Chapter IV

Daiit Literature

The Dalit movemen~ in Andhra was an autonomous struggle

against the hegemonic ideology of the upper caste rulers, accompanied
by an enormous forceful literature. As an organic collective articulation,
Dalit literature has fresh expressive comprehension and distinct
intellectual vigour. Its distinctness "lies in its authentic unity of
language and content. In it the disillusionment and disgust of young
Dalits, often accompanied by a desire for revenge, come alive. h revives
the memory of the pain and suffering of the past generations." Further,
"it confronts centuries of hypocrisy, deceit and violence sustained in the
name of tradition". 1 The hegemonic caste ideology which debarred the
Dalits not only from all material possessions, but systematically stunted
their mental development. They were alienated and disapproved by the
social laws. Their historical socio-cultural position was dissimulated and
disfigured by caste as a task master.

Dalit literature carries this burden of suffering, agony and

humiliation. In addition it is encompassed by the profound objective of
emancipation of all oppressed masses. It is resolutely determined to
uncover the concealed contradictions of the hegemonic upper caste
ideology and make concerted efforts to create an alternative socio-
cultural identity.

Taken from A. Satyanarayana. "'Dalit Protest literature in Tclugu: A Historical

perspective". Economic anti /'olitical Week(v (hencefonh HPif). 21 January
1995. (Cited in J.K. Lcle and R. Singh. "Language and litemture of Dalits and
S<mts: Some Missed Opponunites").

1~1
 Dalit literature has been subjected to an e:-~tensi•/e debar~ and
dtscussion as a stream of Telugu literature. The purpose of this cha:~·tt:~

is not to j:)in thai debate. Rather, it is to :'..nalyse Daiit iiteru~t.:r:..: <:::: ·'the
counter hegemoni~ ideology". The aim is to study the lit~tatun.: from the
soci<,Jogica! point of view and its social origin. The chapter is divided
into three sections. These deal, respectively, with the brief historical
antecedentS of Dalit literature, the non-Dalit writers' contribution to
Dalit consciousness in the mainstream Telugu literary trends and wiih a
random analysis of Dalit literature in Telugu produced by Dalit organic
intellectuals.

Historical Background

Dalit literature in Telugu has long historical antecedents on the

2
lines of the Dalit movement. The numerous Buddhist inscriptions
reveal that the historical legacy of Dalit literature in Telugu may be
traced to the well-established Buddhist culture in Andhradesa. The
Buddhist anti-caste ideology, humanist principles of liberty, equality and
brotherhood were propagated through Pali literature which was against
the hegemonic Sanskrit language. J The Sufi poets who gave a call for
the abolition of all discrimination and inequalities from contemporary
society gathered all "men belonging to different castes and creeds

1l1ese historical antecedents for Mamthi Dalit litcmture arc different. Sec A.
Dangle (cd.). Poisoned /Jread: Translations from A1odern A-farathi /)a/it
Literature (Sangam Books. Bombay. I <Jn). pp. xi-xv; Eleanor Zelliot. From
Untouchable to Da/it: f:.,:,·says on the Amheclkar Alovement (Manohar. New
Delhi. 1996). pp. 267-317; Jayilshree Gokhitle. ..From Concessions to
Confrontation: lltc Politics of an Indian Untouchable Community" (Popular
P.rakashan. Bombay. I <J<J3 ). Chapter on litera111re.
K. Padrna Rao. Caste and Alternatil'e C"ulture (GLTC Research Institute.
Madras. 1995), pp.85-'J(,.

J.n
speaking different languages, assembled in the YJtangahs. It was but
natural that a common language was evolved as a means of
4
communication." That language was Urdu. Urdu, thus, becmnc the
language of communication for the Sufi saints, against the hegemonic
Sanskrit and Persian literature which got royal patronage, to propagate
humanism and brotherhood, during the Muslim rule in the Deccan.

In the thirteenth century, Palkusiki Somanatha, under the

influence of Basava's Veerasaivism, denounced caste divisions and
explained in his poetical works, with scholarly disquisition, how
Brahminism and Brahmin priests extracted the wealth of the lower
5
castes in the name of sacrifices. The Sudra poetess named Moll a,
daughter of a potter, wrote Mol/a Ramayanam in simple Telugu to make
it accessible to the common people. Tallapaka Annamayya, a Brahmin,
disapproved of the caste system in his kirlans or songs of devotion. He
sang that "the high level land of the Brahmin and the low flat level of
the Chandala are the same"; "there is no high and low, Srihari is the soul
of all." 6

The most powerful literary voice in modem Andhradesa against

upper caste hegemony was that of Vemana, a Sudra poet. Vemana chose
the literary path to fight social evils. He posed his insightful questions in
the form of literary stanzas (padyam) to counter the caste doctrine
spread by Sanskrit s/okas. Vemana asked the upper castes: "Why do

1
K. Salyanarayana. A Study of the llistoi·v and Culture of the Andhra. vol. 2
(People's Publishing House. New Delhi). pp. 514-S.
A. V.K. Moorthi. Social and 1-..'conomic Condition.,· in Fastern India (From A.!>.
1000 to A.IJ 1250), (Kabir Prinling Works. Secundmbad. I '.170), p. H.

t. Padma Rao. p. Ill.

