Surfaces, Tribology,

Dimensional Characteristics,
UDo - FGI

Inspection
and Product Quality Assurance
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Tribology
• “Tribology”:
- Science of friction, wear, and lubrication (which are
surface-related phenomena)
- Tribo means rubbing or attrition.

• Surface properties are often different from the bulk

properties of a material (because of various mechanical,
physical, thermal, and chemical effects induced by its
processing history).
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Surface Structure and Properties

• Thickness of individual layers depends on processing
conditions and environment.
• During processing residual stresses may develop due to:
1. non-uniform surface deformation
2. severe temperature gradients
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Surface Structure and Properties

Surface integrity
• Surface integrity describes the geometric (topological)
features, mechanical and metallurgical properties of
surfaces.

• Defects can be caused by:

1. defects in the original material
2. method by which the surface is produced
3. lack of proper control of process parameters
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Surface Texture and Roughness

• “Periodic and/or random deviation of the actual
(measured) surface from the nominal (desired/designed)
surface” [ANSI]
• All surfaces have their own set of characteristics
(surface texture).
• Some guidelines for identifying surface texture:
1. Flaws, or defects,
2. Lay, or directionality
3. Waviness
4. Roughness
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Surface Texture and Roughness

• Total profile = superposition of waviness profile and

roughness profile
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Surface Texture and Roughness

• Roughness (microscopic topology):
made up of small undulations (wavelengths) on a surface inherent to
the process used to produce the surface
<Ex> feed marks in turning
• Waviness (macroscopic topology):
large wavelength undulations on a surface typically produced by low
frequency vibrations, deflections of tool or workpiece, geometric
errors in machine tool, etc.
• Lay (directionality):
direction of predominant surface pattern on the surface; often
inherent characteristic of the process used to produce the surface
• Flaws:
large, random defects on a surface <Ex> cracks, pits, holes, etc.
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Surface Texture and Roughness

Surface roughness
• Arithmetic mean value (Ra)
y a + yb + y c +  + y n 1 n
l
1
Ra = =  yi =  y dx
n n i =1 l0
• Root-mean-square average (Rq)
1/ 2
y + y + y ++ y
2 2 2 2
1 n 1 2 
l
Rq = a b c
=
n
 yi =   y dx
2

n n i =1 l 0 
• Maximum peak-to-valley height (Rt) = Rp + Rv
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Surface Texture and Roughness

Symbols for surface roughness
• Symbols used to specify only the roughness, waviness,
and lay, not flaw.
Measuring surface roughness
• Surface profilometers used to measure and record
surface roughness.
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Tribology: Friction, Wear

and Lubrication - Friction
• Friction is defined as the resistance to relative sliding
between two contacting bodies under load.
Mechanism 1 : Adhesion theory of friction
• Based on the observation that two clean, dry surfaces,
in contact at only small area of contact.
• This bond involves atomic interactions, mutual solubility,
and diffusion.
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Tribology: Friction, Wear

and Lubrication - Friction
Coefficient of friction F : frictional force
N : normal force
• Coefficient of friction at the interface is
 : shear strength of junction
F Ar   (surface property)
= = = =  : normal stress of junction
N Ar  Hardness of the softer surface (bulk property)

• Relationship between F and N is as the following graph.

A : apparent area of contact

Ar : real area of contact
(asperity contact)
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Tribology: Friction, Wear

and Lubrication - Friction
Coefficient of friction
• Friction factor, or shear factor, m, is defined as
i where τi = shear strength of the interface
m=
k k = shear yield stress of the softer material in a sliding pair

• Different processes need different coefficient friction

factors.
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Tribology: Friction, Wear

and Lubrication - Friction
Mechanism 2 : Abrasion theory of friction
• Plowing is when a hard body slides over a soft body
where it will scratch and produce grooves on the lower
surface.
• Involves 2 mechanisms:
1. Surface is deformed plastically.
2. Generates a chip or sliver from the softer body.

