World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology

International Journal of Civil, Environmental, Structural, Construction and Architectural Engineering Vol:8, No:1, 2014

A Review on the Usage of Ceramic Wastes in

Concrete Production
O. Zimbili, W. Salim, M. Ndambuki

conducted worldwide on the usage of ceramic wastes as an

Abstract—Construction and Demolition (C&D) wastes additive in structural and non-structural concrete. The study
contribute the highest percentage of wastes worldwide (75%). was also conducted in specialized concrete such as high
Furthermore, ceramic materials contribute the highest percentage of performance concrete and sulphate resistant concrete. Positive
wastes within the C&D wastes (54%). The current option for disposal
results were obtained from these studies.
of ceramic wastes is landfill. This is due to unavailability of
standards, avoidance of risk, lack of knowledge and experience in The ongoing research has interest in ceramic wastes from a
using ceramic wastes in construction. The ability of ceramic wastes particular factory in South Africa, SAMCA. SAMCA is a
International Science Index, Civil and Environmental Engineering Vol:8, No:1, 2014 waset.org/Publication/9997569

to act as a pozzolanic material in the production of cement has been Wall Tile manufacturing company under Ceramic Industries
effectively explored. The results proved that temperatures used in the Limited. They produce a minimum of 400 tons and a
manufacturing of these tiles (about 900⁰C) are sufficient to activate maximum of about 800 tons of ceramic waste in every 2
pozzolanic properties of clay. They also showed that, after weeks, which is disposed as landfill. However, using ceramic
optimization (11-14% substitution); the cement blend performs
better, with no morphological difference between the cement blended
wastes, as landfill may not be the best option, depending on
with ceramic waste, and that blended with other pozzolanic materials. whether there can be leaching of chemicals that can be
Sanitary ware and electrical insulator porcelain wastes are some detrimental to the environment. This also negates the concept
wastes investigated for usage as aggregates in concrete production. of sustainable development, and hence the need to investigate
When optimized, both produced good results, better than when alternative beneficial use of these wastes, to recover energy
natural aggregates are used. However, the research on ceramic wastes that is been used to produce these ceramics somehow, in a
as partial substitute for fine aggregates or cement has not been overly
exploited as the other areas. This review has been concluded with
positive manner.
focus on investigating whether ceramic wall tile wastes used as
partial substitute for cement and fine aggregates could prove to be II. WASTE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT
beneficial since the two materials are the most high-priced during Waste is defined in Section 1 of the South African
concrete production.
Environmental Conservation Act (ECA) No. 73 of 1989 as
‘any matter whether gaseous, liquid or solid, or any
Keywords—Blended, morphological, pozzolanic properties,
waste. combination, which from time to time may be proclaimed by
the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism by notice
I. INTRODUCTION in the Gazette as an undesirable or superfluous by-product,
emission, discharge, excretion, or residue of any process or
C ONSTRUCTION and Demolition (C&D) wastes
contribute the highest percentage of wastes worldwide.
Furthermore, ceramic materials, which include brick walls,
treatment [4]. For instance in construction industry, C&D
wastes make up significant percentage in many countries as
shown in Table I. From these, it is apparent that the Clay
ceramic tiles and all other ceramic products, contribute the
Bricks and Ceramic Industry have the highest percentage of
highest percentage of wastes within the C&D wastes [1]. The
wastes produced under the category of stony fraction (see
current option of disposal for this type of waste is landfill.
Table I).
Unavailability of standards, avoidance of risk, lack of
knowledge and experience led to there being no active usage A. Ceramic Wastes Classification
of ceramic wastes in construction. The operating policy for the Ceramic wastes are classified as non-recyclable wastes in
disposal of the land-derived water containing waste to the South Africa, except for the normal use as filling material.
marine environment in South Africa (SA) listed refractory Based on research regarding recyclable Construction and
ceramic fiber among the list of toxic substances [2]. Initiative Demolition (C&D) wastes, ceramic wastes have the potential
for Zero Waste in Africa (IZWA) also described ceramic to be used in concrete production. However, there are no
waste as a problematic material [3]. Much research has been guidelines and standards to the usage of these wastes in
concrete. In addition, the local construction industry does not
A. O. Zimbili is a postgraduate student at the Civil Engineering have knowledge and experience to utilize the material.
Department, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria,0001 (Phone:+27-
84-792-9542 e-mail: [email protected]). B. Ceramic Wastes Properties
J. M. Ndambuki is with the Civil Engineering Department, Tshwane
University of Technology, Pretoria, 0001. (Phone: +27-12-382-5225; fax: Ceramic wastes have special properties, which can
+27-12-382-5226; e-mail: [email protected]). contribute positively in other areas of recycling. Reference [5]
R. W. Salim is with the Civil Engineering Department, Tshwane
University of Technology, Pretoria, 0001 (Phone: +27-73-778-6390,e-mail:
conducted research on the properties of ceramic waste forms
[email protected]). to establish whether it was suitable to provide a stable

