CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the related literature and studies after the thorough

and in-depth search done by the researchers. This will also present the

synthesis of the art, theoretical and conceptual framework to fully

understand the research to be done and lastly the definition of terms for

better comprehension of the study.

History

Started by Jawed Karim, Steve Chen, and Chad Hurley, YouTube

first launched in 2005 and has now become one of the most visited

websites in the history of the internet. As employees of PayPal, the three

soon realized, in 2004, that there wasn't one location where videos could

be shared. Years later, Karim explained that it was the Janet Jackson

Super Bowl incident as well as the tsunami in December that triggered the

idea.

As a capital-funded startup, the idea for YouTube received an $11.5 million

investment from Sequoia Capital in 2005. In February, the domain name

was registered in the headquarters above a pizzeria in California. In April,

the first ever video was uploaded by Karim named 'Me at the Zoo'. After a

Beta testing period, the site launched in December 2005 and a Nike

commercial became the first video to receive one million views. After

extremely quick growth, Google acquired the company less than a year

later for around $1.65 billion. However, the site was still relatively small

compared to what we see today and it hadn't even reached the UK and
many other countries. In June 2007, the site eventually launched in the UK

as well as eight other countries. After more growth, HD videos were

introduced in December 2008 and there were more people now finding

different uses for the site. In 2009, big events occurred for YouTube

including the full launch of HD (now up to 1080p rather than just 720p),

one billion video views per day, and a partnership with Channel 4 meant

that they had catch-up TV for the first time. As mentioned previously, there

were also people finding different uses for the site and it was around this
time when gaming and vlogging channels started to gain interest. In 2010,

new types of ads were introduced and the site soon hit three billion daily

views mid-way through 2011. As audiences start to realize what can be

found on the site, many gamers and vloggers now had an opportunity to

earn a living simply by posting videos onto YouTube and receiving

revenue from ads and support. At the end of 2011, the whole site received

a huge overhaul. Around one year later, the first ever video to hit one

billion views was Psy's 'Gangnam Style' shortly after the site announced

four billion daily video views.

Since 2012, YouTube has gone from strength to strength and now finds

itself as a multi-billion dollar company. In terms of the site itself, it has

recently added live streaming, around 5 billion videos are watched each

day, over 1.3 billion people use the site, and 300 hours of video are

uploaded each and every minute. In the years ahead, the support for

YouTube is only going to get stronger and it has been predicted that

around half of all under-30s will not pay for a TV subscription because of

YouTube!

YouTube allows users to upload, view, rate, share, add to

playlists, report, comment on videos, and subscribe to other users. It

offers a wide variety of user-generated and corporate media videos.

Available content includes video clips, TV show clips, music videos, short

and documentary films, audio recordings, movie trailers, live streams, and

other content such as video blogging, short original videos, and

educational videos. Most content on YouTube is uploaded by individuals,

but media corporations including CBS, the BBC, Vevo, and Hulu offer

some of their material via YouTube as part of the YouTube partnership

program. Unregistered users can only watch videos on the site, while

registered users are permitted to upload an unlimited number of videos

and add comments to videos. Videos deemed potentially inappropriate are

available only to registered users affirming themselves to be at least 18

years old.

The Shifting Loyalties theory. Ads mirror changing loyalties.

Although ads create intense brand loyalty, they also prompt customers to

shift their loyalties and to disown their current loyalties for a relatively new

brand in the market. Studies show that the ads have changed a lot from

the 1950s to the 1960s. The presentation and message of most ads were

found to encompass the anti-authoritarian hippie-culture, which had

always been planned and distributed by huge corporations persuading the

status quo and capital interests.

The magic of the meaning theory. Advertisements carry a strong

message with a meaning instilled in them. Ads touch our values, emotions,

and the underlying beliefs. In 1962, a cultural theorist Raymond Williams

explained how advertising had swept the goal of selling goods and is more

associated with teaching social and personal values, which is promptly

entering politics too. Advertisements are organized magic’s that hide the

real intention of the selling house, which is to sell a product to make

profits.

The Imitative desire theory. Advertisements tend to act upon the

prospect’s mind. It’s been observed by some theorists that people usually

have the desire of becoming others, especially when the other person is

famous, beautiful or powerful. But the reality is it’s impossible for someone

to become like another. However, this impossibility keeps the desire alive
in all of us. The soul of the ritual is that people work in communities

through imaginative projection towards others.