141
you again and again abuse a par~iah? Are not his blood ~tnd flesh aud
thine one? Of what ~aste is He who is immingled with himT He
7

cx.horted the uppt::· casie:;:

Urvivarikel/a nokka kanchamuhelli, poththugudipi,

kulamu paaliyajesi, ralam1 cheyyihelli iaganammna

jepparaa

(Let everyone eat from the same plate, place their hands
8
on their heads and become friends. )

V~'s stanzas were apparently a spontaneous reflection on the social

reality disparaging the upper caste rulers and becoming passionate!y
cherished aphorisms for the lower castes. Vemana is said to have uttered
hundreds of stanzas. One hundred stanzas among these have been
published in an anthology entitled Vemana Satakam ( 100 Verses of
Vemana). The work is considered to be the first Telugu text.

Veerab!:_.amham 's teachings also became the historical inspiration

for the present Dalit organic intellectuals.') The Christian Literature
Society in Andhra published considerable literature in both English and
Telugu for the benefit of the newly converted lower castes. Among the
books were: Enlightened Teachingsfrom the Book of Truth (1747), Way
to Heaven (1746); 100 Wisdom Principles (1747) ; Book of the J,aw

(I 818). These and many other collections of hymns, pamphlets and

Satyanamyana. p. 4112.
" Padma Rao. p. 112. For a critical evaluation of Vcmana. sec idem. San~hikala
l'iphave Rachayitalu: /)a/ita Sahi~va l'imarsha, l.okvata l'uh!ishers, l'onnur
/995 (felu~u).
'} Sat~'anarJyna, op. cit.

144
brochures were widely circulated, which directly or indirectly helped the
10
emergence of Dalit literature and consciousness.

The present Dalit literature also claims iuspiratior. from Mahatma

Jyotiba Phuie's Satya Shodak Samaj movement Phule's numerol!s
works or. education, cu~ture, history and literature be~ame the
fountainhead of thought for Dalit organic intellectuals. Phule's scholarly
cardinal works, Gulgmgiri. ( 1873) and Sarvajanik Sa~J'a Dharma Pustak
( 1891) have been recognized as sources of the early organic sociological
power of knowledge. 11 The most influential Dalit organic thinker,
Ambedkar, has been the moving force for the Dalit literary movement in
Andhra. The elaborate body of his socio-economic and politico-cultural
ideas have been the guiding force and catalyzing every Dalit.
Ambedkarism has been regarded as an avant grade Dalit political and
literary movement in Andhra Pradesh. Am~'s works such as: 111e
Untouchables, Who Were the Sudras, The Buddha and His Dharma,
What Congress and Gandhi Have Done to the Untouchable.\·!, Castes in
India, Annihila(ion of Caste have become the basic frame of reference
for the present Dalit organic intellectuals.

The pioneers of early Dalit movement in Andhra also started

propaganda-cum-literary magazines to disseminate their ideas. Among
these were: Bhagyanagar, Ku.mma Dharmanna, Jaya Bheri (all started
by Bhagya Reddy Verma), Navajeevan, Vemula Kuri1Jlliah, Vyavasaya
Kooli (all started by B.S. Murthi), Jyothi (Bojja Appala Swamy), ,
Republican Jyothi (B. V. Ramanaiah), Bhagyanagar (Govada

111
Sec, B. Vijaya Bhamti. Nalupu. 1-30 April 1990.
11
Gail Omvedt. Dalits and Democratic Revolution: /Jr. Amhedkar and the /)a/it
Movement in Colonia/India (Sage Publications. New Delhi). p. 99.

145
Nirekrishna Rao). Their speeches, essays and poems became part ot an
altemativ~ ideolcgical struggle against the hegemoni~ ideologies of both
colonialism and Hinduism. !l

The Dalit Sahitya Moverr.ent m Maharashtnt produced a.11

enormous amount of revoli.1tionary Dalit literature. The first Dalit
literary conference was held in 1958, which passed a resolution defining
the term 'Dalit literature'. In 1967 the Milind Sabitya Parishad was
established at Nagsenvana, Aurangabad. Under its auspices a quarterly
known as Asmita (later it became Asmithadarsha) was published. 13
These writers started a movement giving expression to their own
independent identity. They declared war on the omnipresent and
gigantic enemy of caste through the medium of literature. 14 Thus the
pre~ent Dalit literature in Telugu took much of its inspiration from
different sources.

