainly, almost all of them are deeply concerned with how long things will last,
what they will accomplish and with what efficiency; their reliability, safety and a
thousand other factors. An engineer's whole life is spent balancing conflicting
factors like these, weighing one against another and coming up with the best
possible answer. Each of his products is a compromise: it could always be
improved if it were made more expensive; it could always be made lighter, if
reliability was unimportant and much cheaper if it did not have to last long.
In a certain sense, the successful engineer is a malcontent; a person who is never
satisfied with what has been achieved, always trying to change things for the
better.

………………………………………………………………………………….

Therefore, during product development many problems deal with complex,

strategic, and influential issues that require team resolution. A poor decision
on these problems may not be easily corrected later or noticed in time to
correct it. Poor results may have significant impact on product quality, cost,
and development time.

……………………………………………………………………………

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If the team had made a poor choice, they might have ended up making a
product that did not sell well, was overpriced, or was late to market.
Teams often don’t know how well they have done until long after the decision
is made, so it is imperative that they make the best decisions possible. So,
engineers are encouraged to generate multiple alternatives. One manager said
that his engineers always had at least three alternatives. When asked why, he
responded that he would not approve a new idea unless at least two other
solutions for the problem were presented at the same time.

……………………………………………………………………………

Experience suggests that effective team situations generate multiple

alternatives as the result of normal communications. This is especially true in a
collaborative environment, when team members have established an
atmosphere of trust.

…………………………………………………………………………….

So, engineering as a career implies optimizing and efficiency. Efficiency costs

money, safety ads complexity, and performance increases weight. The
engineering solution is the optimum solution, the most desirable end result
taking into account many factors, it may be the cheapest for a given
performance, the most reliable for a given weight, the simplest for a given
safety, or the most efficient for a given cost.

Engineering is optimizing. It implies efficiency in engineering

operations.

……………………………………………………………………………

What does efficiency mean? To the engineer, efficiency means output divided
by input. His job is to secure a maximum output for a given input or to secure a
given output with a minimum input. The ratio may be expressed in terms of
energy, materials, money, time, or men. Most commonly the denominator is
money; in fact, most engineering problems are answered ultimately in dollars
and cents.
Efficient conversion is accomplished by using efficient methods, devices, and
personnel organizations.
When great quantities must be produced at low cost, it becomes an engineering
problem.
Since output equals input minus losses, the engineer must keep losses and waste
to a minimum. Losses due to friction occur in every machine and in every
organization. Efficient functioning depends on good design, careful attention to
operating difficulties, and lubrication of rough spots, whether they are
mechanical or personal.
Engineering of the highest type is required to conceive, design, and achieve the
conversion of the energy of a turbulent mountain stream into the powerful
torque of an electric motor a hundred miles away.

…………………………………………………………………………….

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The engineer's creations are of steel, aluminium, glass, glass fibre, plastics,
concrete and every other material used by Man. The engineer must have a
deep knowledge of these materials and may be skilled at fashioning them;
His own tools are a drawing board and notebook, pencils and pens, slide
rules, typewriter, test equipment, computer, instruments and dozens of
volumes of reference books, catalogues and articles from the technical press.

(Adapted from THE MIND ALIVE ENCYCLOPEDIA, TECHNOLOGY,

London Cavendish, 1977)

ALGORITHM FOR EFFICIENT READING

1st reading vertical for global information.
2nd reading pay attention to transparent words and make predictions about
the topic.
3rd reading analytic and linear for detailed information

CODE TRANSFER (English ► Croatian)

ASSIGNMENT 2

Logical interpretation.
Find the appropriate expressions in Croatian.

cost conscious ...............................................................................

drawing board ...............................................................................
man's material wealth . ....................................................... …………….
weight conscious ..............................................................................
production cost ..............................................................................
engineering design ..............................................................................
life-support systems ..............................................................................
reference book ..............................................................................

ASSIGNMENT 3 – A ROLE PLAY

If you were in somebody else’s shoes how would you introduce engineering
as a career to beginning students of that discipline?
Any problem involving the low-cost production of large quantities of any item
is an engineering problem even if the item itself originated in the work of other
disciplines.
Explain in detail why efficiency costs money, safety ads complexity, and
performance increases weight. Is this always true?
Can we state that the engineering solution to most problems is the “most
desirable end result taking into account many factors”?

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ASSIGNMENT 4

What are engineering, technology and

science nowadays?

Human Ingenuity or A Step Gone Too Far?

Did Science and Technology Make Our World?
Have We Gone A Step Too Far?

More recently scientists and engineers have been seen

in an a new light, as people who created and
influenced our lives by their sheer originality and
breadth of vision.

It is said that all engineers create something out of nothing. Sometimes, as with
suitcases or even motor cars, the engineering design is not really a dramatic step
into the unknown; the new product is technically very similar to what has been
made before, and most of the effort is concerned with making it look attractive
while keeping down the production cost.

But other engineers spend their whole lives pushing out the very frontiers of
human achievement. Aircrafts are made to carry greater loads, trains to go faster,
telephone systems to handle more traffic with fewer breakdowns, newspaper
presses to work faster at lower cost, home sewing machines to be more versatile
yet smaller and neater than before, life-support systems to enable an astronaut or
aquanaut to go where man could not go before, and a bridge to span a great
river previously thought unbridgeable.

Unlike the scientists, the engineer is not free to select the problem which
interests him and he is not reputed to have pushed out the very frontiers of
human achievement; the engineering design is not really a dramatic step into
the unknown; Though some engineers do spend their whole lives pushing out
the very frontiers of human achievement they must also solve the problem as
they arise, and his solutions must satisfy conflicting requirements. The 19th
century gave us the Industrial revolution – today we are at the dawn of a new
Information revolution that could trigger a massive social upheaval.

Advocates of this Information Revolution have properly foreseen our future

with digital superhighways criss-crossing the globe. We are now able to shop,
play, learn, and even make love while sitting alone in our homes. The contents
of the world’s best libraries are instantly accessible. The race between
computer and telecommunication companies to exploit the potential of this
new revolution is just taking place. Also, the revolution within the industries
themselves are happening at an ever-faster rate.
We can give an example of electronics because it contributes so heavily to the
other fields, that it epitomizes the accelerating rate of change in technology as a
whole.
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As we live in a technological world, taking largely for granted the

benefits that science and technology have brought us, many
advances have been made at immense cost – both human and
financial.

 So, what happens when we try to go a step too far, when a

desire to innovate and improve leads to disaster?
 Were the failures foreseeable, what lessons were learnt
and how have thay changed our lives?
 Could you examine some major advances and the
disasters which followed?
 Is crossing the border important?

Jot down your attitudes:

………………………………………………………………………………………
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ASSIGNMENT 5 - SUMMARIZING
Write an abstract of the texts What is Engineering?

Essential ideas:
…………………………………………………………………………………
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Supporting ideas:

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…………………………………………………………………………………

Conclusion:

…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
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ASSIGNMENT 7

Write subtitles for each paragraph!

…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………

Once shaped only by the forces of nature, our world is being transformed by the
products of human ingenuity. Key inventions and technologies, which are grown
from them, are changing not only our environment but the way we live in it, our
comfort, prosperity and even lifespan. Science and technology have come to
pervade every aspect of our lives and, as a result, society is changing at a speed
which is quite unprecedented. There is a great technological explosion around us,
generated by science.

…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………

A simple watch-spring enabled navigators to set out across uncharted oceans.

Today satellite time-keepers in space can pinpoint shipwrecks or track missiles to
their target. Impurities in a crystal brought about the computer revolution and the
ubiquitous silicon chip. Stores of knowledge ranging from libraries to laser discs,
linked by strands of glass, are weaving a network of data around our planet.
Radio and television distribute news almost as it happens, and yet engines put
every nation within reach. Even our food and drink have been transformed by
technology.

…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………

The electronics, aircraft, chemical, pharmaceutical, automotive and energy

industries have revolutionized life in the course of the 20th century, and the
revolutions within the industries themselves are happening at an ever-faster rate.
It is fascinating how electronics epitomizes the accelerating rate of change in
industry as a whole.

…………………………………………………………
……………....................................................................

However, the question is if all inventions and discoveries have made man happier
and his life easier?
Enormous knowledge, technology and engineering have brought great benefits
but also grave perils to mankind. Progress has always been double-edged. That’s
why an array of philosophers have stressed that progress must be directed by
something more than just knowledge. Bertrand Russell sets out to seek a means
of balancing knowledge with an equivalent offsetting of wisdom. For, he thinks
that “although our age far surpasses all previous ages in knowledge, there has
been no correlative increase in wisdom. … There are several factors that
contribute to wisdom. Of these I should put first a sense of proportion: the
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capacity to take account of all the important factors in a problem and to attach to
each its due weight. This has become more difficult than it used to be owing to
the extent and complexity of the specialized knowledge required of various kinds
of technicians.

……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………

You study the composition of the atom from a disinterested desire for knowledge,
and incidentally place in the hands of powerful lunatics the means of destroying
the human race.

In such ways the pursuit of knowledge may become harmful unless it is combined
with wisdom, and wisdom in the sense of COMPREHENSIVE VISION is not
necessarily present in specialists in the pursuit of knowledge. The semantic
meanings of being comprehensive as well as comprehensible come from the verb
comprehend which means:

1. understand fully and be comprehensible and

2. include referring to be comprehensive
That means that if you have comprehensive vision you are able to comprehend
fully because you have a comprehensive mind and thus are capable of performing
a comprehensive survey and seeing a comprehensive and overall picture of the
world. A researcher must be aware of all the consequences his research might
bring.

…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………

Knowledge must be directed by wisdom. Do we know what wisdom is?

The definition of wisdom might be as follows: “power of judging rightly and
following the soundest course of action based on knowledge, experience,
understanding, good judgment, sagacity, erudition and comprehensive viewpoint.”
Wisdom is inner knowledge, inner consciousness and inner conscience.
Engineering science and ethics must be directed by wisdom and comprehensive
vision of the world.

…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………

Nowadays computer-based risk assessment models can provide rough estimates

measuring the probability and consequences of problems. These models might
enable enineers to take systematic approaches that can incorporate many variables
that might otherwise be overlooked.

…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………

Moral responsibility is a characteristic that can only be assumed by individual

human beings, not by corporations or big companies. Engineers through their
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professional organizations or their individual consciences have to assume ethical

responsibility for the applications and results of their achievements, in short they
have to behave responsibly, and foster safety design. We might design a code of
ethics that all engineering societies could adopt.

…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………

The question how safe we should be may not always be answered by “safer“ because
risk assessment is a social problem and requires social solutions that may even
involve accepting or rejecting technologies. Thus, no social technologies are
immutable; as a matter of fact they change beyond recognition.

…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………
Do you agree with the statement that “pushing out the very frontiers of human
achievements” can be very perilous and that engineers are not supposed to “bridge the
gap previously thought unbridgeable” but they should bridge conflicts between
members who identify with the industries and managements that employ them,
conflicts that have always been unbridgeable. Engineering problems require
multidisciplinarity, i.e. multidisciplinary efforts from engineers, scientists, social
scientists as well as thoughtful discussion between public and private sectors; they
require once again a comprehensive vision of the projects.

1. How should the risks that are part of or by-products of the engineer’s work be
managed?
2. Do you think that engineers have special professional responsibilities?
3. Do you think that we should offer increased protection to those who blow the
whistles? What is your attitude towards “whistle-blowing”?
4. Do most accidents occur in routine use or from design failures?

Technological achievements leave much room for mistakes and also modern science
has brought grave perils to mankind.
Engineers will be required to solve an array of problems and to improve and develop:

 Economically feasible energy sources

 Transport methods
 Reliable telecommunication
 Waste disposal
 Food manufacturing
 Agricultural machinery
 Monitoring and recording of people’s health
 Improving the lives of the disabled
 …………………………………….
 …………………………………….
 …………………………………….

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8 Write an essay in your own words focusing on or

choosing one of the following ideas:

 What does engineering mean to me?

 A good engineer must be able to have a

comprehensive vision of the world and his design

 Engineering is double edged

 Engineering means pushing out the very frontiers of

human achievements

 Engineering always means balancing conflicting

factors

 Engineering has gone a step too far

 The world today is forced to keep pace with

increasingly difficult technologies

 Bertrand Russell thinks that “although our age far

surpasses all previous ages in knowledge, there has
been no correlative increase in wisdom”.

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Write your cross-section to the questions

 Explain in detail why efficiency costs money, safety, ads complexity and
performance, increases weight. Is this always true?

 Can we state that the engineering solution to most problems is the “most desirable
end result, taking into account many factors?”

 Is it true that much of the opposition to science comes from those who have gained
little knowledge and education.

 If you have a degree in German Literature, or in any mental discipline, this equips
you to do the other. You could study the sciences because you have the necessary
analytical mind.

 Is science regarded as the discipline which could save the world or the discipline
we are afraid of? Science links and divides people thanks to the environmental and
the animal rights movements.

 Is science essential if the developing world is to become the developed world?

 Have we witnessed any sudden upsurge in interest in the sciences as a result of the
advances in technology?

 Why is Establishment frightened of science? Is there something frightening about

not wanting to know things which are evident, and always true? Why are we not
able to live with the truth?

 Should we all have an inkling of what is going on right now in the area of science?

 Why science as a discipline has not been brought out of the labs and research
rooms into the living-rooms?

 Few people have the privilege to write about new discoveries in science. The
world we live in today is shaped and affected by the discoveries (but not
inventions) of the pioneer scientists.

 John Newell said: “The same hormone in the human body equips us for flight,
fright and fight. Some people run away from science because it symbolises such
terrifying things: of getting to grips with the huge, mysterious thing that is
universe.” (London Calling, BBC World Service.)

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Presentations /Pair / Group Work

Write your own conclusion concerning the text Faith of the
Engineer

A Group Presentation
Answer the following questions

1. Is engineering ethics important for society as a whole?

2. How could engineers’ responsibility for safe design be nurtured?
3. How could we manage risk better?
4. Can we protect ourselves from unscrupulous competitors by setting high
product standards?
5. Are engineers morally required to act on the basis of professional codes and
canons?
6. Are they required to assume ethical responsibility for their activity?
7. Do you agree that the best basis for ethical responsibility is regulation and
law?
8. Do you think that the oath of the engineer is unnecessary because engineers,
in general, have an inner moral duty and conscience not to deceive?
9. If a product or structure is an enormous hazard, do we have a duty through
our individual consciousness to make the problem public or do we have to
protect our organization or company?
10. Should the “Oath of the Engineer” also embody the ethical commitments of
engineering professionals and reflect moral values and principles which are
to be put into practice.
11. Do you agree with the statement that the oath tells us what engineers stand
for when conducting business and that it enhances the sense of community
among members, of belonging to a group with common values and a
common mission? [3]
12. Do you also agree with the fact that the oath of the engineer deserves our
special attention because there are increasingly important new issues in
engineering professions lately?
13. In answers to the question why engineering schools and organizations in
Croatia should draw up the “oath of the engineer” and codes of the engineer,
we can say:
 to show moral maturity and responsibilities
 to promote high standards of engineering practice and “sustainable
development”
 to show that the profession's ethical standards conform to common
regulations and law
 to show that the profession’s ethical standards can even transcend
commonly accepted morality
 because ethical issues in new technologies must be resolved.

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Presentation
Whistleblowing
When an employee discovers unethical, immoral or illegal actions at work, the employee makes
a decision about what to do with this information. Whistleblowing is the term used to define an
employee’s decision to disclose this information to an authority figure (boss, media or
government official).
The purpose of this chapter is to learn more about how employees make their decisions to come
forward with potentially damaging information and in turn, avoid potentially unethical
employers.

1. Is “whistle blowing” regarded as responsible behavior towards

the public?
2. Should “whistle blowers” receive legal protection or should they
be regarded as obstructionists?
3. Can “whistle-blowing” be justified by arguments using a
moral theory?
4. Are engineers’ whistle-blowing rights protected in Croatia?
5. When should an employee blow the whistle? When should he
or she "keep quiet"?

Guidelines for Whistleblowing

Experts have set guidelines for whistleblowing. Some of those are listed below as
a guideline that will help an employee to determine if a situation merits
whistleblowing. Discuss them by using your own explanation.

1. Magnitude of consequences
An employee considering whistleblowing must ask himself or herself these questions: How much
harm has been done or might be done to victims? Will the victims really be "beneficiaries"? If
one person is or will be harmed, it is unlikely to be a situation that warrants whistleblowing.

2. Probability of effect
The probability that the action will actually take place and will cause harm to many people must
be considered. An employee should be very sure that the action in question will actually happen.
If the employee does not know if the action will happen and if the action will harm people (or the
environment), the employee should reconsider his or her plan to blow the whistle. In addition, the
employee must have absolute proof that the event will occur and that people (or the environment)
will be harmed.

3. Temporal immediacy
An employee must consider the length of time between the present and the possibly harmful
event. An employee must also consider the urgency of the problem in question. The more
immediate the consequences of the potentially unethical practice, the stronger the case for
whistleblowing. For example, the effects of toxic waste dumping that are likely to occur in a week
are more pressing than the firing of 100 employees next year.

4. Proximity
The physical closeness of the potential victims must be considered. For example, a company that
is depriving workers of medical benefits in a nearby town has a higher proximity than one 1,000
miles away. The question arises about matters of emotional proximity or situations in which the
ethical question relates to a victim with some emotional attachment to the whistleblower.

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5. Concentration of Effort
A person must determine the intensity of the unethical practice or behavior. The question is how
much intensity the specific infraction carries. For example, according to this principle, stealing
$1,000 from one person is more unethical than stealing $1 from 1,000 people.

By Lizabeth England; English Teaching Forum Online

Background Information

Whistleblowing leads to good and bad results. First, the benefits of carefully considered
whistleblowing can lead to the end of unethical business practices. The lives of individuals and
whole communities have been saved by whistleblowers. Severe damage to the environment has
been stopped by the actions of one individual who blew the whistle on an unethical employer.
Here are some examples of serious ethical violations that have resulted in whistleblowing. These
examples represent significant consequences to businesses:

 Dumping of toxic waste

 Padding an expense report
 Violating laws about hiring and firing
 Violating laws about workplace safety
 Violating health laws which lead to documented illness and even death

The actions of whistleblowers are potentially beneficial to society. Businesses that

engaged in unethical practices have been shut down because of the actions of whistleblowers.
Lives have been saved, and severe damage to the environment has been averted because of the
courage and persistence of whistleblowers.
At the same time, an employee who witnesses unethical business practices at work may
want to think carefully before making the decision to inform an authority of the practice. The
consequences of whistleblowing are often extreme and include possible firing, civil action, or
even imprisonment. Furthermore, an employee may want to follow the rule of "chain of
command" – that is, begin to discuss issues of whistleblowing with his or her immediate
supervisor first, before discussing the matter with anyone else. A great deal of information about
whistleblowing, whistleblower’s rights and protection, whistleblowers in many countries and in
many professions (sports, the tobacco industry, chemical industry, and even the government) is
available on the World Wide Web. A list of some of those sites, with links to others, appears later
in this chapter (see Internet Resources).
Company loyalty is an internationally held value. Employees want positive work
environments. Most workers do not like to have disagreements with their bosses. At the same
time, bosses and managers do not want employees to complain to others in the workplace about a
problem that the manager might be able to solve. Complaining to one’s colleagues can be harmful
to morale and should not be confused with careful thinking and action on behalf of unethical
business practices. One company’s unethical practices were uncovered by an employee who was
later fired for "blowing the whistle." No employee wants to be branded as having bad judgment.

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Discuss risk management and technical failures in groups

In conclusion, we classify any technical disaster and failures

into the following group:
the role of the human operator, technical design, organizational systems, and the role of
socio– cultural factors.
In recent years, numerous engineers have faced ethical dilemmas in which engineering
judgments ultimately led to technological disasters. The various technical design flaws
and technical miscalculations are cases in point.
Some of the risks now confronting humanity are global in nature and cannot be
mitigated by individual countries or even by regional communities. Unlike the risks of
previous civilizations, technological disasters are rooted in ecologically destructive
industrialization and are global, pervasive, long-term, incalculable, and often unknown.
Therefore,

Have a deep scrutiny and analyse radioactivity, chemical contamination,

and other risks

Presentation
Manhattan Project
The World War II Manhattan Project is known as the U.S government research project (1942-
45) that produced the first atomic bombs. Under Manhattan Project, the U.S. government built,
in a relatively short period, such facilities as production reactors, chemical-reprocessing plants,
test and research reactors, and weapons production facilities.
Oppenheimer (in J. Robert Oppenheimer (American physicist) ) participated in the efforts of
British and U.S. physicists to seek a way to harness nuclear energy for military purposes, an
effort that became known as the Manhattan Project. Oppenheimer was instructed to establish
and administer a laboratory to carry out this assignment.
The first atomic bomb was built in Los Alamos, N.M., during World War II under a program
called the Manhattan Project. Los Alamos was approved as the site for the main atomic bomb
scientific laboratory on Nov. 25, 1942, by Brig. Gen. Leslie R. Groves and physicist J. Robert
Oppenheimer and was given the code name Project Y. One bomb, using plutonium, was
successfully tested on July 16, 1945.
American scientists, many of them refugees from fascist regimes in Europe, took steps in 1939
to organize a project to exploit the newly recognized fission process for military purposes. The
first contact with the government was made by G.B. Pegram of Columbia University, who
arranged a conference between Enrico Fermi and the Navy Department in March 1939. In the
summer of 1939, Albert Einstein was persuaded by his fellow scientists to use his influence and
present the military potential of an uncontrolled fission chain reaction to President Franklin D.
Roosevelt. In February 1940, $6,000 was made available to start research under the supervision
of a committee headed by L.J. Briggs, director of the National Bureau of Standards. On
December 6, 1941, the project was put under the direction of the Office of Scientific Research
and Development, headed by Vannevar Bush.
From Encyclopedia Britannica on-line
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Electrical Safety Study Sheet

It only takes one time of disobeying or forgetting a safety rule for you to be seriously injured. If
we have a poor attitude about safety , we could hurt or even permanently disable ourselves or
some of our colleagues.
 The number one cause of accidents is a poor attitude. Mistakes cause accidents.
 If a machine doesn’t sound right, or if you can see something is wrong, tell the instructor
immediately.
 Before using any equipment, you should know where the fire extinguishers are located and how
to use them.
 Oily rags must be kept in a closed metal container to prevent spontaneous combustion.
 See to it that you and others stay out of the danger zones marked by red or red/white striped tape
around machines.
 If you have to leave a machine, turn it off and wait till it stops.
 Pull the plug, not the cord, when you unplug a machine.
 Your safety is everyone’s responsibility and others’ safety is everyone’s responsibility.
 Store all materials properly.
 A safety rule which applies to all power equipment is to never talk to a person while he/she is
operating a machine.
 While you are learning to operate power machinery, have the instructor check the setup before
turning the power on. When operating any machine, give it all of your attention.
 Chech all stocks for cracks, loose knots, and nails.
 If there is an accident, even a minor one, it should be reported immediately.
 The cord must be disconnected from the power source before changing bits, belts or blades.
 Damaging the cord of electrical hand-held tools may cause an electrical shock.
 Use only properly insulated or grounded tools.
 Take your time when working with tools.
 Plan your work; measure twice and cut once.
 Return all your tools to their proper places when you are finished using them.
 Always work in a dry area.
 Always short out large-value capacitors with the proper equipment.
 When checking voltage, always keep one hand behind you or in your pocket.
 Never use equipment that has had the ground prong removed from the plug.
 Never work on an electrical circuit with the power on.
 Never use any equipment without proper instruction first.
 Use caution when dealing with hot tubes and resistors; let them cool first.
 Less than one (1) ampere is enough electrical current to cause death.
 Always check a circuit for power before working on it.
 Never bypass or defeat a ground circuit.
 Wear proper clothing and eye protection.
 Never activate a circuit without first checking with the instructor.
 Never assume anything around electricity; check it for yourself.
 Wear rubber-soled shoes when working with electricity.
 Stand on a rubber mat when working with electrical tools and machines.
 Know where the circuit breakers are located and see that they are properly labeled.
 Consider all circuits live until confirmed personally.
 Never overload a circuit.

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Section 3
SCHEME AND PROCEDURAL
APPROACH OF WRITING AN
ABSTRACT
 If students cannot write properly, they will never be able to
express their ideas in clear, persuasive and effective ways.

 Some common grammatical errors may be acceptable in

conversation but not in writing.Therefore, check your drafts to
catch awkward wording or sentence structure.

 Students have to distinguish between language used in

conversation and that used in writing. Clearly, clarity and
simplicity are always preferable to complexity. The academic tone
in writing will be studied, identified and defined. Also, students
have to distinguish between central, essential, main points and
ideas and the most important supporting or peripheral ideas.

 How to summarize in writing? Students can summarize an article

in 80-100 words. In this way, it is important to isolate primary,
secondary, and tertiary issues. Also, the right idiom for the type of
writing must be learned.

 Examine the roles played by sentences, paragraphs, parentheses,

footnotes, chapters, prefaces and conclusions. Students are
encouraged to think in terms of paragraphs. What function is
served by particular paragraphs. Do they explain, inform or
persuade?

 What is the logic behind footnoting and other conventions of

academic writing?

 The first time students are given a writing assignment, they have
to examine the issues they need to consider, e.g. study the
essentials of good writing that are the same under all
circumstances.

 Common mistakes the students make are:

- inconsistency in verb tense
- confusion of singular and plural
- common spelling mistakes, not to rely on computer spell checkers
- eliminate intensifiers as „very“ etc.
- use the right idiom
- the logic of the presentation
- cohesion

 Reread your first draft

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When writing an abstract of an engineering text, reduce the volume

of the text by keeping the following levels in mind:
1 Write the title, the topic in block letters;
If small letters are used all the initials of the words are written in capital
letters except the prepositions, conjunctions and articles; the title must be
as short as possible containing primarily the novelty of the information, a
new piece of information, the essence and the main idea of the article
content that is further elaborated in the body of the abstract;

2 Write key words, i.e. the basic engineering concepts;

Set up relations between the concepts so as to convey concise, clear and
precise information.

3 Select only the essential information of the article (cca 100

words);

4 Organize the form of the summary i.e. divide the text into:
a) the introduction, i.e. the relevant essential or core idea
b) the body which supports the basic information of the article
c) the conclusion

5 Coherence or cohesion of the summary must be ensured:

by keeping the order and logic of the article content so that one sentence
must be logically and semantically linked with another sentence;
Cohesion may be realized by reference, by the pronouns “this” and
“these”, by inter sentential links known as sentence linkers, by
synonymous expressions, etc.;

6 Engineering concepts must be properly matched by the appropriate

language structures and the type of discourse used, e. g. descriptive,
expository, informative, argumentative, chronological, experiment-
result oriented, etc.

7 There are two types of abstract predominantly used in technical English:

a) the topic oriented abstract, used in the written form, where information
content is reported as given by the article;
b) the author (paper, article) oriented abstract, used in the oral report, in
which the content is reported from the point of view of the author.

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A LIST OF INTRODUCTORY PHRASES:

This paper deals with …and considers … discusses…..

This paper is concerned with …
The concern of the article is ...
The focus is on the following aspects …
This paper sets out to examine …
The most interesting aspects are …
This paper discusses …
The object of this article is …
The subject of this article is …
It is the chief aim of this paper to …
The main aim of this article is ….
This paper treats the problem …..
This article gives a survey of …
The article presents an overview of …
This article provides a short account of …
The basic principles of text ….
The only criterion in this article is ….
In this paper it is shown how ….
It is argued that there is …
This report explains the method …
A short description is given of ….
A general survey is given of …
The following can be singled out ….
In this article some basic concepts …are given and it is shown how
….
In this paper a new formula, a method for …. is derived and
described.
The first part of this article offers an exhaustive analysis of …
The only criterion elaborated in this text is ….
The following can be singled out in this article …
From the insight gained into discourse structures a synthesis may be
deduced

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Sentence Linkers

1. To show addition: and, besides, again, additionally, in addition to this,

furthermore, moreover, as well as, also, apart from, except for, possibly, more
surprising, another point is that
2. To show contrast: but, however, nevertheless, despite, yet, otherwise, in
spite of, unlike, while, whereas, whilst, instead, on the other hand, in contrast
to, as contrasted to, by way of contrast, by contrast, as opposed to, on the
contrary, fortunately, alternately, irrespective of, notwithstanding, regardless of,
except, conversely, it is very unlikely, rather
3. To show comparison: like, in like manner, similarly, unlike, in the same
way, so, likewise, correspondingly, in comparison with this, regardless,
regarding
4. To show emphasis: in fact, actually, as a matter of fact, certainly, indeed,
above all, clearly, obviously, really, surely, significantly, rather (štoviše,
zapravo), more importantly, it is worth remembering, naturally, of course
put otherwise
5. To show concession: even though, although, though, despite this
6. To introduce an example: for example, e.g. (= exampli gratia), in particular,
for instance, i.e. (=id est., or that is), in other words, viz. (= vide licet, that is to
say); namely, put another way, rather (bolje rečeno, bolje reći)
7. To introduce reason or result: thus, as a result, therefore, so, hence,
consequently, accordingly, because of this, on account of, for this reason, due
to, given (the fact), in as much as, in so far as, owing to, since, then, it follows
that, no doubt
8. To introduce conclusion: in summary, in conclusion, (taken) as a whole,
taken together, finally, briefly, to sum up, to summarize, on the whole, in short,
overall, interestingly, we can conclude
9. To show sequence: in the beginning, at first, initially, first(ly), second(ly),
subsequently, next, afterwards, then, eventually, finally, later on, ultimately, at
last, not suprisingly
10. To show a cause – effect: due to, owing to, because of, on account of,
since,
11. To show condition: if, unless (if not), provided that, on condition, providing
12 To show doubt or hypothesis: possibly, probably, maybe

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ASSIGNMENTS
Write the abstracts of the following
texts:

a) Text A
Fighting Noise with Antinoise
b) Text B
Environmental and Resource Protection - Strategies
for More Sustainability

c) Text C
Keeping In Touch

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The Science of SOUND

Sound plays a vital part in our lives, but how much do we really know about it?We could
begin some investigation into the subject, from the mysterious songs of the humpback
whale to the stressful effects of noise pollution in our cities. We can take a journey through
the middle ear and eavedrop on echo-locating bats; we could examine the way animals and
humans communicate through sound, we could hear a range of singing styles from around
the world, extremes of sound could also be under investigation from the ultrasonic chatter
of rats and mice to the infrasonic calls of the elephant. There is the healing power of sound
and music on the one hand and its irritation factor on the other. The text you have just read
has helped you understand a lot more about sound/noise control.

Noise Pollution
Noise pollution (or environmental noise) is displeasing human or machine created
sound that disrupts the activity or happiness of human or animal life. A common form
of noise pollution is from transportation, principally motor vehicles.

an·ti·noise
adj.
1. Designed to reduce environmental noise
2. Capable of neutralizing the sound of another noise.
n.
A technique for neutralizing unwanted sound, in which a second sound wave, identical
to but out of phase with the unwanted sound, is used to cancel the unwanted sound.
Active noise control (ANC) (also known as noise cancellation, active noise reduction
(ANR) or antinoise) is a method for reducing unwanted sound.

