Battery

Batteries are a collection of one or more cells whose chemical reactions create a flow of
electrons in a circuit. All batteries are made up of three basic components: an anode (the ‘-’
side), a cathode (the ‘+’ side), and some kind of electrolyte (a substance that chemically reacts
with the anode and cathode).
When the anode and cathode of a battery is connected to a circuit, a chemical reaction takes
place between the anode and the electrolyte. This reaction causes electrons to flow through the
circuit and back into the cathode where another chemical reaction takes place. When the material
in the cathode or anode is consumed or no longer able to be used in the reaction, the battery is
unable to produce electricity. At that point, your battery is “dead.”

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Batteries consist of one or more electrochemical cells that store chemical energy for later
conversion to electrical energy. Batteries are used in many day-to-day devices such as cellular
phones, laptop computers, clocks, and cars. Batteries are composed of at least one
electrochemical cell which is used for the storage and generation of electricity. Though a variety
of electrochemical cells exist, batteries generally consist of at least one voltaic cell. Voltaic cells
are also sometimes referred to as galvanic cells. Chemical reactions and the generation of
electrical energy is spontaneous within a voltaic cell, as opposed to the reactions electrolytic
cells and fuel cells.

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Primary Batteries
Primary batteries are non-rechargeable and disposable. The electrochemical reactions in these
batteries are non-reversible. The materials in the electrodes are completely utilized and therefore
cannot regenerate electricity. Primary batteries are often used when long periods of storage are
required, as they have a much lower discharge rate than secondary batteries.

Use of primary batteries is exemplified by smoke detectors, flashlights, and most remote
controls.

Secondary Batteries
Secondary batteries are rechargeable. These batteries undergo electrochemical reactions that can
be readily reversed. The chemical reactions that occur in secondary batteries are reversible
because the components that react are not completely used up. Rechargeable batteries need an
external electrical source to recharge them after they have expended their energy.
Use of secondary batteries is exemplified by car batteries and portable electronic devices.

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Type Energy Applications

Miniature Batteries 100 mWh-2 Electric watches, calculators, implanted

Wh medical devices (Mostly Primary Cells in
small Button Cellpackages)

Batteries for Portable 2 Wh-100 Wh Flashlights, toys, power tools, portable

Equipment radio and TV, mobile phones, camcorders,
lap-top computers, memory refreshing,
instruments, cordless devices, wireless
peripherals, emergency beacons (Mostly
Secondary Cellssuch as NiCad, NiMH and
Lithium Ion as well as some Alkaline
primary cells)

SLI Batteries 100-600 Wh Cars, trucks, buses, lawn mowers, wheel

(Starting Lighting & Ignition) chairs, robots (Mostly Lead Acid batteries)

Vehicle Traction Batteries 20 -630 kWh EVs, HEVs, PHEVs, fork lift trucks, milk
floats, locomotives (NiMH and Lithium)

Stationary Batteries 250 Wh-5 Emergency power, local energy

MWh storage,remote relay stations,
communication base stations,
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).
(MostlyLead Acid with Lithium recently
making some inroads)

Military & Aerospace Wide range Satellites, munitions, robots, emergency

power, communications (Fuel Cells,
Nickel Hydrogen, Water Activated
batteries and other Alternatives)
 Special Purpose 3 MWh Submarines (Mostly Lead Acid batteries)

Load Levelling Batteries 5-100 MWh Spinning reserve, peak shaving, load
levelling (Various Lead Acid and Lithium
plus Alternatives)

Fabrication of Flexible Materials for Battery Applications

New technologies and materials in batteries are leading to exciting new applications in
everything from tiny batteries in mobile phones, cameras, and micro-medical devices to larger
batteries in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and electric vehicles (EVs).

The complexity and power of these batteries require that an OEM or contract manufacturer work
with a knowledgeable materials expert, like Fabrico, for electrical insulation, electrical
conductivity, thermal management, EMC/EMI shielding and packaging and protection.

As manufacturers work with lithium-ion, nickel-cadmium, and other advanced battery

technologies, Fabrico can deliver the capabilities necessary to allow those batteries to perform at
optimal levels. Fabrico can select and convert materials that handle critical considerations, such
as:

● Heat removal/dissipation
● Electrical insulation

Electrical contact

● Protection form debris and environmental conditions

● Cushioning and vibration absorption

Selecting the right materials and applying advanced die-cutting, slitting, laminating and
assembly capabilities, plus product design, engineering, and prototyping allows Fabrico to meet
battery application requirements with innovative solutions.

