Similitude and Dimensional Analysis I

Hydromechanics VVR090

Motivation

Often difficult to solve fluid flow problems by analytical or

numerical methods. Also, data are required for validation.

The need for experiments

Difficult to do experiment at the true size (prototype),

so they are typically carried out at another scale
(model).

Develop rules for design of experiments and

interpretation of measurement results.

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 Fields of Application

• aerodynamics
• naval architecture
• flow machinery (pumps, turbines)
• hydraulic structures
• rivers, estuaries
• sediment transport

To solve practical problems, derive general

relationships, obtain data for comparison with
mathematical models.

Example of Model Experiments

Wind-tunnel Towing tank

Spillway design
Sediment transport
facility

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 Model Experiments in Hydraulics I

Construction of model

Model Experiments in Hydraulics II

Model of dam with spillways

Discharge at
model spillway

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 Model Experiments in Hydraulics III

Traryd hydropower station

Model gates

Model Experiments in Hydraulics IV

surge chamber

pump intake

Hydraulic arrangements

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 Model Experiments in Hydraulics V

Lule Älv

Lilla Edet
Water power plants

Lule Älv

Terminology

Similitude: how to carry out model tests and how to transfer

model results to protype (laws of similarity)

Dimensional analysis: how to describe physical relationships in

an efficient, general way so that the extent of necessary
experiments is minimized (Buckingham’s P-theorem)

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 Example: Drag Force on an Submerged Body

Drag force (D) depends on:

• diameter (d)
• velocity (V)
• viscosity (m)
• density (ρ)

D = f ( d , V , μ, ρ )

D ⎛ Vd ρ ⎞
Dimensional analysis: = f⎜ ⎟ = f (Re)
ρV d
2 2
⎝ μ ⎠

Basic Types of Similitude

• geometric
• kinematic
• dynamic

All of these must be obtained for complete similarity

between model and prototype.

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 Geometric Similarity

Ratios between corresponding lengths in model and

prototype should be the same.

dp lp
= =λ
dm lm

2 2
Ap ⎛d ⎞ ⎛l ⎞
= ⎜ p ⎟ = ⎜ p ⎟ = λ2
Am ⎝ d m ⎠ ⎝ lm ⎠

Kinematic Similarity

Flow field in prototype and model have the same shape and
the ratios of corresponding velocities and accelerations are
the same.
V1 p V2 p a1 p a2 p
= , =
V1m V2 m a1m a2 m

Geometrically similar streamlines are kinematically similar.

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 Dynamic Similarity

To ensure geometric and kinematic similarity, dynamic

similarity must also be fulfilled.
Ratio between forces in prototype and model must be
constant:

F1 p F2 p F3 p M pap
= = = (vector relationships)
F1m F2 m F3m M m am

Also, Newton’s second law:

F1 p + F2 p + F3 p = M p a p
F1m + F2 m + F3m = M m am

Important Forces for the Flow Field

• pressure (FP)
• inertia (FI)
• gravity (FG)
• viscosity (FV)
• elasticity (FE)
• surface tension (FT)

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 Parameterization of Forces

FP = ΔpA = Δpl 2
V2
FI = Ma = ρl 3 = ρV 2 l 2
l
FG = Mg = ρl g
3

dV V
FV = μ A = μ l 2 = μVl
dy l
FT = σl
FE = EA = El 2

dV
(convective acceleration: V )
dx

Dynamic similarity: corresponding force ratios the same in

prototype and model

⎛ FI ⎞ ⎛ FI ⎞ ⎛ ρV 2 ⎞ ⎛ ρ V 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = = ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟
⎝ FP ⎠ p ⎝ FP ⎠ m ⎝ Δp ⎠ p ⎝ Δp ⎠ m
⎛ FI ⎞ ⎛ FI ⎞ ⎛ Vlρ ⎞ ⎛ Vlρ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟
⎝ FV ⎠ p ⎝ FV ⎠ m ⎝ μ ⎠ p ⎝ μ ⎠ m
⎛ FI ⎞ ⎛ FI ⎞ ⎛ V 2 ⎞ ⎛ Vlρ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟
⎝ FG ⎠ p ⎝ FG ⎠ m ⎝ gl ⎠ p ⎝ μ ⎠ m
⎛ FI ⎞ ⎛ FI ⎞ ⎛ ρV 2 ⎞ ⎛ ρV 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = = ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟
⎝ FE ⎠ p ⎝ FE ⎠ m ⎝ E ⎠ p ⎝ E ⎠ m
⎛ FI ⎞ ⎛ FI ⎞ ⎛ ρlV 2 ⎞ ⎛ ρlV 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = = ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟
⎝ FT ⎠ p ⎝ FT ⎠ m ⎝ σ ⎠ p ⎝ σ ⎠ m

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 Dimensionless Numbers

Vl Vl
• Reynolds Re = =
μ/ρ ν
V
• Froude Fr =
gl
V2 V2
• Cauchy (Mach) C= = 2 = M2
E /ρ c
ρlV 2
• Weber W=
σ
ρ
• Euler E =V
2 Δp

Dimensionless numbers same in prototype and model

produces dynamic similarity.