Explanation

Sound is a pressure wave, which consists of a compression phase and a rarefaction

phase. A noise-cancellation speaker emits a sound wave with the same amplitude and the
opposite polarity (in antiphase) to the original sound. The waves combine to form a new
wave, in a process called interference, and effectively cancel each other out - an effect which
is called phase cancellation. Depending on the circumstances and the method used, the
resulting sound wave may be so faint as to be inaudible to human ears.
A noise-cancellation speaker may be co-located with the sound source to be
attenuated. In this case it must have the same audio power level as the source of the unwanted
sound. Alternatively, the transducer emitting the cancellation signal may be located at the
location where sound attenuation is wanted (e.g. the user's ear). This requires a much lower
power level for cancellation but is effective only for a single user. Noise cancellation at other
locations is more difficult as the three dimensional wave fronts of the unwanted sound and
the cancellation signal could match and create alternating zones of constructive and
destructive interference. In small enclosed spaces (e.g. the passenger compartment of a car)
such global cancellation can be achieved via multiple speakers and feedback microphones,
and measurement of the modal responses of the enclosure.
Modern active noise control is achieved through the use of a computer, which
analyzes the waveform of the background aural or non-aural noise, then generates a
polarisation reversed waveform to cancel it out by interference. This waveform has identical
or directly proportional amplitude to the waveform of the original noise, but its polarity is
reversed. This creates the destructive interference that reduces the amplitude of the perceived
noise.
What could you tell about applications of noise-cancelling
headphones?
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Study the following wordlist of the text - Fighting Noise

with Antinoise
din a loud, continuous, deafening sound, painful to the ears
noise loud shouting, a sound of any kind, (the noise of
the rain)
uproar loud, confused sound as of shouting, laughing
clamour loud shouting as in protest
drumming engine noise a loud, reverberating sound and noise made by an
engine ANT. quiet
electronic mufflers any of various devices for silencing, suppressing noises; a larger
section with a baffler or baffles in the exhaust pipe of an
internal-combustion engine.
muffle suppress the sound
Syn. to deaden, mute, soften, silence, weaken, reduce, suppress the sound
soften reduce, weaken
baffle to hinder, impede, interfere with
midair any point in space, not in contact with the ground or other
do not confuse with middle ear (see also external ear and
inner ear)
matte not shiny or glossy; dull
headsets earphones, often with a mouthpiece transmitter
attached;
earmuffs cloth or fur coverings worn over the ears to keep them
warm in cold weather
airport baggage handlers a person that handles the baggage
whine whiz, hiss, whistle, whisper
rumble to make a deep, heavy, continuous, rolling sound as thunder
deafen to make deaf
deaf unable to hear, deaf to her pleads
slinky sinuous and graceful in movement
seesaw a plank used by children at play to ride the ends so that
when one goes up,the other comes down; ljuljačka;
mute unable to speak, deaf from infancy, deaf-mute
mute soften or muffle the sound
blast to make a loud, harsh sound
eavesdropping devices device for listening secretly to the privateconversation of
others;
eavesdropper lit. one who stands on the eavesdrop to listen
muzzle straps fastened over the mouth of an animal to prevent its
biting; anything that prevents free speech or discussion

Give definitions for the following words:

antinoise devices, noise suppression, din, electronic mufflers, muffle, rumble, deaf, mute,
seesaw, eavesdropping devices, muzzle, mute

Translate into Croatian the following phrases:

matte-black headsets
offending sounds in midair
deafening din
hazardous noise levels
undulating
Slinkies or jump ropes
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mirror-image waves
combat cockpit noise
air ducts
dampen
computerized silencers
electronically muzzled
run silent
repetitive noise,
random or unexpected noises
none of the antinoise devices is currently on the market
high-pitched squeals and whistles

An example of abstract scheme:

At the beginning of the article the author gives the fundamental idea, essential
relations between … and the … . Moreover, fundamentals of … are given in order to
Then he shows the close relationship which exists between …and …. Some data
related to …are also offered.
Finally, the necessary steps for … are defined in order to ….
In the conclusion the author underlines the impact of … on

An example of the abstract (110 words)

This article is concerned with reducing noise level by using

earphones, which generate sound waves 180 ° out of phase with
the noise that should be blocked. Thus, the noise wave and the
generated waves cancel each other out and no noise is heard.
This phenomenon is known as destructive interference.

The main use of these earphones is to block excessive noise in

the airplane and helicopter cockpits. However, this device is not
perfect, because it cannot block very high-pitched noise.

It is worth mentioning that there are many companies working on

the anti-noise systems, so that the first one to develop a perfect
system will make a fortune.

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B Group Presentation
Read the text and research the most important strategies for more
sustainability that could also be implemented in Croatia; Jot down these
strategies in note form

Environmental and Resource Protection - Strategies for More

Sustainability
By Martin Orth

What can stop climate change?

Which forms of energy will we use in the future?
How can everyone be assured access to enough water?
These important questions are closely linked to environmental and climate
protection

In the spring of 2008 Time Magazine ran the headline “Lessons from Germany”. In
the article that followed, the renowned US magazine gave detailed answers to the
question: “What can Americans learn from Europe’s most populous country?” It
informed its readers about how Germany saves energy, lowers carbon dioxide
emissions and generates power from renewable energy sources. “Germany cut its
greenhouse-gas emissions by 18% between 1990 and 2005,”the magazine writes,
“while emissions in the USA rose by 16% in the same period.”Time Magazine paints
a picture of a new Germany where wind farms, biogas plants and solar roofs have
become a normal part of the landscape. The main point made by the article is that the
German Federal Government paved the way for change early on. It introduced an
eco-tax to reduce oil consumption. It built up a recycling system to conserve
resources and re-use raw materials. And above all, it passed the Renewable Energy
Act (EEG).

Indeed, the EEG, which came into force in 2000, is at the heart of German energy and
climate policy. It encourages citizens, businesses and local authorities to generate
electricity for themselves from renewable sources and to sell any excess on to the
power utilities. Some people have been making a tidy profit out this scheme. And the
proportion of power consumption generated by renewables has risen to 14% within a
few years. The target is 25 to 30% by 2020. In the meantime, 47 countries have
themselves passed legislation modelled on the German Renewable Energy Act. After
all, not only the climate benefits from the programme of market incentives, but also
the economy. One in three solar cells and almost half the world’s wind turbines are
made in Germany. The German “greentech” industry is the technology leader.
According to a recent study, by 2020 it will have the potential to take over from the
successful mechanical-engineering and automotive industries as the biggest employer
in Germany. “Environmental protection and jobs are not a contradiction. On the
contrary, the two are mutually dependent on a global scale,”says Sigmar Gabriel,
Germany’s Federal Minister for the Environment. People are already talking about
the “third industrial revolution”.

The idea is not as utopian as it may sound, because protecting the environment and
climate is one of the greatest global challenges of the 21st century and will require
enormous efforts.
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How can climate change be stopped?

What will be our sources of energy in the future?
How can an equitable and sufficient supply of water and food be assured
for the world’s growing population?
These are the most pressing issues of our time. Consequently, environmental protection
has become an important part of German foreign policy. Diplomats speak of “foreign
policy for environmental protection”, and mean a three-pronged approach consisting of
“future provision, conflict prevention and active security policy”. After all,
environmental issues (e.g. unfair distribution of water) can lead to considerable social
and political tensions. The Federal Foreign Office is therefore promoting international
environmental protection on many levels, be it in negotiations on international
environmental agreements or by organizing conferences.

Only this April, 150 business and political leaders from the five Central Asian countries
were guests of the Federal Foreign Office in Berlin for the “Water Unites” conference.
This meeting launched the “Central Asia Water Initiative”, which comprises a wide
range of collaborations and support measures to counteract the negative consequences
of water shortages in the region.

Energy and climate policy was at the centre of the environmental issues discussed –a
field in which Germany is taking on a pioneering role with its ambitious reduction
targets in the fight against climate change. Germany is already very close to delivering
on the commitment it made in the Kyoto Protocol to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions
by 21% by 2012. Furthermore, Germany is second only to Sweden in the 2008 global
Climate Protection Index, which rates the performance of 56 countries in climate
protection. In its efforts Germany applies a dual strategy of improving energy and
resource efficiency and expanding the use of renewable energies and renewable
primary products. The country is also taking the lead within the European Union. If
other countries are prepared to follow suit, Germany has said it is prepared to aim for
even higher targets than some of those specified by the EU, which envisage a 20%
reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2020 compared to the figure for 1990, raising
renewable energy’s share of the energy mix to 20%, and reducing energy consumption
by 20%. On Germany’s initiative the heads of state and government of the eight leading
industrial nations (G8) have agreed to halve CO2 emissions by 2050. The aim here is to
limit the rise in the average global temperature to two degrees.

Germany is also intensely involved in the preparations for the 2009 Copenhagen
Climate Conference. The key issue there will be reaching agreement on a new,
comprehensive climate-protection regime to avoid international climate protection
efforts coming to a standstill after the 2012 Kyoto Protocol runs out. The integration of
economically advanced NICs (newly industrializing countries) such as China, India,
South Africa, Brazil and Mexico will be high of the agenda in this context. After all, the
global challenge of climate protection cannot be mastered without these partner
countries.
July 28, 2008© Deutschland Magazine www.magazine-deutschland.de

sustainable development = održivi razvoj

sustainability = održivost

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TEXT B
Abstract

Key Words
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Essential Idea
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Supporting Information
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................................................................................................................................................

Conclusion
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C Group Presentation
Keeping in touch
A product doesn't just disappear into the ether after design; it leaves
tracks to follow in the real world. By Jean Thilmany, Associate
Editor

Write subtitles for each paragraph

……………………………………………………………………………………

TECHNOLOGY THAT HELPS ENGINEERS pass design ideas back and forth
and brainstorm with others involved in a project can be harnessed down the
line in a product's life to provide much-needed information about those early
days. Equally important, it can encourage engineers involved at the beginning of
a product— during its design—to think about how it will be used during its
entire life. It's sort of like making sure that children are inoculated against
diseases they might encounter later in life.
By using technology to forecast and plan for the uses of products such as
computers and automobiles before they're even created, engineers and
manufacturers can minimize the environmental impact the products will have at
the end of their useful lives. And the same technology used in product creation,
called product lifecycle management, or PLM, software, can be reactivated
farther down a product's life—for instance, when the owner of a Peugeot wants
to find out what's causing that billowing smoke from the exhaust.
PLM isn't always thought of as forward-thinking technology because it's used
mainly at the front end of product creation. But it leaves a rich trail of
information about original design and marketing intent that can be called upon
later.

……………………………………………………………………………………

Some companies couple PLM—which allows engineers and manufacturers to

exchange design files and communicate about product development—with a
mix of other technologies to forecast a product's life and to come up with more
environmentally friendly products. Companies, such as the French automaker
Peugeot, use a blend of technologies, including PLM, to give them contact with
products long after they've been driven off the lot. Peugeot s technology, from
IBM, uses a vehicle's original engineering and bill of materials information to
troubleshoot problems that crop up for owners anywhere down the road.
PLM also comes into play in a method of environmentally friendly product
design called design for the environment. Government agencies and some
manufacturers have found economic value in designing and manufacturing
products with parts that can be recycled after the product is at the end of its
service life. Recycled parts might take their place as material in a new product,

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rather than be tossed into a landfill, according to the Minnesota Office of

Environmental Assistance.

……………………………………………………………………………………

Ironically, it's the quickly changing technology landscape, in which new

software applications and computer upgrades are introduced at ever-faster
rates, that takes a heavy toll on the environment. It does so by introducing
heavy and toxic metals into the waste stream, according to several studies,
which say that the need to design products made partly of reused material is
crucial to America's current technological state. Each computer or television
display contains an average of 4 to 8 pounds of lead. Cathode ray tubes used in
computer monitors and TV sets are hazardous waste, which is banned from
California landfills, according to a March 2001 letter from the California
Department of Toxic Substances Control.
Computers are discarded fairly rapidly these days, what with constant
innovation and greater affordability. About 315 million computers will have
become obsolete between 1997 and 2004, and together they'll contain more
than 1.2 billion pounds of lead, according to the letter.

……………………………………………………………………………………

The Minnesota Office of Environmental Assistance urges manufacturers to

harness product lifecycle management technology to help reduce this
technological waste. In design for environment, PLM is helpful in the very
early design stages by cuing engineers as they track design changes and
exchange information to consider the environmental impacts of a product
throughout its lifecycle.
Potential environmental impacts range from the release of toxic chemicals into
the waste stream to consumption of nonrenewable resources and excessive
energy use, according to the Minnesota OEA. So, product lifecycle
management might be used to link engineers and manufacturers while they
design and produce a computer made with less lead, or one that runs on less
energy than past models. Used this way, a PLM software application ties
together all stages of design and manufacturing in determining the most
environmentally sound method of production and the most suitable materials,
both for the product and for the environment.
Because mechanical and manufacturing engineers, designers, marketers, and
many others are involved in creating a product, a PLM system helps these
people exchange plans and ideas via the Internet, whatever their location, to
brainstorm design and manufacturing.

……………………………………………………………………………………

ASSESSING ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

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The Minnesota environmental office defines five stages of a product's life. In

each stage, the PLM system can be used to consider the product's
environmental impact.
During the design stage, for example, engineers determine the raw materials
that will make up the product. They can choose low-impact materials that can
be more readily recycled than other materials. At manufacture, engineers can
find methods of making products that use less energy than other production
methods.
The packaging and distribution stage is the point at which the product can be
minimally packaged and sent on an efficiently planned delivery route.
The Minnesota OEA defines the use and maintenance stage as the time after the
customer buys the product until the customer is ready to dispose of it. Here,
technologies tied to the PLM system, like the one used at Peugeot, come into
play.
At the end of its life, the product, of course, is recycled, remanufactured, or
sent to a dump or incinerator. If engineers chose to use easily recyclable
products during product creation, fewer materials wind up in a landfill.

……………………………………………………………………………………
Other nations have already passed laws that stipulate design for environment,
such as Japan's Electric Home Appliance Recycling Law that took effect last
year. Under the law, manufacturers must ensure that their product is recycled
when it can't be used anymore. A take-back scheme has to be in place, too, so
the product can be easily dropped off for recycling.
Since 1991, Germany, the first nation to pass packaging laws, has required
manufacturers to assume the costs of collecting and recycling used packaging.
The French automaker PSA Peugeot Citroen has found a way to incorporate its
PLM system during the use and maintenance stage of its vehicles' lives. At that
stage, when a customer is using the product on a regular basis, it might become
easy for the manufacturer to be out of the loop.

……………………………………………………………………………………

But Peugeot is using a technology system called Tele-Assistance that ties

together a blend of software and hardware applications, including the PLM
system, to remotely diagnose vehicles that might have been sold years ago. The
system, which is hooked up to the car while it's in the garage for repair, uses
the vehicle's original bill of materials and information about its current
operating state to help find and fix problems. In some particularly hard-to-
diagnose cases, the engineer who helped design the vehicle might even be
consulted via the Internet.
"We give the service technician everything that he needs to do a particular
repair job," said Alan Chakra, the director of IBM's Service After Sales
Solutions division, which provides the technology to Peugeot. IBM's PLM
team, which makes Enovia software, also helped to develop the system.

……………………………………………………………………………………

Chakra s division makes software that focuses on a product during what he calls
its service lifecycle; that is, during its use by consumers. Such technology helps
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cut warranty expenses for manufacturers, reduces labor costs, increases parts
and service business after the warranty expires, and saves time needed to solve
repair problems, he said.
"Let's say you have a Peugeot of some kind and you go into the dealership to
get it fixed," Chakra said. "The technician may not have seen a case like this, so
he might try many things to see if they work."
But using Tele-Assistance, in place at Peugeot since 1999, the technician enters
into the computer vehicle serial number and, like a doctor, also enters a list
of symptoms (black smoke billows from the exhaust pipe when the car is
moving, for example). The system tells him of any part recalls that might be
affecting the vehicle.

……………………………………………………………………………………

If a recalled part isn't the problem, the technician then plugs what's called a
diagnostic connector under the dashboard and plugs the other end into a
computer attached to the Tele-Assistance server. The connector loads all the
codes from the vehicle's many minicomputers into the system. This is like taking
an X-ray of the vehicle. All its internal workings are documented and displayed
on a screen viewed by an off-site expert who helps with diagnosis.
"If a sensor has failed, it says why it failed, what time it failed, and under what
load it failed," Chakra said. "We know everything that's inside this particular
vehicle, and we've got the BOM, so we know how it's supposed to run. We
know what software components are in the control unit. Based on that, the
server builds a profile for this particular vehicle."
The system houses information on thousands of other cars of the same make and
model as the one in the garage, Chakra said. It's a veritable database of past
problems with similar cars, attendant information on why those problems
cropped up, and how they were successfully repaired.

……………………………………………………………………………………

"The reason Peugeot launched this technology in the first place is because its
vehicles went from one computer on board, to vehicles with a local area network
on board, to what they call a canbus—a controller area network," Chakra
said. "In these cars you can get up to 30 computers connected on a network. One
computer operates the security system, one the dashboard, one the radio, another
window, another engine.
"Peugeot needed some kind of software to support this copulation of highly
complex vehicles," he said.
Eight thousand Peugeot automobiles are made every lay, said Jean-Philippe
Fournier, Peugeot's technical director for parts and services. The system has
allowed Peugeot technicians to diagnose and repair 80 percent of its cars within
one day, rather than the several days it might take without the Tele-Assistance
system, he said.

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REPAIRING A CAR ONLINE

Let's say a vehicle fails in Sao Paolo," Chakra said. "If the technician can't fix it,
he can call a number and speak to someone who speaks his language."
The expert on the other end of the line is certified by the National Institute for
Automotive Service Excellence. He or she requests the dealership identification
number, asks about the issue at hand, and then consults a computer that shows—
lives via the Internet—all the data coming from the vehicle.
"So the expert is doing diagnostics on the vehicle with the technician on the
line with him," Chakra said. The expert has easy access to these 10,000 past
cases in the system. He can tell the technician, 'Okay, we've seen this before.
This is what you do.' "
If the diagnostic expert can't fix the problem, the engineers who originally
worked on the vehicle can be consulted. The minute the vehicle is fixed, the
system is automatically updated to include the new solution in its database for
future reference.

…………………………………………………………………………………….

The Tele-Assistance system grew out of similar technology developed at IBM

and used for the computers it makes, Chakra said. IBM servers that use the
technology send a message—usually via a pager or cellular phone— when one
of their parts is about to go bad.
"When you have a server supporting a company that has 10,000 workstations
attached to it, you can't afford to have the server go down," Chakra said. "So the
server is attached to a diagnostic server. Before the server starts having
problems, it can say, 'I'm getting ready to fail. I have a component ready to fail.'
"IBM ships the necessary part to the customer before you have a failure. That's
the whole idea that spawned the automaker idea," he added.

................................................................................................................................

The remote monitoring component is the next step in the Tele-Assistance

system, Chakra added. IBM officials next envision a wireless link that connects
the vehicle, via a cellular telephone, to a customer support center. Computers
at the center would monitor the vehicle to see if a part is about to break or a
sensor is ready to fail.
If something is about to go wrong, the driver would get a phone call that says,
for example, the engine is about ready to overheat or the clutch is starting to
slip. Taking advantage of global positioning technology, the system could also
tell the driver where the nearest Peugeot service center is and exactly how to get
there.
Sales and marketing people are currently using the Tele-Assistance system at
Peugeot to profile vehicles. They can figure out how long, on average, a model
will run until it needs servicing. Chakra expects the system to be used for more
marketing efforts in the future.
PLM technology, often thought of as a tool that's useful in the first stages of
product design and manufacture, is now being used to project a product's life, to
follow a product even after it's sold, and to ensure an environmentally sound
product in the first place.
September 2002, Mechanical Engineering
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Vocabulary List
brainstorm a sudden inspiration, idea, or plan
harness to control so as to use the power of (to harness one’s energy)
inoculated to introduce ideas
billowing a large wave,
forecast to plan in advance; foresee
the lot a quantity of material processed or manufactured at the same time
troubleshot to detect and correct faults
troubleshootera person who locates and repairs mechanical breakdowns; a person charged
with locating and eliminating the source of trouble in any flow of work
crop up appear or arise unexpectedly
service life life of the vehicle in service
in service in use; functioning: said esp. of an appliance, vehicle, etc.
toss to throw lightly or carelessly
computer upgrades improved computers
on the upgrade improving, making progress
upgrade raise to a higher grades
hazardous waste risky, dangerous, useless, superfluous or discarded material, as garbage,
sewage
obsolete no longer in general use; of a discarded or outmoded type; out of date
cue to insert and direct engineers to come in a specific place
make up form, compose, constitute
dispose of get rid of
dump heap of rubbish; place where rubbish, etc. may be unloaded and left
incinerator furnace, enclosed fireplace for burning rubbish
wind up come or bring to an end – a landfill
landfill the disposal of garbage or rubbish by burring it under a shallow layer of
ground
stipulate put forward, insist upon
veritable real, rightly named
hook up any combination of created parts; a connection, the elements as set up for
operation
bill of material written statement of charges for goods delivered or services rendered
warrantly written or printed guarantee to repair or replace defective goods
expire come to an end When does your driving license expire?
recall revoking something
attendant information accompanying information
controller area network
spawn produce in great numbers
envision to picture mentally
slip

Translate into Croatian

forward-thinking technology …………………………………………………………..

environmentally friendly …………………………………………………………..

at ever-faster rates …………………………………………………………..

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It takes a heavy toll on the environment ……………………………………………………

environmental impact ………………………………………………………….

throughout its lifecycle ………………………………………………………….

non-renewable resources ………………………………………………………….

excessive energy use …………………………………………………………..

low-impact materials can more readily be recycled than other materials

………………………………………………………….

pass the law ………………………………………………………….

take effect …………………………………………………………..

the product can be dropped off for recycling. ……………………………………………….

be tossed into a landfill ………………………………………………………….

wind up in a landfill ………………………………………………………….

current operating state ………………………………………………………….

veritable database of past problems ………………………………………………………..

environmentally sound project ………………………………………………………………

service lifecycle …………………………………………………………………..

Translate the following sentence into Croatian:

The system, which is hooked up to the car while it's in the garage for repair, uses the vehicle's
original bill of materials and information about its current operating state to help find and fix
problems

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

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WORD FORMATION
to afford affordability affordable
to sustain sustainability sustainable
to know knowledge knowledgable

TEXT C
Abstract

Key Words
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Essential Idea
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Supporting Information
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Conclusion

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Group Presentation
RETURN OF THE ICONS
Should mechanical/electrical engineering/engineers have an icon to call their own? Some
engineers can convey to the general public the essence of what they do with a simple
image – a bridge, an airplane, a computer.
„It appears that other engineering disciplines do a much better job in defining their
disciplines for non-engineers with certain distinguishing icons,“ Satyandra K. Gupta
wrote in Mechanical Engineering Magazine. „What should serve as an icon for
mechanical/electrical engineering?“
We put that question to the readers of Mechanical Engineering Magazine Online and for
the past several months they have been answering with their ideas. While there was no
overwhelming favorite so far, a few solid proposals kept recurring. Since the majority of
those questioned agreed that mechanical engieers should have an icon of some sort, we
wanted to narrow the field down to five semi-finalists.
There were, of course, many more than five submitted suggestions. They ranged from the
Rubik’s Cube to the aircraft carrier to a picture of Earth. But the five listed below seem to
capture the gist of what our readers were driving at in coming up with a mechanical
engineering icon.
Perhaps the most basic of the candidate icons is the wheel, which was suggested in a
number of comments. „The development of the wheel by ancient people later on opened
the door to human development,“ wrote one person in the comments on our Web site.
Another reader pointed out that without the wheel, the work of the civil, aerospace, and
electrical engineers would be impossible.
Another suggested icon was the hexagonal nut and bolt. Fasteners like this are
ubiquitous in modern society, the argument in favour of this icon went, and the hexagoon
already conveys mechanical or industrial meaning to wide swath of the population.
A number of different engines or turbines received votes, though it wasn't always clear
what exact icon was being suggested. „Engines and turbines exhibit how a few of our
broad fields harness and conserve energy,“ one commenter wrote.
Perhaps the most popular suggestion was to use the gear as the icon of mechanical
engineering. What seemed to appeal the most to those who suggested the gear was its
basic simplicity. „Gears represent physical contact,“ wrote one person. „The gear
represents motion, machines, and mechanics,“ wrote another.
„The reason I suggest the gear,“ added another reader, „is because most mechanical
eyuipment is in motion and the gear is the only mechanical component that is used
evrywhere, whether in automobiles, airplanes, or in much smaller devices.“
A popular nominee is the icon that Gupta suggested in his original article: the robot. „A
robot is a device that has unlimited possibilities for implementation,“ wrote one reader.
So, for the next Question of the Month, we pose this:Do any of the above objects rise to
the level of being an icon for mechanical engineering? If the goal is, „to justify why
mechanical engineering fundamentals are critical pieces of knowledge that are needed to

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confront some og the biggest challenges of the 21st century,“ does the weel or the gear or
any other proposed icons actually accomplish that?

You'll report back on your decision in your own composition. Write

your own ideas on this subject.

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Lecture 4

Section 1
Some Basic Concepts about Electrical and
Electronic Engineering

Section 2
Electron Theory

Section 3
Conductivity

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Section 1
Core Text 1
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS ABOUT ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

Electrical energy is the universal servant of twentieth century civilization. We take for
granted its availability; that is, we expect that the energy obtained from distant coal beds
or waterfalls or atomic reactors will be economically and dependably transported in
electrical form whereever we need it. We are long accustomed to its usefulness for
simple but more or less strenuous tasks such as turning factory wheels, lathes,
centrifuges, and washing machines. We take for granted its versatility and its easy
conversion, not only to mechanical energy in motors, but to heat energy in ovens, sound
energy in loudspeakers, and light energy in lamps.

In addition to ease of transmission and conversion, electrical energy has another

advantage of paramount importance for present-day applications. This is the ease with
which it can be controlled — one is almost tempted to say "educated". Accurate and
delicate modulation of electrical energy is the basis of high-fidelity sound reproduction
and of television. The steering of missiles, the transmission of information from
satellites, the solution of involved mathematical problems by electronic computers,
and the automatic control of complicated manufacturing processes are some of the more
intricate jobs now performed by electrical devices.

It is important to recognize at the outset that all electrical theory is based on experiment
and elaborate codification of the results. The answer to the question "How do we know
this?" is commonly "Many people tried it, and this is what happened". Even today we
do not take steps into the unknown without thorough checking in the laboratory.

The primary concern of electrical engineering is the doing of work by the delivery of
energy in the right place, and at sufficient power for any of a multitude of purposes.

The most elemental electrical quantity is electric charge, or quantity of electricity.

We have all heard of a variety of charged particles which are among the fundamental
building blocks of matter — electrons, protons, positrons, etc. We can readily
visualize an object, such as a metal sphere or a wire, carrying a charge. We find it
difficult or impossible, however, to visualize the charge itself divorced from the particle
or object. We can obtain an intimate knowledge of electric charges and of electricity in
general only by studying their effects.

One of the first facts scientists found out by studying the effects of electric charges is
that those charges are of two different kinds. These kinds were arbitrarily called positive
and negative. As it turned out, the electron is a negatively charged particle. We
know now that an uncharged body contains — is, in fact, composed of positively and
negatively charged particles, the pluses and minuses just balancing. A body is ordinarily
positively charged because of a deficiency of electrons as compared with positive
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charges. A negative charge means an excess of electrons. Charge is usually

denoted by the letter Q and is ordinarily measured in coulombs. The charge on an
electron is 1.591 • 10 -19 coulomb. That is, about 6.3 • 1018 (6.3 billion billion)
electrons are required to form a quantity of electricity equal to one coulomb.

The most significant effect of an electric charge is that it can produce a force.
Specifically, a charge will repel other charges of the same sign; it will attract
other charges of the opposite sign. Since the charge on an electron is negative,
any charge which attracts (and is attracted by) an electron is accordingly a
positive charge. The magnitude of the force between two charged bodies is
proportional to the square of the distance between them. That is, the force F
between two charged bodies having charges Q 1 and Q2 is given by

F=k Q1Q2/d2

where d is the distance between the charges and k is a constant depending on the units
used and the medium surrounding the charges. The equation is known as Coulomb's
law. The situation that it defines can be described by saying that there is a region of
influence in the neighbourhood of an electric charge wherein a force will be exerted
when another charge is introduced. The force will grow progressively weaker as the new
charge is placed in more remote positions. Such a region of influence is often called a
field. The field set up by the presence of electric charges is an electric field.

Electric current. For engineering purposes we are more interested in charges in

motion than in charges at rest because of the energy transfer which may be involved
with moving charges. We are particularly interested in those situations where the motion
is confined to a definite path formed by materials such as copper and aluminium, which
experience has shown to be good conductors of electricity. By way of contrast, other
materials, such as porcelain, mica, glass, and, under many conditions, air, are known to
be extremely poor conductors. They are called insulators and are used to confine the
electricity to the specific conducting paths by forming barriers to departure from
these paths. The paths are called circuits. The rate of motion of charge in a circuit is
called current. The unit of current is the ampere. One ampere exists when the charge
flows at the rate of one coulomb per second.

In a direct current the flow of charges is all in one direction for the period of time under
consideration. In an alternating current the charges flow first in one direction and
then in the other, repeating this cycle with a definite frequency. The practical
usefulness of an electric current is the result of the effects which it causes, effects
which have been discovered and studied in the huge mass of experimentation over the
years. Two effects which are of great practical and economic importance are the
following:
1. Heat is produced by the passage of a current through a
conductor.
2. A second type of field of force comes into being in the vicinity of a current carrying
conductor, a field which will cause forces to be exerted on other current-carrying
elements or on pieces of iron. This field, called the magnetic field, exists
simultaneously with the electric field caused by the charges. It is exactly the
same sort of effect that exists in the vicinity of a permanent magnet.
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If we wish to measure an electric current, for example, we usually measure one of the
above effects. Thus, many current-measuring instruments, or ammeters, are based
on either the first or the second effect, with those based on the second being far more
common.

Electromagnetic energy-conversion processes involve macroscopic electro-dynamic

interactions between current-carrying conductors and electromagnetic fileds. Energy
conversion occurs when coupling electromagnetic fields are disturbed. A system which
is provided with electromagnetic coupling fields such that the energy stored in the
fields changes with the position of some moving member of the system can, therefore,
be considered an electromagnetic energy converter. Some examples of energy
converters based on the above principle are solenoids, relays, motors, generators, etc.
Electromechanical energy conversion is in most cases a reversible process. A device
that converts energy from mechanical to electrical form and modulates in response
to an electrical signal is a generator. When the conversion involved is from
electrical to mechanical energy and the modulating signal is electrical in nature,
the component accomplishing such conversion is a motor. Incremental-motion
electromechanical energy converters, whose main function is to process
energy, are called transducers. For example,a microphone can be considered a
transducer.

The success of any installation of electrically driven machinery is dependent

upon the proper selection and correlation of the machine, the motor, and the
controller. Each is important, and the improper application of a motor or a con-
troller will lower the efficiency of the installation and may cause it to be a
failure.

In order to make successful installations, it is necessary to understand the factors

which enter into the selection of the machine, motor, and controller, and
therefore to have a good working knowledge of the characteristics of the three
devices. The requirements of the machine with respect to speed, torque, and
special functions must be known. An understanding of motor characteristics
is necessary to proper selection of a motor which will accomplish the desired
results, and a knowledge of control apparatus is required to insure the
application of a controller which will cause the motor to perform the functions
required of it.
The five factors which enter into the study of a motor and control application
are:
— The machine.
— The power supply.
— The motor.
— The operator.
— The controller.
(From: ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS by A. E. Fitzgerald and David E.
Higginbotham, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York 1964; ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY CONVERSION DEVICES
AND SYSTEMS by S. A. Nasar, Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey 1970; CONTROL OF ELECTRIC MOTORS by Paisley B.
Hardwood, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York 1966)

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PAIR WORK
1 INFORMATION TRANSFER COMPREHENSION CHECK
1.1 Give some examples of the conversion of electrical
energy.
1 .................................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................................
3 .................................................................................................................................
4 .................................................................................................................................

1.2 The principal advantages of electrical energy are:

1 .......................................................................................................................
2 .................................................... . ................................................................
3 .......................................................................................................................

1.3 Electrical theory is based on:

1 .................................................................. ……………………………………
2 .................................................................................................................................

1.4 State the basic purpose of electrical engineering.

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

1.5 Elemental electrical quantity is electric charge. Electric

charges are of two different kinds:
................................................... (called)..........................................................
................................................... (called)..........................................................

1.6 Tick the right answer. An uncharged body is composed of:

1. positively charged particles
2. negatively charged particles
3. positively and negatively charged particles

1.7 A body is normally charged:

1. positively
2. negatively

1.8 A charge is measured in:

1. ohms
2. coulombs

1.9 Charge is usually marked by the letter:

1. Q
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2. k

1.10 Electrons attract:

1. negatively charged particles
2. positively charged particles

1.11 Engineering is more interested in:

1. charges in motion
2. charges at rest

1.12 Complete the sentence.

The most significant effect of an electric charge is that it ......................

1.13 State Coulomb's law.

1.14 Define an electric field.

1.15 Define a magnetic field.

1.16 Define an electric current.

1.17 Concerning the passage of electricity, materials can be:

1 ........................................ (examples) ....................................................
2 ........................................ (examples) ....................................................
1.18 Fill in:
Circuits are ..............................................................................................
The unit of current ......................................................... It exists when

1.19 Supply full forms for the following abbreviations.

d. c. = ....................................................................................................
a. c. = ....................................................................................................
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1.20 Many current-measuring instruments (ammeters) are based

on electric effects like:
1 ................................................ 2 ................................................

1.21 Define a generator.

1.22 Write down the definition of an electric motor.

1.23 Explain what transducers are.

1.24 List the deciding factors which the efficiency of any

installation of electrically driven machinery depends upon
the proper selection and the correlation of the:

1...............................................................................................................
2 ...............................................................................................................
3 ...............................................................................................................