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Battery for lifts

Intercel supplies closed maintenance-free lead batteries for elevated work platforms and scissor
lifts. A closed AGM battery for lifts is charged regularly in these applications and these batteries
are known as Deep Cycle batteries. Intercel supplies those in two versions- cyclical and heavy-
duty cyclical use. For cyclical use we recommend the Cellpower CPC series. The Cellpower
CPT series is particularly suitable for heavy-duty cyclical use.
Battery for data centre
Intercel supplies and installs the best AGM battery for data centres. The emergency-power
supply of a data centre is a critical component and is also known as a UPS (Uninterruptable
Power Supply). Servers simply have to be available at all times and may not stop working in the
event of a power cut. You can only guarantee this with a reliable battery system.

Battery for telephone exchange - Adjusted Front Access

Intercel has plenty of experience in advice on and supplying batteries for telecommunication
applications and has an extremely broad range. Intercel has included the Cellpower front-access /
FA batteries in its range, specifically for telecoms cabinets and small racks. This model is small
and has its connections at the top end.

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Batteries are galvanic cells, or a series of cells, that produce an electric current. When cells are
combined into batteries, the potential of the battery is an integer multiple of the potential of a
single cell. There are two basic types of batteries: primary and secondary. Primary batteries are
“single use” and cannot be recharged. Dry cells and (most) alkaline batteries are examples of
primary batteries. The second type is rechargeable and is called a secondary battery. Examples of
secondary batteries include nickel-cadmium (NiCd), lead acid, and lithium ion batteries. Fuel
cells are similar to batteries in that they generate an electrical current, but require continuous
addition of fuel and oxidizer. The hydrogen fuel cell uses hydrogen and oxygen from the air to
produce water, and is generally more efficient than internal combustion engines.
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Radioactivity
An atom is made up of three fundamental subatomic particles protons, neutrons and electrons.
Out of these three particles, protons and neutrons located at the center of the atom as a hard and
dense part known as nucleus. The rest of the part of atom contains negatively charged particles
called as electron which balance out the charge of the protons and make the atom electrically
neutral.
The total mass of an atom accumulate at the center of atom in the form of nucleus as the mass of
electrons is negligible. Hence, the sum of total number of protons and neutrons is called as mass
number.

There must be some nuclear force which maintains the existence of nucleus, because there is a
repulsion force between positively charged proton which are collected in a small region of
nucleus. If the number of proton is less in an atom, other forces can hold the protons together and
atom becomes stables. But as the ratio of protons to neutrons is increases, protons cannot be held
firmly together and hence form an unstable nucleus.
Radioactive isotope, also called radioisotope, radionuclide, or radioactive nuclide, any of several
species of the same chemical element with different masses whose nuclei are unstable and
dissipate excess energy by spontaneously emitting radiation in the form of alpha, beta, and
gamma rays.

Uses of Radioactivity
The radioactive elements used in many different fields. Like; in atomic energy, agriculture, in
different industries and in rock dating process.
1. Discovery of new elements particles - The study of radioactivity has led to the discovery
of new fundamental particles like neutrons, positrons, deuterons, alpha particles etc.
These particles are highly useful in causing artificial transmutation of elements and
adding to our knowledge of atomic structure.
2. Discovery of isotopes and isobars - The isotopes and isobars were first discovered in
radioactive series and were afterwards looked for amongst non-radioactive elements.
3. Discovery of new elements: The discovery of trans uranic elements of atomic numbers
higher than 92 not known to exist in nature. A large number of different radioactive
isotopes of known elements have been discovered by artificial means.
4. Release of atomic energy: Nuclear reactions like nuclear fusion and nuclear fission
release enormous amount of energy which can be used for different purpose.
5. Radioactive tracer: Many radioactive isotopes are used in tracing various processes in
surgery, medicine, biology, agriculture, industry and chemistry. In tracer technique a
radioactive isotope or its compound is introduced at one point of a system and its
movement is then trace by measuring radioactivity in different parts of the system. Such
isotopes are known as radioactive tracers. For example; Phosphate containing radioactive
isotope of phosphorus is used for patients suffering from bone fracture to check of the
phosphorus is being absorbed by the bone or not. Similarly the injection of radioactive
iodine Uptake is a test of thyroid function.

6. Rock dating and carbon dating: Radioactive isotope of carbon(C-14) is used to estimate
the age of earth and for the estimation of age of fossils. The half life for C-14 is around
5568 years.