Mechanism 3 : Mechanical interlocking

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Tribology: Friction, Wear

and Lubrication - Friction
Measuring friction
• Ring compression test:
➢ Good lubrication: both the inner and outer diameters
increase as the specimen is compressed.
➢ Poor lubrication: friction is high and inner diameter
decreases.
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Tribology: Friction, Wear

and Lubrication - Friction
How to reduce friction?
• Use a high-hardness, low-shear material
F Ar  
= = = =
N Ar  Hardness of the softer surface

• Use lubricants
- Solid-type : graphite, MoS2, PTFE(Teflon)
- Liquid-type : oil, grease
• Ultrasonic vibration (> 20 kHz)
 Example 4.1
Determining the coefficient of friction
In a ring compression test, a specimen 10 mm in height with outside diameter of
30 mm and inside diameter of 15 mm is reduced in thickness by 50%. Determine
the coefficient of friction and the friction factor if the outer diameter (OD)
after deformation is 39 mm.

Solution
From constant volume constancy,
 
Volume =
4
(30 2
)
− 152 10 =
4
(39 2
)
− ID 2 5  ID = 13 mm

Thus, 15 − 13
Change in ID =  100% = 13%(decrease)
15
For a 50% reduction in height and a 13% reduction in ID,
 = 0.09 and m = 0.4
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Wear
• Wear is the undesired progressive removal of material
from a surface.
• Affects the manufacturing process, size and quality of
the parts produced.
• It will change the surface
topography and result in
severe surface damage.
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Wear
Mechanism 1 : Adhesive wear
• Defined as when applying tangential force, shearing of
the junctions takes place at the original interface of the
two bodies or along a path at the interface.

• Archard’s wear law states that

where V = volume of material removed
LW
V =k k = wear coefficient
L = length of travel
3p W = normal load
p = indentation hardness of softer body
 Example 4.2
Adhesive wear in sliding
The end of a rod made of 60-40 brass is sliding over the unlubricated surface of
hardened tool steel with a load of 90.72 kg. The hardness of brass is 120 HB.
What is the distance travelled to produce a wear volume of 1.64e-8 m3 by adhesive
wear of the brass rod?

Solution
The distance travelled is

(3)(1.64e −8 )(1.2e8 )
L= = 65 m
(10 )(90.72)
−3
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Wear
Mechanism 2 : Abrasive wear
• Abrasive wear is caused by a hard and rough surface
sliding against another.
• Removes particles by producing slivers resulting in
grooves on the softer surface.
• Abrasive wear resistance of pure metals and ceramics is
directly proportional to their hardness.
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Wear
Mechanism 3 : Corrosive wear
• Corrosive wear or oxidation is caused by chemical
reactions between surfaces and environment.

Mechanism 4 : Fatigue wear

• Fatigue wear is caused by surfaces subjected to cyclic
loading.
• Reduced by (a) lowering contact stresses, (b) reducing
thermal cycling and (c) improving the quality of
materials.
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Lubrication
• The interface is subjected to a wide range of variables:
1. Contact pressure
2. Speed
3. Temperature
• When two surfaces slide against each other under
high pressure, speed, and/or temperature, friction
and wear will be high.
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Lubrication
Lubrication regimes
• 4 regimes of lubrication:
1. Thick film
2. Thin film
3. Mixed
4. Boundary lubrication
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Metalworking fluids
• Functions of metalworking fluids:
1. Reduce friction
2. Reduce wear, seizure, and galling
3. Improve material flow
4. Act as a thermal barrier
5. Act as a release or parting agent

• Metalworking fluids includes oils, emulsion, synthetic

solutions, soaps, greases and waxes.
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Surface Treatments, Coatings

and Cleaning

• Surface treatments are necessary to:

1. Improve resistance to wear, erosion, and indentation
2. Control friction
3. Reduce adhesion
4. Improve lubrication
5. Improve resistance to corrosion and oxidation
6. Improve fatigue resistance
7. Rebuild surfaces on components
8. Improve surface roughness
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Surface treatment processes

• Some examples:
1. Shot peening, water-jet peening, and laser shot
peening
2. Roller burnishing (surface rolling)