2 CODE TRANSFER (English Croatian)

2.1 coal bed .........................................................................
waterfall .........................................................................
loudspeaker .........................................................................
light energy ........................................................................

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present-day applications ..............................................................................

automatic control ..........................................................................
charged particle ..........................................................................
metal sphere ..........................................................................
direct current ..........................................................................
alternating current ..........................................................................
current-carrying
conductor ..........................................................................

electromagnetic energy
conversion process ..........................................................................
energy conversion ..........................................................................
energy converter ..........................................................................

incremental-motion
electromechanical
energy converter ..........................................................................

electrically driven
machinery .........................................................................

working knowledge .........................................................................

control apparatus .........................................................................
control application .............................................. , .........................
power supply .........................................................................

coupling
electromagnetic
field
.........................................................................
electromagnetic
coupling field .........................................................................

3 SUMMARIZING

3.1 Write a summary of the text "Some Basic Concepts...".

Fundamental idea:

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The most important supporting information:

(Count the words. You should not have more than 80.)

5 VOCABULARY EXTENSION 5.1

Fill in the table where possible.
Noun Verb Adjective
attract
availability

conversion
easy
expect
importance

light

perform
practical

reversible
sound
transfer
transmission

transport
versatility

5.2 Opposites
Match both columns. Write the appropriate letter beside the number.
1. advantage a) easy
2. conductor b) attract

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3. definite c) near
4. difficult d)positive
5. negative e) good
6. poor (conductor) f) different
7. remote g) seldom
8. repel h) disadvantage
9. same i) indefinite
10. often j) insulator

5.3 Phraseology (English —> Croatian)

take for granted ................................................................................
in general ................................................................................
find out ................................................................................
turn out ................................................................................
in fact ................................................................................
depend on ................................................................................
be interested in ................................................................................
in motion ................................................................................
at rest ................................................................................
in response to ................................................................................
in order to ................................................................................
with respect to ................................................................................

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Core Text 2
ELECTRON THEORY

..................................................................................................................

The atom is a constituent of all matter. The name atom comes from the
Greek ἄτομος/átomos, α-τεμνω, which means uncuttable, something that
cannot be divided further. It is analogous to a miniature solar system, with
a nucleus as the 'sun' and electrons as the 'planets' revolving in the orbits
around the nucleus. The electrons are held in their orbits by the attraction of
the nucleus. This force of attraction is presumed to exist because the
nucleus and the electrons carry a charge. The characteristics of charged
bodies are such that bodies of similar charge exert a force of repulsion upon
each other, whereas bodies of opposite charge experience a force of
attraction. The nucleus is considered to have a positive charge and the
electron a negative charge.

...................................................................................................................

The electron is by far the least massive of these particles at 9.11 × 10−31 kg,
with a negative electrical charge and a size that is too small to be measured
using available techniques. Protons have a positive charge and a mass
1,836 times that of the electron, at 1.6726 × 10−27 kg, although this can be
reduced by changes to the energy binding the proton into an atom.
Neutrons have no electrical charge and have a free mass of 1,839 times the
mass of electrons, or 1.6929 × 10−27 kg. Neutrons and protons have
comparable dimensions—on the order of 2.5 × 10−15 m—although the
'surface' of these particles is not sharply defined.

...................................................................................................................

In most atoms, the amount of positive charge equals the amount of negative
charge, and therefore the atom exhibits no charge externally. If an electron
is removed from the atom however, there is an excess of positive charge.
Similarly, the addition of an electron makes the atom negative. Atoms that
have lost or gained one or more electrons are called ions.

……………………………………………………………………………

An atom is classified according to the number of protons and neutrons in

its nucleus: the number of protons determines the chemical element, and
the number of neutrons determines the isotope of the element.

The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be modified,
although this can require very high energies because of the strong force.
Nuclear fusion occurs when multiple atomic particles join to form a heavier
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nucleus, such as through the energetic collision of two nuclei. For example, at
the core of the Sun protons require energies of 3–10 keV to overcome their
mutual repulsion—the coulomb barrier—and fuse together into a single
nucleus. Nuclear fission is the opposite process, causing a nucleus to split into
two smaller nuclei—usually through radioactive decay. The nucleus can also
be modified through bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or
photons. If this modifies the number of protons in a nucleus, the atom
changes to a different chemical element.

......................................................................................................................

If the mass of the nucleus following a fusion reaction is less than the sum of
the masses of the separate particles, then the difference between these two
values is emitted as energy, as described by Albert Einstein's mass–energy
equivalence formula, E = mc2, where m is the mass loss and c is the speed of
light. This deficit is the binding energy of the nucleus.

Electron cloud

.....................................................................................................................

The electrons in an atom are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by the
electromagnetic force. This force binds the electrons inside an electrostatic
potential well surrounding the smaller nucleus, which means that an external
source of energy is needed in order for the electron to escape. The closer an
electron is to the nucleus, the greater the attractive force. Hence electrons
bound near the center of the potential well require more energy to escape than
those at greater separations.

......................................................................................................................

Electrons, like other particles, have properties of both a particle and a wave.
The electron cloud is a region inside the potential well where each electron
forms a type of three-dimensional standing wave—a wave form that does not
move relative to the nucleus. This behavior is defined by an atomic orbital, a
mathematical function that characterizes the probability that an electron will
appear to be at a particular location when its position is measured. Only a
discrete (or quantized) set of these orbital exist around the nucleus, as other
possible wave patterns will rapidly decay into a more stable form. Orbitals
can have one or more ring or node structures, and they differ from each other
in size, shape and orientation.

......................................................................................................................

Each atomic orbital corresponds to a particular energy level of the electron.

The electron can change its state to a higher energy level by absorbing a
photon with sufficient energy to boost it into the new quantum state.
Likewise, through spontaneous emission, an electron in a higher energy state
can drop to a lower energy state while radiating the excess energy as a

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photon. These characteristic energy values, defined by the differences in the

energies of the quantum states, are responsible for atomic spectral lines.

....................................................................................................................

The amount of energy needed to remove or add an electron (the electron

binding energy) is far less than the binding energy of nucleons. For example,
it requires only 13.6 eV to strip a ground-state electron from a hydrogen
atom, compared to 2.23 Mev for splitting a deuterium nucleus.

Properties

Nuclear properties

.....................................................................................................................

By definition, any two atoms with an identical number of protons in their

nuclei belong to the same chemical element. Atoms with equal numbers of
protons but a different number of neutrons are different isotopes of the same
element. For example, all hydrogen atoms admit exactly one proton, but
isotopes exist with no neutrons (hydrogen-1, by far the most common form,
sometimes called protium), one neutron (deuterium), two neutrons (tritium)
and more than two neutrons. The known elements form a set of atomic
numbers from hydrogen with a single proton up to the 118-proton element
ununoctium. All known isotopes of elements with atomic numbers greater
than 82 are radioactive.

Mass

....................................................................................................................

Because the large majority of an atom's mass comes from the protons and
neutrons, the total number of these particles in an atom is called the mass
number. The mass of an atom at rest is often expressed using the unified
atomic mass unit (u), which is also called a Dalton (Da). This unit is defined
as a twelfth of the mass of a free neutral atom of carbon-12, which is
approximately 1.66 × 10−27 kg. Hydrogen-1, the lightest isotope of hydrogen
and the atom with the lowest mass, has an atomic weight of 1.007825 u. An
atom has a mass approximately equal to the mass number times the atomic
mass unit. The heaviest stable atom is lead-208, with a mass of
207.9766521 u.

As even the most massive atoms are far too light to work with directly,
chemists instead use the unit of moles. The mole is defined such that one
mole of any element will always have the same number of atoms (about
6.022 × 1023). This number was chosen so that if an element has an atomic
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mass of 1 u, a mole of atoms of that element will have a mass of 0.001 kg, or
1 gram. Carbon, for example, has an atomic mass of 12 u, so a mole of carbon
atoms weighs 0.012 kg.

Size

.....................................................................................................................

Atoms lack a well-defined outer boundary, so the dimensions are usually

described in terms of the distances between two nuclei when the two atoms
are joined in a chemical bond. The radius varies with the location of an atom
on the atomic chart, the type of chemical bond, the number of neighboring
atoms (coordination number) and a quantum mechanical property known as
spin. On the periodic table of the elements, atom size tends to increase when
moving down columns, but decrease when moving across rows (left to right).
Consequently, the smallest atom is helium with a radius of 32 pm, while one
of the largest is caesium at 225 pm. These dimensions are thousands of times
smaller than the wavelengths of light (400–700 nm) so they cannot be viewed
using an optical microscope. However, individual atoms can be observed
using a scanning tunneling microscope.

......................................................................................................................

Some examples will demonstrate the minuteness of the atom. A typical

human hair is about 1 million carbon atoms in width. A single drop of water
contains about 2 sextillion (2 × 1021) atoms of oxygen, and twice the number
of hydrogen atoms. A single carat diamond with a mass of 2 × 10-7 kg
contains about 10 sextillion atoms of carbon. If an apple were magnified to
the size of the Earth, then the atoms in the apple would be approximately the
size of the original apple.

Radioactive decay

....................................................................................................................

Every element has one or more isotopes that have unstable nuclei that are
subject to radioactive decay, causing the nucleus to emit particles or
electromagnetic radiation. Radioactivity can occur when the radius of a
nucleus is large compared with the radius of the strong force, which only acts
over distances on the order of 1 fm.

Valence and bonding behavior

.....................................................................................................................

The outermost electron shell of an atom in its uncombined state is known as

the valence shell, and the electrons in that shell are called valence electrons.
The number of valence electrons determines the bonding behavior with other
atoms. Atoms tend to chemically react with each other in a manner that will
fill (or empty) their outer valence shells. For example, a transfer of a single
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electron between atoms is a useful approximation for bonds which form

between atoms which have one-electron more than a filled shell, and others
which are one-electron short of a full shell, such as occurs in the compound
sodium chloride and other chemical ionic salts. However, many elements
display multiple valences, or tendencies to share differing numbers of
electrons in different compounds. Thus, chemical bonding between these
elements takes many forms of electron-sharing that are more than simple
electron transfers. Examples include the element carbon and the organic
compounds.

....................................................................................................................

The chemical elements are often displayed in a periodic table that is laid out
to display recurring chemical properties, and elements with the same number
of valence electrons form a group that is aligned in the same column of the
table. (The horizontal rows correspond to the filling of a quantum shell of
electrons.) The elements at the far right of the table have their outer shell
completely filled with electrons, which results in chemically inert elements
known as the noble gases.

Abstract

................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
..............................................................................................

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Core Text 3
Conductivity
Some materials are so constituted that the electrons farthest from the
nucleus are loosely bound to the atom. They can leave the atom upon the
application of a small force, thus becoming free electrons within the
material. An individual free electron does not remain free very long
however, because it soon encounters an atom lacking an electron, and
atomic reunion occurs. This continual interchange of electrons occurs
throughout the material. Other materials have their electrons tightly
bound to the atoms. In these materials it is exceedingly difficult to free
any electrons.

Materials having free electrons are classified as conductors; those

having tightly bound electrons are classified as insulators. In general
those materials that are good conductors of heat are also good electric
conductors. Their relative abilities to conduct electricity and heat are
about the same.

Under certain conditions an insulator may become a conductor. An

example is glass. It is a good insulator at normal temperatures and it
becomes a conductor when heated to dull red.

Independent electrons moving in vacuum or certain media are termed

free electrons. When free electrons move, they produce a net flow of
charge called an electric current. A current of electrons acquires the
cumulative electromagnetic properties of the individual particles, so it
generates a magnetic field. Likewise a current can be created by a
moving magnetic field. These interactions are described mathematically
by Maxwell's equations.

At a given temperature, each material has an electrical conductivity that

determines the value of electric current when an electric potential is
applied. Examples of good conductors include metals such as copper
and gold, whereas glass and Teflon are poor conductors. A material with
metallic bonds has an electronic band structure that allows for
delocalized electrons. These electrons are not associated with specific
atoms, so when an electric field is applied, they are free to move like a
gas through the material. However, unlike an atmospheric gas (which
follows the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution of energies), the states of
this cloud of electrons obeys Fermi–Dirac statistics; hence the reason for
the electron's family name, fermions.

Metals make relatively good conductors of heat, primarily because the

delocalized electrons are free to transport thermal energy between
atoms. However, unlike electrical conductivity, the thermal conductivity
of a metal is nearly independent of temperature. This is expressed
mathematically by the Wiedemann-Franz law, which states that the ratio
of thermal conductivity to the electrical conductivity is proportional to
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the temperature. The thermal disorder in the metallic lattice increases the
electrical resistivity of the material, producing a temperature dependence
for electrical current.

Because of collisions between electrons and atoms, the drift velocity of

electrons in a conductor is on the order of millimeters per second.
However, the speed at which a current at one point in the material causes
a current in other parts of the material, the velocity of propagation, is
typically about 75% of light speed. This occurs because electrical
signals propagate as a wave, with the velocity dependent on the
dielectric constant of the material. In dielectric materials, the electrons
remain bound to their respective atoms and the material behaves as an
insulator. Semiconductors have a variable level of conductivity that lies
between the extremes of conduction and insulation.

When cooled below a point called the critical temperature, materials can
undergo a phase transition in which they lose all resistivety to electrical
current; a process known as superconductivity. In BCS theory, this
behavior is modeled by pairs of electrons entering a quantum state
known as a Bose–Einstein condensate. These Cooper pairs have their
motion coupled to nearby matter via lattice vibrations called phonons,
thereby avoiding the collisions with atoms that normally create electrical
resistance. (Cooper pairs are separated by roughly 100 nm, so they can
overlap each other). However, the mechanism by which higher
temperature superconductors operate remains uncertain.

Vocabulary
constituent part of, one of the parts that makes up the whole
analogous like something else in some way, similar to.
revolving moving in circles around
attraction the force which pulls or draws things together
presumed thought to be, assumed to be
to carry a charge to hold a quantity of electric energy
excess additional, more than is needed
gained got, obtained, increased in amount
interchange intersection, putting one in the place of another
encounters meets, is faced with something
conductivity the transmission of heat or electricity or sound
valence (chemistry) a property of atoms or radicals; their combining
power given in terms of the number of hydrogen atoms (or
the equivalent)
to occur to take place, to happen
resistivity a material's opposition to the flow of electric current;
measured in ohms

N.B.to exert a force upon

to apply the force
to experience a force of

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2 Antonyms

loosely bound ≠ firmly bound, tightly bound

lose, lost, lost ≠ gain
the force of attraction ≠ the force of repulsion
excess ≠ lack of
weak force ≠ strong force
attract ≠ repel (offer an opposition force to something)
attracting ≠ repellent

3 Find synonyms in the text:

very small categorized

without basic part
is thought to too large a quantity
shows meets
going round very

4 Comparison of adjectives. Insert the proper form of the following

adjectives.
little, much, great, good, thin, high, early, far, important, efficient, heavy

a) Metals are ____________ conductors of electricity.

b) Lead is ______________ than aluminum.

c) Ohm’s law is one of the _____________ laws in physics.

d) From the ____________times people have dreamed of air flights.

e) Materials having free electrons are ______________ electric conductors.

f) The metals are _________________ conductors of heat.

g) The electrons _________ from the nucleus are loosely bound to the atom.

h) The Thicker wire you use, the ____________ current will flow through it.

i) The greater the energy of the revolving electron, the _____________ from the
nucleus it will revolve.

j) The ____________ the voltage, the better should be the insulation.

k) The __________the difference between the temperatures, the ___________ the

engine.

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5 Reading comprehension:

1. What are atoms like?

Fill in the table where possible.

Noun Verb Adjective

attract
availability

conversion
easy
expect
importance
light

perform
practical
reversible
sound
transfer
transmission

transport
versatility

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Quantum theory
Interactions can only extend over a given distance if there is a particle to carry
the force. The electromagnetic force which operates over a long distance is
carried by a particle called the photon, the light quantum.

The laws of quantum mechanics

Within a few short years scientists developed a consistent theory of the atom
that explained its fundamental structure and its interactions. Crucial to the
development of the theory was new evidence indicating that light and matter
have both wave and particle characteristics at the atomic and subatomic levels.
Theoreticians had objected to the fact that Bohr had used an ad hoc hybrid of
classical Newtonian dynamics for the orbits and some quantum postulates for
limiting the motion. The new theory ignored the fact that electrons are particles
and treated them as waves. By 1926, physicists had developed the laws of
quantum mechanics, also called wave mechanics, to explain atomic and
subatomic phenomena.

The duality between the wave and particle nature of light was highlighted by
the American physicist Arthur H. Compton in an X-ray scattering experiment
conducted in 1922. Compton showed that X rays scatter from electrons exactly
like particles. The X rays have discrete amounts of momentum, which is
property of particles. When X rays are scattered, their momentum is partially
transferred to the electrons. The recoil electron takes some energy from an X
ray, and as a result the X ray frequency is shifted. Both the discrete amount of
momentum and the frequency shift of the light scattering are completely at
variance classical electromagnetic theory.

Louis-Victor de Broglie, a French physicist, had proposed in his 1923 doctoral

thesis that all matter and radiations have both particle- and wavelike
characteristics. Until the emergence of the quantum theory, physicists had
assumed that matter was distinct from energy and followed different laws:
energy radiations were waves and matter was particulate. Planck’s theory was
the first to propose that radiation has characteristics of both waves and particles.
Believing in the symmetry of nature, Broglie ended the wave-particle
dichotomy by applying Einstein’s mass-energy formula. Using the old-
fashioned word corpuscles for particles, Broglie wrote, “For both matter and
radiations, light in particular, it is necessary to introduce the corpuscle concept
and the wave concept at the same time. In other words, the existence of
corpuscles accompanied by waves has to be assumed in all cases.” Broglie’s
conception was an inspired one, but it had no experimental or theoretical
foundation. The Austrian physicist Erwin Schrodinger had to supply the theory.

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Lecture 5
Section 1
Atom

Section 2
Interactions in Atomic Systems
from Technical English by Ljerka Bartolić:
Section 1 and Section 2 - Presentations

Section 3
NOUNS

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Section 1

Presentations, Pair Work, Group Work

According Technical English by Ljerka
Bartolić, Pages 12 -21
Study the following:
1 Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the
English language explains the meaning of
Transuranic Chem. Physics means
pertaining to an element having a higher atomic number than
uranium. Those presently known, and having numbers from 93 to
103, are neptunium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium,
californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium and
lawrencium.

2 Write sentences using

- The former (or a more recent theory) …. The latter …..

3 Write sentences by using:

N.B.
with respect to, with reference to, regarding, as to, with regard to, as
regards sth. and
without regard to, without reference to, regardless of

4 Discrepancy = nesuglasje, nesklad

5 Drawing comprehension. Draw figures of:

a hydrogen atom, a deuterium atom and a carbon atom.
The hydrogen atom is the simplest of all atoms. It consists of a proton and one
planetary electron. The isotope of hydrogen, which is deuterium, or heavy
hydrogen, consists of one electron revolving around a neucleus consisting of
one proton and one neutron.
The carbon atom is number 6 in the periodic table. It, therefore, has six
electrons, two in the first shell and four in the second. It will have six protons
to balance the negative charge of six electrons. Since the atomic weight of
carbon is 12, there must be six neutrons in the nucleus.

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Plural Forms of Compound Nouns

2 Make the following nouns plural
The element denoting the principal idea takes the plural ending

boy friend knight-errant looker-on

man-of-war mother-in-law
lieutenant-general lieutenant governor*

*boy friends, knights errant, lookers-on, men-of-war, mothers-in-law, notaries

public, lieutenant (lef’ten∂nt) generals, lieutenant (lu: ten∂nt) governors.

Both elements equally important take the plural ending

Knight Templar Lord Justice Manservant woman

driver*

*Knights Templars, Lords Justices, menservants, women drivers

Verb forms in compounds do not take the plural endings

go-ahead forget-me-not hold-up stand-up*

*go-aheads, forget-me nots, hold-ups, stand-bys

Make the following nouns plural

hanger-on girl-friend
sit-in sister-in-law
run-down shop-assistant
woman clerk fellow traveller
take-off fire-work
go-between editor-in-chief
fountain pen man-eater
man secretary boy scout
passer-by good-for-nothing
asistant manager

Special Plurals

letter names: Dot your i’s

numerals. In the 1990’s or 1990s
abbreviations: two MP’s or MPs

in expressions as: the ifs and buts, the pros and cons, the whys and
wherefores, the ups and downs

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Foreign Plurals
In scientific English there are a large number of words borrowed from other languages.
They have been absorbed into language, but they have not been thoroughly “naturalized”.
Usually they retain their original plural forms. The largest number by far of these foreign
plurals is of Latin and Greek origin. Here is the list of nouns of foreign origin with their
foreign plurals:
Singular Plural

From Latin
bacillus bacilli (b∂´silai)
stimulus stimuli (stimjulai)
nucleus nucleii
radius radii
alga algae
larva larvae
addendum addenda
bacterium bacteria
datum data
momentum momenta
desideratum desiderata
erratum errata
medium media
stratum strata

From Greek

crisis crises (´kraisi:z)

analysis analyses
basis bases
diagnosis diagnoses
ellipsis ellipses
hypothesis hypotheses
oasis oases
parenthesis parentheses
synopsis synopses
thesis theses
phenomenon (fi´nomin∂n) phenomena

From Italian
spagetti spagetti
graffiti graffiti
confetti confetti

From Hebrew

kibuz kibbuzim
genius has two plurals geniuses and genii
formula has two plurals formulae (in mathematics)
formulas (general)

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LECTURE 6

Section 1
 Presentations from Technical English
(pages 22-33)
1. Conducting and Insulating Materials in
Electrical Engineering
2. Semiconductors
Section 2
3. Magnetic Materials and
Electromagnetism

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SEMICONDUCTORS
Solid materials are built of atoms, which in most substances are arranged in an
orderly way known as a crystal lattice. The atoms are bounded or held together in
various ways. In semiconductors, as in many other substances, the bonding is of the
type known as co-valent bonding. This means that adjacent atoms mutually share
their “valence electrons”, that is to say, those orbital electrons which are situated in
the outermost shell and are therefore the most remote from the atomic nucleus.

In metals, electrical conductivity is due to mobile electrons which form what may be
termed an electron gas or cloud which always exists within the material. These
electrons may be easily accelerated by an electric field, and their movement
constitutes an electric current.

In semiconductors, however, conductivity is the result of a different mechanism.

At the absolute zero temperature, electrons remain firmly under the control of the
atomic nuclei, and cannot, therefore, take part in electric conduction, so that the
material is a non-conductor or insulator. At higher temperatures, for example at room
temperature, some of the atomic bonds are broken by the vibration of the atoms
known as thermal agitation. A corresponding number of electrons thus become
mobile, and the situation is similar to that in a metal.

In the absence of any external stimulus, the movement of the mobile electrons is at
random, and is dominated by the forces of mutual repulsion between the electrons
and the forces of mutual attraction between the electrons and the positive ions, i.e.,
those atoms which, having lost an electron, are left with charge.

If, now, we apply an electric field, say by connecting a battery between the two ends
of the piece of semiconductor material, the electrons will experience a force of
acceleration, and on their random movement, a drift will be superimposed in the
direction of the positive pole. In other words, we shall have established an electric
current.

We should point out here that the breaking of a bond in the crystal lattice of a
semiconductor, thus making available a “mobile” electron, creates a gap, which is
commonly termed a “hole”. Now a hole can be filled by another electron moving
from another bond. But this electron then leaves a hole in its earlier bond. The result
is that the hole changes its position in the opposite direction to the movement of the
electron. It is thus clear that a hole is the electrical equivalent of a positive charge of
the same absolute value as the negative charge carrier and a hole can be represented
as a mobile positive charge; the current in a semiconductor may be considered as a
current of electrons moving towards the positive pole and/or a current of holes
moving towards the negative pole.

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Fill in the missing words.

Solid materials are built of atoms, which in most substances are arranged ………….
……………. way known as a ………… ……………. . The atoms are …………… or
held together in various ways. In semiconductors, as in many other substances, the
……………….. is of the type known as ………….. bonding. This means that
………….. atoms mutually share their “valence electrons”, that is to say, those orbital
electrons which are situated in the ……………….. shell and are therefore the most
…………. from the atomic nucleus.

In metals, electrical conductivity is ……… …. mobile electrons which form what

may be termed an electron gas or ……….. which always exists within the material.
These electrons may be easily ………………… by an electric field, and their
movement constitutes an electric current.

In semiconductors, however, conductivity is the result of a different mechanism.

At the absolute temperature, electrons remain …………. under the control of the
atomic nuclei, and cannot, therefore, ……… ……… in electric conduction, so that
the material is … ….. ……………………. or insulator. …… higher temperatures, for
example at …………. temperature, some of the atomic …………. are broken by the
vibration of the atoms known as …………… ……………… . A corresponding
number of electrons ……… become mobile, and the situation is similar to that in a
metal.

In the absence of any external stimulus, the movement of the mobile electrons is ……
………….. , and is dominated by the forces of ………….. ……………… between
the electrons and the forces of ………….. ……………. between the electrons and
the positive ions, i.e., those atoms which, having lost an electron, are left with a …….
……………. charge.

If, now, we apply an electric field, say by connecting a battery between the two ends
of the piece of semiconductor material, the electrons will …………………. a force of
acceleration, and on their random movement, a drift will be …………………….. in
the direction of the positive pole. In other words, we ……… …………
…………………… an electric current.

We should point out here that the breaking of …. …………… in the crystal lattice of
a semiconductor, thus ………………. available a “mobile” electron, creates a gap,
which is commonly termed a “hole”. Now a hole can be filled by another electron
moving from another bond. But this electron then leaves a hole in its earlier bond.
The result is that the hole changes its position in the opposite direction to the
movement of the electron. It is thus clear that a hole is the electrical equivalent of a
…………. ……………… of the same absolute value as the negative charge carrier
and a hole can be represented as a mobile positive charge; the current in a
semiconductor may be considered as a current of electrons moving towards the
………… …………. and/or a current of holes moving towards the …………….
pole.

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Additional Texts
USEFUL BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT SOME
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
METALS
Steel
Steel is essentially an alloy of iron and iron carbide with small amounts of
other elements in controlled quantities. A wide range of steels is available
with properties varying considerably depending upon the alloying elements
and subsequent heat treatment .

Carbon steel
The amount of carbon determines the strength of steel. The main types are:
dead mild (or low carbon), mild, medium carbon and high carbon.

Low carbon steel

The carbon content is 0.07 — 0.15%. It is used for pipes, wire, nails,
boiler plates, chains, etc., and it is worked when hot but does not
machine easily.

Mild steel
The most widely used of engineering materials whose carbon content of 0.15
— 0.25% allows it to be easily worked, machined and welded. Typical
applications are ships' plates, forgings, nuts and bolts, gears and shafts.
Medium carbon steel
A type can be heat-treated to give greater strength, medium carbon steel is also
easily machined. Its uses are machine parts, forgings, castings, springs and drop
hammer dies.

High carbon steel

This type contains 0.5 — 1.5% carbon which gives it great strength when heat-treated.
At the lower carbon content it is used for screwdrivers, hammers, spanners, chisels,
forging and pressing dies, while the highest carbon content is used for drills, lathe
tools, hacksaws, ball bearings, taps and dies.

Alloy steels
The addition of alloying elements to steel makes it more responsive to heat
treatment, and this results in increased hardness, strength and toughness and
greater resistance to corrosion. The main alloying elements are nickel, chromium,
manganese, molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten, silicon and cobalt.

Nickel-chrome steel
Nickel chromium steels are among the most important alloy steels used in
engineering. Heat treatment gives a wide range of properties with good resistance
to shock and good ductility. They are used for high-tensile bolts, hardened gears,
machine tools, etc.

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Stainless steel
A corrosion-resistant steel with at least 12% chromium and other elements, used for
turbine blades, and in sheet form for chemical and food containers.

Copper
A reddish, ductile metal of low strength but which is a very good conductor of heat
and electricity. It is used for making pipes, electricity cables, gaskets and washers
for fluid sealing, and is extensively alloyed with zinc, tin, aluminium, etc.

Coper nickel alloys

There is a wide range of these alloys with amounts of nickel varying from 2 —
70 %. Alloys with 40 — 45 % nickel are used for resistance wire, e. g.
Constantan, and they have a high resistivity and small
resistance/temperature coefficient. Alloys containing about 70% nickel are
known as monel metal. These are as strong as steel and have excellent
resistance to corrosing by sea water, salt solutions and organic acids. They
are suitable for steam turbine blades and condenser tubes.

Brass
This is the most widely used alloy of copper. It consists of 30 — 50% zinc
and the remainder copper, to which a small amount of lead may be added to
improve machinability. Brasses with a low zinc content are used for cold
working in the production of condenser tubes, cartridge cases, gas and
electric light fittings. Brasses with 39 — 46% zinc are easily hard worked and
are used for extruded sections, pump parts, hydraulic fittings, nuts, bolts
and screws.

Bronze
Bronze refers to a copper-tin alloy which is used for electrical parts,
hydraulic components, bearings and gears.

Aluminium
A light, ductile metal which is a good conductor of heat and electricity. It is
used for electrical conductors and parts of switchgear, kitchen utensils,
wrapping foil, window frames and as a base for many alloys.

Aluminium alloys
Aluminim is extremely soft but its strength can be greatly increased by the
addition of small amounts of copper, silicon, manganese, magnesium and
iron while still retaining its lightness.

Duralumin
An important aluminium alloy which contains copper, manganese,
magnesium and silicon. It is as strong as mild steel with a third of the
weight and is used for forgings, stampings, bar, sheet and rivets.
Y alloy

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This is an aluminium alloy containing 4 % copper, 2 % nickel and 1.5% of

each Fe and Si. It is used extensively for castings such as cylinder heads
and pistons for IC (internal combustion) engines.

Zinc
Zinc is used as a protective coating for sheet metal, wire, nails, etc. It is a lso
used in alloys with aluminium, copper and magnesium. Zinc alloys are for
die castings.

Chromium
Chromium is used in electroplating to provide a surface with a high
polish and corrosion-resistance. It is alloyed with steel to give extremely
high strengths.

Lead
Lead is a heavy, soft, ductile metal with little mechanical strength. Because
of its good resistance to corrosion it is used for roofing, cable sheathing
and lining chemical apparatus. It is used extensively in nuclear work for
radiation shielding and is alloyed with other metals for bearing metals and
solders.

PLASTICS, RUBBER AND OTHER NON-METALLIC

MATERIALS
The term polymeric materials (a common name for plastics and rubbers),
covers a wide range of man-made and natural materials which can be
moulded to the required shape by the application of heat and pressure.
There are two main types of plastics, thermoplastic and thermosetting.
Thermoplastic materials become soft and pliable when heated and can be
moulded into the required shape. They can be reheated and remoulded
repeatedly. Thermosetting plastics and rubber suffer a chemical change when
subjected to heat and pressure and they cannot be softened by reheating.
Some of the most common plastics and rubbers are:
Polyvynil Chloride (PVC)
Rigid PVC is a thermoplastic material used for pipes and ducts, flexible PVC
is used for cable covering, mouldings, fabric and flexible sheet. It is flame
and water-resista nt.
Polystyrene (PS)
A thermoplastic which can be moulded into complicated shapes with fine
detail. It is an excellent electrical insulator but is not weather resistant .

Polyethylene (PE)
A thermoplastic polymer with good electrical properties, especially at high
radio frequencies, which is suitable for use as weatherproof sheeting.
Nylon (PA)
A plastic used in fibre form for fabrics and also moulded into parts
requiring light weight, low friction and flexibility. It has good self-
lubricating properties when used for bearings.

Expanded plastic
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Polyethylene, polystyrene, polyurethane and PVC can be foamed by the

introduction of gas bubbles during manufacture. These foam plastics are
extremely light and are used for heat insulation, packaging and model
making.
Polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE)
Marketed under the names Fluon and Teflon this is a plastic with high
chemical inertness and heat resistance used for extremely low-friction
bearings and non-stick surfaces .

Epoxy resins (EP)

These thermoset polymers are widely used for structural plastics (composites),
adhesives and for encapsulation.