The Hidden message theory. Certain ads misrepresent and

misguide the consumers. Packard declared that advertising is threatening

since it uses psychology to form emotionally loaded messages and as the

messages are hidden, the viewer’s critical resilience is dodged and

minimized. This approach clearly states how critical thinking of the

potential consumers can be manipulated with ads.

The Imitative desire theory. Advertisements tend to act upon the

prospect’s mind. It’s been observed by some theorists that people usually

have the desire of becoming others, especially when the other person is

famous, beautiful or powerful. But the reality is it’s impossible for someone

to become like another. However, this impossibility keeps the desire alive

in all of us. The soul of the ritual is that people work in communities

through imaginative projection towards others.

The Mediation of Reality theory. Advertisements are successful

when they are integrated with other media and environments in which they
are completely submerged. It is advocated that it is not the content of the

ad that makes them persuasive, but the incorporation of media to

amalgamate actions and fictions. The media defines the excitement and

addiction by expanding and strengthening neutral responses.

Propaganda Technique Being Used By Advertisers in Youtube

There are four types of Propaganda techniques that are being used for

advertising. The first one is bandwagon,The purpose of this technique is to

make the audience think and act in a way that the majority follows. This
tendency of following the beliefs and actions of others occurs when an

audience sees others are also conforming. We see its usage in literature,

politics, and advertisements. Bandwagon is in fact a good approach for

persuasive writing that successfully works on human minds and

psychology. Conversely, writers often use it as a pressure tactic by

creating a sense of fear among the readers if they do not agree with their

beliefs. It aims at persuading people to do a certain thing because many

other people are doing it. An example can be a soft drink advertisement

wherein a large group of people is shown drinking the same soft drink.

People feel induced to opt for that drink as it is shown to be consumed by

many. Snob appeal is the reverse of bandwagon. It indicates that buying a

certain product will make you stand out from the rest, as the masses won't

afford to buy it.

Card stacking is a propaganda technique that seeks to manipulate

audience perception of an issue by emphasizing one side and repressing

another. Such emphasis may be achieved through media bias or the use

of one-sided testimonials, or by simply censoring the voices of critics. The

technique is commonly used in persuasive speeches by political

candidates to discredit their opponents and to make themselves seem

more worthy. The term originates from the magician's gimmick of "stacking

the deck", which involves presenting a deck of cards that appears to have

been randomly shuffled but which is, in fact, 'stacked' in a specific order.

The magician knows the order and is able to control the outcome of the

trick. In poker, a deck can be stacked so that certain hands are dealt to

certain players. The phenomenon can be applied to any subject and has
wide applications. Whenever a broad spectrum of information exists,

appearances can be rigged by highlighting some facts and ignoring

others. Card stacking can be a tool of advocacy groups or of those groups

with specific agendas.

Plain folk, A plain folks argument is one in which the speaker

presents him or herself as a common person who can understand and

empathize with a listener's concerns. The most important part of this

appeal is the speaker's portrayal of themselves as someone who has had

a similar experience to the listener and knows why they may be skeptical

or cautious about accepting the speaker's point of view. In this way, the

speaker gives the audience a sense of trust and comfort, believing that the

speaker and the audience share common goals and that they thus should

agree with the speaker. Also using an "ordinary background," such as a

park or a building, depending on the item you are advertising, will usually

give it a higher possibility of more customers.

Testimonial propaganda, is an advertising technique wherein a

famous or seemingly authoritative person recommends a product or

service, and vouches for the value of the same. The popularity of the
person recommending the product (who is generally a celebrity/acclaimed

expert) is used for boosting the sales of that product, without addressing

the facts about the product itself. The reason behind this technique is to

make the target audience relate to the tastes, judgment, and opinion of the

one endorsing the product. In case of celebrity testimonials, the target

audience trusts the judgment and recommendation of the celebrity figure,

and feels that if the celebrity thinks the product is good, it actually will be

good. However, testimonials are not always about celebrities. Sometimes,

the testimonial propaganda technique uses experts on that subject, such

as doctors or engineers, to promote the product. The idea is to convince

the audience that since it is recommended by experts, it must be good.

Another kind of testimonial propaganda involves the promotion of a

product or service by the customers themselves, through reviews and

word-of-mouth. This is true especially in case of promotion of products on

a website, where previous customers write their own experiences of the

product for other potential customers to decide if they want to buy that

product or not. Potential customers tend to trust the judgment of other

customers who are just like them, a representative of a large portion of

buyers. Testimonial propaganda can be observed in politics too.