Telugu Literary Trends and Dalit Problem

Telugu is the most Sanskritized language among th~ southern

languages. Though it does not belong to the Devanagari family of
northern languages it heavily borrows usage from Sanskrit texts.
Starting from Nannaya (twelfth century) to the present generation, the
traditional intellectuals have not created any original text in Telugu. 15
All available major texts in Telugu were either translated from Sanskrit

~ B. Tamkam, The First All India IJalit ll"riters Conference: A commemorati1•e

1

/'o/ume (Dr. B.R. Ambcdkar Memorial Tmst. Hyderc~bad. I'.1!!7). p. 54

u K. Gangawanc. ibid .. p. 17.
14
For the full history of Dalit litcralure sec Day a Pawar's article in ibid .. pp. 7-1 o
1
\ Sec Kalckari Pmsad. lJalita Sahityam (Vijayavada. Dalila Women Sahitya
Parishad) Tclugu.

146
or were analogous creations directly from Sanskrit texts. All these early
literary constructions and expressions were mostly the handiwork of the
upper castes. TI1e social problem of caste oppression, social alienation of
Dalits and tmtouchability were not reflected in them; in fact they helped
to perpetuate caste dominance. That explains why the nineteenth-century
social reformers directed their anger against Sanskritized Telugu in
addition to devoting attention to socio-cultural reforms. It was Vemana
who carefully studied social oppression and first raised his voice against
the caste system.

The socio-cultural problems of Andhra society were reflected in

some of the reformist literature in Telugu. The pioneers of social reform
movement in Andhra, Kanduku~ VeereshaJingam ( 1848-1919), 9w;ajada
Appa Rao, Laxminarasimham ( 1848-1945) and Gidl!gu Ramamurthy
worked for the reformation of orthodo~ practices. They advocated
women's education and widow remarriage. They also expressed
sympathy for the untouchables. Vl!ereshalingam started schools for the
Dalits and other working classes. Gurujada Appa Rao criticized the
segregation of the Dalits on the basis of their menial occupations. He
said: "Filthy occupations have been assigned to some people, looking
down upon them and not even treating them as human beings."H'

In 1911 Appa Rao wrote a song on Malas entitled 'Malalu' in

which he lamented

1
" Padma Rao. San~hika l'iplana Rachavitalu: /)a/ita Sahi~va Vimarsha (Lokayata
Publishers, Ponnuru. 1995). p. (,l

147
 Judging people with an unclean body as Mal&s. t~.nd

' rewarding unethical people as upper caste in not at all fair.

The law ca!icd caste is an unjustified
. in•!lnsition.
.

And further

Human beings have two castes, good and bad. lf good is

17
Mala, I would be Mala.

However these reformers' main objective was to reform certain

evils of the Hindu social system and "they failed to grapple with the
ideological and institutional framework of brahminical Hinduism. Their
reading of classical texts and scriptures was only aimed at reforming
some aspects of Hindu society, but not to question and negate the Varna
system itself. . . . Neither 'Kan)!a.m/kam' (bride-price) nor 'Raja
Sekhara Charitram' written by Appa Rao and Veereshaligam
respectively, addressed the basic fundamental problems of caste
oppression and alienation of Dalit masses from the mainstream society."
Ill

During the anti-colonial struggle many non-Dalit intellectuals

made remarkable efforts to absorb all those masses who were socially
and politically alienated, into the broad terrain of the anti-colonial
struggle. Most of them were immensely influenced by the growing
nationalist aspirations and the Gandhian 'Harijan uplift programme'.
They projected the Dalit problem in their literary creations from
different angles. Basavaraju Appa Rao wrote songs on the atrocities

1
" S. V. Satyanamyana (cd.). Jashuma Sahilt!(' l'rashanam (Vishalandhra Publishing
House. Hydcntbad). p. 107 (Tclugu)
IK Ibid.

141<
inflicted on Dalits. Among the others who dealt with the Daiit problem
were Mutnuri Krishna Rao, Kamaraju Hanumantha Rao. Tapi Dhanna
Rao, Vemuri Ramji Rao, Adipudi Somanatha Rao and Band~n1

Achchamamba.

