SKIN: UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS AND ANATOMY

IN THE IOWER. EXTREMITY

Stephen V. Corey, D.P.M.

D. Scot Malay, D.P.M.

lntroduction Beneath the skin lies the subcutaneous layer or super-

ficial fascia. The superficial fascia may also be divided
The skin is the largest and possibly the most complex into two different layers: the outermost panniculus
organ in the human body. A thorough understanding of adiposus and the deeper panniculus carnosus. The pan-
the structure and function of skin is a necessity to all niculus adiposus contains the main arteries, veins, and
surgeons, if one is to be prepared to deal with the nerves that serve the skin.
peculiarities of skin and wound healing. The scientific
and biologic basis for all surgical procedures are depen- Gross Anatomy
dent on understanding the complex subject of the skin
in the lower extremities. Although the microscopic anatomy is fairly consistent,
the gross anatomy of skin can differ significantly. The
Microscopic Anatomy three primary factors which account for the variables
seen are relative skin thickness, the orientation of skin
Skin is a compound organ consisting of two major tension, and the thickness of the subcutaneous tissue.
layers, epidermis and dermis (Fig 1). Obviously the skin is thicker on the plantar aspect of the
foot as well as other areas subjected to chronic irritation.
The epidermis (outer layer) can be divided into two The variable thickness of the subcutaneous is of impor-
layers; stratum malpighian or "living layer", which rests tance to the surgeon, since this layer not only contains
upon the dermis, and the outer desquamating layer or the blood supply to the skin but also acts as a buffer to
stratum corneum. The stratum malpighian consists of bony prominances. Areas which contain a thin sub-
several distinct layers. From deep to superficial are the cutaneous layer can easily be subjected to vascular com-
basal layer (stratum germinativum), the stratum promise and lead to a partial or full necrosis of the skin.
spinosum (prickle cell layer)and the stratum granulosum.
The stratum lucidum is more superfiscial and consists Tension is an important factor in all healing wounds.
of a clear layer which is variable in size being directly The direction of tension determines the orientation of
proportional to the thickness of the skin. The plantar collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers. lt was not until 1962
aspect of the foot demonstrates this layer very well. that Borges and Alexander published the concept of
However, the stratum lucidium is almost absent on the relaxed skin tension Iines (RSTL). The RSTL are oriented
dorsum of the foot. parallel to the collagen, elastin, and reticular fibers within
the dermis. Incisions made parallel to the RSTL produce
All epidermal cells originate in the basalar layer or a stronger scar due to more effective collagen repair and
stratum germanativum and migrate superficially. It takes structural arrangement. Laner in 1861 made an earlier at-
approximately 28 days for an epidermal cell to migrate tempt at discussing these tension lines, however, clinical
from the stratum germinativum to the stratum corneum. experience did not reinforce his findings. Crease Iines
Certain diseases such as psoriasis may greatly alter this which are lines of maximal tension are formed perpen-
time sequence. dicular to the direction of pull of muscles and tendons.

Beneath the epidermis lies the dermis. lt is composed Wound Healing

of two layers. The superf icial papillary layer is composed
of widely separated delicate collagenous, elastic, and Wound healing may occur via primary, secondary, or
reticular fibers which are infiltrated with capillaries and tertiary mechanisms. Primary wound healing (first inten-
ground substance. The deeper, reticular layer is formed sion) occurs after wound edges have been well coapted
by dense, coarse, branching, collagenous fibers. The der- as in a surgical wound. Healing occurs from side to sidb.
mis supplies blood and nutrients to the epidermis which Secondary wound closure occurs when a wound is left
has no blood supply of its own. "open" and healing occurs via granulation from deep

36
 Epidermis

Papillary Layer Str. corneum

-'---rJ'-" Str. granulosum
/--+:u'
Reticular Layer rrZr',rirl)', s*-- 25t
' (/ -4. ', lrltr Str. spinosum
v*;'1 Str. germinativum