Celebrities and respected individuals can be used to support/badmouth a

particular political party or candidate. The idea is to help prospective

voters identify with a famous person, and trust his/her judgment. This is a

key tactic in earning the faith of prospective voters, and eventually their

votes.

The Purpose of Advertising

Advertising has 6 basic purposes of creating advertisements.

(Awareness, Reminder to use, Changing belief about the brand, To

assist salesmen in marketing products, generating direct ales and

building the company's image)

Advertisements create awareness, One of the most widely accepted

purpose of advertisements is to increase the recognition of a brand name

or product, or to communicate information about the availability of the

product to the public. This is an important objective from many point of

view. First, when a new product enters the market, it does not easily gain
the favor of the buyers unless they are well informed about it. That is, an

awareness about the product must exist before a favorable attitude toward

the brand can be developed. An awareness about the brand is all the

more important when several brands compete with each other.

Reminding buyers to use the product, For discretionary items having an

irregular or unusual pattern, an appropriate advertising policy must aim at

stimulating the primary demand. To attain this objective, the buyers must

be reminded not only to use the product but also to restock it.

Advertising to change belief about brand, If an attribute is already

considered important, buyer will examine the relative strength of different

brands with respect to that attribute. Accordingly, the purposes of

advertisements are to improve the buyer’s rating with regard to the

product advertised vis-a-vis the other competing brands. When the

attribute of a product is not peculiar, advertisements are floated to

establish the superiority of product over other competing brands.

General purpose of an advertisement is to market a product, The

manufacturer extensively use advertisement for this purpose. Through

advertisement, they try to familiarize the customers with their products and

tend to promote a favorable attitude toward them before buyers are

approached by salesman. That is why, when a salesman approaches a

customer, it is relatively easy for him to sell the product. For example,

companies producing machine tools advertise their goods in those trade

magazines which are read by their customers. Such advertisements may

induce potential customers to purchase the product. At any rate, they

create a favorable attitude toward the product so that the salesman may
find it easy to canvass support for it. Some companies assist retailers in

arranging window displays and store decorations. This serves a dual

purpose: it creates consumer interest and facilitates a favorable reception

of the product by the retailer.

Advertisement as a tool to promote direct sales, In some cases,

advertising is used for the purpose of persuading the customer to place an

order for the product. Mail order houses through leaflets and catalogs,

advertise their products in such a manner that customers are convinced of

their value and are tempted to write to the institution to get the product

without going to a shopping mall or without going into further details about

the product. Products like books, ready-to-wear garments, slimming

machines, toys and sports goods can be profitably sold by direct mail

advertisements. Through such advertisements, the company lays stress

on price appeal, and uses such slogans as “direct from factory to you.”

Advertisements build company's image, The general purpose of

advertisements is to build a company’s image. Practically all companies

try to build their image through advertisements. Some consider it as the

primary objective of advertisement. For example, Godrej, Lakme, Vimal,

VIP have built up an image through advertisement. It is largely assumed

that if the company has some image or reputation in the market, it will be

easy to sell its product. For example, Vimal’s clothing is very costly; yet it

has good sales because of its image.

Common themes of advertisers

Modern Commercial

Modern commercial advertising strips many cultural customs of all

purpose except to sell and make profit. This creates a consumer culture,

culture is based on material objects and the process of purchasing them.

America has a long and complicated history with commercial advertising

and marketing, one which has created a materialistic obsession with both

brand name products and purchasing. Companies have cheapened

holidays and turned them into nothing more than a marketing vehicle to

sell their products. These examples highlight some of the major problems

commercial product advertising has created within society. To successfully

sell a product, a company must appeal to society 's wants and desires

through marketing campaigns. For the most part, this requires a great deal

of both manipulation, and subtle subconscious hints. The simpler

advertisements are often applied to straightforward products meant to

improve one 's life or make it easier.

Humorous Commercial

A study from 1993 that still stands up today by the Journal of

Marketing found that when looking at the effects of humor in advertising,

“humor is more likely to enhance recall, evaluation, and purchase intention

when the humorous message coincides with ad objectives, is well-

integrated with those objectives, and is viewed as appropriate for the

product category. Under such circumstances, humorous advertising is

more likely to secure audience attention, increase memorability, overcome

sales resistance, and enhance message persuasiveness.” Humor in

advertising can help connect consumers to a product that may seem dry

or be a niche product on paper. For example, a company selling organic

and natural beauty products may only be of interest to a subset of our

society. But with a creative, funny and viral product campaign, it can at

least increase brand awareness as consumers share the ad with friends.