Tallapragada Suryanarayana Rao's Helavali was !he first Telugu

Dalit novel written by a non-Dalit in 1913. Helavati, the protagonist of
the novel, was the daughter of Verabaludu, an untouchable. As a
socially alienated family they lived in penury and collected grains from
the ponidge given to cattle. Helavati blames the caste-ridden society for
their miserable plight. She refuses to many an untouchable on the
ground that she does not want to continue as an untouchable by
marrying an untouchable. Once when Emperor Humayun was in trouble,
Verabaludu renders him help. The emperor rewards him with costly
gifts and money, thus enriching Verabaludu's family. But Helavati is
still unmanied. At last she marries the son of a minister of the emperor.
Yerabaludu changes his religion and becomes Chan Mohammad. The
social message of this novel was that if Hindus did not change their
attitude towards the Dalits the latter would not continue as Hindus any
19
more. Venkata Parawatisha Kavulu 's novel Maim Mandiram ( 1919)
also had some critique on the caste system.

Unnava Laxmi_narayana's Mala Palli (Mala Hamlet, 1922) was

extensively debated and discussed. The author was considerably
influenced by the Gandhian Efonn......movement and championed the
rights of the working class. In this novel he depicted "the Dalits'
realization of their socio-economic problems in the wake of broader

19
Kalckuri Prasad. op. cit.

J.t'J
 20
national struggle under the leadership of Gandhi." Although sor11c of
his idr.as differed fundamentally from the Dalit point of view-notably
those of pacifism, re!igio~ity, pas:;i·.·eness- ---his c;-i;ique of iht ,:;tt u~iured

social relations and collectivism elicited wide acclaim. Summarizing the

implications of tl1e novel Haragopal ~ays tJ&at "The main reason
presented for the absence of class consciousness is the hegemony of the
Hindu world-view conditioning the consciousness of the Harijans. This
prevents them from revolting .... This indicates not only the structural
constraints in which the poor Harijans were looked upon but the
cobwebs of consciousness which permitted them little concerted and
. d actton.
orgamze . ,21

N.G. Ranga's Harijan Nayakudu (Harijan Leader, 1933)

projected the Dalit problem from the point of view of the p~asantr}J and
agricultural labour. The hero was a Dalit who "agitates on various
issues, opposing the violence against and abuse of Dalits, organizing
inter-caste marriages, establishing schools, fighting for entry into the
22
temples and use of public wells." Adavi Bapirju's Narudu ( 1946)
depicted the problem of caste prejudice, oppression and Dalit protest at
all levels. The hero of Nan1du, a young Dalit born amidst abject poverty
and social neglect, overcomes his disabilities, goes abroad for higher
studies and marries an Anglo-Indian girl. Another novel of note is
Adarsham (1946) by Anantati Narasmharn.

~" Omvcdl. p.ll 6.

~I Ibid., p.l 17.

~~ Ibid.

ISO
 Mangipudi Venkata Sl1anna 's Nirudda Bharatam ( 1915) was the
first anthology l)f poem~ on Dalits by non-Dalits. The !it st ~art of the
anthology was uevoted to the socio-economic conditions of the O;;!it~

aud appealed 1.0 the u~per castes to treat the Dalits as huma.'l beings. The
second part appealed to the Panchamas to realize their sufferings which
23
were brought about by the caste system rather than by mysterious fate.
Cherukuvada Damogipurapu Janta Kavulu's song to the effect that
"overlooking the Dalits is not justifiable", was published in 192 I.
Nelluri Venkata Ramanaidu's song 'Harijanulu' with a similar theme
was published in I928. Kondapalli Jagannatha Rao, Tirunagari
Venkatasuri, Kambhampati Laximinarasinha Somayajulu, Basavaraju
Appa Rao, Puripanda Appala Swami, Karuna Sri also deplored the
24
problems of the Dalits in their writings. One play that effectively
contrasted the hegemonic upper caste ideology with the Dalit bahujan
point of view was Tripuraneni Ramaswamy Chowdary's 'Shambuka
Vadha' (1922). Chowdary (1887-1943) was a father figure of the non-
Brahmin movement and a literary doyen from the Sudra community.
Gudapalli Rama Brahma's film Mala l 1illa (Mala Girl) also depicted the
Dalit problems. A. V. Neelakanta Sastri 's play Harijanudu ( 1935) was
another non-Dalit contribution to Dalit consciousness.

The main criticism about non-Dalit writings on the Dalits' plight

has been that "the aspirations and emotional feelings of the Dalit masses
were not adequately taken cognizance of by the middle class
intellectuals, who were predominantly drawn from the upper castes. " 25

~ 3 Vijaya BharJti. op. cit.

~ Satyanardyana. p. 107.
4

•·~ satyammtyana. op. ell.

.

