Concepts and definitions- Lecture 2

• Today’s Objectives: In-Class Activities:

Students will be able to: • Applications
• Examples
• Basic thermodynamics
definitions
• Types of thermodynamics
• Basic dimensions and units Time of study: 10 hours
• Thermodynamics systems 2 hours classes
2 hours tutorials
6 hours study time
 Objectives
Identify the unique vocabulary associated with
thermodynamics through the precise definition of basic
concepts to form a sound foundation for the development of
the principles of thermodynamics.
• Review the metric SI and the English unit systems that will
be used throughout the text.
• Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics such
as system, state, state postulate, equilibrium, process,
and cycle.
 Thermodynamics and energy
Thermodynamics: The science of energy.
Energy: The ability to cause changes.
The name thermodynamics stems from the
Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis
(power).
Conservation of energy principle: During an
interaction, energy can change from one
form to another but the total amount of
energy remains constant. Energy cannot be
created or destroyed;
it can only change
Energy cannot be created or destroyed. forms (the first law).
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 Type of thermodynamics
Classical thermodynamics is a macroscopic approach to the
study of thermodynamics that does not require a knowledge
of the behavior of individual particles.
It provides a direct and easy way to the solution of
engineering problems.

A more elaborate approach, based on the average behavior of

large groups of individual particles, is called statistical
thermodynamics. This microscopic approach is rather
involved and is used in this text only in the supporting role..
 Thermodynamic system
In thermodynamics the term system is used to identify
the subject of the analysis. Once the system is defined
and the relevant interactions with other systems are
identified, one or more physical laws or relations are
applied.
The system is whatever we want to study. It may be as
simple as a free body or as complex as an entire
chemical refinery. We may want to study a quantity of
matter contained within a closed, rigid-walled tank.
 Thermodynamic system II
Everything external to the system is considered to be part
of the system’s surroundings. The system is distinguished
from its surroundings by a specified boundary, which may
be at rest or in motion.

You will see that the interactions between a system and its
surroundings, which take place across the boundary, play an
important part in engineering thermodynamics.
 Type of systems
Two basic kinds of systems are distinguished. These are referred
to, respectively, as closed systems and control volumes.
A closed system refers to a fixed quantity of matter,
whereas a control volume is a region of space through which
mass may flow

A closed system is defined when a particular quantity of

matter is under study. A closed system always contains the
same matter.
 Systems and control volume
• System: A quantity of matter or a region in
space chosen for study.
Surroundings: The mass or region outside the
system
• Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that
separates the system from its surroundings.

• Closed system (Control mass):

A fixed amount of mass, and
no mass can cross its
boundary.
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 Systems and control volume I
• Open system (control volume): A properly
selected region in space.
• It usually encloses a device that involves
mass flow such as a compressor, turbine,
or nozzle.
• Both mass and energy can cross the
boundary of a control volume.
• Control surface: The boundaries of a
An open system (a control volume. It can be real or imaginary.
control volume) with one 9
inlet and one exit.
Control volume and control mass I
When the valves are closed, we can
consider the gas to be a closed system. The
boundary lies just inside the piston and
cylinder walls, as shown by the dashed lines
on
Thethe figure.
portion of the boundary between the gas
and the piston moves with the piston. No mass
would cross this or any other part of the
boundary.
control volume . Mass may cross the boundary of a control
volume.
Control volume and control mass III
The term control mass is sometimes used in place of closed
system, and the term open system is used interchangeably
with control volume.
When the terms control mass and control volume are used,
the system boundary is often referred to as a control surface.

In general, the choice of system boundary is governed by

two considerations:
(1) what is known about a possible system, particularly at its
boundaries, and (2) the objective of the analysis
Isolated system

An isolated system is one that is not influenced in any way

by the surroundings. This means that no mass, heat, or work
cross the boundary of the system
 Properties of a system

Any characteristics of a systems is called a property.

Some familiar properties are pressure P, Temperature T,

volume V, and mass, . The list can be extended to include less
familiar ones such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus
of elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, electric resistivity,
and even velocity and elevation.
 Properties of a system – Intensive & Extensive
I
• Property: Any characteristic
of a system.
• Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T,
volume V, and mass m.
• Specific properties:
Extensive properties per unit
mass.
 States and processes II
The word state refers to the condition of a system as
described by its properties.

Since there are normally relations among the properties of a

system, the state often can be specified by providing the
values of a subset of the properties.

All other properties can be determined in terms of these few.

 States and processes III
When any of the properties of a system change, the state
changes and the system is said to have undergone a process.

A process is a transformation from one state to another.

However, if a system exhibits the same values of its

properties at two different times, it is in the same state at
these times.