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Radioactive isotope, also called radioisotope, radionuclide, or radioactive nuclide, any of several
species of the same chemical element with different masses whose nuclei are unstable and
dissipate excess energy by spontaneously emitting radiation in the form of alpha, beta, and
gamma rays.

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Application of Radioactivity

Tracers
Tracers are a common application of radioisotopes. A tracer is a radioactive element whose
pathway through which a chemical reaction can be followed. Tracers are commonly used in the
medical field and in the study of plants and animals. Radioactive Iodine-131 can be used to study
the function of the thyroid gland assisting in detecting disease.
Nuclear reactors
Nuclear reactors are devices that control fission reactions producing new substances from the
fission product and energy. Recall our discussion earlier about the fission process in the making
of a radioisotope. Nuclear power stations use uranium in fission reactions as a fuel to produce
energy. Steam is generated by the heat released during the fission process. It is this steam that
turns a turbine to produce electric energy.
-----------
Other uses of radioactivity
Sterilization of medical instruments and food is another common application of radiation. By
subjecting the instruments and food to concentrated beams of radiation, we can kill
microorganisms that cause contamination and disease. Because this is done with high energy
radiation sources using electromagnetic energy, there is no fear of residual radiation. Also, the
instruments and food may be handled without fear of radiation poisoning.

Radiation sources are extremely important to the manufacturing industries throughout the world.
They are commonly employed by nondestructive testing personnel to monitor materials and
processes in the making of the products we see and use every day. Trained technicians use
radiography to image materials and products much like a dentist uses radiation to x-ray your
teeth for cavities. There are many industrial applications that rely on radioactivity to assist in
determining if the material or product is internally sound and fit for its application.

In Medicine

Radioisotopes have found extensive use in diagnosis and therapy, and this has given rise to a
rapidly growing field called nuclear medicine. These radioactive isotopes have proven
particularly effective as tracers in certain diagnostic procedures. As radioisotopes are identical
chemically with stable isotopes of the same element, they can take the place of the latter in
physiological processes. Moreover, because of their radioactivity, they can be readily traced even
in minute quantities with such detection devices as gamma-ray spectrometers and proportional
counters. Though many radioisotopes are used as tracers, iodine-131, phosphorus-32, and
technetium-99m are among the most important. Physicians employ iodine-131 to determine
cardiac output, plasma volume, and fat metabolism and particularly to measure the activity of the
thyroid glandwhere this isotope accumulates. Phosphorus-32 is useful in the identification of
malignant tumours because cancerous cells tend to accumulate phosphates more than normal
cells do. Technetium-99m, used with radiographic scanning devices, is valuable for studying the
anatomic structure of organs.

Such radioisotopes as cobalt-60 and cesium-137 are widely used to treat cancer. They can be
administered selectively to malignant tumours and so minimize damage to adjacent healthy
tissue.
In Industry

Foremost among industrial applications is power generation based on the release of the fission
energy of uranium (see nuclear fission; nuclear reactor: Nuclear fission reactors). Other
applications include the use of radioisotopes to measure (and control) the thickness or density of
metal and plastic sheets, to stimulate the cross-linking of polymers, to induce mutations in plants
in order to develop hardier species, and to preserve certain kinds of foods by killing
microorganisms that cause spoilage. In tracer applications radioactive isotopes are employed, for
example, to measure the effectiveness of motor oils on the wearability of alloys for piston rings
and cylinder walls in automobile engines. For additional information about industrial uses, see
radiation: Applications in science and industry.

In Science

Research in the Earth sciences has benefited greatly from the use of radiometric-dating
techniques, which are based on the principle that a particular radioisotope (radioactive parent) in
geologic material decays at a constant known rate to daughter isotopes. Using such techniques,
investigators have been able to determine the ages of various rocks and rock formations and
thereby quantify the geologic time scale (seegeochronology: Absolute dating). A special
application of this type of radioactivity age method, carbon-14 dating, has proved especially
useful to physical anthropologists and archaeologists. It has helped them to better determine the
chronological sequence of past events by enabling them to date more accurately fossils and
artifacts from 500 to 50,000 years old.

Radioisotopic tracers are employed in environmental studies, as, for instance, those of water
pollution in rivers and lakes and of air pollutionby smokestack effluents. They also have been
used to measure deep-water currents in oceans and snow-water content in watersheds.
Researchers in the biological sciences, too, have made use of radioactive tracers to study
complex processes. For example, thousands of plant metabolic studies have been conducted on
amino acids and compounds of sulfur, phosphorus, and nitrogen.

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