151
In the post-independence period, some of the notabic nun-Dalit wfitings
on the theme were: lllandula Ranganayakulu's Mdlika (1950). Vatti
Koia Aiwar Sw~11ny's J>!·aj~la A-funisfu ( 1950), Muppal:i
Ranganayakaml_!li.L lJJllipet:larn ( 1962), Kalipatnam Rama Rao 's
Yagnam ( 1964 ), M~hendra Ramamohan Rao ·s Kolla_igatti!enemi (! 965),
Malladi Vasunda's irivarna Patakarn (!965), Vachaspat.'U's
Antahkalahalu ( 1965), Dasharathi Rangacharya 's Chi/lara Devundlu
( 1970) and Antaranijanla ( 1973), Shiva Reddy's three novels, Banisalu
(1971), Incredible Goddess (1974) and Swashanarn Dunneru (1974),
Ellandu Saraswathi De vi's Neehanchan Kalrnokkuta ( 1977), Tenneti
Hemalata 's Miss Kokila ( 1978), Yerramchetti Sai's Akari Mazili ( 1978).
Kethu Yiswanatha Reddy's Veerlu ( 1978), Vani's Mohanagaram
( 1979), K. Ramalaxmi 's Kotixadu ( 1980), Dasharathi 's Cheekati
Bedirindi, J.Rama Laxmi's 7'apohanxam, A. KutumbaRao's Sorojyam
( 1984), N.R.Nandi 's Nyrnisharanyam ( 1984), Bupathi Rama Rao 's
Kulakanya, and Dadala Chantabhai 's Antuleni Amava.\ya. ~> Kalipatnam
2

Rama Rao's Yagnam (1964), revolving around a dispute over a loan

taken by a Mala family of Appalaramudu from a petty money lender of
the village, "was the best critique of the Nehruvian phase from the point
of view of the agrarian poor. Driven to destitution, within the agrarian
system and without alternative employment in industry, they
accumulated in members, without becoming partners in development,
and became the marginalized resultants, in spite of their efforts and
WI'II . .. 27

~h Compiled from S. V. Satyanarayana, "Tclugulo Dalita Sahityam·· in Aclunika

Sahityam: IJalita Spruha (Yuva Bharc~ti. Hyderabad): Kalekuri Prasad op. cit.
and Vijaya BharJti. op. cit.
R.S. Rao, 7irwarcl~ l!nclerstanclin}! Semi Feudal Semi Colonial Society
1
:

(Perspectives. Hydcrc~bad. I'JIJ5). p. 136.

152
 Mainstream Telugu literature witnessed another literary trend
during the forties called Ahyudaya Sahitvam or progressive literature, in
prote~t against the prevale11! romanticism, idealism and traditional
individualism. The writings of this school aiso reflected on the giobal
problems of the economic depression of the thirties 311d the fascist
aggression in Europe. They idealized communism and propagated the
communist utopia of world revolution. The writers of this school fomted
an organization called Abyudaya Rachayitala Sangham or Progressive
Writers Association (PWA). The pioneer of this movement was
Srirangam Srinivasa Rao (popularly known as Sri Sri), whose eloquent
poems influenced the youth to a remarkable degree and do so even
'
today. Sri Sri's Maha Prasthanam (Great Presentation, 1950), was an
anthology of poems which basically centered around cia~ struggle.
2
M

An offshoot of the progressive writers school was 'Dehanxara

Kavitwam' or nude poetry, which sneered at established literary
traditions and advocated writing of a crude fonn. They resorted to
unconventional practices such as having their anthologies of poems
released by a rickshaw puller or a prostitute at midnight in Hyderabad.
Charabanda Raju, Nagnamuni and Nikhileswar belonged to this stream.
One anthology of poems from this school was dedicated to
Kanchikacherla Koteshu, a Dalit boy who was burnt alive by the upper
castes in Krishna district in 1968.

The outbreak of Naxalbari and Srikakulam movements witnessed

the emergence of the most powerful revolutionary literary movement in

=• For a critical evaluation of Sri Sri sec. Padma Rao. Sanghika I 'iplava Rachavita/
( nNS ).

151
Telugu called 'Viplava Sahityam' or revolutionary poetry. TI1is
movement was known by its organization called Vip!ava Rachayita/a
Sangham or Rev,1lutionary Writers Association (R\VA}. Many highly
talented revolutionary writers fonned its core, producing a wide range of
Marxist literature, which, however, is beyond the scope of the present
study. The basic criticism about these writers made by Dalit organic
intellectuals was that they did not take note of caste and its impact on
the self-respect of Dalits. Their focus on the socio-economic problems
of the working class did not direct them to create an alternative
hegemonic caste ideology and they were not able to answer Dalit and
feminist issues. l<J Other cultural-cum-literary organizations like jan a
Natya Mandali (JNM), Arunodaya, Navodaya and Janasahiti, and
journals like Aruna Tara, Ahyudaya and Sn~jana all played an important
role in propagating pro-Dalit literature.