A system is said to be at steady state if none of its properties

 Thermodynamic cycle
A thermodynamic cycle is a sequence of processes that
begins and ends at the same state.
At the conclusion of a cycle all properties have the same
values they had at the beginning.
Consequently, over the cycle the system experiences no net
change of state.
Cycles that are repeated periodically play prominent roles in
many areas of application. For example, steam circulating
through an electrical power plant executes a cycle.
 Phase and pure substance
The term phase refers to a quantity of matter that is
homogeneous throughout in both chemical composition and
physical structure.

A pure substance is one that is uniform and invariable in

chemical composition. A pure substance can exist in more
than one phase, but its chemical composition must be the
same in each phase.
 Equilibrium
The concept of equilibrium is fundamental. In mechanics,
equilibrium means a condition of balance maintained by an
equality of opposing forces.
In thermodynamics, the concept is more far-reaching,
including not only a balance of forces but also a balance of
other influences. Each kind of influence refers to a particular
aspect of thermodynamic, or complete, equilibrium.
Accordingly, several types of equilibrium must exist
individually to fulfill the condition of complete equilibrium;
among these are mechanical, thermal, phase, and chemical
 State and Equilibrium
• Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium
states.
• Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature
is the same throughout the entire system.
• Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no A system at two different states.
change in pressure at any point of the
system with time.
• Phase equilibrium: If a system involves
two phases and when the mass of each
phase reaches an equilibrium level and
A closed system reaching thermal
stays there. equilibrium.
 The state postulate
• The number of properties required to fix
the state of a system is given by the state
postulate:
• The state of a simple compressible
system is completely specified by two
independent, intensive properties.
• Simple compressible system: If a system
involves no electrical, magnetic,
gravitational, motion, and surface tension The state of nitrogen is
effects. fixed by two
independent, intensive
 Processes and cycles II
• Process diagrams plotted by
employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
• Some common properties that are
used as coordinates are temperature T,
pressure P, and volume V (or specific
volume v).
• The prefix iso- is often used to
designate a process for which a
particularproperty remains constant.
 Actual and Quasiequilibrium processes
Processes are sometimes modeled as an idealized type of
process called a quasiequilibrium (or quasistatic) process.
A quasiequilibrium process is one in which the departure
from thermodynamic equilibrium is at most infinitesimal. All
states through which the system passes in a quasiequilibrium
process may be considered equilibrium states.
Because nonequilibrium effects are inevitably present during
actual processes, systems of engineering interest can at best
approach, but never realize, a quasiequilibrium process.
 Processes and cycles III
• Isothermal process: A process during
which the temperature T remains
constant.
• Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains constant.
• Isochoric (or isometric) process: A
process during which the specific
volume v remains constant.
• Cycle: A process during which the
initial and final states are identical.
The P-V diagram of a
compression process.
 Steady flow process I
• The term steady implies no change
with time. The opposite of steady is
unsteady, or transient.
• A large number of engineering devices
operate for long periods of time under
the same conditions, and they are
classified as steady-flow devices.
• Steady-flow process: A process
during which a fluid flows through a
control volume steadily.
During a steady-flow process, fluid
properties within the control
volume may change with position
but not with time.
 Steady flow process II
That is, the fluid properties can change
from point to point within the control
volume, but at any fixed point they
remain the same during the entire
process.
• Steady-flow conditions can be closely
approximated by devices that are
intended for continuous operation such
Under steady-flow
as turbines, pumps, boilers,
conditions, the mass and
condensers, and heat exchangers or
energy contents of a
power plants or refrigeration systems.
control volume remain
 Importance of Units and Measurements
Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and
temperature T are selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity V, energy E, and
volume V are expressed in terms of the primary dimensions
and are called secondary dimensions, or derived dimensions.
Metric SI system: A simple and logical system based on a
decimal relationship between the various units. English
system: It has no apparent systematic numerical base, and
various units in this system are related to each other rather
arbitrarily.
Importance of Units and Measurements
When engineering calculations are
performed, it is necessary to be concerned
with the units of the physical quantities
involved.
A unit is any specified amount of a quantity
by comparison with which any other
quantity of the same kind is measured.
For example, meters, centimeters,
kilometers, feet, inches, and miles are all
units of length. Seconds, minutes, and
hours are alternative time units
Additional Standard prefixes in SI units
Multiple Prefix
Multiple Prefix
-15
10 24
yotta, Y 10 femto, f
-18
10 21
zetta, Z 10 atto, a
18 -21 zepto, z
10 exa, E 10
15 -24 yocto, y
10 peta, P 10
 Some SI and English Units

Work = Force × Distance

The SI unit prefixes are used in all
1 J = 1 N·m
branches of engineering.
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

The definition of the force

 Summary

In this chapter, we have introduced some of the

fundamental concepts and definitions used in the study of
thermodynamics.

The principles of thermodynamics are applied by engineers

to analyze and design a wide variety of devices intended
to meet human needs.
SI Unit Summary I
SI Unit Summary II
SI Unit Summary III