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 World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology
International Journal of Civil, Environmental, Structural, Construction and Architectural Engineering Vol:8, No:1, 2014

geological formation, which can act as barrier to contain C. Other Waste Materials
nuclear wastes (radionuclides) for long periods. The main Waste materials such as tyres, rice husk ash, glass, and
problem was the toxic radioisotopes with very long half-lives, other wastes have also been investigated on the potential of
such as plutonium 239 (239Pu), which has half-life of being incorporated in concrete production, as either partial or
approximately 24 200 years. Half-life means the time it will total substitute for aggregates or cement in concrete, and in
take to decay half of the material, not necessarily meaning it some instances, to provide specialized mechanical or chemical
will take twice the time to decay the whole material. For characteristics to the concrete.
instance, from 1kg of plutonium, after half-life there will be One research noteworthy mentioning was whereby
0.5kg plutonium and 0.5kg uranium, since plutonium decays polymeric wastes were used in concrete as a beneficial filler
to uranium). Material such as 239Pu has to be disposed in a material for use in maintaining hydraulic dams used in power
protected environment, such that the radioisotopes generation. Three waste materials were chosen: (i)
(radionuclides) are not likely to be leached into the Agglutinated low-density polyethylene (LDPE – from the
groundwater over long periods. The research concluded that production of garbage and plastic bags), (ii) crushed
ceramic waste had degradation capacity potential to provide polyethylene terephthalate (PET – from liquid deodorant
such stability, though further research still need to be done to flasks), (iii) and used rubber tires. After initial trials, these
confirm that. This is mostly due to difficulties in modeling and were optimized to 2.5% of the control concrete. All three
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investigation of ceramic waste forms behavior over long produced positive results when compared to the control
periods. Thus, research indicated that ceramic wastes have concrete, with the LDPE producing the best results.
potential application in nuclear waste management [5]. Comparisons were done in compressive strength, tensile
In South Africa, the National Waste Management Strategy strength under diametrical compression, underwater erosion-
Implementation (NWMSI) Recycling Component Project aims abrasion resistance, microstructure, and field application. Thus
at developing a realistic and practical approach to increase and the research not only focused on reusing waste for
extend recycling [6]. According to the strategy, provision is environmental sustenance, but also to reduce the cost of
made for the investigation and possible pilot implementation structure while improving the quality of concrete [8].
of an industrial waste exchange initiative, as a mechanism for Recently other materials such as construction and
bringing about waste reduction through reuse, reducing and demolition wastes (C&D wastes), organic wastes (e.g. rice
recycling. It is in this light that ceramic material has potential husk) have been introduced in the making of concrete, for both
to be used in the production of concrete [1]. In essence, reasons of environmental sustainability and improvement of
concrete is one of the most utilized materials in South Africa. concrete properties. However, ceramic wastes are not in
Many of the construction projects utilize concrete as the main common use in the making of concrete. Ceramic wastes have
material for the structures. Concrete contains about 75% (by potential to be incorporated in concrete due to their pozzolanic
volume) of aggregates, which are in most areas abundant [7]. properties. They are also known for resistance to abrasion, and
However, in most cases where there is a need for large supply lower density, properties, which actually can be expected to
of concrete, the natural environment ends up being sacrificed improve the quality of concrete.
for economic reasons. Due to the rise in environmental
awareness, there has been substantial amount of research in III. THE CERAMICS INDUSTRY
incorporating wastes, especially C&D wastes, into the making
The term ceramics is a general term used to refer to ceramic
of concrete [3].
products. Common manufactured ceramics include wall tiles,
TABLE I floor tiles, sanitary ware, household ceramics and technical
COMPOSITION OF CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTES [1] ceramics. In essence, ceramic is a term used to describe
MATERIALS COMPOSITION (%) inorganic materials (with possibly some organic content),
STONY FRACTION 75 made up of non-metallic compounds and made permanent by a
Bricks, wall tiles and other ceramic materials 54 firing process [9].
Concrete 12 Clay, which is the most abundant material in the making of
Stone 5
most ceramics, is naturally not a pozzolanic material. This is
Sand, gravel and other aggregates 4
because it does not have silicate properties, which can react
NON STONY FRACTION 25
with water to form calcium hydroxide in the production of
Wood 4
concrete. Research conducted by on the possibility of waste
Glass 0.5
Plastic 1.5
clay materials being used as pozzolanic additions indicated
Metals 2.5 that the activation of clay to become pozzolanic begins during
Asphalt 5 dehydration process, which initiates when heating clay from
Plaster 0.2 around 500ºC, and the separation of amorphous and very
Rubbish 7 active aluminum oxide. The temperature required to reach
Paper 0.3 maximum concentrations of the aluminum oxide depends on
Others 4 the type of minerals in the clay [1]. During the making of
ceramics, clay is heated at relatively high temperatures, the