Dalit Literature

Dalit literature basically is a 'counter hegemonic ideology'

created by 'Dalit organic intellectuals'. The ideas which they have
developed reflects their own social consciousness detennined by their
structured social existence which has hitherto remained neglected. Dalit
organic intellectuals thus come from a most exploited class and caste
origin. They necessarily share a common critical attitude towards the
hegemo~ic _upper caste ideology. In search of their new socio-cultural
identity and distinctness they developed their own communication

2
'' Ibid.

15-1
system with their own historical symbols and literary concepts.·,,, whir.M
created an actvanced necessary self-awareness ~md conscio•tsne~~ for an
illit•lded action. Daii! !itr.rature as a "comtter h~_:;ell!of!.ic ideulogy" is
ultimately tclatcc! to action a.1d is capable of organizing Da!its as agents
of new democratic revolution. It is able tc: tnmslate iiself into a specific
orientation of Dalit revolutionary pract!ce. Dalit !iteiature has been
considered here in the Gramscian view of a positive "organic ideology,
whkh has a psychological validity and which organizes human masses
and created th~ terrain on which men move, acquire consciousness of
. .. I , 11
the•r pos1tton, strugg e, etc. ·

Dalit organic intellectuals m Andhra Pradesh have evolved

broadly in tlnc? stages.

• In the first slaf!.e, Ambedkar' ~ ?~!i-c~c;te thought/ideology was not

fully developed in Andhra. Dalit organic intellectuals were then in
a stage of making appeals, but they differed from non-Dalit writers
who advocated integration. They had developed a critical view
about Hindu social hierarchy.

• In the second Slaf!.e, Ambedkarism was fully received into their

literature. Their argument centred around uncritical acceptance of
Ambedkar's philosophy as the base for the counter-hegemonic
ideology.

1
·" Taken from U. Bhole and A. Bhole. ·The Dalit Sahitya Movement in
Maharashtnt: A Sociological Analysis''. Sociological /Julletin. ,·ol. 2(•. no.l.
March 1977.
A. Grc~msci. Selections from the /'rison 1\"ote /looks (Orient Longman. Madras.
11
·

19%). p. 377.

155
 • In the third anJ present slaKe. Dalit intellectuais have emtrged
with a Marxist perspective, analysing Hindu/Indian society o:1 the
basis of hisiorical matenalism alon,g with Ambcdkai's C!iste
annihilation theory. Th:s new synthesis of Marxism-Ambedka1is:n
was aimed at the successful accomplishment of a new democratic
revolution in India.

In all the three stages, however, Dalit organic intellectuals have been
collectively committed to reconstructing counter-hegemonic ideology
through their literary and artistic creations consisting of poems, songs,
essays, speeches, novels, short stories, plays, autobiographical notes and
literary criticism.

An attempt has been made here to analyse available literature of

the organic intellectuals. The definition of organic intellectuals is not
:onfined to Dalits alone but has been extended to the minority and OBC
intellectuals also, because much of the Dalit literature was created in
combination with them.

Early Dalit intellectuals' creative expressiOns were mainly

centred around the themes of equal treatment, self-respect, dignified
living. While exposmg caste exploitation and discrimination they
asserted their identity as 'Panch am as' and 'Adi-Hindus'. Their
consciousness was reflected in pleading for recognition of the nature of
their existence. Mahakavi Gurram Jashuva ( 1895-1971) was the first
compelling organic Dalit voice in Telugu literature, who exposed the
hypocrisy of caste ideology. Jashuva was a great creative poet, but his
creative genius and literary talent was not fully recognized. He was
humiliated, subjected to an intense mental agony and treated as a literary
outcaste by the scholarly world that was dom~naierl b" the upper
.:-astes."12 Reacting to his humiliations he conunenteL:

/,ll those crack-brained crovvs, their prejudice, s!ancler,

cant take away my well-endowed faculty. l will bang the
hell~ of verse, I will shower the pellets. I will chasten the
crackles of Andhra voice:'·'

He declared in addition:

I intend to pierce through caste distinction, poverty and

prove that lam a human being. I wield a sword. My sword
. l4
IS my poetry."

Jashuva's literary output was prolific, including poetry, short

stories and plays in more than thirty works reflecting on different issues
of history, society, economy and political upheavals of his time.
Basically a humanist, Jashuva was against all inequalities. Whoever
fought inhuman traditions, inequalities and social evils, were seen by
Jashuva as liberators, irrespective of caste, class, colour and ideology.
His works are marked by this impartiality and rationality. Jashuva wrote
poems praising Gandhi for his campaign for the untouchables' temple
entry and uplift programmes. He also celebrated Subhas Chandra Bose's
heroic role in the national struggle. Jashuva also recognized the
autonomous struggle waged by Ambedkar for the emancipation of

1
: Satyanar.tyana. op. cit.
11
Gumn. Jashuva. Naa 1\at/w (Jashuva Foundation. Vijayawada. JIJW,). p.l52
(Translated by the res~lrchcr).
II satyanar.tyana. op. c11..