Glass fibre – Fiber Optics

Fine threads of glass are used as reinforcement in synthetic resin mouldings for
boat hulls, pump impellers, roof lights, etc., and also as a structural material.
The use of fiber optics is expected to increase. The optical fibres used in
vehicles are usually thin strands of plastic. They carry signals in the form of
light. These signals may be used to control such items as power windows
and door locks. Signals from several controls can be multiplexed (merged or
combined) on fibres. A pair of optical fibres can replace many wires. This
saves space and weight. It also greatly simplifies the wiring system.
Eventually, fiber optics may be used to link electronic operations in engines.
Howeever, the fibers currently available cannot take the heat produced by
today’s engines.
Carbon
Amorphous carbon is used for fluid seals in pumps and steam turbines.Carbon
fibres are extremely strong and can be used to increase greatly the strength of
epoxy resin mouldings and metal components.

Synthetic rubber
A wide range of synthetic rubbers are used for flexible mountings and
couplings and oil seals, etc. In their properties they are often superior to
natural rubber.

Ceramics
This is a general name for all non-metallic, non-organic materials but usually it
refers to materials which will withstand very high temperatures. Ceramics are
materials, such as earthenware and porcelain, made from nonmetallic minerals that
have been fired at high temeratures. They are extremely hard and also wear —
and corrosion resistant and can be moulded into a variety of shapes before
firing. They are used for burner nozzles, gas-turbine parts and electrical insulation.
These materials are used in spacecraft because they can withstand extreme
temperatures and because they insulate well. Ceramic materials are so hard that
special diamond-coated tools must be used to cut them. Another method is to
develop special shaping molds. Another drawback of ceramics is that they are
brittle. A part with even a small blemish may fracture (break) when put under
stress.
(From: DICTIONARY OF METALLURGY by D. Birchon George Newness Ltd. London, 1965; THE STUDENT
ENGINEER'S COMPANION by J. Carvill Butterworth and Co. Ltd. London, 1974)

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Words that signal classification and listing: — as follows, furthermore, moreover,

also, and — and, either — or, neither — nor, in addition, first — second, next, many,
the other, various, another point, what is more.

2 COHERENCE
2.1 The list on the left hand side contains metals which are used
extensively in engineering. The list on the right hand side
enumerates their typical applications, but these two lists do not
match.
According to the information in the text match both lists.

Metals Typi cal appli cations

1. Pipes, wire, nails, boiler plates, chains etc.
2. Machine parts, forgings, castings, spring and drop hammer dies.
3. Roofing, cable sheathing and lining chemical apparatus. In nuclear wor it
is used for radiation shielding.
4. Turbine blades, sheet form for chemical and food containers.
5. Camshafts and crankshafts.
6. Pipes, electricity cables, gaskets and washers for fluid sealing.
7. Lower carbon content: screwdrivers, hammers, spanners, chisels,
dies.Highest carbon content:drills, lathe tools, hacksaws, ball bearings,
taps and dies.
8. Most widely used in engineering materials: ships' plates, forgings, nuts
and bolts, gears and shafts.
9. Electrical conductors and parts of switchgear, kitchen utensils,
wrapping foil, window frames and as abase for many alloys.

a) Cast iron
b) Low carbon steel
c) Mild steel
d) Medium carbon steel
e) High carbon steel
f) Stainless steel
g) Copper
h) Aluminium
i) Lead

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Section 2
MAGNETISM
Part I
In 1819, Hans Christian Oersted (1777—1851), a Danish physicist, found that
a small compass needle is deflected when brought near a conductor carrying
an electric current. This was the first evidence of a long suspected link
between electricity and magnetism. Oersted found that the compass deflection
was due to a magnetic field established around the conductor by the current in
the conductor.
Shortly after Oersted's discovery, the French physicist Andre Marie Ampere
(1775—1836) determined the shape of the magnetic field about the conductor
carrying a current. He had discovered that forces exist between two parallel
conductors in an electric circuit, the force being one of attraction if the two
currents are in the same direction, and one of repulsion if the currents are in
opposite directions.
These attractive and repulsive forces between current-carrying conductors are
directly proportional to the currents in the conductors, thus providing a precise
method of defining the practical unit of current, the ampere.
Ampere investigated the magnetic fields conductors to find an explanation of
the magnetic forces. Suppose a heavy copper wire passes vertically through
the centre of a horizontal sheet of stiff cardboard. When the ends of the
vertical conductor are connected to a dry cell, iron filings sprinkled over the
surface of the cardboard form a pattern of concentric circles around the
conductor. See Fig 1 If a small compass needle is placed at various points on a
circle of filings, the compass needle always comes to rest tangent to the circle.

Vocabulary

compass device with a needle that points to the magnetic north

to deflect to (cause to) turn aside
to establish to set up
repulsion tendeny of bodies to repel each other
proportional corresponding in degree or amount
stiff rigid, not easy to bend
cardboard thick kind of paper used for making boxes
dry cell cell in which the chemicals are in a moist paste which does not
spill
iron filings very small pieces of iron, not much bigger than pieces of dust
concentric circles circles which have a common centre

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Fig 1 The magnetic field encircling a cm rent in a straight conductor.

Exercise 1: Vocabulary practice

Find words or phrases in the text which mean the same as the following:

a) turned aside
(b) brought closer
(c) information
(d) because of
(e) set up; formed
(f) soon
(g) defined
(h) outer form
(i) so; in this way
(j) exact
(k) examined
(1) thrown over
(m) different

Exercise 2: True or false?

Decide which of the following statements are true and which false. Where you think
a statement is false, give the correct version.

1. The first evidence of the link between electricity and magnetism was the
deflection of the compass needle when brought near a conductor.

2. Oersted found that the deflection of the compass needle was due to the electric
field around the conductor.

3. Oersted also defined the shape of the magnetic field.

4. Ampere found out that forces exist between two perpendicular conductors in an
electric circuit.

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5. The forces of attraction and repulsive forces between current-carrying

conductors are directly proportional to the current in the conductors.

6. We get a pattern of rectangular circles around the conductor when we sprinkle

steel filings over the cardboard.

Part II
A magnet, or a coil of wire carrying a current, is the seat of an influence which
extends outward from it and is called a magnetic field. The flux from a bar magnet
or from a straight electromagnet issues from one end of the magnet coil, bends
around, and re-enters at the other end. This can be exhibited by exploring the region
with a compass needle. If there is provided an iron frame or ring extending from
one pole of the magnet or coil around to the other, the magnetic flux is not only
concentrated largely in the iron but is much greater in total amount than if the
induction is entirely in the air. Even a short air gap in the iron reduces the flux
considerably.
The analogy of such a magnetic path to an electric circuit is easily seen. The
magnetic flux corresponds to a current. The magnet or coil corresponds to a battery,
and provides magnetomotive force just as a battery supplies electromotive force.
The amount of flux produced by a given magnetomotive force depends upon the
dimensions and material of the magnetic circuit, e. g., the length and cross-section
of the iron ring followed by the flux and the permeability of the iron; just as the
dimensions and material of the electric conductor determine its resistance. This
attribute to the magnetic circuit (corresponding to the resistance) is called its
reluctance.
This analogy is purely mathematical, not physical. In magnetism, there is no flow of
charge, as in electricity. Hence the term 'flux' tends to be misleading.
These ideas are expressed quantitatively for the purpose of practical calculations.
The magnetomotive force is commonly given in ampere-turns. Another unit of
magnetomotive force sometimes used is the gilbert. The flux is expressed in webers
(mks) or maxwells (emu). Just as the resistance of an electric current is defined as
the ratio of the electromotive force to the current, so the measure of the reluctance
of a magnetic circuit is the ratio of the magnetomotive force to the flux.

Vocabulary

(magnetic) flux energy produced by a magnetomotive force

to issue fro to come out of
to explore to examine problems, possibilities in order to learn about them
induction the bringing about of an electric or magnetic state in a body by placing a
magnetized or electrified body near it
gap space which is not filled by an object
cross-section the shape of the end of a body which is seen when the body is cut in a
line to the long axis of the body
permeability ability to be permeated or penetrated
attribute additional characteristic
reluctance the property of a piece of material to resist the passage of magnetic flux
through it
ampere-turn the unit of measurement for the strength of an electromagnet
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misleading confusing

Exercise 3
Vocabulary practice

Find words or phrases in the text which mean the same as the following:

(a) stretches
(b) rod
(c) comes from
(d) curves around
(e) enters again
(f) shows
(g) examining
(h) given; supplied
(i) focused
(j) to a great extent
(k) completely
(1) makes smaller
(m) a great deal, much
(n) is similar (to)
(o) for this reason
(p) usually suggested

Exercise 4
Joining sentences

Join the sentence beginnings A with the sentence endings B:

A: 1. Magnets usually have two well-defined poles, i. e. , ......

2. A magnetic field exists in a region in which a magnetic force acts on ......
3. A magnetic field can be expressed as a vector because ......
4. Oersted found that the compass deflection was due to ......
5. The lines of flux in a magnetic field are ......
6. The amount of flux produced by a given mmf depends upon ......
7. The mmf is commonly given in ......

B: (a) ...... ampere-turns.

(b) ......one N and one S.
(c) ...... the dimensions and maerial of the magnetic circuit.
(d) ...... collectively called the magnetic flux.
(e) ...... it has both magnitude and direction.
(f) ...... an independent pole in the region.
(g) ...... a magnetic field established around the conductor by the current in
the conductor.

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Exercise 5
Read the following passage:
The path followed by electrons from the source of high potential (negative
post) to the source of low potential (positive post) may be described as an
electric circuit.. A simple circuit consists of a source, switch and load.

In a series circuit the electrons can flow only in one path. In such a circuit all
components are connected end to end. The current flowing through each
resistance is the same. In a series circuit, the sum of the voltage drop is always
equal to the applied voltage.

In a parallel circuit, the electron can flow two or more paths at the same time.
In this case, the electron stream divides. The two resistances in the this circuit
are connected in parallel. In a parallel circuit, total current is the sum of the
currents in each branch of the circuit. Each branch in a parallel circuit adds its
current to the currents of the other branches. The voltage drop across each
resistor is the same.

Now correct the following sentences:

1 The path followed by electrons from the negative to the positive post may be
described as a parallel circuit.

2 A simple circuit consists of electrons which flow in opposite directions.

3 In a series circuit most of the components are connected end to end.

4 In a parallel circuit the electron stream follows one path.

5 Total current in a parallel circuit is exactly half the sum of the currents in each
branch of the circuit.

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Exercise 6

Check your knowledge of 'Magnetic effects'

Ampere's rule for a straight conductor: Grasp

the conductor in the left hand with the thumb
extended in the direction of the electron current.
The fingers then will circle the conductor in the
direction of the magnetic flux.

Fig. 2 Ampere's rule for a straight

conductor

Fig 3 The magnetic field through a

current loop

Keeping Ampere's rule in mind, consider a loop in a

conductor carrying a current. The magnetic flux
from all segments of the loop must pass through the
inside of the loop in the same direction, that is, the
faces of the loop must show polarity.
When a current is in a solenoid the core of each
loop or turn, becomes a magnet, and the core of the
solenoid is a magnetic tube through which
practically all the magnetic flux passes.

Fig 4 The magnetic field about a solenoid

Ampere's rule for a solenoid:

Grasp the coil in the left hand with the fingers circling the
coil in the direction of the electron current. The extended
thumb will point in the direction of the N pole of the core.

Fig 5 Ampere’ s rule for a solenoid

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Inductance
Electric inductance is a natural force which creates an electric current
in a loop of wire when the wire is moved near a magnet. These “induced”
currents were discovered in 1831 by Michel faraday. By their means the
electricity is produced in electric generators. If a copper wire is joined with its
ends to a sensitive instrument for measuring current, it is called a galvanometer.
When the wire is thrust either down or up between the two ends of the
horseshoe magnet, the needle of the instrument moves. This movement shows
that an electric current has begun to flow along the wire. If the magnet is
stationary, the current flows only when the wire is moving, but it can be made to
flow just as easily if the wire is held still and the magnet moved.

Self induction. What is a self-induced emf?

Whenever a coil of wire is in a changing magnetic field there is an induced emf
in the coil. When there is a current in a coil, a magnetic field is produced. If the
current in the coil is changed in any way, either by opening a switch or by
changing the resistance of the circuit, the magnetic field will be changed. The
changing magnetic field within the coil will produce an induced emf in the coil.
This is defined as a self-induced emf. A self-induced emf is an emf which is due
to a change in the magnetic field produced by the coil itself.

Mutual inductance
When two independent circuits or coils are in proximity to each other, a change
in current in one is accomplished by a change in its magnetic field which
includes an emf in the other. This phenomenon is called “mutual induction”,
and the induced emf is termed the “emf of the mutual inductance”.

Vocabulary
loop shape produced by a curve crossing itself
sensitive able to record small changes
galvanometer an instrument for detecting electrical current
to thrust to push, to force
horseshoe magnet a magnet in the shape of a horseshoe
flux energy produced by a magnetive force
primary the primary coil

Find words or phrases in the text which mean the same as the following:
agency piece of equipment not moving
regardless of inside caused by
close to achieved is called (two answers)

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Fill in the corresponding adjective, verb, or noun

VOCABULARY EXTENSION Fill in the table

Noun Verb Adjective

thinness thin
variety variously, variably
lengthen long
easy , easiness easy

widen wide
convert convertible
thicken thick
deflect deflected
creation create
motion movable
define defined
ability
mislead misleading
add additional
confuse confusing

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Maglev Systems

Why would maglev trains be able to travel at much higher

speeds than trains in common use today?
Maglev systems are rail systems that operate on the scientific
principle that like poles of a magnet repel each other. The word
maglev is short for Magnetically levitated. Levitate means to rise or
float in the air. Magnets in the maglev guideway (rails) repel magnets
of like polarity on the bottom of the maglev vehicle. This action
causes the train to levitate above the guideway, creating a nearly
frictionless riding surface. Magnets are also involved in the vehicle’s
propulsion. Changing the polarity of the magnets on the train and the
guideway at the proper moments speeds up or slows down the train.
Because there is so little friction and the vehicles are
aerodynamically designed, the trains can easily be accelerated to
speeds over 250 mph. They glide quietly, smoothly, and swiftly along
the guideway using relatively little energy.
A maglev system is very different from our present “steel-wheel-on-
steel- rail”system.

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LECTURE 7

Section 1
Pair Work

Section 2
Some Basic Notions from Technical English by Ljerka Bartolić
Pages 34-38

Section 3
Continuous Aspect,
Perfect Aspect and
Passive Aspect

Revision of
Present Simple and Continuous,
Past Simple and Past Continuous,
Perfect Simple and Continuous,
Past Perfect Simple and Continuous

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Section 2
Some Basic Notions Concerning Energy, Electromotive
Force and Power (from Technical English by Ljerka
Bartolić, page 34-38)
Piezoelectric effect – an auto corrective test
Translate into English the following texts:
1 Što je piezoelektrični efekt?
Neki materijali imaju sposobnost da proizvedu elektricitet kada su izloženi mehaničkom naprezanju. To
se zove piezoelektrični efekt. To naprezanje može biti prouzročeno udaranjem ili okretanjem materijala
dovoljno da se deformira kristalna struktura bez da ju se slomi. Taj efekt isto radi i u suprotnom smjeru,
gdje se materijal lagano deformira kada mu dodamo malu električnu struju. Piezo elektricitet je otkriven
prije više od 100 godina i danas se upotrebljava u različitim područjima. Koriste se u električnim
satovima, plinskim štednjacima, inkjet printerima, i mnogim drugim uređajima. Isto tako se koristi i u
znanstvenim uređajima koji zahtijevaju jako precizna mjerenja poput mikroskopa.

1 What is the Piezoelectric Effect?

Some materials have the ability to produce electricity when subjected to mechanical
stress. This is called the piezoelectric effect. This stress can be caused by hitting or
twisting the material just enough to deform its crystal lattice without fracturing it. The
effect also works in the opposite way, with the material deforming slightly when a small
electric current is applied. Piezoelectricity was discovered more than one hundred years
ago and has many applications today. It is used in electronic clocks, gas ovens, inkjet
printers, and many other appliances. It is also used in scientific instruments which
require extremely precise movements, like microscopes.

2 Povijest
Piezoelektrični efekt su prvi put otkrili Pierre Curie i Jacques Curie, dva francuska fizičara koji su također
bili braća. Pierre Curie će kasnije dijeliti Nobelovu nagradu sa svojom ženom Marie Curie i Henrijem
Becquerelom za njihov rad na radijaciji. Braća Curie su otkrili samo da piezoelektrični materijali mogu
proizvesti elektricitet , ali ne i da ih elektricitet može deformirati. Slijedeće godine, Gabriel Lipmann
otkrio je suprotni efekt. Unatoč uzbudljivim otkrićima, praktični uređaji počeli su se pojavljivati tek
početkom 20 stoljeća. Danas se zna da mnogi materijali kao što su kvarc, topaz, šećer od šećerne trske,
rochel sol i kosti imaju taj efekt.

2 History
The piezoelectric effect was first discovered in 1880 by Pierre Curie and Jacques Curie,
two French physicists who were also brothers. Pierre Curie would later share the Nobel
Prize with his wife, Marie Curie, and Henri Becquerel for their work on radiation. The
Curie brothers only discovered that piezoelectric materials can produce electricity, not
that electricity can deform them. The next year, Gabriel Lippmann discovered this
converse effect. Despite these exciting discoveries, it wasn't until the early twentieth
century that practical devices began to appear. Today, it is known that many materials
such as quartz, topaz, cane sugar, Rochelle salt, and bone have this effect.

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3 Kako piezoelektrični efekt radi?

Piezoelektrični efekt se pojavljuje kada se balans naboja u kristalnoj rešetki materijala poremeti. Kada
nema naprezanja materijala, pozitivni i negativni naboji su pravilno raspoređeni tako da nema
potencijalne razlike. Kada se struktura rešetke malo promijeni, neravnoteža stvara potencijalnu razliku,
često visoku nekoliko tisuća volta. Ipak, struja je jako mala i uzrokuje mali električni udar. Obrnuti piezo
električni efekt se događa kada elektrostatsko polje kreirano strujom uzrokuje da se atomi u materijalu
lagano gibaju.

3 How Does Piezoelectric Effect Work

The piezoelectric effect occurs when the charge balance within the crystal lattice of a
material is disturbed. When there is no applied stress on the material, the positive and
negative charges are evenly distributed so there is no potential difference. When the
lattice is changed slightly, the charge imbalance creates a potential difference, often as
high as several thousand volts. However, the current is extremely small and only causes
a small electric shock. The converse piezoelectric effect occurs when the electrostatic
field created by electrical current causes the atoms in the material to move slightly.

4 Primjena
Mali piezoelektrični kristali mogu proizvesti dovoljan napon da kreira iskru dovoljno veliku da zapali
plin. Ovi upaljači se koriste u mnogim plinsko-pogonjenim aparatima poput peći, roštilja, grijača soba i
grijača vode. Čak su dovoljno mali da stanu unutar upaljača iako mnogi upaljači koriste kremen jer je
jeftiniji a samo skuplji upaljači koriste piezoelektrični kristal. Iako je bilo mnogo pokušaja generiranja
elektriciteta putem ovog efekta na široj razini se pokazalo nepraktičnim.

Piezoelektrični kristali se koriste u električnim satovima kako bi računali vrijeme i za zvuk alarma.
Također se zovu kvarcni satovi jer je Kristal često napravljen od kvarca. On posjeduje prirodnu
frekvenciju idealnu za kreiranje oscilacija potrebnih za održanje točnog vremena. Kvarcni se satovi
također koriste za organizaciju protoka informacija u računalu. Diskovi od piezo električnog materijala
se također koriste za izradu tankih zvučnika koji stanu unutar ručnih satova.

Sonarni pretvornik koristi električni puls piezo električnog kristala da bi kreirali val pritiska i proizveli
struju kada reflektirani val deformira kristal. Vrijeme razlike između dvije struje se koristi da bi saznali
koliko je daleko neki objekt. Industrijski tintni pisači koriste pretvorbu piezo električnog efekta da bi
potisnuli tintu kroz stotine igala u glavama pisača. Električna struja uzrokuje da se mali kristal u svakoj
igli savije kreirajući puls pritiska koji tjera tintu van. Tinta je vraćena u iglu kada struja prestane i kristal
se vrati u igru.

4 Applications
Small piezoelectric crystals can produce enough voltage to create a spark large enough
to ignite gas. These igniters are used in many gas-powered appliances like ovens,
grillers, room heaters, and hot water heaters. They are even small enough to fit inside
lighters, although most lighters still use flint because it costs less, and only the more
expensive lighters use piezo igniters. While there have been many attempts at
generating electricity from the effect, it has proven impractical on a large scale.
Piezoelectric crystals are used in electronic clocks and watches to maintain the time and
provide the alarm noise. They are also called quartz clocks because the crystal they use
is often made from quartz. It has a natural frequency that is ideal for creating the
oscillations needed to maintain exact time. Quartz clocks are also used to organize the
flow of data in computers. Discs of piezoelectric material are also used to create thin
speakers that fit inside wristwatches.
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Sonar transducers apply an electrical pulse to a piezoelectric crystal to create a pressure

wave, and then produce a current when the reflected wave deforms the crystal. The
time gap between the two currents is used to work out how far away an object is.
Industrial inkjet printers use the converse piezoelectric effect to move ink through the
hundreds of nozzles in their print heads. An electric current makes a tiny crystal in each
nozzle bend, creating a pressure pulse that forces the ink out. Ink is drawn into the
nozzle when the current stops and the crystal relaxes.

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PRESENTATION

HOW DO SCIENTISTS STUDY

POSSIBLE EFFECTS

OF EMFS ON PEOPLE?

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Electric power is a fact of life in America, a familiar

miracle. Generations have come to take for granted the simple
flip of a switch that turns night into day. With electric power,
however, come certain precautions that are also well known.

Electric power lines, household wiring, and appliances can

cause serious injury from electric shock if handled improperly.
Recently, a new question has emerged about the electric power
we all depend on: Does it have anything to do with cancer?

Some epidemiological studies have suggested that a link

may exist between exposure to power-frequency electric and
magnetic fields (EMFs) and certain types of cancer, primarily
leukemia and brain cancer. Other studies have found no such
link. Laboratory researchers are studying how such an
association is biologically possible. At this point, there is no
scientific consensus about the EMF issue-except a general
agreement that better information is needed. A national EMF
research effort is under way, and major study results are
expected in the next few years.

This article provides some answers to common questions

about the possible health effects of EMFs. First, we define some
basic electrical terms, describe EMFs, and discuss recent
scientific studies. We then describe what the government is
doing to address public concerns about EMFs. Next, we address
questions people have about their own exposure to EMFs. We
also tell you how to obtain more detailed information about
these issues.

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This publications is not copyrighted and it may be reproduced without

permission. However, we do ask that credit be given to the National Institute
of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health.

Asignment
Read Questions and Answers about EMF and
Discuss Them in Your Group

Questions and Answers about EMF:

Electric and Magnetic Fields Associated with the Use of Electric Power

Table of Contents:

1) INTRODUCTION
2) ELECTRIC POWER BASICS
3) HUMAN HEALTH STUDIES
4) BIOLOGICAL STUDIES
5) GOVERNMENT ACTIONS
6) YOUR EMF ENVIRONMENT

Electric Power Basics

This article uses six basic electrical terms- conductor, current, voltage, load,
power, and circuit. The conductor is the wire you see between power poles or
towers; it carries the electricity. Current is the movement of electrons in the
conductor. Voltage is the electric force that causes current in a conductor. Load
is the electric power needed by homes and businesses. When a conductor
energized with voltage is connected to a load, a circuit is completed, and
current will flow.

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Electric Power Facilities

There are two basic types of power lines: transmission lines and distribution
lines. Transmission lines are high-voltage power lines. The high voltage
allows electric power to be carried efficiently over long distances from
electrical generation facilities to substations near urban areas. In the United
States, most transmission lines use alternating current (AC) and operate at
voltages between 50 and 765 kV (IkV or kilovolt = 1000 V).
Utilities use lower-voltage distribution lines to bring power from sub 0iV
stations to businesses and homes. Distribution lines operate at voltages below
50 kV. For residential customers, these levels are further reduced to 120/240 V
once the power reaches its destination.
Electrical substations serve many functions in controlling and transferring
power on an electrical system. Several different types of equipment may be
present, depending on the functions of the particular substation. For example,
transformers change the high voltages used by transmission lines to the lower
voltages used by distribution lines. Circuit breakers are used to turn lines on
and off.

Alternating Current and Direct Current

Appliances that operate either with batteries or by plugging into the household
wiring usually come equipped with an AC /DC switch. If switched to AC, the
appliance uses electric power that flows back and forth or "alternates" at a
(U.S.) rate of 60 cycles per second (60 hertz, or Hz). If DC ("direct current") is
chosen, current flows one way from the batteries to the appliance. AC fields
induce weak electric currents in conducting objects, including humans; DC
fields do not, unless the DC field changes in space or time relative to the person
in the field. In most practical situations, a battery-operated appliance is unlikely
to induce electric current in the person using the appliance. Induced currents
from AC fields have been a focus for research on how EMFs could affect
human health.

Scientific Principles
Q. What are EMFs?
A. Power lines, electrical wiring, and appliances all produce electric and
magnetic fields. EMFs are invisible lines of force that surround any electrical
device. Electric and magnetic fields have different properties and possibly
different ways of causing biological effects. Note that while electric fields are
easily shielded or weakened by conducting objects (e.g., trees, buildings, and
human skin), magnetic fields are not. However, both electric and magnetic
fields weaken with increasing distance from the source.
Even though electric and magnetic fields are present around appliances and
power lines, more recent interest and research have focused on potential health
effects of magnetic fields. This is because epidemiological studies have found
associations between increased cancer risk and power-line configurations,

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which are thought to be surrogates for magnetic fields. No such associations

have been found with measured electric fields.

Q. What is power-frequency EMF and how does it compare to other types

of fields?
A. The electromagnetic spectrum (right) covers an enormous range of
frequencies. These frequencies are expressed in cycles per second (i.e., Hz).
Electric power (60 Hz in North America, 50 Hz in most other places) is in the
extremely-low-frequency range, which includes frequencies below 3000 Hz.
The higher the frequency is, the shorter the distance between one wave and the
next, and the greater the amount of energy in the field. Microwave frequency
fields, with wavelengths of several inches, have enough energy to cause
heating in conducting material. Still higher frequencies like X-rays cause
ionization-the breaking of molecular bonds, which damages genetic material.
In comparison, power frequency fields have wavelengths of more than 3100
miles (5000 km) and consequently have very low energy levels that do not
cause heating or ionization. However, AC fields do create weak electric
currents in conducting objects, including people and animals.

Q. Doesn't the earth produce EMFs?

A. Yes, the earth produces EMFs, mainly in the form of DC (also called static
fields). Electric fields are produced by thunderstorm activity in the atmosphere.
Near the ground, the DC electric field averages less than 200 volts per meter
(V/m). Much stronger fields, typically about 50,000 V/m, occur directly
beneath electrical storms.
Magnetic fields are thought to be produced by electric currents flowing deep
within the earth's molten core. The DC magnetic field averages around 500
mill gauss (mG). This number is larger than typical AC electric power
magnetic fields, but DC fields do not create currents in objects in the way that
AC fields do.

Q, What happens when I am exposed to EMFs?

A. AC fields create weak electric currents in the bodies of people and animals.
This is one reason why there is a potential for EMFs to cause biological
effects. As shown on the right, currents from electric and magnetic fields are
distributed differently within the body. The amount of this current, even if you
are directly beneath a large transmission line, is extremely small (millionths of
an ampere). The current is too weak to penetrate cell membranes; it is present
mostly between the cells.
Currents from 60-Hz EMFs are weaker than natural currents in the body, such
as those from the electrical activity of the brain and heart. Some scientists
argue that it is therefore impossible for EMFs to have any important effects.
Other scientists argue that, just as a trained ear can pick up a familiar voice or
cry in a crowd, so a cell may respond to induced current as a signal, lower in
intensity yet detectable even through the background "noise" of the body's
natural currents. Numerous laboratory studies have shown that biological
effects can be caused by exposure to EMFs (see Biological Studies). In most
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cases, however, it is not clear how EMFs actually produce these demonstrated
effects.
Strong electric fields, such as those found beneath large transmission lines, can
cause hair on your exposed head or arms to vibrate slightly at 60 Hz. This is
felt by some people as a tingling sensation. EMFs from transmission lines can
also in some circumstances cause nuisance shocks from voltages created by
EMFs on objects like ungrounded metal fences.

Human health studies

Q. How do scientists study possible effects of EMFs on people?

A. They use a type of research called epidemiology-the study of patterns and

possible causes of diseases in human populations. Epidemiologist study short
term epidemics such as outbreaks of food poisoning and long term epidemics
such as outbreaks of food poisoning and long term diseases such as cancer and
heart disease. The results of these studies are reported in terms of statistical
associations between various factors and disease. The challenge is to discover
whether the statistical results indicate a true causal association. This includes
assessing possible effects of other factors "confounders" that could affect study
i results. A "statistically significant" finding is one in which researchers are
95% confident that an association exists. However, a statistically significant
finding does not necessarily prove a cause-effect association. Usually,
supplemental data are needed from studies of laboratory animals before
scientists can conclude that a given factor is a cause of disease.
The language of epidemiology can appear, to the uninitiated, more precise than
it actually is. An odds ratio (see example below) is an estimate. Epidemiologists
must calculate, along with the odds ratio, the range over which they are
confident that this estimate is reliable. Sample size is a key factor in this
calculation. The smaller the sample, the less reliable the information is.

Q. What have the studies of cancer in people living near power lines
found?

A. To date, 14 studies have analyzed a possible association between proximity

to power lines and various types of childhood cancer. Of these, eight have
reported positive associations between proximity to power lines and some
form(s) of cancer. Four of the 14 studies showed a statistically significant
association with leukaemia.
The first study to report an association between power lines and cancer was
conducted in 1979 in Denver by Dr. Nancy Wertheimer and Ed Leeper. They
found that children who had died from cancer were 2 to 3 times more likely to
have lived within 40 m (131 ft) of a high-current power line than were the other
children studied. Exposure to magnetic fields was identified as a possible factor
in this finding. Magnetic fields were not measured in the homes. Instead, the
researchers devised a substitute method to estimate the magnetic fields
produced by the power lines. The estimate was based on the size and number of

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power line wires and the distance between the power lines and the home (p.
34).
A second Denver study in 1988, and a 1991 study in Los Angeles, also found
significant associations between living near high-current power lines and
childhood cancer incidence. The L.A. study found an association with
leukaemia but did not look at all cancers. The 1988 Denver study found an
association with all cancer incidences. When leukaemia was analyzed
separately, the risk was elevated but not statistically significant. In neither of
these two studies were the associations found to be statistically significant
when magnetic fields were measured in the home and used in the analysis.
Studies in Sweden (1992) and Mexico (1993) have found increased leukaemia
incidence for children living near transmission lines. A 1993 Danish study, like
the 1988 Denver study, found an association for incidence of all childhood
cancers but not specifically leukaemia. A Finnish study found an association
with central nervous system tumors in boys. Eight studies have examined risk
of cancer for adults living near power lines. Of these, two found significant
associations with cancer. The following chart summarizes results from studies
involving cancer in people living near power lines

SUMARY OF RESIDENTAL POWER LINE CANCER

STUDIES:

Werlhheimer & Denver OR=2 35* All Cancer OR-2

Leeper 79 22*
Fulton el al. '80 Rhode OR=l 09 Not Studied
Island
l'omenius'86 Sweden OR= 030 CNS 1 umors
OR=3 70
:
Savilzelal. '88 Denver OR=l 54 All Caneei OR-
1.53*
Coleman et al. U.K. OR=l 50 Not Studied
'89
Lin & Lu '89 Taiwan OR-1 31 AH Cancer OR-T
30
Myers el al. '90 U.K. OR=l 14 All Cancel OR o
ox
London el al. '91 Los Angeles OR=2 15* Not Studied
l.owenlhal et al. Australia O/l.=2u0
'91
Fevchtina& Sweden OR=3 SO* All Cancer OR-
Ahlbom'93 1.30
Olson ot al.'93 Denmark OR=l 50 All Cancer
OR=5.oO*
Pelridou ot al. '93 Greece OR=l 19 Not Studied
Vorkasalo '93 Finland MR=I 60 All Cancer SIR-
1.50
Fajardo-Gutierrez Mexico OR=2.63* Not Studied
el al. '93
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Although often characterized this way, these diverse studies can't simply
be "added up" to determine weight of evidence or to reach a conclusion
about health effects because many types of studies are included in these
lists. Also, many studies that reported no statistically significant elevations
in risk did report elevated risks (above 1.00). The risks in some cases may
not be reported as "significant" because of small sample sizes. For studies
included as significant, some found only one or a few significant risks out
of several that
A. In late 1992, researchers in Sweden reported results of a study of cancer
in people living near high-voltage transmission lines. The Swedish study
generated a great deal of interest among scientists, the public, and the news
media. Relative risk for leukemia increased in Swedish children who lived
within 50 m (164 ft) of a transmission line. The risk was found also to
increase progressively as the calculated average annual 50-Hz magnetic
field increased in strength. However, the risk calculations were based on
very small numbers of cases (see summary box, next page). The Swedish
researchers concluded that their study provides additional evidence for a
possible link between magnetic fields and childhood leukemia. However,
scientists have expressed differing opinions about this study. Some
scientists believe the study is important because it is based on magnetic
field levels presumed to have existed around the time the cancers were
diagnosed. Others are skeptical because of the small numbers of cancer
cases and because no cancer association was seen with present-day
magnetic field levels measured in the home. had been calculated. When
many risks are calculated, some can be "significant" due to chance. It is
also worth noting that studies which report positive associations tend to
receive more publicity than do studies which find no association.