Subcutaneous
Connective T

Fig. 1, Skin anatomy

to superf icial with subsequent wound contracture leav- differentiation of the cells with restoration of function
ing a larger scar. Tertiary wound healing is seen when (i.e. keratin production). Contraction is the process by
a wound which has been left open for a period of time which the size of a full thickness wound is reduced.
is primarily closed. Unlike epithelialization, the entire dermis moves in con-
tracture, not just the epidermis. This process is of prime
Surgical incisions heal primarily and exhibit minimal importance when the epidermis and dermis cannot be
epithelialization and wound contracture. This is as op- coapted with primary closure.
posed to secondary wound healing which relies primarily
on the processes of wound contracture and epithelializa- Various chemicals and drugs have been shown to alter
tion for closure. the typical process of wound healing. Cortisone inhibits
wound repair by decreasing the rate of production of
There are three main phases of wound healing; inftam- granulation tissue. A decreased fibroplasia and mesen-
matory, fibroblastic, and remodeling. The inflammatory chymal proliferation have also been observed secondary
phase occurs immediately following a penetration of the to the presence of cortisone and ACTH. The utilization
skin until four days later. This initial reaction is of anabolic steroids has been shown to accelerate sound
characterized by an intense vasoconstriction followed by healing by increasing protein synthesis. However, the
vasodilation. Subsequently, there is an influx of long term side effects are unknown at this time.
neutrophilic granulocytes, macrophages, and monocytes
into the wound. These events act to cleanse the wound Wound healing is associated with an increased
and prepare it for the next phase. metabolic rate leading to a greater nutritional demand.
Decreased protein availability will prolong the initial
The fibroblastic phase begins at approximately day four phase of wound healing and prevent the onset of the
of wound healing and may continue for up to two to four fibroblastic phase. However, the use of high protein diet
weeks. Mesenchymal cells in the area of the injury dif- has not been found to accelerate wound healing. Oxygen
ferentiate into fibroblasts. The fibroblasts appear to use is required for the synthesis of proteins such as collagen.
the fibrin and fibronectin, byproducts of hemostasis, as Anything interfering with the delivery of oxygen to the
a scaffold for collagen synthesis. Epithelial cells migrating wound will alter healing. Examples would include
in the area control the amount of collagen content in the peripheral vascular disease or excessive edema.
wound, being produced by the fibroblasts, by the libera-
tion of collagenase. Eventually the rate of collagen syn- The role of vitamins and minerals in wound healing
thesis balances with the rate of degradation. Maturation are well known. Vitamin deficiencies, such as vitamin C
of the scar will follow. in scurvey, can cause improper healing of the wound.
Vitamin A used topically or systemically can increase
The maturation phase can continue for a year and con- granulation tissue and epithelialization. However, ex-
sists of wound remodeling, resorption, and the differen- cessive amounts of vitamin A can cause gross inflamma-
tiation of cells. tion so caution must be observed. Vitamins are necessary
for protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism utilized
The processes of epithelialization and contraction oc- at the cellular level. Trace minerals (zinc, iron, copper,
cur throughout the early phases of wound healing. Once etc) are also important. Supplementation of vitamins and
epithelial cells have covered the wound the final step is minerals to patients with adequate stores has not been

37
shown to have any significant beneficial effects to this Miscellaneous
date.
An integral aspect of wound healing is the manage-
Recently zinc has been given much attention in its role ment of the wound itself. Some technical factors to con-
in wound healing. Soon after the skin is penetrated, a sider are antisepsis, debridement, dressings, immobiliza-
decrease in zinc has been found at the incision site and tion, and closure. These factors will be discussed by
in the blood levels. Zinc is necessary in the process of other authors.
DNA transcription, epithelial and fibroblast proliferation,
stabilization of lysomes and cell membranes, and en- Summary
zyme function (co-enzyme). Patients who exhibit zinc
deficiencies have been shown to have impaired wound Skin and its unique properties are important considera-
healing. When given supplemental zinc, wound healing tions to all surgeons. Before any incision is considered,
returns to normal. A good diet with proper nutrition is a thorough understanding of these basic principles of
important to ensure proper wound healing. Patients who skin structure and wound healing must be obtained to
have inadequate nutrient stores or deficiencies should ensure proper results. One must remember that the
receive supplementation to maximize healing potential. lower extremity skin possesses its own peculiarities. A
fine surgical correction can be tainted by the sight of a
Disorders of Wound Healing Iarge gapping wound or painful scar.
Failure can occur at any increment of wound healing.
Four major areas of concern include:

1. coagulation and hemostasis

2. inflammation and phagocytic function Bibliography
3. neovascularization, and
Borges AF, Alexander JE: Relaxed skin tension lines, Z-
4. fibroblast and collagen synthesis.
plasties on scars, and fusiform excision of lesions.
Br J Plast Surg 15:242, 1962.
Coagulation and hemostasis are necessary for the in- Cohen lK, McCoy BJ, Diegelmann RF: An update on
itial phase of wound healing. Disorders of the inflam- wound healing. Ann Plast Surg 3:264,1979.
matory process and phagocytic function (i.e. secondary Chvapil M: Zinc and wound healing. ln: Symposium on
to chemotherapy) disrupt the entire initiation of wound Zinc. A.B. Tika, Lund, Sweden, 1974.
healing. This could result in non-healing, possibly in- Converse JM (ed): Reconstructive Plastic Surgery.W.B.
fected wound. The need for an adequate blood supply Saunders Co, Philadelphia, 1977, pp 69-72, 152-157.
is obvious. Evaluation of blood f low must always be per- Ehrlich HP, Hunt TK: Effects of cortisone and vitamin A
formed to ensure proper wound healing. on wound healing. Ann Surg 167:324,1968.
Krizek TJ, Hoopes JE (ed): Symposium on Basic Science
Fibroblastic function and collagen synthesis can be af- in Plastic Surgery, vol 15. CV Mosby Co, St. Louis,
fected by drugs (steroids) as previously discussed. MO, 1976, pp 80-95.
Disease such as diabetes mellitus, malnutrition, infec- Niinikoski J, Hunt TK, Dunphy JE: Oxygen supply to
tion, synthesis/lysis imbalance (keloids and hypertrophic healing tissue. Am J Surg 123:247,1972.
scars) and collagen fiber defects (Ehler's, Danlos, Mar- Peacock EE: Collangenolysis: the other side of the
fan's, cutis laxa) can also interfere with fibroblastic func- equation. World J Surg 4:297,1980.
tion. This can lead to delayed healing or the production Peacock EE: Wound Repair. WB Sau nders Co,
of a weak fragile scar. Philadelphia, 1984, pp 125-140.

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