157
Oalits. He asked his messenger, the Bat, whether nc hwi nf'r
c,;t···

Ambedkar's bl.r.ssings:

Ambedk:rr my brother is iht1e. wilo :'iuffen:d, W(iS

·;ictim:zed immensely for my comtntmity, but secureo the

highc~t position, as £rea~ l1S the Vicemy. Doe!: he weicnmc
you with a bouquet? Hi!: blessings are a must for your
• 35
VICtory.

(Jab.hilan1(The Bat}, Jasjuwa 's magnum opus, rocked the whole

Telugu literary world when it was published in ]..241. Telugu ~tterateurs

were until then engrossed in romanticism, without any serious social

concern.
-
Gabbilan, an anthology
- -- ·----
of poems, dealt with almost all socio-
-----------·-- ------------
economic and political issues of Dalits. Each poem reflected their
agony, their despair and their anger. Each poem realistically presented
the bitter daily experiences of the Dalit masses, their disgust and misery.
As Tarakam summarizes, "The entire theme is the remorseful life as an
untouchable. The language, the expression, the idiom and the style are
very powerful and near to life. The depiction was very piercing.".1 6 The
openmg poem says:

Pleased with miles of penance inconsiderates All penury

just with little of morsel Unconnected to four divisions
(varnas)
Fifth born son of Mothe!' Bharat.l7

" G. Jashuva. Gahhilam (Jashuva Foundation. Vijayawada. 1996 ). p. 4X

(Translated by the researcher) .
.•h Tarakarn. op. cit.
J' Jashuva, Gahhilam. p. 9. (Translated by the researcher)

J)X
 Reflecting on the economic exploitation of Dalits :md ~cw they
had been mercilessly alienated from their own product!ur: by !!1c :;.ppe:·
caste rulers, he iamented:

When his (Oalit's) hands de not work. The green fields

hesitate tc yield Ctops. He swears, provides food fo:- tile
. 38
world. But he himself has no food:

Jashuva expressed his disillusionment with Hindu social life and

questioned its wisdom which treated Dalits as less than human beings.
He mercilessly exposed the hegemonic caste ideology and its hypocrisy.
He wrote:

Tied my mouth with Kanna doctrine

Means follows are making men·y' ::~.t the cost of my life,

Ask Eswar (God): reveal the truth about

What is meant by Karma and why it has a rudge against

39
me.

Further he explained how Hinduism was responsible for the

perpetuation of caste oppression. Alienating Dalits from the mainstream
society, squeezing them from all sides the upper castes regarded the
Dalit's shadow itself as an offence. Jashuva asked the Dalits to be
cautious about the four-hooded Hindu cobra that might attack them at
any moment. He wrote:

By swallowing the blood of the wretched (Dalit)

~~ Taken from Satyanamyana, op. cit.

w Jashuva, Gabhi/am, p. 14.

151)
 Lives the iron ankle~ed Mother

Upon smelling thr air hisses with vengeance

40
T!~e four-hooded :1indus cobra.

Naak,EJba ( 1966), Jashuva' s auto~iography, revealed the Dalit

poet whose integdty amLhonesty brought him hardship. It expressivdy
retlected the real Dalit' s inner experiences of pain and anguish and
illustrated the oppressive caste social order to which Dalits were
subjected.

Jashuva's contemporaries, Jala Ranga Swamy, Kusuma

Dharmanra, Nakka China Vankaiah, Nutakka, Ab~aham were some
other organic intellectuals who exposed caste discrimination and its
dominance. Jala Ranga Swamy wrote the first Dalit novel Rytu J>illa
41
(Farmer's Daughter, 1938) The heroine Seeta, daughter of Ventanna
an upper caste farmer, is progressive in her understanding of social
relations, revolts against traditions and boldly comes forward to mar:·y
Sri Ramudu, an untouchable farm servant at her father's house. In his
long poem 'Who Are the Untouchables' ( 1930), Rangaswamy
questioned the upper caste hegemony:

Some occupations were created and assigned to us

We were named as serfs

Caste discrimination was introduced,

We were uppressed

·'" Taken from Satyanarayana. op. cit.

.u Jayadhir Timmala Rao. A review aniclc appeared in I ·aarta (Tclugu daily,
Hyderabad). (,April I'J%.