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 World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology
International Journal of Civil, Environmental, Structural, Construction and Architectural Engineering Vol:8, No:1, 2014

exact temperature depending on the type of ceramic being of the mortar. On the other hand, research was conducted on
produced. For instance, the study at hand focuses on ceramic using wastes in the form of ceramic bricks and mortar, and
wall tile wastes, which are reject tiles, which went through the recycled concrete and a mixture of the two as partial
full firing process. The ceramic wall tiles are fired at around substitution for coarse aggregates [19]. It was discovered that
1150ºC. Deducting from that, it is logical to say wastes from the use of ceramic aggregates resulted in satisfactory
the ceramic industry (ceramic waste) possess characteristics durability. However, the ceramic bricks aggregates proved to
suitable for use as pozzolanic materials and thus are suitable be having high water absorption, the modified concrete mix
for use in the making of concrete. thereof, proved to be satisfactory. In addition, negative results
were obtained when totally substituting the fraction of
IV. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN CERAMIC WASTE REUSE 4.32mm of natural aggregates with ceramic aggregates [19].
There has been some research worldwide regarding the Reference [20] conducted research on the use of wastes
possibility of using ceramic waste in the manufacturing of from sanitary ware as partial substitute for coarse aggregates
concrete, as a partial substitute for cement or aggregates. in concrete (15 to 25%), and produced positive results. The
References [10]-[12] conducted researches on partial increase in partial substitution resulted in lower density in
substitution of cement with ceramic roofing waste. Reference concrete, and higher compressive and tensile strength. The
[10] substituted various weight ratios by percentage (25% up concrete produced was suitable for structural use. Reference
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to 40%) of Portland cement by the waste tile, and optimized [21] conducted investigation on the possibility of utilizing
25% up to 35% weight ratio substitution. Their main interest sanitary ware wastes as partial substitution for both coarse and
was on: (i) pozzolanic properties of waste tile, (ii) setting time, fine aggregates. The study comprised of investigating physical
(iii) particle size, (iv) specific surface area, (v) volume properties of concretes in which conventional coarse aggregate
stability, (vi) density, and (vii) strength of cement. Their had been partially substituted by coarse ceramic aggregate
findings indicated that waste roofing tiles have pozzolanic obtained by crushing ceramic sanitary ware, and natural fine
properties, while also showing chemical and physical aggregate had been substituted by powdered ceramic material.
properties similar to cement, thus conforming to cement Satisfactory results were obtained in both cases.
standard. Reference [12] was more interested in the Ceramic wastes from the manufacturing of electrical
mineralogical composition, thus using mostly microscopy and insulation porcelain have been researched on to determine
X-ray tests (diffractometric and spectroscopic techniques). their potential for substitution into concrete [22]. Despite
Their findings indicated that waste tiles have pozzolanic positive results on the possible use in the making of concrete,