Q, What about the Swedish cancer study of people living near

transmission lines?

There are about 70 new cases of childhood leukemia per year in Sweden.
The National Electrical Safety Board of Sweden estimates that if, as this
study suggests, living near overhead transmission lines increases a child's
risk of developing leukemia, then approximately two children per year in
Sweden would develop leukemia as a result of living near such power
lines.
Information on adult cancer incidence was also collected and analyzed in
the Swedish study. Researchers reported in 1994 that adults with the
highest cumulative exposure (over 15 years) to power-line EMFs were
twice as likely to develop acute or chronic myeloid leukemia as were less
exposed adults. Although the total number of cases was small, which made
the results of borderline statistical significance, the study provides some
evidence for an association between exposure to magnetic fields from
power lines and acute and chronic myeloid leukemia in adults.

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Q. Are there high cancer rates in some neighborhoods close to electric

power facilities?

A. Scientists call unusual occurrences of cancer in an area or in time a

"cancer cluster". In some cases, a cancer cluster has served as an early
warning of a health hazard. For most reports of cancer clusters, however,
the cause is never determined, or the perceived cluster is not really an
unusual occurrence.
Concerns have been raised about seemingly high numbers of cancers in
some neighborhoods and schools close to electric power facilities. In
recent years, three state health departments have studied apparent cancer
clusters near electric power facilities. A Connecticut study involved five
cases of brain and central nervous system cancers in people living near an
electrical substation. The local rates for these types of cancer were found
to be no different from statewide rates. Examination of cancer rates at
various distances from the substation also failed to show evidence of
clustering. In North Carolina, several cases of brain cancer were identified
in part of a county that included an electric power generating plant. An
investigation showed that brain cancer rates in the county, however, were
actually lower than statewide rates. Among staff at an elementary school
near transmission lines in California, 13 cancers of various types were
identified. Although this was twice the expected rate, the state
investigators concluded that the cancers could have occurred by chance
alone.

Q. Do electrical workers have higher risks of cancer?

A. Several studies have reported increased cancer risks for jobs involving work
around electrical equipment. To date, it is not clear whether these risks are
caused by EMFs or by other factors. A report published in 1982 by Dr. Samuel
Milham was one of the first to suggest that electrical workers have a higher
risk of leukemia than do workers in other occupations. The Milham study was
based on death certificates from Washington State and included workers in 10
occupations assumed to have elevated exposure to EMFs. A subsequent study
by Milham, published in 1990, reported elevated levels of leukemia and
lymphoma among workers in aluminum smelters, which use very large
amounts of electrical power.
About 50 studies have now reported statistically significant increased risks for
several types of cancer in occupational groups presumed to have elevated
exposure to EMFs. Relative risk levels in these studies are mostly less than 2,
and the possible influence of other factors such as chemicals has not been ruled
out. At least 30 other studies did not find any significant cancer risks in
electrical workers. Most of the earlier occupational studies did not include
actual measurements of EMF exposure on the job. Instead, they used
"electrical" job titles as indicators of assumed elevated exposure to EMFs.
Recent studies, however, have included extensive EMF exposure assessments.
A report published in 1992 by Dr. Joseph Bowman and colleagues provided
some information about actual EMF exposures of various electrical workers.
As shown in the table below, electrical workers in Los Angeles and Seattle did
have higher EMF exposures than non-electrical workers.

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For this study, the category "electrical workers" included electrical engineering
technicians, electrical engineers, electricians, power line and cable workers,
power station operators, telephone line workers, TV and radio repairmen, and
welders and flame cutters.
In a further analysis published in July 1994, Dr. Stephanie London, Bowman,
and others found a weakly positive trend for increased leukemia risk in relation
to exposure to magnetic fields among electrical workers in Los Angeles
County. These results were consistent with findings from studies based on job
title alone that electrical workers may be at slightly increased risk of leukemia.
A 1993 study (Sahl et al.) of 36,000 electrical workers at a large utility in
California found no consistent evidence of an association between measured
magnetic fields and cancer. Some elevated risks for lymphoma and leukemia
were observed, but they were not statistically significant.
A 1992 study of Swedish workers (Floderus et al.) found an association
between average EMF exposure and chronic lymphocyte leukemia but not
acute myeloid leukemia. There was some evidence of increasing risk with
increasing exposure. The Floderus study also reported an increase in brain
tumors among younger men whose work involved relatively high magnetic
field exposure.
Results of a major study of electrical workers in Canada and France were
reported in early 1994. The research team, led by Dr. Gilles Theriault, looked
at 4151 cancer cases in 223,292 workers from two utilities in Canada and one
in France. Workers with more than the median cumulative magnetic field
exposure (31 mG) had a significantly higher (up to three times higher) risk of
developing acute myeloid leukemia. Workers who had the greatest exposures
to magnetic fields had twelve times the expected rate of astrocytomas (a type
of brain tumor), but according to the authors, this finding "suffered from
serious statistical limits" and was based on a small number of cases (five) in
the highest exposure category. In the analysis of median cumulative magnetic
field exposure, no significant elevated risks were found for the other 29 types
of cancer studied.*
There were inconsistencies in results among the three utilities and no clear
indication of a dose-response trend. The authors concluded, therefore, that their
results did not provide
definitive evidence that magnetic fields were the cause of the elevated risks
found in leukemia and brain cancer. However, they observed as "noteworthy"
the fact that despite the enormous number of analyses done, the only two types
of cancer for which a significant association with EMF was found (leukemia
and brain cancer) were among the three for which an association had been
hypothesized, based on previous studies.
In another major study involving more than 138,000 utility workers (Savitz et
al. 1995), the authors concluded that the results "do not support an association
between occupational magnetic field exposure and leukemia, but do suggest a
link to brain cancer."
*A later analysis reported an association between exposure to short bursts of
extremely high magnetic fields and increased risk of lung cancer.

Q. Is there any evidence that EMF exposure increases the risk of breast
cancer?

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A. There is some epidemiological evidence for an association between EMF

exposure and breast cancer, but studies have also reported evidence to the
contrary.
A 1994 study (Loomis et al.) examined death records of female workers and
found that women employed in electrical occupations were slightly more likely
to have died of breast cancer than were other working women. However,
because the study could not control for factors such diet, fertility, and family
history (which are known to affect breast cancer risk), the results are
considered to be preliminary, not conclusive. A 1994 Norwegian study
reported an excess risk of breast cancer among female radio and telegraph
operators aboard ships. A 1993 Danish study found no association between
occupational EMF exposure and female breast cancer. Several studies have
reported an increased risk of breast cancer among men employed in EMF-
related occupations. However, the 1994 study of electrical workers in Canada
and France reported no such association.
Several large-scale studies are now underway in the United States and in other
countries to see if women living in homes with higher EMF exposures have an
increased risk of developing breast cancer. The reason for the recent interest in
EMFs and breast cancer has less to do with epidemiology than with biology-
laboratory evidence concerning the role of EMFs and melatonin in the
development and suppression of breast cancer.

Q. If EMFs really do cause or promote cancer; shouldn't cancer rates have

increased along with the increased use of electricity?

A. Not necessarily. Although use of electricity has increased greatly over the
years (right), EMF exposures have probably not increased in the same way.
Changes in the way that buildings are wired and in the way electrical
appliances are made have in some cases resulted in lower magnetic field levels.
Rates for various types of cancer have shown both increases and decreases
through the years.
For example, mortality rates (deaths) for the two most common cancers in
children have decreased because of better treatment. Incidence rates (numbers
of new cases), however, have tended to increase for unknown reasons. Reliable
data on incidence rates only became available beginning in the early 1970s.)
Incidence rates can reflect changes in exposures to various environmental
agents, and they are also affected by changes in how cancers are diagnosed and
reported.
The effect of a major cancer risk factor, like smoking, is evident in the historic
lung cancer rates. The possible effect of EMFs would be mixed with those of
many other factors having small or moderate risks to certain segments of the
population. The individual contribution of
these factors would be difficult to separate in the overall cancer rates.

Q. Besides cancer, what other kinds of effects have been reported in

epidemiologic studies involving EMFs?

A. Several epidemiologic studies have looked for EMF effects on pregnancy

outcomes and general health. Various EMF sources have been studied for
possible association with miscarriage risk: power lines and substations, electric
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blankets and heated water beds, electric cable ceiling heat, and computer
monitors or video display terminals (VDTs). Some studies have correlated
EMF exposure with higher than expected miscarriage rates; others have found
no such correlation. Epidemiologic studies have revealed no evidence of an
association between EMF exposure and birth defects in humans.
Several studies looked at the overall health of high-voltage electrical workers,
and a few looked at the incidence of suicide or depression in people living near
transmission lines. Results of these studies have been mixed. Some studies have
also investigated the possibility that certain sensitive individuals may
experience allergic-type reactions to EMFs, known as "electro sensitivity."
One preliminary report released in 1994 has suggested a possible link between
occupational EMF exposure and increased incidence of Alzheimer's disease.
This study also found a higher incidence of Alzheimer's disease among tailors
and dressmakers. At the time this booklet was produced, the research related to
Alzheimer's had not been peer-reviewed or published.

Biological studies
Q. What effects of EMFs have been reported in laboratory studies?

A. Several kinds of biological effects have been reported in studies of electric and
/or magnetic fields (see below). A biological effect is a measurable change in
some biological factor. It may or may not have any bearing on health. Overall,
effects attributed to EMFs have been small and difficult to reproduce. Very
specific laboratory conditions are usually needed for effects of EMFs to be
detected. It is not known how EMFs actually cause these effects.
Laboratory studies to date have not answered questions about possible human
health effects. These studies are, however, providing clues about how EMFs
interact with basic biological processes. The cell membrane may be an important
site of interaction with induced currents from EMFs.
Keep in mind that some of these effects are within the "normal" range of
variation. A biological response to a particular stimulus does not necessarily result
in a negative health effect.

Q. What about effects of EMFs on the hormone melatonin?

A. Melatonin is a hormone produced mainly at night by the pineal, a small gland

in the brain. One reason scientists are interested in melatonin is that it could help
explain results of some EMF epidemiological studies. Melatonin has been
reported to slow the growth of some cancer cells, including breast cancer cells, in
laboratory experiments. If power frequency EMF can affect melatonin in humans,
this could be a mechanism to explain results of some
EMF studies of breast cancer.
In the 1980s, scientists found that in rats exposed to 60-Hz electric fields,
nighttime melatonin levels were reduced. Other studies have since reported that
both AC and DC magnetic fields can also affect melatonin levels in rats and
hamsters. These experiments are very delicate and depend on a combination of
factors such as age of the animals and length of day. Melatonin levels were not
affected in sheep raised for nearly a year in the EMFs directly beneath a 500-kV
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transmission line. Experiments with baboons also showed no changes in

melatonin. The Midwest Research Institute (MRI) has studied the effect of 60-Hz
magnetic field exposure on human melatonin. In 1993 MRI reported that although
subjects showed no effect on the average, those individuals with naturally lower
levels of melatonin did show a small further decrease. However, in 1994 MRI
reported that a second study, specifically designed to replicate the earlier results,
found no such effect.

Government actions
Q. What have governmental reviews concluded about EMFs and cancer?

A. Most recent reviews have concluded that the existing evidence, although
suggestive, is not sufficient to show that EMFs cause cancer. These include
national reviews by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the Committee on
Interagency Radiation Research and Policy Coordination, the Australian Minister
of Health, the National Radiological Protection Board of the United Kingdom, the
Danish Ministry of Health, the French National Institute of Health and Medical
Research, and reviews sponsored by the states of California, Texas, Connecticut,
Illinois, Maryland, and
Colorado.
The Swedish government issued a public information document in May 1994 that
states, "We suspect that magnetic fields may pose certain risks to health, but
we cannot be certain." While research is underway to pin this down, the report
continues, "There is good reason to exercise a certain amount of caution." The
Swedish government recommends against locating new homes and schools near
existing electricity generating plants and proposes that high magnetic fields in
homes, schools, and workplaces be limited. It specifically states, however, that
"current knowledge is not sufficient for us to tell how magnetic fields affect us.
So we do not have a basis on which to set [exposure] limits."
In nearby Denmark, a government agency concluded there was no scientific
reason to establish magnetic field standards for high-current lines.

Your environment
At a distance of about 300 ft. at times of average electricity demand, the magnetic
field from many lines can be similar to typical background EMF levels found in
most homes. The distance at which the magnetic field from the line becomes
indistinguishable from typical background EMFs differs for different types of
lines. Neighborhood distribution lines can also sometimes produce significant
magnetic fields, depending on the amount of current they carry.

Q. How strong are the EMFs from electric power substations?

A. In general, the strongest EMFs around the outside of a substation come from
the power lines entering and leaving the station. The strength of the EMFs from
transformers decreases rapidly with increasing distance. Beyond the substation

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fence, the EMFs produced by the equipment within the station are typically
indistinguishable from background levels.

Q. What typical EMF sources do I encounter when traveling?

A. Inside a car or bus, the main sources of 60-Hz magnetic field exposure are
those you pass by (or under) as you drive, such as power lines. Car batteries
involve DC rather than AC. Alternators can create EMFs, but not at 60 Hz.
Most trains are diesel-powered. Some electrically powered trains operate on
AC, such as the Baltimore-Washington commuter train. Measurements taken
on this train in 1991* showed 25-Hz magnetic field strengths as high as 500
mG in the passenger areas at seat height. Other trains, such as the Washington
D.C. Metro and the San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit, run on DC, but even
these trains are not free of AC fields. Areas of strong AC magnetic fields have
been measured on the Washington Metro close to the floor, presumably near
equipment located underneath some subway cars. Train motors and other
equipment can create alternating fields at higher than 60-Hz frequencies. In
addition to sources of magnetic field exposure from the train itself, train
passengers are exposed to magnetic fields from sources the train passes on its
route.

Q. Is there something significant about the 2-mG magnetic field level?

A. A typical American home has a background magnetic field level (away from
any appliances) that ranges from 0.5 mG to 4 mG, with an average value of 0.9
mG.* Most ordinary electrical appliances produce higher localized magnetic
fields. Several EMF epidemiological studies have used 2 or 3 mG as a cutoff
point to define broad categories of exposure. Below this level, subjects are
considered "unexposed," and above this level they are considered "exposed." In
some studies, a higher cancer risk was found within the exposed group. Other
studies found no such increased risk. The significance of 2 mG is as a boundary
to define the exposed group in some studies, not as a safety threshold. Although
some experiments with cells have reported effects at field levels as low as 2
mG, there is no laboratory evidence for adverse human health effects at this
level.
The Swedish study (discussed under Human Health Studies) suggested a
dose/response relationship for EMF exposure: The higher the estimated
magnetic field exposure, the higher the cancer risk. To deduce from the
Swedish study, however, that 2 mG is some sort of safety threshold is to read
far too much into the data. The Swedish government has so far concluded that
current knowledge does not provide sufficient basis for setting exposure limits
(see Government Actions).
*This estimate is based on the EPRl study of 992 homes. An average magnetic
field measurement was calculated for each home, based on measurements
conducted in each room. The average of the 992 individual "home averages"
was 0.9 m.
Avoid unnecessary proximity to high EMF sources-don't let children play
directly under power lines or on top of power transformers for underground
lines. Reduce time spent in the f/e/d-turn off your computer monitor and other
electrical appliances when you aren't using them.
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Q. Are products advertised as having reduced magnetic fields legitimate?

A. This question must be answered appliance by appliance, depending on the

claims of the manufacturer. According to the
U.S. Food and Drug Administration's Center for Devices and Radiological
Health, "low magnetic field" electric blankets do produce significantly lower
magnetic fields than older versions because of wiring redesign. It is advisable,
however, to be cautious about product claims that sound too good too be true
given the complexity of the EMF issue.

Q. How can I find out how strong the EMFs are where I live or work?

A. For specific information about EMFs from a particular power line, contact
the utility that operates the line. Most utilities will conduct EMF measurements
for customers at no charge. You can make your own field measurements if you
have a gauss meter, available from several companies. Independent
measurement technicians will conduct EMF measurements for a fee. In some
cities, they are listed in the yellow pages of the telephone book under the
heading "Engineers, environmental." Gauss meters can be easily purchased for
personal use.

Q. How does the magnetic field throughout my home compare with that of
other homes?

A. As a source of comparison with the magnetic field throughout your home,

see the figure below.
(The EPRI study of 992 homes was not designed to measure people's actual
exposure to magnetic fields. Instead, it focused on identifying internal and
external sources of these fields in the home. Your exposure to magnetic fields
depends on how much time you spend near various sources and on the strength
of the fields produced by the source).
This chart summarizes data from a study by the Electric Power Research
Institute (EPRI) in which spot measurements of magnetic fields were made in
the center of rooms in 992 homes throughout the United States. Half of the
homes studied had magnetic field measurements of 0.6 mG or less, when the
average of measurements from all the rooms in the home was calculated (the
all-room mean magnetic field). The all-room mean magnetic field for all homes
studied was 0.9mG. Only 15% of the homes had mean magnetic fields greater
than 2.1 mG. The measurements were made away from electrical appliances
and primarily reflect the fields from outside power lines, household wiring, and
electrical grounding sources.

Q. Is it safe to live close to a transmission line?

A. Living close to a transmission line can increase your overall exposure to

EMFs. As discussed earlier, despite research findings to the contrary,
government health or safety organizations worldwide have reportedly refused
to conclude that EMFs cause cancer or other health effects.
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It is generally acknowledged that several studies have reported increased cancer

risks, especially for children living close to high-current power lines. Although
these studies suggest potential risks, scientists do not yet know whether EMFs,
other factors, or methodological problems are responsible for their findings. It
is possible that future studies will provide sufficient information to establish
whether EMFs are a hazard to human health.
The newer studies may also show that factors other than EMFs were
responsible for effects reported in earlier studies. It is also possible that, even
with more research, there will be no scientific resolution to the EMF issue in
the near future.
The answer to this question, therefore, involves (1) a great deal of judgment
about the meaning of existing scientific evidence, (2) speculation about the
possible results of future studies, and (3) individual perceptions about the
relative importance of various potential health risks. During this period of
uncertainty, there are some things that you can do to help answer this question.

1. Follow the EMF issue by reading various sources and talking with people who
are working to resolve the issue. The EMF RAPID Program in cooperation with
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency provides a toll-free public
information telephone line to answer EMF-related questions and direct callers to
further sources of information.

The EMF "Infoline" number is 1-800-363-2383. (In Washington D.C., call 484-1803.)

2. Find out about the EMF levels produced by the particular source that concerns
you. If the source is a power line, you may be far enough away that EMF levels
are negligible.

Q. What can be done to limit EMF exposures?

A. There are a number of ways to reduce exposures to EMFs. Some are as easy
as standing back from an appliance when it is in use. Remember that magnetic
fields from appliances drop off dramatically in strength with increased distance
from the source.
Other EMF reduction steps, such as correcting a household wiring problem, are
worth doing anyway for safety reasons. But what about more costly actions, such
as burying power lines or moving out of a home? Because scientists are still
debating whether EMFs are a hazard to health, it is not clear how much should
be done at this time to reduce exposures. Some EMF reduction measures may
create other problems. For instance, compacting power lines to reduce EMFs can
increase the danger of accidental electrocution for line workers.
A concerted effort to provide scientifically valid research on which to base
decisions about EMF exposures is under way, and results are expected in the
next several years. Meanwhile, some authorities recommend taking simple
precautionary steps, such as the following:
• Increase the distance between yourself and the EMF source-sit at arm's
length from your computer terminal.

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Abstract/Conclusion

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Section 3

CONTINUOUS
ASPECT
2. I am studying English right now.

3. I was studying English when you called.

while you were reading.
at seven o'clock last night.
for a long time.

4. I have been studying English since September.

recently.
for a long time when he came toAmerica.

4. I had been studying English since September when he dropped

the course.

5. I will be studying English at this time next year.

6. I will have been studying English for ten years by this time next
year.

The Continous aspect - active expresses:

1. activity in progress
2. temporary activity
3. possibly incomplete activity

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Section 3a
ASSIGNMENT 1
Revision of present simple and continouos
Present simple is used for
 permanent situations,
 habits and routines,
 facts that are always true,
 and for general situations.
It is used with the adverbs of frequency such as:
always, usually, often, from time to time, seldom, rarely, frequently, every Sunday

Present Continuous is used for

 temporary situations,
 activities in progress,
 events happening now and for particular situation and
 a fixed future arrangement.

1 Turn these infinitives into –ing forms

No change in spelling before adding –ing.

to talk talking to ski skiing
to play playing to be being
to hurry hurrying to see seeing

Drop the silent e.

to live living to phone phoning

Double the final consonant if this is preceded by a a single vowel in a stressed

syllable.
to get getting to prefer preferring
to stop stopping to cut cutting

Double the final l preceded by a single vowel.

to travel travelling to compel compelling

Change the ending –ie to y and add –ing.

to die dying to lie lying

Add a k before –ing to verbs ending in c.

to picnic picnicking to mimic mimicking

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Past Simple and Past Continuous Tense

Turn these Infinitives into Simple Past Tenses:

No change in spelling before adding –ed.

to work worked
to reveal revealed
to ski skied
to play played

Drop the silent e.

to live lived
to die died

Drop one e.
to free freed
to agree agreed

Double the final consonant if this is preceded by a single vowel.

to stop stopped
to prefer preferred

Double the final l if it is preceded by a single vowel.

to travel travelled
to compel compelled

Change the final y preceded by a consonant to i and add –ed.

to carry carried
to study studied

Add a k before –ed to verbs ending in c.

to picnic picnicked
to mimic mimicked

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Perfect Aspect is used when

- the exact time of the verb action is not important
and
- the action is completed BEFORE another time

BEFORE – PRESENT
Have you ever been to America?

(some time before present)

BEFORE – PAST
When I arrived, he had already left.

(some time before I arrived)

BEFORE – FUTURE
I'll have finished the report by tonight.

(some time before tonight)

Study the following perfect aspects:

I haven't finished this boring book yet;

I've read only 22 pages so far.

By the end of last year I had read only 10 pages,

and by next year I will have read two more.

Study Present Perfect Simple and Continuous, Units 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
12, 13, and 14;
Past Perfect Simple and Continuous, Units 15 and 16;
Future Perfect Simple and Continuous, Unit 24 from English Grammar in
Use by Raymond Murphy

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PRESENT PERFECT
SIMPLE AND CONTINUOUS

We have been reviewing English grammar since the

beginning of the semestar and we have taken up
several verb forms and verb construction but we
haven't mentioned the perfect aspects yet.

We have learned when to use the present tense. We

have written many paragraphs and we have tried to
remember to use the appropriate verb tenses but we
haven't always succeeded. When will we be able to
say that we have mastered the verb system of
English?

I have been working in this field for a lot of years, as a

matter of fact.
I have tried several different approaches and methods
of teaching the verb systems but I have never tried a
way that is completely satisfactory.
I have spoken to many of my students and they have
assured me that my explanations are easy to
understand but I am still trying to make them better.
Teaching the aspects of the verb system has been the
only satisfactory method so far.

- How long have you been living In Rijeka?

I have been here for a long time. I left Crikvenica 30

years ago and I have been living here ever since.

- How long have you been making your own decisions?

- How long have you been styding English?
- How long have you been attending the Faculty of
Engineering?
- How long have you been working toward a degree?
- Have you been learning English for quite a long time?

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The aspects of Present Perfect Simple and Continuous

I've cut my finger. (single action)
I've been cutting wood. (uninterrupted and repeated
action)

She has had two operations. (completed

action)
She has been having problems with her knee. (repeated)

He has lived here all his life. (permanent)

She has been living here for a few weeks (temporary)

Have you seen the Picasso exhibition? (it is still open)

Did you see the Picasso exhibition? (it is finished)

Who has been eating my sandwich? (incomplete

action)
Who has eaten my sandwich? (completed
action)

What have you been doing at the Faculty?

I have been sitting for exams.

How many exams have you passed so far?

I've passed three of them?

What were you doing at five o'clock yesterday afternoon?

(definite time)

What should you have been doing?

Should + perfect infinitive (simple or continuous)

You should have worked harder. (But you didn't)

You should have been doing exercises.
You should have been watching the road.

You shouldn't have hit him. (But you did.)

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Present Perfect Simple

1 The present perfect tense is a mixure of present and past and is used in
conversations, letters, radio and television reports, broadcasts and
newspapers to introduce an action which will then be described in the
simple past tense.

The Prime Minister has decided to …. This decision was announced when ….

2 The present perfect tense is used for past actions whose time is not
given, for recent actions when the time is not mentioned. It can be used
with
so far, until now, ever, never, always, often, lately, recently, yet, already
and just.
I haven't finished yet.
Have you finished yet?
Yes, I have already (just) finished.
He has always loved you. (a state)
We have often visited England. (a repeated event)

3 It can be used with a word or phrase denoting an incomplete period of

time, when there is no clear idea of when within the period the action
happened or of how many times. E.g.: today, this week, this month, this
year
Have you seen him today (this week, this year)? The action happened at any time
today (this week, or this year).
He has phoned at 11a.m. but He phoned at 2 p.m.
He was in hospital for a short period. (he is not in hospital any more) but
He has been in hospital for two weeks. (he is still there)

4 for and since are used with the present perfect and for expresses a period
of time whereas Since expresses a point of time and means „from that
point to the time of speaking“.
I have known you for a long time.
Jill has worked here since January 10th.
I have been to England since last week. (a point in time about seven days ago)
I have been to England for the last week. (the period of seven days that has just
finished)

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The present perfect continuous tense

1 The present perfect continuous tense expresses an action
which is apparently uninterrupted.

- I'm cold because I've been swimming for half an hour.

- You look dirty. What've you been doing? Have you been cleaning the garage?

2 We do not use Present perfect continuous tense when we

mention the number of times a thing has been done or the number
of things that have been done.

- I've writen an e-mail. (this job has been done)

- I've been writing an e-mail. (this is how I've spent the last five minutes)
- I have written 10 e-mails today.
- Have they been taking their exams?
- Yes, they have. They've taken five of them so far.
- Have you been attending the lectures?
- Yes, I have. I have attended five of them so far.
(five of them have been completed up till now and there are still more to take and
attend.)

3 The verbs of a static nature , such as stay, wait, sit, stand, lie,
study, learn, live, rest, etc. are rarely found in simple present perfect,
because by their very nature they continue into the present.

He has been lying on the floor for two hours. (and there he is still.)
I've been studying hard for the last two months! (the action is still in progress)
- Have you been making your own wine for long?
- No, we've just started making it.

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ASSIGNMENT5
Rewrite each of the following sentences without changing
the meaning. You may need to use the present perfect or
the simple past.
1. Imagine that last time we went to the theater was over two years.
We have not ……………………………………………………..

2. I have not really enjoyed myself since your last birthday party.
Your birthday party ………………………………………………..

3. I wonder why my father has not seen his brother for nearly ten years.
It’s nearly ten years ………………………………………………….

4. It’s ages since you tidied your room.

You have not ………………………………………………………

5. How long is it since you last made your own clothes?

When ………………………………………………………………

6. I have not suffered from earache since the last time I went swimming.
The last time ………………………………………………………

7. It’s weeks since I played chess.

I have not ……………………………………………………….

ASSIGNMENT6
Study the following sentence and translate into Croatian

I have not seen him since last Monday, but I believe he is writing an
essay on „Bearings“ at present.

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Past Perfect Simple and

Continuous
Past Perfect Simple

1 The Past perfect tense is related to an action in the

past in the same way that the Present perfect is
related to the present action, i.e. it describes an
action completed before some special past action.

He thanked me for what I had done for him.

2 It may not be necessary to use past perfect simple if

we use BEFORE or AFTER.
They went home after they (had) finished their work.
After I (had) heard the news, I hurried to see her.
Before help reached us, one woman (had) collapsed.
They told him they had not met him before.
He finished (OR had finished) work before I arrived.
He had already finished work before I arrived. (only one form
possible)

3 The past perfect tense is used with REALIZE.

When I got home I realized I had lost my glasses.

4 With verbs of thinking: think, know, remember,

understand, be sure, suspect, etc
I thought I’d seen the film before, but I hadn’t.
Allan knew he had seen her somewhere before.

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5 Past perfect in reported speech

The little girl asked what had happened to her ice-cream.

He refused to admit that he had stolen the book.
She said she had lost her wallet.

6 Pattern drills

- Why was he so angry?

- I hadn’t given Mary his message.
- Did you really tear up the notice?
- It was a mistake. I realized it as soon as I’d torn it up.

- Why didn’t you go to the film?

- Because I’d already seen it.
- Why couldn’t you see the film properly?
- I hadn’t taken my glasses with me.

7 Study the following sentence

He had been preparing for the English exam for
quite a long time before he actually sat for it.

N.B. sit for an exam pristupiti i polagati ispit

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Past Perfect Continuous

Lucy looked very tired this morning.

I know. She’d been writing all night.

Why was he so happy when he got home?

He’d been celebrating.

Their “looking tired and happy” was the result of what they
had been doing for some time before.

What was Tom’s excuse for being late this evening?

He said he’d been watching T.V.
What was Lucy’s excuse for being late for lunch?
She said she’d been marking exam papers.

The past perfect continuous replaces the present perfect

continuous in the indirect speech.

Did you go skiing before you got engaged?

Oh yes! I’d been going skiing for years before I got engaged.
Did you go camping before you got married?
Oh yes! I’d been going camping for years before I got married.

The past perfect continuous with for + period of time

emphasizes the continuity of the action.

So John’s finally finished his book!

Yes, he finished it yesterday, but he’d been writing it for ages!

So John’s finally sold his land!

Yes, he sold it yesterday, but he’d been talking about it for ages.

He’d been writing and talking about it before he finished his

book and before he sold his farm.

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LECTURE 8

Passive Aspect

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Section 3
Passive aspect

[Subject or thing receiving action] +

[the verb to be in the required tense] +

[Past participle of the required verb] +
[by] + [thing doing action]
Active Form
[Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action]

Examples:

Petra washes the dishes

thing doing action verb object receiving action

Passive Form
Examples:

The dishes are washed by

Petra.
Subject receiving action passive verb agent -
doing action

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ASSIGNMENT 1

Study Tip

ACTIVE PASSIVE

They often do it. It is often done.

They are doing it now. It is being done now.

They did it yesterday. It was done yesterday.

They were doing it last week. It was being done last week.

They have already done it. It has already been done.

They had done it earlier. It had been done earlier.

They will soon do it. It will soon be done.

They will soon have done it. It will soon have been done.

They have to do it at once. It has to be done at once.

They may not have done it. It may not have been done.

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ASSIGNMENT 2
Use the Passive Aspect.
It is an auto-corrective test.

I am writing an e-mail The e-mail is being written.

He often writes e-mails. ..…………………………….......

I wrote him an e-mail. …………………………….......

I was writing him an e-mail. …………………………….....

I have already written him an e-mail. …………………………….

I had written an e-mail before we met. …………………………....

I am going to write an e-mail to him. ……………………………..

I shall write an e-mail to him. ………………………………..

I must write him an e-mail. ………………………………

I must have written this e-mail to him .……………………………

I should have written an e-mail to him. …………………...........

I would have written an e-mail to him if …………………………

They may haven't done it yet. ………………………………

Is it unlikely to discover intelligent life on other planets?

…………………………………………………………

You have to keep dangerous chemicals in a safe place.

…………………………………………………………

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Auto - Corrective Test 2

I am writing an e-mail
An e-mail is being written.

He often writes e-mails.

E-mails are often written.

I wrote him an e-mail.

He was written an e-mail.
An e-mail was written to him.

I was writing him an e-mail.

He was being written an e-mail.

I have already written him an e-mail.

He has already been written an e-mail.

I had written an e-mail before we met.

An e-mail had been written to him

I am going to write an e-mail to him.