Only four numbers are independent (fifth equation from

Newton’s second law).

In most cases it is not necessary to ensure that four numbers

are the same since:

• all forces do not act

• some forces are of negligable magnitude
• forces may counteract each other to reduce their effect

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 Reynolds Similarity I

Low-speed flow around air foil (incompressible flow)

⎛ Vl ⎞ ⎛ Vl ⎞ Osborne Reynolds
⎜ ⎟ = Re p = Re m = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ν ⎠p ⎝ ν ⎠m

(also geometric similarity)

Same Re number yields same relative drag force:

⎛ D ⎞ ⎛ D ⎞
⎜ ρV 2l 2 ⎟ = ⎜ ρV 2l 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠p ⎝ ⎠m

Reynolds Similarity II

Flow through a contraction (incompressible flow)

⎛ Vl ⎞ ⎛ Vl ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = Re p = Re m = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ν ⎠p ⎝ ν ⎠m

(also geometric similarity)

Same Euler number yields same relative pressure drop:

⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎛ Δp ⎞
⎜ ρV 2 ⎟ = ⎜ ρV 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠p ⎝ ⎠m

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 Froude Similarity I

Flow around a ship (free surface flow)

William Froude

⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ V ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = Frp = Frm = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ gl ⎠ p ⎝ gl ⎠ m

(frictional effects neglected)

Same Re number yields same relative drag force:

⎛ D ⎞ ⎛ D ⎞
⎜ ρV 2l 2 ⎟ = ⎜ ρV 2l 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠p ⎝ ⎠m

Froude Similarity II

Flow around a ship, including friction

⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ V ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = Frp = Frm = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ gl ⎠ p ⎝ gl ⎠ m

⎛ Vl ⎞ ⎛ Vl ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = Re p = Re m = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ν ⎠p ⎝ ν ⎠m

3/ 2
Fulfill both: νp ⎛ lp ⎞ (typically not
=⎜ ⎟
ν m ⎝ lm ⎠ possible)

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 Reynolds Modeling Rules

Same viscosity in prototype and model

Vp lm
Re p = Re m → = = λ −1
Vm lp

Vp lp / tp tp
= → = λ2
Vm lm / tm tm

Similarly:

Qp l 3p / t p 1
= = λ3 =λ
Qm 3
l / tm
m λ2

Froude Modeling Rules

Same acceleration due to gravity

1/ 2
⎛ lp ⎞
Vp
Frp = Frm → =⎜ ⎟ = λ1/ 2
Vm ⎝ lm ⎠

Vp lp / tp tp
= → = λ1/ 2
Vm lm / tm tm

Similarly:

Qp l p3 / t p 1
= = λ3 = λ 5/ 2
λ
3
Qm l / tm
m

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 Summary of Different Model Rules

Distorted Scale

The vertical and horizontal scale is different (e.g., model of

an estuary, bay, lagoon).

lp yp
= λh , = λv
lm ym
1/ 2
Vp ⎛ yp ⎞
Froude rule: =⎜ ⎟ = λ1/v 2
Vm ⎝ ym ⎠

Vp lp / tp tp Vml p λh
= → = =
Vm lm / tm tm V p lm λv

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 Movable-Bed Models

Model sediment transport and the effect on bed change:

• General river morphology
• River training
• Flood plain development
• Bridge pier location and design
• Local scour
• Pipeline crossings

Additional problem besides similarity for the flow

motion is the similarity for the sediment transport
and the interaction between flow and sediment.

Sediment Transport

Interaction between fluid flow (water or air) and its loose

boundaries.
Strong interaction between the flow and its boundaries.

Professor H.A. Einstein: ”my father had an early interest in

sediment transport and river mechanics, but after careful
thought opted for the simpler aspects of physics”

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 Movable-Bed Experiment (USDA)

Gravel

Cohesive
material

Important Features of Sediment Transport

• initiation of motion
• bed features
• transport mode
• transport magnitude
• slope stability

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