Null PDF
Null PDF
A potential side effect of adding power factor correction capacitors at the customer location is that they may
increase the impact of utility capacitor-switching transients on end-use equipment. There is always a brief voltage
transient of at least 1.3 to 1.4 pu when capacitor banks are switched. The transient is generally no higher than 2.0
pu on the primary distribution system, although ungrounded capacitor banks may yield somewhat higher values.
Loadside capacitors can magnify this transient overvoltage at the end-user bus for certain low-voltage capacitor
and step-down transformer sizes. The circuit of concern for this phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. 4.4. Transient
overvoltages on the end-user side may reach as high as 3.0 to 4.0 pu on the low-voltage bus under these
conditions, with potentially damaging consequences for all types of customer equipment.
Magnification of capacitor switching transients
When XL = |XC|, a series-resonant circuit is formed, and the equation yields an infinitely large current that in
reality would be limited by R.
Ferro Resonance
An alternate solution to the series RLC circuit can be obtained by
writing two equations defining the voltage across the inductor, i.e.,
High over-
voltages
Audible Over-
and surge Flicker
Noise Heating
arrester
failure.
Principles of Over Voltage Protection
The fundamental principles of overvoltage protection of load equipment are
Reduce, or
Create a low-
Limit the Block the surge prevent, surge
Divert the surge Bond grounds pass filter using
voltage across current from current from
current away together at the limiting and
sensitive entering the flowing
from the load. equipment. blocking
insulation. load. between
principles.
grounds.
Principles of Over Voltage Protection
Figure 4.16 illustrates these principles, which are applied to protect from a lightning strike.
The elements that make up these devices can be classified by two different modes of operation,
crowbar and clamping.
Crowbar
Crowbar devices are normally open devices that conduct current during overvoltage transients.
Once the device conducts, the line voltage will drop to nearly zero due to the short circuit imposed
across the line. These devices are usually manufactured with a gap filled with air or a special gas.
The gap arcs over when a sufficiently high overvoltage transient appears. Once the gap arcs over,
usually power frequency current, or “follow current,” will continue to flow in the gap until the next
current zero. Thus, these devices have the disadvantage that the power frequency voltage drops to
zero or to a very low value for at least one-half cycle. This will cause some loads to drop offline
unnecessarily.
Devices for Over Voltage Protection - Surge arresters
and transient voltage surge suppressors
Arresters and TVSS devices protect equipment from transient over voltages by limiting the maximum voltage,
and the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. However, TVSSs are generally associated with devices
used at the load equipment. A TVSS will sometimes have more surge-limiting elements than an arrester, which
most commonly consists solely of MOV blocks. An arrester may have more energy-handling capability; however,
the distinction between the two is blurred by common language usage.
The elements that make up these devices can be classified by two different modes of operation,
crowbar and clamping.
Clamping
Clamping devices for ac circuits are commonly nonlinear resistors (varistors) that conduct very low
amounts of current until an overvoltage occurs. Then they start to conduct heavily, and their
impedance drops rapidly with increasing voltage. These devices effectively conduct increasing
amounts of current (and energy) to limit the voltage rise of a surge. They have an advantage over
gap-type devices in that the voltage is not reduced below the conduction level when they begin to
conduct the surge current. Zener diodes are also used in this application
Devices for Over Voltage Protection - Surge arresters
and transient voltage surge suppressors
Example characteristics of MOV arresters for load systems are shown in Figs. 4.17 and 4.18. MOV arresters have
two important ratings. The first is maximum continuous operating voltage (MCOV), which must be higher than the
line voltage and will often be at least 125 percent of the system nominal voltage. The second rating is the energy
dissipation rating (in joules). MOVs are available in a wide range of energy ratings. Figure 4.18 shows the typical
energy-handling capability versus operating voltages.
Devices for Over Voltage Protection – Isolation
Transformers
Figure 4.19 shows a diagram of an isolation transformer used to attenuate high-frequency noise and
transients as they attempt to pass from one side to the other. However, some common-mode and normal-
mode noise can still reach the load. An electrostatic shield, as shown in Figure 4.20, is effective in
eliminating common-mode noise. However, some normal-mode noise can still reach the load due to
magnetic and capacitive coupling
Devices for Over Voltage Protection – Isolation
Transformers
The chief characteristic of isolation transformers for electrically isolating the load from the system for transients
is their leakage inductance. Therefore, high-frequency noise and transients are kept from reaching the load, and
any load-generated noise and transients are kept from reaching the rest of the power system
Voltage notching due to power electronic switching is one example of a problem that can be limited to the
load side by an isolation transformer. Capacitor-switching and lightning transients coming from the utility
system can be attenuated, thereby preventing nuisance tripping of adjustable-speed drives and other
equipment.