An e-mail is going to be written to him.

I shall write an e-mail to him.

An e-mail will be written to him.

I must write him an e-mail.

An e-mail must be written to him.

I must have written this e-mail to him.

This e-mail must have been written to him.

I should have written an e-mail to him.

An e-mail should have been written to him.

I would have written an e-mail to him if …

The e-mail would have been written if ….

They may haven't done it yet.

It may have not been done yet.

Is it unlikely to discover intelligent life on other planets?

Is intelligent life unlikely to be discovered on other planets?

You have to keep dangerous chemicals in a safe place.

Dangerous chemicals have to be kept in a safe place.

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ASSIGNMENT 3
Use the Passive Aspect.
It is an auto-corrective test.

a)
indirect + direct objects
People will show the visitors the new buildings. =
The visitors …
The new buildings …

Somebody recommended me another doctor.

I…
Another doctor …..

b)

Someone has stolen my car.

My car ….

People drink wine a lot in Croatia.

Wine …..

c)
Someone has done it well. It ….

Someone hurt her badly. She …

d)
They are laughing at him. He ….
We should do away with this practice. This practice ……………

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Auto - Corrective Test – Assignment 3

a)
indirect + direct objects
People will show the visitors the new buildings. =
The visitors will be shown the new buildings.
The new buildings will be shown to the visitors.

Somebody recommended me another doctor. =

I was recommended another doctor.
Another doctor was recommended to me.

b)

Someone has stolen my car.

My car has been stolen. Do not use by someone.
People drink wine a lot in Croatia.
Wine is drunk a lot in Croatia. Do not use by people.
Nick was operated on at the hospital. Do not use by a doctor.
Three men have been arrested. Do not use by the police.

BUT
We were taught by a different teacher yesterday.
The meal was served by a waiter in a red coat.
c)
Someone has done it well. It has been well done.
Someone hurt her badly. She was badly hurt.

d)
They are laughing at him. = He is being laughed at.
That's a practice that should be done away with.

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ASSIGNMENT 4 - Auto Corrective Test

Study Tip
REPORTED
SAID
KNOWN
SUBJECT IS ASSUMED TO + INFINITIVE
ARE CONSIDERED
BELIEVED
EXPECTED
SUPPOSED

a. Goethe was the greatest of all playwrights. (considered)

b. My Scotish friend has travelled widely across Croatia. (said)

c. She needs very little sleep. (said)

d. He was a member of Animal Protection Society when he was

young. (known)

e. The snow will disappear this afternoon. (expected)

f. The escaped prisoner is heading for Italy. (reported)

g. She has an income of over two hundred thousand pounds.

(supposed)

h. Three people have been killed in an avalanche. (believed)

i. They were skiing in the area when the avalanche started.

(presumed)

j. Is it true that the super powers are heading for an agreement

on nuclear weapons? (thought)

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Auto - Corrective Test – Assignment 4

a) Goethe is considered to be the greatest of all playwrights.

b) He is said to have travelled widely across Croatia.
c) She is said to need very little sleep.
d) He is known to have been a member of Animal Protection Society when he was
young.
e) The snow is expected to disappear this afternoon.
f) The escaped prisoner is reported to be heading for Italy.
g) She is supposed to have an income of over two hundred thousand pounds.
h) Three people are believed to have been killed in an avalanche.
i) They are presumed to have been skiing when the avalanche started.
j) Is it true that the super powers are thought to be heading for an agreement on nuclear
weapons?

ASSIGNMENT 5
Insert either Active or Passive Sentences

Active Passive

Simple The house is cleaned by

Present Tim.

Present Right now, Petra is

Continuous writing the letter.

Simple Past The car was repaired by

Tim.

Past The salesman was

Continuous serving me when
suddenly my old friend
came into the store.

Present Opatija has been visited

Perfect by many tourists.

Present Recently, Ella has been

Perfect doing the work.
Continuous

Past Perfect Many cars had been

repaired by Ella before
she received her
mechanic's license.

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Chef Jones had been

preparing the
restaurant's fantastic
dinners for two years
Past Perfect before he moved to
Continuous Paris.

Simple The work will be

Future finished by 5:00 PM.
WILL

Simple
Future Sally is going to make a
BE GOING TO beautiful dinner tonight.

Future At 8:00 PM tonight, the

Continuous dishes will be being
WILL washed by John.

Future At 8:00 PM tonight, John

Continuous is going to be washing
BE GOING TO the dishes.

Future
Perfect The project will have
WILL been completed before
the deadline.

Future They are going to have

Perfect completed the project
BE GOING TO before the deadline.

Future The mural will have

Perfect been being painted by
Continuous the famous artist for
WILL over six months by the
time it is finished.

Future The famous artist is

Perfect going to have been
Continuous painting it for over six
BE GOING TO months by the time it is
finished.

Used to The bills used to be paid

by Jerry.

Would My mother would always

Always make the pies.

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Future in the I knew the work would

Past be finished by 5:00 PM.
WOULD

Future in the I thought Sally was

Past going to make a
WAS GOING TO beautiful dinner tonight.

ASSIGNMENT 6
Pattern Drill - Present Perfect Passive
Answer the questions by using the verb given in
brackets, in the passive.
Where's your car today? (steal)
Didn't you know? It's been stolen.

1 Why aren't you listening to your new CD? (break)

2 Where's the cake I bought yesterday? (eat)

3 Where are all the students? (send home)

4 Where's the book I sent you? (lose)

5 Where's that nice secretary? (transfer)

6 Why isn't Jack in the chess finals? (beat)

7 Did you get back the money you lost? (return)

8 Is the little girl still missing? (find)

9 Is your house still for sale? (sell)

10 Your house looks very nice. (paint)

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ASSIGNMENT 7

GET + PAST PARTICIPLE CONSTRUCTION usually

suggests that the action described was accidental
rather than intentional

On the way home, we got delayed by fog, got lost, got caught in
a storm, got involved in an accident and finally got stopped by
the police.

- I haven’t broken this vase, have I?

- Well no, but it may have got broken. It might have got
damaged or shattered to pieces.

An impersonal construction can be used after agree,

allege, believe, feel, judge, know, rumour, say, think.

a It + passive + that clause

It was said that membership fees should be raised.

It is hoped that this meeting will be successful.

b Subject + passive + to infinitive/perfect infinitive

She is rumoured to have secret bank accounts in

Switzerland.
Dinamo is believed to have had a good chance of
beating Hajduk.

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LECTURE 9
Grammar Revision
A Consciousness-Raising Task for English Tenses
Using Grammar Translation Techniques Effectively
PRELIM EXAM I.

I. Grammar Revision (20 points)

1. Translate into English,
2. Translate into Croatian,
3. Fill in/out the proper tense,
4. Fill in/out the proper articles,
5. Write plural forms of nouns
6. Write modal forms.

Tenses Revision:
Present Simple and Continous,
Past Simple and Past Continous,
Present Perfet Simple and Continous,
Past Perfect Simple and Continous,
Nouns, Articles and Modals

II. Write an abstract (5 points)

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ASSIGNMENT 3
Write an abstract of the text:

REPAIRS TO THE TURBINE RUNNERS AT

ASWAN
The first inspections of the turbine runners at the Aswan High dam power station in
Egypt, after the machines had been in operation for several thousands of hours,
revealed fatigue cracking. This article describes investigations into the phenomenon
and a subsequent repair programme carried out by a French company, which gave
an extended life to the runners.

The Aswan High dam was built between 1960 and 1970. It is a gravity dam, with
a height of 111 m above its foundations and a length of 3830 m at the top. The
stored water extends 500 km upstream, with a possible capacity of 140 x 10 9m3,
that is approximately twice the average yearly flow of the Nile. The
hydroelectric power station built on the right bank, is equipped with 12
Francis turbines, each having an output of 180 MW. The energy thus
produced, transmitted to Cairo by two 500 kV lines, represents an important
asset. In 1982, the power station produced 8.6 TWh that is approximately 37
per cent of Egypt's total electricity consumption.
The main component of each turbine is the Francis runner, with a weight of
140 t and a diameter of 7 m. The 14 blades of each runner were welded in the
workshop onto the ring and the upper crown (external diameter 7.2 m); all the
components are made of 13 per cent chrome and low carbon cast steel.
The first inspections, carried out after several thousand working hours, led to the
detection of fatigue cracks affecting most of the blades and starting at the trailing
edge. This part is very thin (10—15 mm) for a length of approximately 7 m.
Consequently, there is a risk of vibration and the slightest weakness (such as a scratch
or a welding point) can lead to the start of progressive cracking.
Soviet technicians tried to stop the crack phenomenon by increasing the thickness of the
blades at the ring and crown joints, using welded reinforcements of austenitic steel.
This work was, however, carried out in difficult conditions by poorly equipped
welders. The large number of welding defects to be found in these reinforcements,
where high residual stresses existed, represented new sources from which cracking
would inevitably continue to develop. In view of this unsatisfactory result, The
Egyptian Electricity Authority (EEA) referred the problem to international experts
whose conclusions ranged from simply replacing the runners to carrying out
repairs without any guarantee, the latter requiring the runners to be dismantled. At
the beginning of 1980, the problem was referred to Elec-tricite de France (EDF).

Investigations

Non-destructive tests (gamma ray, ultrasonic and dye penetrant made it possible to
locate and measure the extent of the cracking, which in some cases was as long as
several tens of centimetres. Metallurgical examinations showed that they were fatigue
cracks which had developed from numerous flaws in the reinforced areas.
Measurements confirmed the existence of high residual stress in and near the area
reinforced with austenitic steel.
A series of stress measurements by radio-transmission in the area of the joint of the
trailing edge and the upper crown led to the discovery of quite high average stress levels
(250 MPa); in addition to these, there were vibration stresses with a maximum
amplitude from crest to crest of 66 MPa. These values were recorded during operation
at full power, and no particular vibration regime was established.
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The report was sent to EEA by EDF at the end of 1980. It concluded that: it should be
possible to stop the systematic cracking phenomenon by removing the faulty
reinforced areas, repairing the cracks and incorporating a suitable design (thickness
and shape) of the areas subject to the highest stress.

Repair proposal

At the request of EEA, a proposal was put forward by EDF for the repairs to the
runners without dismantling them, a solution which particularly interested the
operating staff. The proposal suggested the following processes:
 carrying out non-destructive tests (gamma ray and dye penetrant) to locate
the flaws;
 cutting out, by arc-air, a triangular piece on each blade at the connecting
area of the trailing edge and the upper crown;
 eliminating the cracks and all defects by arc-air and grinding (in several
places the cracks had progressed into the upper crown, and large cavities were
necessary);
 filling the cavities by a suitable welding technique, namely:
(1) buttering after pre-heating the base metal to 150°C with Molinox austenitic-
ferritic electrodes (20 per cent Cr, 10 per cent Ni, 3 per cent Mo); and
(2) filling with martensitic OK 68-37 electrodes (17 per cent Cr, 4 per cent Ni)
with strict maintenance of a temperature of 100°C between the layers, so as
to
minimise any risk of cracking in the welds;
 installing on each blade a triangular piece of 17/4 cast steel with a shape
and dimensions specially designed to withstand incipient fatigue cracking. The
welding technique used was perfected after workshop and laboratory
trials; and,
 after joint grinding, applying a hammer peening treatment to the joining
area of the upper crown and trailing edge. This surface treatment was to
improve the resistance to fatigue and was carried out by equipment
specially developed for the purpose. (From INTERNATIONAL WATER POWER AND DAM
CONSTRUCTION by J. P. Baetz and H. Waldura, August 1985)

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ABSTRACT

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................

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LECTURE 10
Section 1
HYDROELECTRIC AND SOLAR POWER GENERATION

Section 2
Renewables – New Power Sources

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Section 1
HYDROELECTRIC AND SOLAR POWER GENERATION

Power plant is a means for converting stored energy to work.

Stationary power plants such as electric generating stations are located near
sources of stored energy, such as coal fields or river dams, or are located near
the places where the work is to be performed, as in cities or industrial sites.
Mobile power plants for transportation service are located in vehicles
(gasoline, diesel engines in automobiles, diesel locomotives for railroads, etc.).

Most power plants convert part of the stored raw energy of fossil fuels into
kinetic energy of a spinning shaft. Some power plants harness nuclear
energy. Other sources of energy, such as winds, tides, waves, and solar
radiation have not yet achieved greater commercial significance in the
generation of power despite their tremendous magnitudes.

Hydroelectric power is a renewable resource associated with solar

energy input and the resulting evaporation, rainfall, and runoff cycles.
Hydroelectric plants generally do not have as many adverse effects on the
environment as thermal electric plants. Because of rapid startup and loading
capabilities and facility for altering the power output quickly, hydroelectric
plants are particularly suitable for satisfying peak electrical energy demands.

Hydroelectric plants are characterized by low operating and maintenance costs,

long life times, and low outage rates. Unscheduled outages in hydroelectric
plants are less frequent than in thermal electric plants because hydroelectric
machinery operates at relatively low temperatures and speeds. Overhaul
downtimes are less because of the relative simplicity of hydroelectric
equipment. Hydroelectric plants are normally out of service about two days
per year because of forced outages and about one week per year for
scheduled maintenance. This total outage time of about 3 % per year is
approximately one fourth of the average outage rate for modern steam electric
power plants.

Hydroelectric plants do have some disadvantages as compared with steam

electric plants. These disadvantages include high capital costs, remote locations
and hence long distance energy transmission requirements, dependence on
variable stream and river flows, and alteration of water quantity and quality.
However, the favourable characteristics and frequent multiple use benefits of
hydroelectric projects provide strong incentives for developing the remaining,
economically viable hydroelectric potential in the world.

Solar energy utilization. The amount of solar energy that strikes the
earth's surface each day is equivalent to the energy in 684 billion tons of coal.

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Solar heating has been utilized in various forms since ancient times, when the
focusing effects of lens-like materials were first learned by man. Joseph
Pristley used solar heating in 1774 to decompose HgO (mercury oxide) into Hg
and oxygen. A solar distillation unit producing up to 6,000 gallons per day of
fresh water was built in 1872 and was used in the North Chilean desert for 40
years to provide fresh water for miners recovering nitrate deposits. Solar
heated steam boilers were demonstrated as early as the 1878 Paris exhibition.

Serious modern technological development on solar energy utilization

was not initiated until the early nineteen fifties.
A 1972 assessment of various energy costs for space heating reproduced
in Fig. 3.1, shows that solar heating was judged to be competitive with
electrical heating.
According to the results of a mid-1973 evaluation, solar energy was
expected to provide between 8 and 26 % of the total required energy by
the year 2020.

1 Study the difference between electrical and electric

electrical connected with the science or use of electricity;

an electrical engineer
electric 1 charged with or coveying electricity, an electric wire ,
this car goes electric
2 producing or produced by electricity, an electric
generator;
3 operated by electricity, an electric iron

2 Technical terminology

harness to control so as to use the power of

chiefly mainly
widely to a large or full extent; fully
to convert verb
conversion noun
convertible adjective
to have the access to, to be accessible to, to be available to
tidal motion includes low tides (oseke) and high tides (plime)
salt gradient Physics the rate of change of temperature, pressure
etc. of salt water
Rankine cycle Thermodynamics. The hypothetical cycle of a steam
engine in which all heat transfers take place at
constant pressure and in which expansion and
compression occur
adiabetically, i.e. without gain or lose of heat;
an adiabetic process
less visually distracting blades lopatice koje vizualno manje
smetaju

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3 English – Croatian Code Transfer

low operating costs niski proizvodni troškovi
low maintenance costs niski troškovi održavanja
long life time dugi vijek trajanja
low outage rate niski postotak zastoja u radu
unscheduled outage neplaniran prekid rada
frequent, frequency učestao, učestalost, frekvencija
overhaul downtime prekid rada radi remonta
ovehaul remont, generalni remont;
pregledati,
rastaviti na dijelove
downtime prekid rada
simplicity jednostavnost
simplify pojednostaviti
simple jednostavan
forced outage prisilan prekid rada
scheduled maintenance planirano održavanje, remont
total outage time cjelokupno vrijeme prekida rada
high capital costs visoki investicijski troškovi

N.B.overall (cjelokupni, sveukupni) Pronunciation \'ō-vəro:l\

but
overhaul (remont) - Pronunciation: verb \ō-vər-'ho:l\ and noun \'ō-vərho:l\

Word Families
operate raditi, funkcionirati, pogoniti,
tjerati
operating instructions radne naredbe
operation rad
operational life vijek eksploatacije

to be out of service biti izvan pogona

service behaviour/service performance ponašanje,
karakteristike pri
korištenju
serviceability upotrebljivost
serviceable trajan, upotrebljiv

4 Translate the following compound into Croatian

long distance energy transmission requirements

5 English – English Code Transfer

maintenance the work of keeping machinery in a

state of good repair
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outage an interruption, accidental suspension of

operation of (electric power)
life time the length of time that something lasts,
functions or is in effect
downtime an interval or the time during which a
machine or plant is shut down for repairs
or the like (during loading, maintenance,
repair or the like)
to break down 1 to go out of working order; 2 to separate
into parts
breakdown 1 (of a machine) a failure to work or
function properly; 2 a separation into
parts, analysis

6 Word Families

to oaul verb to haul over as for examination; to check

thoroughly for needed repairs; to make
the repairs, needed to restore to to good
working order; I got the engine
overhauled.
‘overhaul noun an overhauling or thorough examination
or restoration to good working order
overhauling adjective remontni; an overhauling
examination or thorough examination

7 DICTATION

Hydroelectric plants are characterized by low operating and

maintenance costs, long life times, and low outage rates.
Unscheduled outages in hydroelectric plants are less
frequent than in thermal electric plants because hydroelectric
machinery operates at relatively low temperatures and speeds.
Overhaul downtimes are less because of the relative
simplicity of hydroelectric equipment. Hydroelectric plants are
normally out of service about two days per year because of
forced outages and about one week per year for scheduled
maintenance. This total outage time of about 3% per year is
approximately one fourth of the average outage rate for
modern steam power plants. However, hydroelectric plants have
some disadvantages as high capital costs, remote locations
and hence long distance energy transmission
requirements.

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8 Translate the words written in bold into Croatian.

Types of energy sources

Fig. A 1972 assessment of relative energy costs for space heating using electrical energy, gas, oil, or
solar energy.

9 Read the text "Hydroelectric and Solar Power Generation" and find
the answers to these questions:
1 Could you define a power plant?

2. What is hydroelectric power associated with?

3. When are hydroelectric power plants particularly convenient?

4. Give the amount of solar energy that strikes the earth's surface each day.

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10 Using the information in the text, fill in the table.

Energy source Advantages Disadvantages
Hydroelectric
power

Solar energy

Nuclear
energy

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11 CODE TRANSFER (English Croatian)

Find the appropriate expressions in Croatian by looking at the
examples in the text "Hydroelectric and Solar Power
Generation".
power plant .............................................................................
electric generating
stations .............................................................................
coal fields .............................................................................
river dams .............................................................................
industrial sites .............................................................................
transportation service ..............................................................................
stored raw energy .............................................................................
spinning shaft .............................................................................
solar energy input ..............................................................................
loading capabilities ..............................................................................
power output .............................................................................
peak electrical energy
demands .............................................................................
operating costs .............................................................................
maintenance costs ..............................................................................
life time .............................................................................
outage rates .............................................................................
unscheduled outages .............................................................................
overhaul downtimes ............................................................................
forced outages ............................................................................
average outage rate .............................................................................
capital costs ...........................................................................
long distance energy
transmission
requirements ...........................................................................
multiple use benefits ............................................................................
solar distillation unit .............................................................................
solar heated steam
boilers .......................................................................... ..

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12 SUMMARIZING
Write a summary of the texts "Energy" and "Hydroelectric and Solar
Power Generation".
Essential idea:

The most important supporting information:

(Count the words. You should not have more than 80.)

13 LANGUAGE STRUCTURE PRACTICE

For information dealing with Preterite Active or Passive please turn to page
47.

Use the verbs in brackets either in the Simple Past Active or the
Passive form according to the meaning of the sentence.
1. During the eleventh century tidal energy ......................................
(utilize) in tide mills located on the Atlantic Coast of France, Great Britain and
Spain.
2. The practice of utilizing tidal energy in coastal regions which ex
perience large tidal ranges .....................................................(continue)
throughout the early part of the nineteenth century.
3. Tidal power installations .......................................... (operate) in Great
Britain, Germany, Italy, the U. S. S. R., and the United States during this period.

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Section 3
THERMODYNAMICS – ENERGY CONVERSION

Section 4
Seminar Group Work – Nuclear energy

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Section 3

THERMODYNAMICS – ENERGY CONVERSION

Man mostly wants and needs energy to do work for him. Except for the heat required
to keep his homes and buildings comfortable and for some industrial processes,
man uses energy mostly as mechanical work to propel his various vehicles and
power his many machines. Unfortunately, it is not mechanical energy that man
finds available to him in quantity in nature. Instead he finds hydro, thermal, nuclear,
and chemical energy resources and he must convert these resource energy forms into
the forms he wants.
Man has found electricity to be a most convenient intermediate form of energy
between his natural resources and his applications, except for transportation, and
he may yet require electricity somewhere in the transportation chain before long as
oil reserves are depleted and nuclear power becomes available. The table
emphasizes the many conversion steps required for our primary sources (chemical
and nuclear) to reach their final application.

The conversion of energy along these chains from one form to another is neither
easy nor cheap and it cannot be done with an efficiency of 100%. Efficiency here
means useful output divided by the costly input, both expressed in energy units..
Thus, when it is said that a home oil furnace is 70 % efficient, it means that 70 % of
the total energy input of the fuel is actually used to warm the air in the house and
the other 30% goes up the chimney as waste.

In Table 4.1, the numbers shown in parentheses, after several of the converters, give
approximate efficiencies for large sizes. (In general, efficiencies improve with size.
A small electric motor, for example, can be made only 50 to 70 % efficient,
whereas large motors are 90% or more efficient.) To find the overall
efficiency of a chain, one must multiply the efficiencies along the chain. For
example, from chemical energy to electricity by means of a steam turbine, the
efficiency is about 0.85 x 0.45 x 0.99 = 0.37. There are, of course,
transmission and other losses not explicitly dealt with in the table,
which is intended only to give readers aqualitative appreciation for the
length and efficiencies of
the various chains. Also not shown in the table is the fact that nuclear
generated electricity is less efficient than enenergy from fossil fuels.
The efficiency of conversion devices has been increased significantly in the
past through scientific and engineering research, development, and
design. More of this can be expected but some diminishing returns are
beginning to appear in some important areas. In transportation, for
example, apparently not much more can be done about the relatively low
(25 %) efficiency of the automobile engine. The Wankelengine is even less
efficient, though it may have other benefits. Miles per gallon of gasoline
(i. e., per unit of energy consumed) has actually gone down since 1940.
As noted, nuclear power plants also have a lower efficiency than fossil
fired plants. Two bright spots in the past have been the fluorescent lamp
and the diesel locomotive, both of which improved the efficiency of
their particular conversions.
(From THERMODYNAMICS I: AN INTRODUCTION TO ENERGY by John R. Dixon Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey
1975)

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Some energy conversion chains –resource to application

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Schematic diagrams of some energy conversion systems

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1 INFORMATION TRANSFER COMPREHENSION CHECK

1.1 Use the information from the text "Thermodynamics — En-

ergy Conversion" to complete the statements below.

1. Man mostly ................................................. to do work for him.

2. Man uses energy mostly as ....................................................................

3. Instead of mechanical energy, man finds in nature .............................

resources and he must .........................................................................

4. The most convenient intermediate form of energy between,

…………………………………………………………………………,

except for ................................................... , is ........................................

5. The conversion of energy cannot be done with an efficiency of

....... %.
6. Efficiencies improve with ......................

7. Large motors are ........... % or more ........................................

8. From ....................................... energy to electricity by means of

a ............................ turbine, the efficiency is about .....................

9. Nuclear ....................................... electricity is ................... efficient

than energy from ....................... fuels.

10. The efficiency of conversion devices has been ....................................

........................................... through ..................................................

…………………………………………………………………………

11. The efficiency of the automobile engine is low, about ...........%.

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1.2 Look at the Table 4.1 containing some energy conversion

chains, and list:
1. resource energy forms: ...........................................................................
2. primary converters: ................................................................................
3. intermediate energy forms: ...................................................................
4. application energy form: ..........................................................
5. intermediate converters:........................................................................
6. final converter: .............................

2 CODE TRANSFER (English Croatian)

2.1 Translate the following expressions into Croatian by referring to
the text. Normally, you should start with the head-noun, i. e. the
last noun on the right, although the logical meaning of the
expression may be the only general rule.

resource energy forms ..................................................................................

conversion steps ...........................................................................
primary sources .............................................................................

home oil furnace .............................................................................

nuclear generated

electricity .............................................................................

fossil fuels .............................................................................

conversion devices .............................................................................

nuclear power plant .............................................................................

fossil fired plant .............................................................................

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SUMMARIZING
3.1 Write a summary of the text "Thermodynamics ...".
Essential idea:

The most important supporting information:

(Count the words. You should not have more than 80.)

Phraseology (English —► Croatian)

before long ............................................
neither ... nor ..............................................
by means of .............................................
of course ........................................................
deal with ........................................................

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4 VOCABULARY EXTENSION - Word families

Fill in the table where possible.
Noun Verb Adjective

application

benefit
chain
consume

convert
deplete

design
development
divide
efficiency

expect
fire
form
generate
heat

improve
increase
input

long
machine

need
output

power
process

research

variable
warm
waste

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188

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189

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190

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191

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192

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193

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194

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Group D

Hydrogen
When the first energy crisis was looming on the horizon at the beginning
of the 70s scientists stepped up their efforts to find out which substances
could be used to drive cars in the future. Experiments are now focusing on
hydrogen.

scala 1/Jan. - Feb. 1989 A PERIODICAL FROM THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

The vision is enticing: in countries with a high incidence of sunlight huge plantations of solar
cells generate electrical energy, which in turn is used to produce hydrogen from water, a raw material
which is available in almost unlimited quantities. This hydrogen is transported in pipelines to
countries with a high consumption of energy, such as, for example, the Federal Republic of Germany,
where it is offered as a fuel to all groups of consumers by means of supply networks extending
throughout the country. Thus hydrogen not only relieves us of worries about energy; as a clean source
of energy which, when burnt, produces nitrogen oxides as the only pollutants, this volatile element
also solves many of our environmental problems. It goes without saying that the car is integrated into
this 'hydrogen world' of tomorrow.

What do we know about hydrogen?

Hydrogen is the commonest element in the universe. The stars radiate because they
convert hydrogen into helium by nuclear fusion. One kilogram of hydrogen, when burnt,
releases 33 kilowatt hours of electrical energy, three times more than petrol. The current
consumption of hydrogen amounts to 32 million tons worldwide. Almost half goes into the
synthesis of ammonia to produce fertilizers. Methanol, a low form of alcohol used for the
manufacture of plastics, is also synthesized from the rest. And with hydrogen liquid soya
bean oil is hardened to be sold as margarine. But it is also easy to produce power, heat and
electricity from hydrogen. In short: the lightest of all elements, the basic material of nature
for billions of years, makes possible a perfect recycling in man's energy economy.
Even that who cannot allow their expectations to go quite so far have to admit that hydrogen
is an alternative to fossil fuels and thus in particular to petroleum.

Describe the catalytic convertor

The automobile industry recognized the signs of the times back in 1973, immediately
after the first oil crisis and displayed great activity with regard to new propulsion systems.
The car of tomorrow will have to use considerably less fuel and emit fewer pollutants than
even the most advanced car of today. The results of these efforts are already on the road in
the form of the catalytic converter.

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Cars running on hydrogen and a mixture of hydrogen and petrol are being
tested on the streets of Berlin by Daimler-Benz Company, using special storage
modules
Major innovations in engine design are, admittedly, still being tested. Since 1973
Daimler-Benz have been working on hydrogen as a secondary energy source for cars. In
1984, in West Berlin, a programme "with positive results" was launched, as the head of the
project, Dr. Rolf Povel, reports. Cars running on hydrogen and a mixture of hydrogen and
petrol are being tested on the streets of Berlin. The company has developed storage modules
from a very expensive alloy of titanium, vanadium and manganese for this purpose. Gaseous
hydrogen is sucked up by metal powder like a sponge, resulting in so-called hydrides. An
additional water cooling system in the tank is necessary to dissipate the heat which is
produced when the tank is filled. When, on the other hand, hydrogen has to leave the tank to
enter the engine a heater is required. The disadvantage of this tank is that it weighs 320
kilograms. Cars equipped in this way can go no further than a modest 120 to 150 kilometres,
and any additional loading is strictly limited -by the space required for storing fuel, which is
seven times larger than a con- ventional tank. Filling the tank has so far proved to take quite
a while, as you cannot pour the gaseous hydrogen into it like petrol. Daimler channels the
hydrogen mixed with air into the combustion chamber and, in order to avoid backfiring, has
to inject liters of water for cooling purposes.

BMW is backing liquid hydrogen

Daimler's competitor, BMW, refuses to be left behind on the road into the next century.
Whereas Daimler prefers hydride storage, BMW is backing liquid hydrogen, which is stored
in super insulated containers at minus 253 degrees centigrade. But it is essential to maintain
this temperature - otherwise the hydrogen evaporates into the atmosphere and is lost. In all
other respects the combustion process is similar to that in a petrol engine. The hydrogen is
injected by an injection system into the cylinder, where it is ignited. The result so far: the -
considerably more expensive - hydrogen cars cannot yet compete with petrol and diesel oil at
the present state of hydrogen technology. Nevertheless they do represent an option for the
future, and if all goes well, the volatile element will give its name to a whole era. "The 21st
century will be the age of solar hydrogen", prophesies, for example, the 77-year-old former
aviation pioneer and ex-head of Messerschmitt-Bolkow-Blohm MBB, Dr. Ludwig Bolkow.

Mercedes also keeps pace with hydrogen technology

Another pioneer to give thought to hydrogen technology is Dr. Hans May, Professor for
Powered Machines at the University of Kaiserslautern. Together with other highly qualified
scientists and with financial support from the Federal Ministry of Research, he has spent
twelve years working on the special mixture of hydrogen and petrol which allows the West
Berlin Mercedes fleet to be put through its paces. This was made possible by a propulsion
concept for 2.8-6 cylinder injection engines in which hydrogen and petrol are passed into the
engine at the same time by an electronic control unit. Comparative figures show what little
harm they cause to the environment. The nitrogen oxides, which are thought responsible for
the death of the forests and the carbon monoxide in the exhaust fumes of the experimental
cars are far be- low the levels allowed by the strict American regulations.
"We have no carbon monoxide in the fumes, no unused hydrocarbons, and, on account
to the great surplus of air, the nitrogen oxide emissions are one hundred times lower than in
the case of the normal internal combustion engine", is how Professor May sums up the
outcome. And the cars owe these results to their most important construction principle: the
vehicles drive in urban traffic with a large proportion of idling using low emission hydrogen.
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Only when the engine has to produce more power and the car drives at a high speed is petrol
added. Owing to the addition of petrol the cars attain normal horsepower output at full speed.
The May design works so smoothly that now the next step can follow: the transition to pure
hydrogen operation with direct injection into the cylinder.

Additional safety facilities – hydride storage

What are perhaps the smallest difficulties are caused by additional safety facilities.
Their main purpose is to prevent a detonation, resulting from an accident for example, which
is possible on account of the high combustion rate of the hydrogen. "It is all only a question
of the construction and the arrangement of the tank", says Professor May confidently. "If
they are designed properly there is little risk of an explosion, even in the case of a collision."
To illustrate the safety of hydride storage he compares it to a sponge. As the metal powder
becomes soaked with the gas, like a sponge, it combines with it chemically and then releases
it when heated. "As long as the engine stands still, we get no more heat -nothing comes out
any more." Whatever the "clean hydrogen car" may look like, whether it works with liquid or
metal storage - its price will be determined by the number produced. But it is precisely the
price that is the most convincing argument for or against something for many people. In spite
of all the advantages, the crucial hurdles on the way to a less polluted "hydrogen world" are,
however, to be found on the production side rather than on the side of the consumer. How
hydrogen liberated from water with the help of electrical energy can be produced more
cheaply, therefore, remains one of the cardinal questions in the foreseeable future. For the
problem with hydrogen is that, to obtain it, for example from water, a lot of energy is
required. That is why in the long term hydrogen will certainly be obtained where energy is
still to be had "free of charge", for example from solar energy and wind power. But in fact up
to now more than 90 per cent of hydrogen requirements have been obtained from fossil
sources: petroleum as well as natural gas and coal gas are made to react with hot steam,
causing hydrogen to separate off. But even using the cheapest process - the so-called "steam
reforming" of natural gas - hydrogen turns out to be three times as expensive as a comparable
quantity of petrol with regard to its energy production. Some scientists, however, regard this
as a naive fallacy, for example Professor Peschka of the German Aerospace Research and
Experimental Centre (DFVLR), who says, "The higher price for hydrogen pays off because
of its complete lack of pollutants. If you add to the present price of petrol the development
and follow-up costs for catalytic converters and the costs of repairing damage to nature,
hydrogen would be cheaper today than petrol."