The ad is more likely to make its way to the specific subset, or even grow

the market base. At the same time, companies have to be careful in

how they use humor in advertising and in campaigns.

Pastiche

A pastiche is any work of art that imitates the style of another artist

or artists. Pastiches are not meant to ridicule the original style in the way

that a parody does; instead, a pastiche respects the original style and

often pays some homage to it. In literature, a pastiche usually is a light-

hearted imitation that is jocular while celebrating the original. Therefore, a

pastiche is always an example of intertextuality, because the text cannot

occur without the original that is being imitated. Some examples of

pastiche do not rely on only one source, but instead mimic many different

sources in the same work of literature. The word pastiche comes first from

the Italian word pasticcio, which later became pastiche in French, and

refers to a pie or pâté with a mix of diverse ingredients. The definition of

pastiche took on a figurative meaning when it began to refer to works

created by more than one artist, or works that incorporate styles from

more than just the primary author.

Controversial

Controversial advertising doesn’t aim to polarize an audience. It’s

an attention-grabbing technique for stating an opinion, and brands use it to

spark productive conversations about certain moral values. In recent

years, any stance taken on sensitive social issues can be considered

controversial advertising. Controversial marketing is a high risk, high

reward strategy. Traditionally it is done using shock advertising, a.k.a

shockvertising. Billboards and ads on mainstream media was the standard

pre-internet era. Marketers will put up highly controversial subjects on

them both to get people looking, and talking.With internet marketing being

the new thing in town, marketers now find themselves having control over

a much wider variety of communication medium. Facebook, Reddit,

YouTube comment section, you name it. They’re free and can be done

anonymously. All while having the same perks of influencing people’s

perception.The rewards can be great: high virality ensures a large-scale

spread of coverage in a very short time, with commentators and

commenters all looking to weigh in on the issue and share their thoughts

(and your marketing in the process).It generates a huge amount of debate

and engagement in the brand, but you have to tread a fine line. One

wrong foot can cause serious and lasting damage to the brand. In some

cases, it can even put you at risk of legal action.

YouTube as means for advertising

YouTube is used to promote a product or used in for educational, comedy,

gaming, vlog, and documentary. Now they come up that make a short or

15 - 30 seconds video that will promote or for educational, comedy,

gaming, vlog, and documentary so that many people can see now so that

they not only seeing patronizing a product they will now see about the

educational, comedy, gaming, vlog, and documentary. There are benfits in

using youtube for advertising which consists of (Connecting with your

audience, Reach just the right audience, Create a video campaign in only
a few minutes and mesaure your success). Video ads can help you

connect with potential customers in a unique and memorable way. You

can be personal, share your expertise with the world, or put the camera on

yourself and explain how your product or service can benefit your

audience. Show people why they should care about your product or brand.

Reach your customers on YouTube by topics, keywords, or demographics,

like "women under 35." Youtube and the Display network offers a variety of

ways to reach particular audiences. The different varieties are (Keyword

contextual targeting, demographics, Topics affinity audiences, custom

affinity audiences, in-market audicnes, remarketing).

Keyword contextual targeting

To use keywords that will help match your ads to web content. This

works just like contextual targeting on the Display Network, and applies to

both the Display Network and YouTube.

Demographic

Reach people by age,gender, or parental status.

Topcis

Reach people based on certain or specific topics.

Affinity audiences

Able to select from interest-based groups to reach potential

customers at scale and make them aware of your business. These

audiences were built for businesses running a TV ad that want to extend

the campaign to an online context at an efficient price.

Custom affinity audiences

Advertisers can create audiences that re more tailored to their

brands, compared with broad, TV-like audiences. For example, rather than

reaching sports fans, a running shoe company might target avid marathon

runners.

In-market audiences

Find cusomters who are researching products or services and

actively considering buying something like what you offer.

Remarketing

Reach viewers based on their past interactions with your videos or

YouTube channel.

YouTube's unique combination of video access, sharing, and community

creates an unmatched opportunity for audience engagement. Sight,

sound, and motion can elicit emotional inolvement with content that you

don't get with other forms of media. On YouTube, viewers can discover
videos in various ways, for example, by searching on the YouTube search

page, clicking suggest bideos on the watch page, or choosing a video

from the homepage feed. This means you can more effectively find people

who are searching for you and your brand across YouTube.