Figure 4.21 shows a common hybrid protector that combines two surge suppressors and a low-pass filter to
provide maximum protection. It uses a gap-type protector on the front end to handle high-energy transients. The
low-pass filter limits transfer of high-frequency transients.
The inductor helps block high-frequency transients and forces them into the first suppressor. The capacitor limits
the rate of rise, while the nonlinear resistor (MOV) clamps the voltage magnitude at the protected equipment
Devices for Over Voltage Protection – Low Impedance
Power conditioners
Low-impedance power conditioners (LIPCs) are used primarily to interface with the switch-mode power supplies
found in electronic
equipment. LIPCs differ from isolation
transformers in that these conditioners
have a much lower impedance and
have a filter as part of their design (Fig.
4.22). The filter is on the output side
and protects against high-frequency,
source-side, common-mode, and
normal-mode disturbances (i.e., noise
and impulses). Note the new neutral-to-
ground connection that can be made
on the load side because of the
existence of an isolation transformer.
However, low- to medium-frequency
transients (capacitor switching) can
cause problems for LIPCs: The
transient can be magnified by the
output filter capacitor.
Devices for Over Voltage Protection – Utility Surge
Arresters
Figure 4.26 shows one example of a circuit breaker designed for this
purpose. This breaker would normally be applied on the utility sub
transmission or transmission system (72- and 145-kV classes). This is a
three-phase SF6 breaker that uses a specially designed operating
mechanism with three independently controllable drive rods. It is capable
of closing within 1 ms of voltage zero. The electronic control samples
variables such as ambient temperature, control voltage, stored energy,
and the time since the last operation to compensate the algorithms for
the timing forecast. The actual performance of the breaker is sampled to
adjust the pole timing for future operations to compensate for wear and
changes in mechanical characteristics.
Utility Capacitor Switching Transients – Synchronous
Closing
Another popular strategy for reducing transients on capacitor switching is to use a synchronous closing breaker.
This is a relatively new technology for controlling capacitor-switching transients.
Figure 4.27 shows a vacuum switch made
for this purpose. It is applied on 46-kV-
class capacitor banks. It consists of three
independent poles with separate controls.
The timing for synchronous closing is
determined by anticipating an upcoming
voltage zero. Its success is dependent on
the consistent operation of the vacuum
switch. The switch reduces capacitor
inrush currents by an order of magnitude
and voltage transients to about 1.1 pu. A
similar switch may also be used at
distribution voltages.
Utility Capacitor Switching Transients – Synchronous
Closing
Figure 4.28 shows one phase of a newer type of
three-phase synchronous switch used for distribution
capacitor banks. This particular technology uses a
vacuum switch encapsulated in a solid dielectric.
Figure 4.31 shows a typical utility arrester that is used for overhead line protection applications. This
model consists of MOV blocks encapsulated in a polymer housing that is resistant to sunlight and other
natural elements
Utility System Lightening Protection – Low Side Surges
Some utility and end-user problems with lightning impulses are closely related. One of the most significant
ones is called the “low-side surge” problem by many utility engineers. The name was coined by distribution
transformer designers because it appears from the transformer’s perspective that a current surge is suddenly
injected into the low-voltage side terminals
Utilities have not applied secondary arresters at low-voltage levels in great numbers. From the customer’s
point of view it appears to be an impulse coming from the utility and is likely to be termed a secondary surge.
Both problems are actually different side effects of the same surge
phenomenon—lightning current flowing from either the utility side or
the customer side along the service cable neutral
Utility System Lightening Protection – Low Side Surges
The cable life is an exponential function of the number of impulses of a certain magnitude that it receives,
according to Hopkinson. The damage to the cable is related by
Therefore, anything that will decrease the magnitude of the impulses only slightly has the potential to
extend cable life a great deal.
Utility System Lightening Protection – Cable Protection
(Open-Point Arrester)
Voltage waves double in magnitude when they strike an open point. Thus, the peak voltage
appearing on the cable is about twice the discharge voltage of the riser-pole arrester. There
is sufficient margin with new cables to get by without open-point arresters at some voltage classes.
While open-point arresters are common at 35 kV, they are not used universally at lower voltage
classes.
Transformer
manufacturers can
supply pad mounted
transformers for UD the arrester is an
Under- cable systems with the integral part of the
primary arresters inside
Elbow UD system hardware
Oil the transformer
and installation at
compartment, under oil. If
applied consistently, this Arresters nearly any point on
Arresters achieves very good
protection of the UD
the system is
practical
cable system by having
arresters distributed
along the cable
Utility System Lightening Protection – Cable Protection
(Other Arresters)
Electromagnetic Alternate
Transients Program Transients Program
(EMTP) (ATP).