Will hydrogen be the energy of this millennium?

Will the benefit be even greater in the future?
While opinions still differ in the car industry, space travel has profited from hydrogen as a
fuel. And for good reason: in space the greater thrust hydrogen produces easily compensates
for the larger volume of the tank. So it is not surprising that the aircraft industry is toying
with the idea of hydrogen engines, or, more precisely, with "Tran atmospheric vehicles".
They are aircraft which land and take off like conventional planes -but which can dash from
one point on the earth to another in the high flight path of a rocket. On the basis of the
current costs of hydrogen the energy consumption per seat kilometre would be 15 per cent
below the costs of kerosene, without additional investments being necessary.
Hydrogen technology even opens up interesting prospects for track vehicles. In Canada the
National Railway Company recommended the conversion of diesel locomotives to hydrogen
propulsion some time ago. In Japan there is a similar development. Not even Hans May can
predict for certain when the big breakthrough for hydrogen will come. E. A.

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"We have no carbon monoxide in the fumes, no unused hydrocarbons, and, on account to the
great surplus of air, the nitrogen oxide emissions are one hundred times lower than in the
case of the normal

HOMEWORK
What are the advantages of hydrogen cars?

What are the drawbacks of hydrogen cars?

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Group E

HYDROGEN FUEL CELLS

Summary: This paper gives an objective analysis of hydrogen fuel cells, taking into account the
positive and the negative sides of this solution. Hydrogen fuel cells are one of the most popular
options for an alternative and environment-friendly power source.

Key Words: hydrogen fuel cells, environment, new power sources

1. INTRODUCTION

Today we are more and more aware of the great problem that exhaust emissions afflict to our living.
As they are very dangerous, they have the potential to change the planet's climate. And although the
auto industry has cut exhaust emissions substantially since the unregulated 1960s, the continued
production of carbon dioxide from exhaust emissions causes concern. The emissions according to the
International Energy Agency are some 3.7 billion tons of carbon dioxide. [3] Furthermore, the
petroleum-fuelled internal-combustion engine is reaching its limits. Despite all the improvements that
were made, it's only 20 to 25 percent efficient in converting the energy content of fuels into power.
[2] Another big issue is the foreseeable exhaustion of our planet's petroleum reserves, and petroleum
is needed for the engines that are used today. When we take all these factors into account we can see
that it's increasingly likely that we change petroleum-fuelled internal-combustion engines with new
engines that use environment-friendly and reusable power sources.Some options for these alternative
engines are hydrogen fuel cells.

2. DESCRIPTION OF HYDROGEN FUEL CELLS

A fuel cell (see Figure 1) is basically a simple device, consisting of two electrodes (an anode
and cathode) that sandwich an electrolyte (a specialized polymer or other material that allows
ions to pass but blocks electrons). A fuel containing hydrogen flows to the anode, where the
hydrogen electrons are freed, and leaving positively charged ions. The electrons travel
through an external circuit while the ions diffuse through the electrolyte. At the cathode, the
electrons combine with the hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water, a by-product. To speed
the reaction, a catalyst such as platinum is frequently used. Fuel cells and batteries are similar
in that both rely on electrochemistry, but the reactants in a fuel cell are the hydrogen fuel and
oxidizer, whereas in a battery they are the materials (for example, nickel oxhydroxide and
cadmium) used in the electrodes. [3]

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3. ADVANTAGES

Hydrogen clearly provides the

potential for huge energy and
environmental improvements
and no other long-term option,
with the possible exception of
battery-powered electric
vehicles, approaches the
breadth and magnitude of
hydrogen's public good
benefits. [1] One of the main
advantages of hydrogen fuel
cells is that its only by-productFigure 1. A hydrogen fuel cell
is pure water, thus creating a zero-emission vehicle that has a better efficiency than the
current internal-combustion engines. The current achievable efficiency of fuel cells is 45-60
percent, while under ideal conditions internal-combustion engines can reach only 35 percent
efficiency, while some realistically achieve only 15 percent. The main reason for better
efficiency is that fuel cells do not have to idle when a vehicle is stationary. [2] Fuel cells are
also better then batteries, which have only a fixed amount of energy, while fuel cells can run
as long as fuel and oxidant are supplied, or at least until components in the cells degrade.
Many researches have been made on fuel cells, and one of the most important is the 2004
National Academies report on hydrogen fuel cells. The report says that “Fuel cells are
superior environmentally and provide extra value to customers. They have the potential to
provide most of the benefits of battery-electric vehicles without the short range and long
recharge time. They offer quiet operation, rapid acceleration from a standstill due to the
torque characteristics of electric motors, and potentially low maintenance requirements.
They can provide remote electrical power and even act as distributed electricity generators
when parked at homes and offices.” [1] Another strong cause for fuel cells is that they are
very attractive to the automobile industry. If cars would use fuel cells the bulky hydraulic
subsystem and conventional steering wheel, the engine compartment and awkward centre
cabin hump could all be removed, thus creating the possibility for great design flexibility and
more efficient manufacturing approaches. One of the strongest supporters of hydrogen
vehicles is General Motors. They created a concept for a future hydrogen fuel-cell vehicle
called “AUTOnomy”. [2] Their concept, in combination with the use of compact electronic
drive-by-wire technology for steering, braking and throttling could create a revolution in
vehicle design. Vehicles would have a “skateboard” chassis and the owners could just plug-in
a body of their choice. The bodies would be easily changeable, so a person could easily
change, for example, a family car body for a sports car body. All these advantages could be
exploited if fuel cell costs become competitive and if hydrogen fuel can be made widely
available at a reasonable cost.

4. DISADVANTAGES

One of the first disadvantages that engineers developing fuel cells encounter is that the best
catalyst is platinum. However, platinum is very expensive. While many improvements have
been made fuel cells are still too expensive for the mass-market because of platinum. There
are also many people questioning the future of hydrogen fuel cells. Joseph Romm, in his
book “The Hype about Hydrogen”, says that a major effort to introduce hydrogen cars before
2030 would actually undermine efforts to reduce emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse
gases such as CO2. [1] Paul MacCready and John DeCicco argue in “Hydrogen Transitions”
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that improved battery technology will trump hydrogen and fuel cell vehicles, and that
hydrogen transition is premature. [1] Another problem can be energy losses and economical
factors of a hydrogen distribution network. It has been proposed to use present pipelines
designed for natural gas, but this option has safety issues because of potential leaking of
hydrogen through the valves. For hydrogen we have to triple the volume to supply the same
energy as natural gas, therefore we need to triple the velocity. [4] This increases energy
losses during transport. Building a completely new distribution would be very costly and
unpractical, so a solution for this problem must be found. Safety issues must also be taken
under consideration. Like nitro-glycerine, hydrogen does not explode by itself. It needs
energy release (a spark, for example) to ignite or explode. However, the minimum energy
required for hydrogen is very small. The flammability or explosion limits of hydrogen are
much wider than for any other fuel, and the energy required for ignition or explosions is by a
magnitude lower than for other gases. This limits the maximum amount that can be safely
stored and demands special expertise of the personnel handling it. There is also another big
risk. A hydrogen car, as presently envisioned, is a potential suicide bomb that cannot be
detected by any of the standard methods that detect explosives. [4] With these disadvantages
hydrogen will find it difficult to compete with the century-long investments in petroleum
fuels and internal combustion engines without resolving these problems. But with research
and development these obstacles can be overcome.

5. SWITCHING TO FUEL CELLS

Switching to fuel cells has the “chicken-and-egg” problem: large numbers of fuel cell
vehicles require adequate fuel availability to support them, but the required infrastructure is
hard to build unless there are significant numbers of fuel cell vehicles on the roadways. [3]
To successfully switch to hydrogen a definitive solution for making and delivering it should
be made. Of course the solution can't be universal but it will different based on geographical
location and on local resources, since hydrogen can be made from virtually any energy
feedstock, including coal, nuclear, natural gas, biomass, wind and solar. [1] The abundant
reserves of coal in many regions are a particularly attractive option for producing hydrogen,
but a very good carbon dioxide sequestration process must be used for very low emission
with this method. The first vehicles that should be switched to hydrogen fuel cell power are
those that return to the garage every day, like buses, mail trucks and delivery vans, since they
can be supplied by centrally located hydrogen stations. The next step would be to arrange
collaboration between the government, the car industry and the oil industry, so that hydrogen
fuelling stations can be built, and hydrogen vehicles can be produced for the mass market.
This collaboration is of course difficult, and the disadvantages of hydrogen use must be
solved before switching can become realistically achievable and profitable for the automobile
and oil industries.

6. ALTERNATIVES

Currently the only viable and serious long-term options are electricity, bio fuels and synthetic
fuels. Electricity is a very good alternative because it's already available and has zero
emissions. Despite that, it has been abandoned by almost every major automaker because of
long recharge times and much lower performance and speed of battery powered vehicles. The
second option is bio fuel, made from cellulosic materials, such as trees and grasses that can
be grown and converted into ethanol and methanol fuel for use in combustion engines. While
this energy option is renewable, the environmental effects of intensive farming are not trivial,
and the land areas involved are massive. [1] The third option are synthetic fuels, but the

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production methods are still very expensive, and this type of fuel currently has a far lower
energy efficiency.

7. CONCLUSION

Even if they are still heavily discussed and criticized by some, hydrogen fuel cells are
probably the best option for an alternative and clean energy source. They have the strongest
potential to replace internal-combustion engines, and they are also the most likely to be
embraced by the automobile and oil industries. Hydrogen fuel cells offer superior
performance and efficiency, and can revolutionize the car industry and design. With
continuous, technological and economical support, hydrogen fuel cells can gain public and
private support, thus replacing internal-combustion engines as a clean and emission-free
alternative power source.

8. REFERENCES

[1] Sperling, D., Ogden, J.: The bumpy road to hydrogen, Institute of Transportation
Studies, University of California, Davis (June 15, 2006)
[2] Burns, L.D., Byron McCormick, J., Borroni-Bird, C.E.: Vehicle of change, Scientific
American (October 2002), Pages 42-49
[3] Appleby, A.J.: The electrochemical engine for vehicles, Scientific American (July
1999), 56-63
[4] Shinnar, R.: The hydrogen economy, fuel cells, and electric cars, Technology in
Society, Volume 25 (2003), Issue 4, Pages 453-576

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Group F
HYBRID POWER
Honda's Insight and Toyota's Prius are quiet, efficient and the first in
a new green wave
By MARGOT ROOSEVELT LOS ANGELES

HOW IT WORKS
A hybrid car combines two power systems: an electric motor, powered by nickel-metal hydride batteries, and a
highly efficient gas engine

CITY DRIVING
The Prius uses pure electricity for starting up, travelling slowly or idling. Its gas engine
kicks in for more power. The Insight drives mostly on gasoline, with a small electric boost

HIGHWAY DRIVING
BAt high speeds, the gas engine is the primary power source; the electricity provides a
boost. The Insight's aerodynamic aluminium body accounts for much of its fuel economy

REGEN BRAKING
During coasting or braking, the wheels drive the electric motor, which acts as a generator
to charge the batteries back to full
strength

TECHNOLOGY
Computers regulate the two power systems. When the cars idle, the engine stops too,
cutting back on noxious emissions and saving gas .

WARNING TO ALL WHO DRIVE GAS guzzlers while fretting about the melting ice cap
and the diminished rain forest: Your bluff is called. Finally. Just as the U.S. is grappling
with the problem of how to meet its international promise to reduce global warming, the
first hybrid gasoline-electric cars are hitting the U.S. market. Though these green machines,
a major advance in automobile engineering, are getting off to a slow start, down the road
they may yet compete bumper to bumper with gas-only cars.
Honda's peppy two-seat Insight travels 600 miles on a tiny tank, a boon to the greenhouse-
gassed planet. Toyota's Prius, a sleek five-seater, gets 52 m.p.g. in city driving and is up to
90% cleaner than the average car. U.S. carmakers, reluctant latecomers, have been shamed
into promising hybrid models. But will these fuel sippers sell to a pollutants-be-damned
nation enraptured by showy sport utes?

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If the new technology catches on, it could go a long way toward compensating for last
week's stalled progress on the 1997 international treaty, originally negotiated in Kyoto,
Japan, to cut carbon dioxide emissions. So far, Toyota has a five-month waiting list for its
Prius (Latin for "to go before"), and it has logged 7,300 orders since the car's July launch. It
will easily sell out this year's small production run of 12,000 cars. Sales of the Insight,
introduced last December, are slower—about 3,500—partly because many dealerships can't
get the cars, and partly because the two-seater isn't as practical as the Prius. Measured
against the 17 million cars and trucks sold yearly in the U.S., it is a modest beginning. A
major obstacle: the price trade-off for being green. Savings at the pump—magnified by this
year's gasoline-price jumps—are offset by the $20,000 cost of either car. That's several
thousand dollars more than similar-size conventional models. If proposed federal tax
incentives—pushed by an unusual alliance of automakers and environmentalists—ulti-
mately pass, "there could be a hybrid in every garage," says Roland Hwang, a trans-
portation expert with the Natural Resources Defense Council. That is surely a green dream,
but rigorous new laws in several states, including California and New York, are forcing
manufacturers to sell cleaner cars, setting what is expected to be a national trend.

The promise of the hybrids is that consumers won't have to make sacrifices in style,
performance or comfort to drive them. Unlike battery-electric vehicles, which are plugged
into the power grid, hybrids combine a small gasoline engine with an electric motor and
travel under their own power. When the Prius advances slowly or idles in traffic, the
electric motor takes over, thus minimizing the pollution caused by stop-and-go driving. The
gasoline engine powers the battery and kicks in for acceleration. When the car coasts or
brakes, the motor becomes a generator, capturing the energy that would normally be lost
and transforming it into electricity. In the Insight, a lightweight but super-efficient three-
cylinder, 63-h.p. gas engine supplies most of the oomph, and the electric motor offers a 10-
h.p. boost when needed.

Techno-sawy fans have embraced the hybrids, flooding Internet chat rooms with talk of
torque and throttle response, boasting about mileage. "Kick Some Gas!" urges one site,
Priusenvy.com. Senator Robert Bennet of Utah, chairman of the Republican High-Tech
Task Force, fills his Insight's gas tank once a month. "It's the ideal commuter car," he says.
But he has yet to persuade his fellow legislators to make the switch.

The size of the Insight and Prius is a potential turnoff for consumers, who fear collisions
with gargantuan suvs. "I'd like to use less gas," says Laura Blalock, a Memphis, Tenn.,
chemist. "But I can't enjoy saving Mother Earth if I'm worrying about getting squashed like
a bug." Customers like Blalock won't have long to wait for heftier hybrids. In 2003, Ford
will produce a hybrid version of its Escape sport utility, expected to get 40 m.p.g. By then,
Toyota's hybrid minivan, the Estima, will probably have reached the U.S. market, along
with a hybrid Honda Civic. Proving that hybrids are not necessarily environmentally
virtuous, DaimlerChrysler has announced a hybrid version of its monster Durango truck
that would get only 18 m.p.g.—a hybrid muscle car.

One constituency that isn't revved up about the cars is the car dealers. So far, they have
little incentive to push hybrids because profit margins are higher on bigger, gas-only
vehicles. Honda and Toyota dealers' splashy newspaper ads rarely if ever mention hybrids.
Prospective Prius customers complain that since only trained salesmen are permitted to sell
them, the untrained ones steer them away from the cars. Would-be Insight customers say
they can't even find one to test-drive. "We don't direct people to the hybrid," allowed
Honda salesman Neil Perlmutter at a North Hollywood, Calif., dealership. "It is for people
who want high gas mileage, not for the masses." Juan Capdet, a salesman at Sheridan

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Toyota in Santa Monica, Calif., is an enthusiast, but he acknowledges, "There is a lot of

misinformation. You have to explain the new technology."

Whether they like it or not, automakers have no choice but to produce more hybrids.
Skyrocketing suv sales mean the companies' average gas efficiency is declining, so to meet
federal rules the manufacturers need ultra-high-mileage vehicles to compensate. Ford's
chairman, William Ford, has predicted that hybrids could account for 20% of he U.S.
market in a decade. Beyond the need for fuel economy, however, looms the urgency of
curbing greenhouse gases—a quarter of which result from car and truck emissions.

"Hybrids allow people to feel they are doing the right thing for the planet," says Michael
Feinstein, a Santa Monica councilman who just bought a Prius for his mother. That's nice,
but the breakthrough is that Americans finally have green cars that are convenient enough
and cool enough to drive.

HONDA INSIGHT
BASE PRICE $19,295
FUEL EFFICIENCY 61 m.p.g. in city driving; 70 highway
COOL FEATURE Digital dashboard displays current and long-term fuel economy
WEB FANS lnsightCentral.net; lnsightman.com

TOYOTA PRIUS
BASE PRICE $19,995
FUEL EFFICIENCY 52 m.p.g. in city driving; 45 highway
COOL FEATURE Readout of fuel consumption and dual energy systems
WEB FANS Priusenvy.com; c/ubs.yahoo.com/ clubs/toyotaprius

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LECTURE 11
Fourier and other scientists

Section 2
Capacitance
The Film Visions of the Future

Section 3
Expressing the Future

A Group
Is this mathematican the true father of modern engineering?
by Eugene F. Adiutori

FOURIER

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oncepts that engi- Newton's second law holds that the

neers use ever y change of motion is proportional to the
day—as fundamental impressed force.
as the homogeneity But Fourier was not satisfied with
of equations and the proportional expressions. He wanted to
heat transfer arrive at laws in the form of equations
coefficient—were pioneered by that could be used quantitatively to
a French thinker who died in describe and predict natural behavior,
1830. His name was Joseph specifically of heat transfer. To do it,
Fourier. He is better known Fourier had to create a new kind of
for his career in mathematics, parameter.
but his contributions to During his years at Grenoble, he
engineering science are so conducted heat transfer experiments. In
important that a case can be the manner of his predecessors, he
made for calling him the father could have considered his work
of modern engineering. finished when he observed that
Fourier's contributions to convective heat flux is proportional to
engineering science, many of which Joseph Fourier temperature difference and that conductive heat
were presented in his 1822 book, The Analyti- flux is proportional to temperature gradient.
cal Theory of Heat, include the original Neither expression will yield a homogeneous
view of dimensional homogeneity. The heat equation.
transfer science it presented has been The proportional expression for convective
handed down to us virtually unchanged, and heat transfer is qconv — a ΔT, where a is a pure
has served as a model for other branches of number generally referred to as the constant of
engineering. proportionality. Fourier would not accept that
The book also presented his concept of as a law because q and ΔT have different
"flux" (that is, a flow of something per unit dimensions: The left side is energy flow per unit
area and time), his view of homogeneity, and time and area, and the right side is temperature.
his original methods for solving engineering He solved the dilemma by stating that a is a
problems, all of which are used today in parameter with the same dimension as q/ΔT,
many branches of engineering and science. which makes the equation homogeneous.
In short, this treatise by Fourier Rather than retain a generic name and symbol
presented the groundwork, as well as for the new parameter, he called it "heat
some of the finish work, for modern transfer coefficient" and gave it the symbol h.
engineering. Fourier conceived the view The end result is Fourier's law of convective
that scientifically rigorous equations must be heat transfer, qconv — h ΔT. (American heat
dimensionally identical—-that is, each term transfer texts call this equation "Newton's law
in an equation must have the same of cooling," but it should be attributed to
dimension. For example, if the left side of an Fourier.)
equation is pounds per cubic foot, the By a similar process, Fourier arrived at the law
dimension of the right side must also be of conductive heat transfer, qconij — k dT/dx,
pounds per cubic foot. If the left side is where the constant of proportionality has been
measured in pounds per cubic foot and the assigned the name "thermal conductivity," the
right side feet per second, the equation is symbol k, and the same dimension as q/(dT/dx).
irrational. Fourier's view of homogeneity makes it
Fourier's view of homogeneity is now necessary to create parameters such as
considered almost self-evident, but in the resistances and coefficients because without
early 19th century, it was revolutionary. It them, engineering phenomena cannot be
required the multiplication and division of described by homogeneous equations.
dimensions -mathematical operations that Engineering phenomena are cause-and-
had been deemed irrational for more than effect processes: electromotive force causes
2,000 years. For example, Hooke' s law says electric current; temperature difference causes
that stress is proportional to strain. heat flux; stress causes strain.

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Because cause and effect generally have homogeneous. "This parameter is now called
different dimensions, a third parameter is "material modulus." The homogeneous equation
necessary to obtain a homogeneous equation. based on Hooke's law is called "Young's law.
Ohm's law underwent a transformation from its Fourier's contemporaries forestalled the general
original form to make it homogeneous. Georg publication of his work for 15 years while they
Ohm published his treatise, The Galvanic claimed to find fault with it. For example,
Circuit Investigated Mathematically, in 1827. they strongly objected to his concept of flux, a
He originally expressed his famous law as: concept that now seems so simple and
"The force of the current in a galvanic circuit is straightforward as to border on the obvious.
directly as the sum of all the tensions, and They ultimately accepted his revolutionary
inversely as the entire reduced length of the view of homogeneity, solely because he was
circuit." Reduced length is the equivalent able to solve many practical and theoretical
length of a copper wire of a standard diameter. problems that had never been solved. He
As an equation, it was I = E/L, which does attributed his success to the homogeneity in
not conform to Fourier's view of his equations. ■
homogeneity. To render it homogeneous, a
parameter was later assigned the dimension Is this French mathematician the true father of
"ohm" (a synonym for volts per ampere), and modern engineering?
it is now called "electrical resistance." The
Editor's Note: A fuller discussion of Fourier, on which this
homogeneous form of the equation is E - IR. article is based, is available at www.memagazine.org.
Hooke's law, that "stress is proportional to strain,"
also was transformed into a homogeneous Eugene F. Adiutori is the author of The New Heat Transfer, which
was published in the 1970s in English and Russian. His article, "Ori-
equation in the manner pioneered by Fourier. gins of the Heat Transfer Coefficient," appeared in Mechanical Engi-
neering magazine in August 1990.
It was stated that the proportionality constant
between stress and strain was a parameter. 30 August 2005 mechanical engineering
The parameter was assigned the same dimension
as stress, since that would make the equation

VOCABULARY LIST
homogeneity, composition from like parts convection – Physics, the transfer of heat
homogeneous and heterogeneous by the circulation or movement of the heated
homogeneous - composed of parts all of parts of a liquid or gas; the act of conveying
the same kind; not heterogeneous; of the or transmitting,
same kind or nature; essentially alike convective activity – in Meteorology- any
heat transfer coefficient-koeficient manifestation of convection in the
pretvorbe topline atmosphere as hail, thunderstorms
a case could be made – parnica it does not conform to – nije usklađen sa
to have a strong case – imati jake to undergo a transformation
argumente entire – having all the parts or elements;
treatise – rasprava whole; complete
virtually- for the most part; almost wholly; forestall – osujetiti, spriječiti
hand down – transmit straightforward- direct, free from
flux- tok crookedness (iskrivljenost)
conceive – to form a notion, opinion attribute – pripisivati
rational and irrational to find fault with sth – criticize, to seek
deem –judge, regarded as and make known defects or flaws
stress - naprezanje He constantly finds fault with her cooking.
strain- napetost ultimately- konačno, nakon svega
predecessor- prethodnik solely - merely
yield – dati (rezultata)

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5.1. ASSIGNMENT

Why is this French mathematician the true father of modern engineering?

....................................................................................................................................
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....................................................................................................................................

The essential idea is

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The supporting idea is

....................................................................................................................................
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Explain the Fourier's law of convective heat transfer

.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
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...................................................................................................................................

Translate the following:

"The force of the current in a galvanic circuit is directly as the sum of all
the tensions, and inversely as the entire reduced length of the circuit."
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
In what way was Hooke's law, that "stress is proportional to strain,"
transformed into a homogeneous equation in the manner pioneered by
Fourier?
.........................................................................................................................................
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Do you think that new scientific ideas can never be readily accepted by those
who cling to old beliefs?
Yes, I do because
……………………………………………………………………………

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Section 3
Expressing the Future

Going to

1 Is used to express personal intention. The action has usually been considered
in advance and some arrangements may have been made.
I’m going to invite Mary.
We’re going to buy a new car.

2 It is used to make prediction based on what you know, feel or can see.
Look at the clouds! It’s going to rain.
Look at him! He’s going to faint.

Future simple

1 expresses a future fact or prediction.

I’ll be fifty in January.
George’ll be here this evening.
The concert’ll begin at eight. When’ll it begin?

2 expresses a sudden decision.

I’ll phone for help.
I’ll come to your house tomorrow. (=deliberate intention or promise)

3 expresses an offer or request.

Shall I give you a lift?

4 expresses a threat or a promise.

I’ll help you if you ask me to.
I won’t do that again.
You won’t eat too much, will you?
Don’t worry, we shan’t eat much.

5 expresses an opinion about the future after verbs like think, suppose, expect,
doubt if and also with probably.
I suppose he’ll come on time.
He’ll probably be back at six.

6 expresses strong probability.

There is a car pulling up. It’ll be John.

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Present continuous
expresses a pre-arranged future action. It is similar in meaning and use to
going to but has less sense of personal intention.
We are giving a party tomorrow, will you come?
The break down is being repaired tomorrow.
I’m seeing her tomorrow. (=I’m going to meet her)

Present Simple
expresses the certain future, a fixed future event usually based on a timetable
or programme.
What time does the train arrive?

Is to
1 expresses an instruction or order.
You are to study tenses expressing the future.

2 talks about an action or event which has been arranged, often officially.
I’m to translate this into English.

About to/due to
talks about actions or events which are expected to happen, usually very soon.
Shet is about to have a baby. The baby is due to arrive in January.

Future continuous
1 talks about an action which will be in progress at a point in the future. It asks
about facts, not about intention.
What will you be doing this time next year?
I’ll be taking my final exams.
I’ll be lying on the beach this time next week.
I’ll be starting a job.
2 talks about an action which will happen as a matter of course.
Benetton will be having its winter sales soon.
I shall go to the station tomorrow. I’ll be seeing you then.
3 expresses a request for information rather than a request for action.
Will you be designing this part today?
4 expresses strong probability and fact
We’ll be seeing us somewhere at the cafeteria.
What a lot of tests to correct! I’ll probably be correcting them all day.
5 expresses future without intention
I’ll be coming to your house tomorrow.

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Future perfect simple and continuous

The duration or completetion of an action or state of affairs up to a
specified moment as seen from a point in the future is expressed in English by
the Future Perfect, Simple or Continuous, with for. Since is not used because,
as a rule, the time when the action or state started is not indicated. Croatian
uses impersonal construction “biti će (vrijeme) da (ili kako) + Simple Present.

- Koliko su dugo u braku?

- How long have they been married?
- Prvog srpnja bit će 5 godina da su oženjeni, a u prosincu će biti dvije godine
kako
žive u Rijeci.
- On July 1st they will have been married for five years, and in December
they will have been living in Rijeka for two years.

- Sutra će biti tri tjedna kako imam ovaj posao.

- By tomorrow I will have had that job for three weeks.

- Krajem ožujka bit će dva mjeseca kako tražim posao.

- By the end of March I shall have been looking for a job for two months.

- Krajem srpnja bit će dvije godine kako studiram u Rijeci.

- At the end of July I shall have studied in Rijeka for two years.

Future perfect simple

Future perfect talks about a future event which will be complete by a time
which is in the future.
I shall have done this by tomorrow.
Will you still be ironing the clothes at nine?
No, I’ll have ironed them by then.
You haven’t ironed my shirt yet! Don’t worry! I’ll have ironed it by
eight.
We’ll have been engaged for a year next August.

Future perfect continuous

Future perfect continuous talks about duration of an action or state of affairs

which won’t be complete.

Have you been illustrating books for long?

By the time I’ve completed this book, I’ll have been illustrating them
for five years. (I shall continue illustrating them.)
I’ll have been working at this Faculty of Engineering for 25 years next
September. (I won’t quit, I shall continue working here.)

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Future Perfect Tense Simple and Continuous

II. Pair Work

- Will you still be mending your car at five?

- No, I’ll have mended it by then.

- They’ve started to build the outdoor handball playground.

- I hope they’ll have finished it in time for the Games.

- You haven’t repaired the car yet.

- Don’t worry! I’ll have repaired it by this evening.

- Have you been designing boats for long?

- By the time I’ve designed this one, I’ll have been designing them
for a year.

- How many boats have you designed now?

- When I design this one, I’ll have designed three altogether.

- We can’t visit the Petrovićs now. They’ll be having a rest.

- They’ll have had a rest by now, surely?

- Shall we visit the Petrovićs tonight, or will they still be packing?

- If they are, they’ll have been packing the whole day.

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LECTURE 12

Section 1
Seminar Group Work
Bioengineering

Section 2
Seminar Group Work
Lenz’s Law

Section 3
Ing- Forms

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CODE TRANSFER

shove gurati
rebound effects efekti odskoka, odraza, odboja
heir oponašati, baštinik
verterbra kralježnjak
damper prigušivač
frailty krhkost, slabašnost
approximate približno iznositi
supplement nadopuniti
water cavity vodena trbušna šupljina
mimic koji oponaša
mime oponašati

Translate the following into Croatian:

a crash test dummy

the dummy’s almost - human appearance
biofidelic rear impact dummy
pretension load on the neck
an articulated human-like spine with the requisite two dozen verterbree

Summerize the text by answering the questions!

Why are the crash scenarios tested in computer simulations?
Why do manufacturers use crash test dummies?
What is the purpose of the virtual crash test dummy?
How are ideas tested?
Why do computer models mime dummies instead of trying to represent a living
human?

Abstract
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Section 2
Lenz's law
Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz was a Russian physicist who lived from 1804 to 1865. He
discovered a simple way to find the direction of the induced electric currents predicted
by Faraday's law.

An electric current that is induced by a changing magnetic field will in turn induce its
own magnetic field. According to Lenz's law, the induced electric current must be in
such a direction that the magnetic field induced by the current opposes the original
cause of the induced current.

There is a common trap here. The induced magnetic field does not necessarily oppose
the original magnetic field as many people tend to think. The original magnetic field
does not cause the induced electric current. Rather the change in the magnetic field, or
more correctly the magnetic flux, induces the electric current. So the induced magnetic
field will oppose the change in the original magnetic field rather than the field itself. If,
for example, the original field is decreasing, then the induced magnetic field must be in
the same direction as the original field to oppose the decrease.

Magnetic flux is a way of measuring the total amount of perpendicular magnetic field
passing through an area or a surface. According to Faraday's law an electric current will
be induced in a coil of wire when the magnetic flux through the coil changes. This flux
can change when the magnetic field changes, when the area of the coil changes, when
the source of magnetic field moves, or when the coil moves or rotates. In all these cases
the current will be induced in such a direction that it in turn induces a magnetic field
that opposes this change in magnetic flux.

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Explanation of Lenz's law

If the magnetic field associated with the current in a conductor were in the same
direction as the change in the magnetic field that created it, these two magnetic fields
would combine to give a net magnetic field which would in turn induce a current
with twice the magnitude. This process would continue creating infinite current from
just moving a magnet: this would be a violation of the law of conservation of energy.

Taking a permanent magnet and putting a coil in front of it, with the North Pole
nearest the coil, as the magnet is brought closer to the coil, this will increase the flux
through the coil. Then, by Lenz's law, the current will be in counterclockwise
direction from the north end of the magnet when looking into the coil from the north
pole of magnet. If the magnet is brought away from the coil, this will decrease the
flux through the coil. Therefore, the current should be induced in the clockwise
direction from the north end of the magnet. By keeping at rest but increasing the
field strength of the magnet, the flux through the coil will be increased: thus the
induced current should be in the counterclockwise direction from the north end of
the magnet. This case is analogous to the case where we moved the magnet towards
the coil. Similarly, if the magnet is kept at rest but the field strength of the magnet
decreases, the current will be induced in the clockwise direction from the
aforementioned position.