3. Thermal spraying
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Cleaning of surfaces

• Cleaning involves the removal of solid, semisolid, or

liquid contaminants from a surface.
• Depends on the type of contaminants to be removed.
• Some of the cleaning methods:
1. Mechanical cleaning methods: physically disturbing
the contaminants.
2. Electrolytic cleaning: a charge is applied to be
cleaned in an aqueous solution.
3. Chemical cleaning methods: removing oil and grease
from surfaces.
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Engineering Metrology and

Instrumentation
• Engineering metrology is the measurement of
dimensions.
• Quality of an instrument involves:
• Accuracy: agreement between the measured and
true magnitude
• Precision: degree of repeated measurements
“degree of dispersion”
• Resolution: smallest dimension read
• Sensitivity: smallest difference in dimensions
distinguished
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Engineering Metrology and

Instrumentation
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Engineering Metrology and

Instrumentation
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Dimensional Tolerances
• Defined as the acceptable variation in the dimensions
(height, width, depth, diameter, angles) of a part.
• Tolerances are unavoidable.
• Certain terminology is used to define geometric
tolerances.
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Dimensional Tolerances
• There is a general relationship between tolerances and
surface finish of parts manufactured by different
processes.
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Testing and Inspection

- Nondestructive testing techniques
• Carried out in such a manner that part integrity and
surface texture are preserved.
• Commonly used techniques:
• liquid-penetrants:
- fluids penetrate into openings
• magnetic-particle inspection
- placing fine ferromagnetic particles on the surface
• ultrasonic inspection:
- ultrasonic beam travels through the part
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Automated inspection
• Uses sensors that monitor the relevant parameters
during the manufacturing process (on-line inspection).

• Flexible, high responsive, less operator skill is required,

productivity is increased, higher quality, reliability and
dimensional accuracy.
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Quality Assurance
• Quality assurance is to ensure that the products conform to
specifications and standards.
• Responsibility of everyone involved.
• Control materials and processes that the products are made
correctly in the first place.
• Inspections must be continued throughout production for:
- dimensions and properties
- performance of tools, dies, and machines
- human error
- assembly errors
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Statistical methods of quality control

• Essential as a large number of material and process variables

are involved in manufacturing operations.

• Random events are called chance variations while events

with specific causes are called assignable variations.

• Terms commonly used in statistical quality control (SQC):

- Sample size
- Random sampling
- Population
- Lot size
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Statistical methods of quality control

• The method of variables is the quantitative

measurement of characteristics such as dimensions and
tolerances.
• Data from manufacturing operations is represented by
the normal distribution curve.
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Statistical methods of quality control

• Average value (arithmetic mean) is defined as

x1 + x2 + x3 +  + xn
x= n = number of measurements
n

• Difference between the largest value and smallest value

is called the range.
R = xmax − xmin
• Dispersion is estimated by the standard deviation.

=
(x1 − x )2 + (x2 − x )2 + (x3 − x )2 +  + (xn − x )2 x = measured value for each part.
n −1
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Statistical methods of quality control

Six sigma (6 : 3.4 defects/million or 99.99966% defect-free)

• A set of statistical tools, based on total quality
management (TQM) principles
• Measure the quality of products and services in selected
projects
• Includes considerations such as
- ensuring customer satisfaction
- delivering defect-free products
- understanding process capabilities
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Statistical process control

• Advises operator of the appropriate measures to avoid

producing further defective parts
• Known as statistical process control (SPC)
• Consists of:
1. control charts and setting control limits
2. capabilities of the particular manufacturing process
3. characteristics of the machinery involved
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Statistical process control

Control charts
• Represent the variations of a process over a period of
time.
• Consist of data plotted during production.
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Statistical process control

Control charts
• Control limits are set to statistical-control formulas
within acceptable range.
Upper control limit (UCL x ) = x + 3 = x + A2 R
Lower control limit (LCL x ) = x − 3 = x − A2 R

• Control limits for R are obtained from

UCL R = D4 R
LCL R = D3 R

R
• We estimate standard deviation from =
d2
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