properties, and the compressive strength of the blend cement the use of sulphate resistant cements proves to be the best
(up to 30% ratio by weight) produced developed similar to the option, to avoid negative effects, which generate alkali –
compressive strength of Portland cement. aggregate reaction with the use of Portland cement [22].
Reference [13] conducted extensive research on ceramic Reference [23] conducted research on the compressive
waste usage. Their focus was investigating the possibility of strength and chloride penetration of mortars using ceramic
utilizing general ceramic rubble (mostly clay bricks and tiles) waste as fine aggregates. In their research, they incorporated
as an additive of cement and on the manufacturing of ceramic wastes of electrical insulators. They discovered that
concrete-made roofing tiles, and particularly, the morphology mortars with ceramic wastes as fine aggregates gained higher
of the blended cement. They not only checked on the compressive strength than the control mortar made from river
pozzolanic properties of the ceramic wastes, but also sand. Furthermore, they made partial substitution of Portland
compared their results with those of other known cement cement with ceramic waste powder smaller than 0.075mm,
additives such as fly ash and silica fume. They discovered that and observed improved compressive strength for substitution
temperatures used to produce ceramic material (which is about up to 20%. Chloride penetration of mortar specimen made of
900oC for ceramic bricks, and higher on most tiles) is ceramic wastes was reduced considerably. Furthermore, they
sufficient to activate clay minerals, and ultimately provide the discovered that the pore volume and pore diameter on
rejects with pozzolanic properties. They also discovered that hardened specimen made from ceramic wastes were
there are no morphological differences between cement pastes considerably less than of the control concrete. Reduced
made with clay tile and those made with other pozzolanic chloride diffusion, higher compressive strength and reduced
materials. pore volume will contribute to higher durability of the mortars
References [14]-[17] researched and confirmed the made using ceramic wastes.
possibility of usage of general recycled ceramic waste High performance concrete (HPC) mostly suffer from early
aggregates in the production of non-structural concrete. cracking due to very low water: cement (w/c) ratio, unless
Furthermore, they obtained positive results, with increase in precautions are taken. One of the precautions investigated is
abrasion resistance and tensile strength, suitable for usage in possibility of internal curing of concrete. One research
the making of paving slabs. noteworthy is whereby recycled waste porous ceramic coarse
Reference [18] conducted research on viability of using aggregates (PCCA) are used instead of conventional coarse
waste from clay blocks as partial substitution of cement in the aggregates to reduce shrinkage. This concept blossom from
production of mortars. Their research revealed that partial the idea of replacing normal aggregate with pre-saturated
substitution improved the mechanical properties and durability lightweight aggregate (LWA), as indicated by many authors.

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 World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology
International Journal of Civil, Environmental, Structural, Construction and Architectural Engineering Vol:8, No:1, 2014

The research produced positive results, with slight decrease in REFERENCES

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