Another possible situation is increasing the area of the coil. In this case, the flux
through the coil is increased, so that a current is induced by Faraday’s law.
Increasing the area of the coil is in fact equivalent to bringing the magnet closer to
the coil; both cases effectively increase the magnetic flux through the coil.
Therefore, the current will be induced in the counterclockwise direction from the
north end of the magnet. Decreasing the area of the coil is equivalent to bringing the
magnet away from the coil since both cases effectively decrease the flux through the
coil. Therefore, decreasing the area of the coil will induce a current in the clockwise
direction.

Connection with the law of conservation of energy

Lenz's law is a consequence of the law of conservation of energy. According to the

law of conservation of energy the total amount of energy in the universe must remain
constant. Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it may only be converted from
one form to another. Hence it is impossible to get free energy from nothing.

The law of conservation of energy relates exclusively to conservative forces. Lenz's

Law extends the principles of energy conservation to situations that involve non-
conservative forces in electromagnetism. To see an example, move a magnet towards
the face of a closed loop of wire (e.g. a coil or solenoid). An electric current is
induced in the wire, because the electrons within it are subjected to an increasing
magnetic field as the magnet approaches. This produces an EMF (electro-motive
force) that acts upon them. The direction of the induced current depends on whether
the north or South Pole of the magnet is approaching: an approaching pole will
produce a counter-clockwise current (from the perspective of the magnet), and South
Pole approaching the coil will produce a clockwise current.

To understand the implications for conservation of energy, suppose that the induced
currents' directions were opposite to those just described. Then the north pole of an
approaching magnet would induce a south pole in the near face of the loop. The
attractive force between these poles would accelerate the magnet's approach. This

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would make the magnetic field increase more quickly, which in turn would increase
the loop's current, strengthening the magnetic field, increasing the attraction and
acceleration, and so on. Both the kinetic energy of the magnet and the rate of energy
dissipation in the loop (due to Joule heating) would increase. A small energy input
would produce a large energy output, violating the law of conservation of energy.

This scenario is only one example of electromagnetic induction. Lenz's Law states
that the magnetic field of any induced current opposes the change that induces it.

For a rigorous mathematical treatment, see electromagnetic induction and Maxwell's

equations.

Conservation of energy

The law of conservation of energy is an empirical law of physics. It states that the
total amount of energy in a closed system remains constant over time (are said to be
conserved over time). A consequence of this law is that energy cannot be created nor
destroyed. The only thing that can happen to energy in a closed system is that it can
change form, for instance chemical energy can become thermal energy.

Albert Einstein's theory of relativity shows that energy and mass are the same thing,
and that neither one appears without the other. Thus in closed systems, both mass and
energy are conserved separately, just as was understood in pre-relativistic physics.
The new feature of relativistic physics is that "matter" particles (such as those
constituting atoms) could be converted to non-matter forms of energy, such as light;
or kinetic and potential energy (example: heat). However, this conversion does not
affect the total mass of systems, since the latter forms of non-matter energy still retain
their mass through any such conversion.

Today, conservation of “energy” refers to the conservation of the total system energy
over time. This energy includes the energy associated with the rest mass of particles
and all other forms of energy in the system. In addition the invariant mass of systems
of particles (the mass of the system as seen in its center of mass inertial frame, such
as the frame in which it would need to be weighed), is also conserved over time for
any single observer, and (unlike the total energy) is the same value for all observers.
Therefore, in an isolated system, although matter (particles with rest mass) and "pure
energy" (heat and light) can be converted to one another, both the total amount of
energy and the total amount of mass of such systems remain constant over time, as
seen by any single observer. If energy in any form is allowed to escape such systems
the mass of the system will decrease in correspondence with the loss.

A consequence of the law of energy conservation is that perpetual motion machines

can only work perpetually if they deliver no energy to their surroundings. If such
machines produce more energy than is put into them, they must lose mass and thus
eventually disappear over perpetual time, and are therefore impossible.

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Section 3

ING FORMS
How do you learn and improve your English?
How can you keep yourself well informed with so much being
published?

1 When a “how” question asks about an action, the response

begins either with “by” or with “without” followed by an “ing”
form. Answer the following questions. Use an “ing” form in
your answer.

1 How do some people become rich?

2 How did Columbus discover America?
3 How do skiers go so fast?
4 How can skiers cut air resistance?
5 How can skier go faster?
6 How do ski jumpers defy gravity?
7 How do ski jumpers maximise horizontal speed?
8 How do ski jumpers minimize air resistance or drag?
9 How can their lift be increased?
10 How can we build a faster luge?
11 How can a speed skater get traction?
12 How can the slingshot, i.e. a forward thrust be affected?
13 How can the free-surface effect be limited?
14 How can dynamic stability be achieved?
15 How can you hold your boat upright?

2 Like the infinitive, the gerund may be the subject or object of

a verb as well as the complement of to be, it may take an
object and be used in passive and perfect forms:

He was killed in the fighting.

Is swimming your favourite sport?
Take the washing out please!
Studying languages is important.
I rested for an hour before I went on with my task.
I rested for an hour before going on with my task.
They left them so that they didn’t greet.
They left them without greeting.
She remembers that you asked her that.
She remembers your asking her that.

3 A gerund depending on a preposition is preceded by a

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possessive form when its subject is different from that of the

main verb.

I went there without you/your knowing.

He objects to me/my going.
I am tired of John complaining about the weather. (rather than John’s complaining)

4 After the preposition on introducing a time clause, the

gerund is preceded by a possessive only if its subject is
different from that of the main verb:

On his entering (=When he entered) the shop, we were astonished.

On my approaching (=As soon as I approached) the house, the dog started barking.

5 No possessive is used before the gerund when the subject

is the same in the two clauses:

On entering (=When I entered) the shop, I saw her.

On approaching (=As soon as I approached) the house, I saw a dog.
On hearing (=As soon as I heard) his voice, I immediately remembered my/me
meeting him before.

Instead of saying:
While he was running to meet his mother, the little boy fell and bruised
his knee,
We can say:
While running to meet his mother, the little boy fell and bruised his knee.

6 When there is a time difference between two actions, the

perfect participle is used

Having finished the assignment, she went for a walk..

Having read an array of books concerning this issue, I know a lot about this culture.

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LECTURE 13

Vicious Circle

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"The crash course to save the environment from the threat

of ozone destruction must begin NOW!"
Lorraine Lindahl-Constans Sebastopol, California

As a member of the younger generation, I feel scared when I

think about life in a world destroyed by war and pollution.
We should all pause to think about what each of us in our
own way can do to help improve the global situation. In the
end, we are the ones with the power to decide whether our
world will survive or whether we will just continue to pollute
it for selfish economic reasons.
Henrike Thiemann Albersloh, Germany

The depletion of the ozone layer is just one of the many

environmental travesties that will be associated with this
century. We Americans, as members of the world
community, must act swiftly to reverse the tide of our
destructive ways. Should we buy a cup of coffee from a
vendor who sells it in a foam container, or should we buy it
from someone who encourages people to bring their own
coffee mugs? We do not have to give up anything except
some wasteful habits.
One impending tragedy: the possible blinding of almost all
non-nocturnal animals and insects outside the darkest
jungles. While humans can protect their eyes, most other
forms of life cannot do so.
JohnR. Watt Atlanta

Isn't there some smart scientist or enthusiastic

entrepreneur out there who can find a way to pump up
massive quantities of ozone to plug the hole?
Mary Bowden Dorval, Canada

The fact that "the best the world can hope for is to stabilize
ozone loss soon after the turn of the century" underscores
our reliance on self-destructive technology. When will we—
developed and less developed nations alike—learn that
when it comes to the global environment, there is no
escaping the consequences of our actions?
McClellan Stevensville, Maryland

Time, March 9, 1992

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For Earth’s climate to be stable, the solar energy input

must be balanced by energy Earth returns to outer space.
Our Earth receives most of its energy, called radiation, from the Sun.
This energy is electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum, with
small amounts of IR and UV radiation. The incoming solar energy has
a very short wavelength and passes through the atmospheric gases
unaffected to reach the Earth's surface.
The Earth's surface absorbs the solar energy and releases it back to the
atmosphere as infrared (IR) radiation, some of which goes back into
space.
Some of the IR radiation emitted by the earth is absorbed by gases in
the atmosphere that re-emit the energy as heat back toward the earth's
surface.
Three main gases in our atmosphere that contribute to the greenhouse
effect are carbon dioxide CO2, methane CH4, and water vapour. These
gases absorb the infrared radiation emitted by the earth and re-radiate
the energy as heat back towards the Earth, causing a warming known
as the Greenhouse effect.
With increasing carbon dioxide emissions from humans, the
greenhouse effect has become drastically exaggerated. This has
caused a dangerous global warming process that is threatening our
current environment by melting polar ice caps and raising sea levels
around the globe. The earth reflects about 30% of the incoming solar
radiation. The remaining 70% is absorbed, warming the land,
atmosphere and oceans.

Wikipedia says that the Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of
radiation. Most of the energy is in visible wavelengths and in infrared
wavelengths that are near the visible range (often called "near infrared").
The Earth reflects about 30% of the incoming solar radiation. The remaining
70% is absorbed, warming the land, atmosphere and oceans.

For the Earth's temperature to be in steady state so that the Earth does not
rapidly heat or cool, this absorbed solar radiation must be very closely
balanced by energy radiated back to space in the infrared wavelengths. Since
the intensity of infrared radiation increases with increasing temperature, one
can think of the Earth's temperature as being determined by the infrared flux
needed to balance the absorbed solar flux. The visible solar radiation mostly
heats the surface, not the atmosphere, whereas most of the infrared radiation
escaping to space is emitted from the upper atmosphere, not the surface. The
infrared photons emitted by the surface are mostly absorbed in the
atmosphere by greenhouse gases and clouds and do not escape directly to
space.

The reason why this warms the surface is most easily understood by starting
with a simplified model of a purely radiative greenhouse effect that ignores
energy transfer in the atmosphere by convection (sensible heat transport)
and by the evaporation and condensation of water vapor (latent heat
transport). In this purely radiative case, one can think of the atmosphere as
emitting infrared radiation both upwards and downwards. The upward
infrared flux emitted by the surface must balance not only the absorbed solar
flux but also this downward infrared flux emitted by the atmosphere. The

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surface temperature will rise until it generates thermal radiation equivalent

to the sum of the incoming solar and infrared radiation.

A more realistic picture taking into account the convective and latent heat
fluxes is somewhat more complex. But the following simple model captures
the essence. The starting point is to note that the opacity of the atmosphere
to infrared radiation determines the height in the atmosphere from which
most of the photons are emitted into space. If the atmosphere is more
opaque, the typical photon escaping to space will be emitted from higher in
the atmosphere, because one then has to go to higher altitudes to see out to
space in the infrared. Since the emission of infrared radiation is a function of
temperature, it is the temperature of the atmosphere at this emission level
that is effectively determined by the requirement that the emitted flux
balance the absorbed solar flux.

But the temperature of the atmosphere generally decreases with height

above the surface, at a rate of roughly 6.5 °C per kilometer on average, until
one reaches the stratosphere 10-15 km above the surface. (Most infrared
photons escaping to space are emitted by the troposphere, the region
bounded by the surface and the stratosphere, so we can ignore the
stratosphere in this simple picture.) A very simple model, but one that
proves to be remarkably useful, involves the assumption that this
temperature profile is simply fixed, by the non-radiative energy fluxes.
Given the temperature at the emission level of the infrared flux escaping to
space, one then computes the surface temperature by increasing temperature
at the rate of 6.5 °C per kilometer, the environmental lapse rate, until one
reaches the surface. The more opaque the atmosphere, and the higher the
emission level of the escaping infrared radiation, the warmer the surface,
since one then needs to follow this lapse rate over a larger distance in the
vertical. While less intuitive than the purely radiative greenhouse effect, this
less familiar radiative-convective picture is the starting point for most
discussions of the greenhouse effect in the climate modeling literature.

The Earth's atmosphere acts much like the glass panes of a greenhouse:
it allows sunlight, particularly its visible range, to reach and warm the
Earth, but it largely inhibits the infrared radiation emitted by the heated
terrestrial surface from escaping into space. Since the atmosphere
becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude above the Earth,
there is less atmospheric absorption in the higher regions of the
atmosphere. At an altitude of 100 kilometres, the fraction of
atmosphere is one 10-millionth of that on the ground. Below 10 million
hertz (107 Hz), the absorption is caused by the ionosphere, a layer in
which atoms and molecules in the atmosphere are ionized by the Sun's
ultraviolet radiation. In the infrared region, the absorption is caused by
molecular vibrations and rotations. In the ultraviolet and X-ray regions,
the absorption is due to electronic excitations in atoms and molecules.

Without water vapour and carbon dioxide (CO2), which are, together
with certain industrial pollutants, the main infrared-absorbing species
in the atmosphere, the Earth would experience the extreme temperature
variations between night and day that occur on the Moon. The Earth
would then be a frozen planet, like Mars, with an average temperature
of 200 K, and not be able to support life. Scientists believe that the

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Earth's temperature and climate in general will be affected as the

composition of the atmosphere is altered by an increased release and
accumulation of carbon dioxide and other gaseous pollutants.
The temperature of the terrestrial surface environment is controlled not
only by the Sun's electromagnetic radiation but also in a sensitive way
by the Earth's atmosphere.

A few years ago, terms such as CFCs, ozone, rain forest, deforestation
and climate control would probably not be used frequently in the
vocabulary of the common American teenager. However, in recent
years, due to the growing emphasis on environmental awareness, words
like these are being taken very seriously by both teens and adults.

High above the earth's atmosphere there is a thin veil in the

stratosphere called the ozone layer, which protects the earth from
the sun's destructive ultraviolet (UV) rays. This protective layer is
being damaged by chemicals known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
one
of the greatest environmental concerns in present-day society. They
are released into the atmosphere by the daily use of such industrial
and household products as refrigerators, air conditioners, foam
insulation, cleaning chemicals, and found in the forms of fast food
packages, refrigerator and air conditioning coolants, and especially
aerosol spray cans. The CFCs rise into the ozone layer where the
sunlight decomposes them, releasing chlorine. The chlorine attacks
the ozone molecules, thinning or even making a "hole" in the ozone
layer. This "hole" allows more UV rays to penetrate to the earth.
These CFCs are 14,000 times more dangerous than excess carbon
dioxide to the ozone layer, because once in the atmosphere they
break chemical bonds and tear apart the molecules that form ozone.
Ozone is a gas present in the protective layer of the Earth's upper
atmosphere. This layer of the atmosphere protects living things on
the planet from the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays. As ozone is
slowly washed away by man-made products, it becomes more
dangerous for humans to be exposed to the sun.
Overexposure to UV rays can increase the risk of skin cancer,
weaken the immune system, and damage the retina. It is estimated
that in the United States alone one in six Americans will develop
skin cancer as a result of overexposure to UV rays.

The rain forests are being deforested at a rate of 20 million acres

every year. The rain forests hold a natural abundance of both plants
and animals, and they also account for a great deal of our oxygen. If
rain forests are burned, it could actually hurt the environment. Air
pollution caused by acid rain, excessive use of fossil fuels, and toxic
wastes and garbage all remain very difficult problems. It is,
however, very important to solve them because of the growing
concern with global warming, otherwise known as the greenhouse
effect. Excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is trapping in heat
and causing the temperature to rise at the North and South Poles. If

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these areas become too hot they will melt and cause rising seas and
coastal flooding.
Organic farming is a new and helpful means of restoring the
environment. When food is grown with the use of natural fertilizers
instead of man-made herbicides and pesticides, drainage is safer and
the food itself won't harm those who eat it.
Our planet can be saved or improved by a few simple actions that
can be performed by anybody. By setting up recycling programs at
home or school, conserving on water and power, eating organically
grown foods, using ozone-friendly products, becoming aware of
industrial pollutants, or even buying a tree in a rain forest, any
environmentally-conscious person can help our environment and
environmental recovery. Not only are humans at risk; so, too, are
animals, plants, and the environment in general. With the thinning
of the ozone layer, UV rays can penetrate the oceans, seriously
impairing the growth of plankton, an essential part of the marine-life
food chain, and can reduce the yields of economically important
crops such as soybeans, cotton, and rice.

ABSTRACT

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ASSIGNMENT
Study the Relationship of Ozone Depletion and the
Greenhouse Effect explained by Bruce E. Johansen
During the 1930s chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were marketed under the
trade name Freon, asbestos was used as a material for clothing and radium
was being built into timepieces without raising any environmental
questions.

Only 40 years later these materials have been creatively and widely used
throughout the USA as propellants in aerosol sprays, solvents used to clean
silicon chips, in automobile air conditioning, and as blowing agents for
polystyrene cups, egg cartons, and containers for fast food. They were
loved because they were useful, cheap, non-toxic, non-inflammable and
for many other reasons.

It was only after this industry had become a $28-billion-a-year industry,

that scientists discovered the harmful influence of CFCs. For forty years
they have been thinning the ozone layer over the Antarctic. They were
used in 90 million car and truck air conditioners, 100 million refrigerators,
30 million freezers, and 45 million air conditioners in homes and other
buildings.

However, banning them does not entirely solve the problem, since CFCs
remain in the stratosphere for up to 100 years and will deplete the ozone
for a long time to come.
The ozone shield is important because it protects plant and animal life on
land from sun's ultraviolet rays, which can cause skin cancer, cataracts,
and damage to the immune system. Thinning of the ozone layer also may
alter the DNA of plants and animals.

These human-created chemicals do more than destroy stratospheric

ozone. They also act as greenhouse gases, with several thousand times the
per-molecule greenhouse potential of carbon dioxide. What's more, the
warming of the near-surface atmosphere (the lower troposphere) seems to
be related to the cooling of the stratosphere, which accelerates depletion
of ozone at that level. An increasing level of carbon dioxide near the
Earth's surface "acts as a blanket," said NASA research scientist Katja
Drdla. "It is trapping the heat. If the heat stays near the surface, it is not
getting up to these higher levels." (Borenstein).

During the middle 1990s, scientists were beginning to perceive a

relationship between global warming and ozone depletion. The first
atmospheric simulation to include ozone chemistry was created. Results
proved that the greenhouse effect was responsible not only for heating the
lower atmosphere, but also for cooling the upper atmosphere. That poses
problems for ozone molecules, which are most unstable at low
temperatures. Based on the team's model, the buildup o f greenhouse gases
could chill the high atmosphere near the poles by as much as 8 degrees C.

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to 10 degrees C. The model predicted that maximum ozone loss would

occur between the years 2010 and 2019. (Shindell, et. al., 589)

At about the same time, scientists were wondering why the ozone layers
over the Arctic and Antarctic were failing to repair themselves as expected
following the international ban on production of CFCs. They began to
suspect that global warming near the surface might be related to ozone
depletion in the stratosphere. In 1998, the Antarctic ozone hole reached a
new record size roughly the size of the continental United States. Some
researchers came to the conclusion that, as Richard A. Kerr describes in
Science:

Unprecedented stratospheric cold is driving the extreme ozone

destruction.... Some of the high-altitude chill...may be a counterintuitive
effect of the accumulating greenhouse gases that seem to be warming the
lower atmosphere. The colder the stratosphere, the greater the destruction
of ozone by CFCs. (Kerr, 1998, 291)

"The chemical reactions responsible for stratospheric ozone depletion are

extremely sensitive to temperature," Shindell, et. al. wrote in Nature.
"Greenhouse gases warm the Earth's surface but cool the stratosphere
radiatively, and therefore affect ozone depletion." (p. 589).

During the middle 1990s, ozone depletion in the Arctic was detected
after a decade of measuring a growing ozone "hole" over the Antarctic. By
2000, the ozone shield over the Arctic had thinned to about half its
previous density during March and April. Ozone depletion over the Arctic
reaches its height in late winter and early spring, as the Sun rises after the
midwinter night. Solar radiation triggers reactions between ozone in the
stratosphere and chemicals containing chlorine or bromine. These
chemical reactions occur most quickly on the surface of ice particles in
clouds, at temperatures less than minus 80 degrees C. (minus 107 degrees
F.)

Space-based temperature measurements of the Earth's lower stratosphere,

a layer of the atmosphere from about 17 kilometers to 22 kilometers
(roughly 10 to 14 miles) above the surface, indicate record cold at that
level as record surface warmth has been reported during the 1990s.

Clouds form more frequently in the stratosphere at lower temperatures.

Ice crystals, which form as part of polar stratospheric clouds, assist the
chemical process by which ozone is destroyed. CFCs' appetite for ozone
molecules rises notably below minus 80 degrees C. (minus 107 degrees
F.), a level that was reached in the Arctic only rarely until the 1990s.
During the winter of 1999-2000, temperatures in the stratosphere over the
Arctic were recorded at 118 degrees F. or lower (the lowest on record),
forming the necessary clouds to allow accelerated ozone depletion.

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As Dennis L. Hartmann, et al. explain:

The pattern of climate trends during the past few decades is marked by
rapid cooling and ozone depletion in the polar lower stratosphere of both
hemispheres, coupled with an increasing strength of the wintertime
westerly polar vortex and a poleward shift of the westerly wind belt at the
Earth's surface....[I]nternal dynamical feedbacks within the climate
system...can show a large response to rather modest external
forcing....Strong synergistic interactions between stratospheric ozone
depletion and greenhouse warming are possible. These interactions may
be responsible for the pronounced changes in tropospheric and
stratospheric climate observed during the past few decades. If these trends
continue, they could have important implications for the climate of the
twenty-first century. (Hartmann, et al., 1412)

 Since ozone depletion has been measured only for a few

decades, scientists are not completely sure if rapid warming at the surface
is caused by natural variations in climate, which is powerfully influenced
by the interactions of oceans and atmosphere. "However," they conclude,
"It seems quite likely that they are at least in part human-induced."
(Hartmann, et al.,1416) Hartmann and associates also raise the possibility
that the poleward shift in westerly winds may be accelerating melting of
the arctic ice cap, part of what they contend may be a "transition of the
Arctic Ocean to an ice-free state during the twenty-first century."
(Hartmann, et al., 1416). A continued northward shift in these winds also
could portend additional warming over the land masses of North America
and Eurasia, they write. (Hartmann, et al., 1416)

The connection between global warming, a cooling stratosphere, and

depletion of stratospheric ozone was confirmed in April, 2000, with
release of a lengthy report by more than 300 NASA researchers as well as
several European, Japanese, and Canadian scientists. The report found that
while ozone depletion may have stabilized over the Antarctic, ozone levels
north of the Arctic circle were still falling, in large part because the
stratosphere has cooled as the troposphere has warmed. The ozone level
over the some parts of the Arctic was 60 per cent lower during the winter
of 2000 than during the winter of 1999, measured year over year.
In addition, scientists learned that as winter ends, the ozone-depleted
atmosphere tends to migrate southward over heavily populated areas of
North America and Eurasia. "The largest ultraviolet increases from all of
this are predicted to be in the mid-latitudes of the United States," said
University of Colorado atmospheric scientist Brian Toon. "It affects us
much more than the Antarctic [ozone `hole']." (Borenstein)
Ross Salawitch, a research scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion
Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif. said that if the pattern of extended cold
temperatures in the Arctic stratosphere continues, ozone loss over the
region could become "pretty disastrous." (Scientists Report, 3-A)
Salawitch said that the new data has "really solidified our view" that the
ozone layer is sensitive not only to ozone-destroying chemicals, but also to

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temperature. (Stevens, A-19) "The temperature of the stratosphere is

controlled by the weather that will come up from the lower atmosphere,"
said Paul Newman, another scientist who took part in the Arctic ozone
project. "If we have a very active stratosphere we tend to have warm years,
when stratosphere weather is quiescent we have cold years." (Connor, 5)
New research indicates that global warming will continue to cool the
stratosphere, making ozone destruction more prevalent even as the volume
of CFCs in the stratosphere is slowly reduced. "One year does not prove a
case," said Paul Newman of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in
Greenbelt, Maryland. "But we have seen quite a few years lately in which
the stratosphere has been colder than normal." (Aldhous, 531)
"We do know that if the temperatures in the stratosphere are lower,
more clouds will form and persist, and these conditions will lead to more
ozone loss," said Michelle Santee, an atmospheric scientist at NASA's Jet
Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena and co-author of a study on the subject
in the May 26, 2000 issue of Science. (McFarling, A-20) The anticipated
increase in cloudiness over the arctic could itself become a factor in ozone
depletion. The clouds, formed from condensed nitric acid and water, tend
to increase snowfall, which accelerates depletion of stratospheric nitrogen.
The nitrogen (which would have acted to stem some of the ozone loss had
it remained in the stratosphere), is carried to the surface as snow.

The ozone hole has been also explained in the way that
o whereas in most parts of the world horizontal winds keep
chemicals in the air well mixed, the air over the poles gets trapped every
winter in a freezing vortex. The vortex over the North Pole is warmed by
currents from hotter continents. But the comparative lack of land in the
southern hemisphere leaves the Antarctic vortex undisturbed. Every
September, when spring arrives, up to 40 per cent of ozone disappears. As
winds from warmer latitudes gradually penetrate the vortex, ozone levels
recover - by around November.
o Chlorine atoms released by UV radiation set off a chain reaction
that destroys ozone molecules.
o

NOTES – VICIOUS CIRCLE

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ABSTRACT

The Relationship of Ozone Depletion and the

Greenhouse Effect explained by Bruce E. Johansen
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LECTURE 14
Ohm's Law

KIRCHHOFF'S CIRCUIT LAWS

Alternating Current

Ohm’s Law - Resistance

• R = U / I [Ω] - Ohms
• resistance of the conductor – coefficient of proportionality
• the value of the voltage U between the terminals of the
resistor proportional to the current I
• G = I / U [S] - Siemens
• conductance of the conductor , inversely proportional to the
resistance

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KIRCHHOFF'S CIRCUIT LAWS

In complex circuits such as bridge or T networks, we can not simply

use Ohm's Law alone to find the voltages or currents circulating within a
circuit. For these types of calculations we need certain rules which allow us to
obtain the circuit equations and for this we can use Kirchoff’s Circuit Laws.

In 1845, a German physicist, Gustav Kirchoff developed a pair of rules

or laws which deal with the conservation of current and energy in electrical
circuits, one which deals with current flow, Kirchoff’s Current Law, (KCL)
and one which deals with voltage, Kirchoff’s Voltage Law, (KVL). The laws
were generalized from the work of Georg Ohm. These laws can also be derived
from Maxwell’s equations, but were developed prior to Maxwell’s work.

The following descriptions of Kirchhoff’s Laws assume a constant

current. For time-varying current, or alternating current, the laws must be
applied in a more precise method.

Kirchhoff's first law

This law is also called Kirchhoff’s point rule, Kirchhoff’s junction rule
(or nodal rule), Kirchhoff’s first rule, Kirchhoff’s first law and The current
Law.

Kirchoff’s first law states that the "total current or charge entering a
junction or node is exactly equal to the current/charge leaving the node“.

This fundamental law results from the conservation of charge. It applies

to a junction or node in a circuit -- a point in the circuit where charge has
several possible paths to travel.

Example 1 Possible node (or junction) in a circuit

In Example 1, we see that IA is the only current flowing into the node. However, there
are three paths for current to leave the node, and these currents are represented by IB,

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IC, and ID. Once charge has entered into the node, it has no place to go except to leave
(this is known as conservation of charge). The total charge flowing into a node must
be the same as the the total charge flowing out of the node. So,
IB + IC + ID = IA
Bringing everything to the left side of the above equation the sum of all the currents is
zero:

(IB + IC + ID) - IA = 0

Note the convention we have chosen here: currents flowing into the node are taken to
be negative, and currents flowing out of the node are positive. It should not really
matter which you choose to be the positive or negative current, as long as you stay
consistent.

This can be generalized as follows:

where n is the total number of branches with currents flowing towards or away from
the node.

Kirchhoff's second law

This law is also called Kirchhoff’s loop (or mesh) rule, Kirchhoff’s voltage
rule and Kirchhoff’s second rule.

Kirchoff’s second law states that "in any closed loop network, the total voltage
around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within the same loop"
which is also equal to zero. If this were not the case, then the potential at the start/end
point would have two different values.

This law is a result of the electrostatic field being conservative. It applies to

any closed electrical circuit loop or network.

Example 2 Possible closed loop in a circuit

If we advance clockwise along the loop, the Voltage Law yields the equation:

U1 − U2 = I (R1+R2+R3)

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In other way written:

U1 − U2 = UR1 + UR2 + UR3

Bringing everything to the left side of the above equation, we get:

U1 − U2 − (UR1 + UR2 + UR3) = 0

At this point we can see that the summ of all voltages around a closed loop is zero.
This can be generalized as follows:

where n is the total number of voltages measured.

It is important to say how to determine Positive and Negative Signs in

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law:

Using the Voltage Rule requires some sign conventions, which aren't
necessarily as clear as those in the Current Rule. You choose a direction (clockwise or
counter-clockwise) to go along the loop.

When travelling from positive to negative (+ to -) in an emf (power source) the

voltage drops, so the value is negative. When going from negative to positive (- to +)
the voltage goes up, so the value is positive.

When crossing a resistor, the voltage change is determined by the formula I*R,
where I is the value of the current and R is the resistance of the resistor. Crossing in
the same direction as the current means the voltage goes down, so its value is
negative. When crossing a resistor in the direction opposite the current, the voltage
value is positive (the voltage is increasing).

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The A-C Cycle

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Ever since Volta first produced a source of continuous current, men
of science have been forming theories on this subject. For some time
they could see no real difference between the newly-discovered
phenomenon and the former understanding of static charges. Then
the famous French scientist Ampere (after whom the unit of current
was named) determined the difference between the current and the
static charges. In addition to this, Ampere gave the current direction:
he supposed the current to flow from the positive pole of the source
round the circuit and back again to the negative pole. The flow of
current is now known to be in the direction opposite to what he
thought.

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The current which flows along wires consists of moving electrons. In

other words, the flow of moving electrons is one form of the electric
current. What can we say about the electron? We consider the
electron to be a minute particle having an electric charge. We also
know that that charge is negative. As these minute charges travel
along a wire, that wire is said to carry an electric current.

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In addition to travelling through solids the electric current can flow

through liquids as well and even through gases. In both cases it
produces some most important effects to meet industrial
requirements. Some liquids, such as melted metals for example,
conduct current without any change to themselves. Others, called
electrolytes, are found to change greatly when the current passes
through them.

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When the electrons flow in one direction only, the current is said to
be to be d. c., that is, direct current. The simplest source of power for
the direct current is a battery. It pushes the electrons in the same
direction all the time (i.e. from the negative charged terminal to the
positively charged terminal).

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The letters a.c. stand for alternating current. The current under
consideration is known to flow first in one direction and then in the
opposite one. The a.c. used for power and lighting purposes is
assumed to go through 50 cycles in one second.

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Originally, electric current that was used for commercial purposes

was generated as direct current. But alternating current supply
systems rapidly replaced direct current ones. Today electrical energy
is practically always generated and transmitted as alternating current.
The change-over is fundamentally due to the facilitating the
transmission of higher power or lower voltages, thereby facilitating
the transmission of high power over a considerable length of line and
reducing costs. Moreover, a.c. can be generated more cheaply than
d.c. with large units, and a.c. motors are usually preferred to d.c.
motors for constant speed work. When d.c. is necessary, as for
example in traction, electrolytes processes, variable speed units etc.,
it is usual to convert a.c. to d.c. by means of rectifiers.

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An alternating current is a rate of flow of electricity which does not

have a constant value in time but grows to a maximum value,
decreases, changes its direction, reaches a maximum value in the
new direction, returns to its original value and repeats this cycle an
indefinite number of times. The graphical representation of this
variation of an a.c., plotted as a function of time is called the
waveform of that current. Generally the period is represented by
„T“and measured in seconds. The reciprocal of this value „T“ is
called the frequency and is defined as the number of periods
occurring in the unit of time. We often express frequency in hertz or
cycles per second. A cycle is that complete series of changes which
takes place in one period of a periodically varying quantity.

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The choice of the frequency value of a power system is both a

technical and economic consideration. With the building of large
transmission systems, it has been necessary to standardize
frequencies. In Europe a frequency of 50 Hertz has been widely
adopted, whereas in most of America 60Herz is used.

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LECTURE 15

Terminology Revision Exercises

Translate into Croatian and English

Final Exam
Writing an essay:

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References

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Purposes, Školska knjiga, Zagreb 1993
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Exercises, with, Cambridge University Press 1955
10 Alexander L.G.: Practise and Progress, Longman Group llmited, 1978
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12 O’Connell, S.: Focus on Advanced English C.A.E., revised and
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14 About.com. A reference guide to commonly used English phrasal
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esl.about.com/.../aa011198.htm - Spremljeno u privremenu memoriju -
Slično
15 Basic English for Science; Oxford University Press, Walton Street,
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