1(,()
 Wr were troubled with slavery/trodden

Occupational difference · were impo~ed, We w.-~r;,~

.
aI:enate d.42

In Meluko!upu (Awaken, 1930) and Mala Sudhi (Cieaning Mal as,

1930) Jala Ranga Swamy criticized all hypocritical, pseudc-Gandhian
upper caste activists who worked for the uplift of untouchables. 43 In his
writings Dalit identity was symbolized as the Pancharnas. He projected
the Dalit historical figures of Arundhathi, Matangis, Sabri as Dalit
. the Aryans. 44
women agamst

Kusum~rmanna, while orgamzmg Dalits for the nationai

movement also asked the Dalits to prepare for their own liberation
struggle from the native hegemonic upper caste rulers. He started a
propaganda-cum-literary magazine called Jayg_jlari. He was said to be
45
"a powerful speaker, writer and organizer". Dhannanna was known for
his spontaneous satires on upper caste rulers in which the Dalits'
identity was asserted. He noted that the Dalits' participation in the
freedom struggle was marginalized due to their immediate socio-
economic constraints. The upper caste leadership also failed to evolve a
systematic programme to ensure their socio-economic emancipation and
"the aspirations and emotional feelings of the Dalit masses did not

4
: Sayanarayana, op. cit.
41
" Ibid.
41
Ibid.
4
' K. llaiah. Caste or class or caste-class: A stutlv in /)a/it Hahujan consciousness
and struKJ!Ie in Andhra /'ratlesh in the /IJ.'IOs (Nehm Memorial Museum and
Libmry, New Delhi. 1995).

I(,J
become an integral part of the nationalist ideology and pwgmmmr" .;~,
Thus, the Dalits' twofold struggle. against the imperial British and tl:~

hcgerr.onic upper caste native m!er. was reflecied in their ide,)iogi::c:l

expression. Dharmanna wrote a controversial song '}Auakoddee Na!ia
Dot'!!.!!!!EJ!.l' (We do not want this black landlordship) as a counter to the
~ong by Garimella Satyanarayana, an upper caste nationalist ieadcr,
entitled 'Maakoddee Tel/a DoraJJmam' (We do not want this while
rule). Portraying the pathetic Jiving conditions of Dalit masses in this
song Dharmanna wrote:

(We have) only small huts outside the village

We do not have big houses

Air, light do not trifle

(We have) no delicious food cuny

To wear (we have) no saree, loincloth

(We have) no tail ornaments

(We have) no land to plough, eat food

(You have) no sympathy on our poverty. 47

Despite twelve months of bonded labour

We live with hunger wife has to labour,

Son has to graze the animals.

Despite all our drudgery, V.'e are deficient of food and

clothes

Debts are undone, God, they starved us mercilessly

~ .. Sat~·anamyana. op. cit.

47
Ibid.
 We do not want this black lordship

Sir! God! We do not want this black lordship

God, we have no equal treatment in this society

411
We do not want this black lordship

Nakka Chinna Venkaia, in his Harijana Kirtana/u (Harijan

Hymans, 1935), pleaded with the upper castes to forgo caste
distinctions:

Why they not forgo untouchability

Why they have dispute on it

Why they not forgo untouchability:~'}

He asked the upper castes to treat the Dalits as fellow human

beings and cease their persecution. This tone of plea also marked the
writings of Nutakki Abraham, Premaiah. Gnanandakavi, Chodagiri
50
Chandra Vajrapu, Samba Murthy and Athota Ratna Kavi.

Boyee Bheemanna (b. 191 I) reached the highest pinnacle of

\

Telugu literature. He wrote nearly sixf¥_Piays, stories, novels and essays

which reflected on the socio-economic, historical and cultural aspects of
the Dalits. Two of Bheemanna's plays, Coolie Raja (Labourer King.
1942) and Pa!gu (Fann Servant, 1946) mirrored the problems closely
affecting the Dalits. Coolie Raja was about the struggle of Dalits for
economic justice. The play was performed in every village of coastal

~- Vijaya Bhamti. op. cil (Translated by the researcher).

~·~ Satyanamyana, Teluj!ulo /)a/ito .\'ahitvam.

"' Tamkam. op. cit.
 1
Andhra, sometimes more than a dozen times. 5 The hero Nishkalavecr of
the play says that t!very labourer's heart is flaring up. it would bern ur
any time. The play, written on the lines of caste-class struggle creiite(;
'rcmendous consciousness among Daiits ar:d other working classes.
Because of i!s revolting content, inflammatory language against tlte
upper castes and the British government the play was banned by the
.. h 52
Bntrs government.

Palern projected the problem of Dalit bonded labour. The hero

Venkanna is a victim of the system of hereditary bonded labour.
Different from all previous fann servants, Venkanna wants to put an end
to bonded labour as such. His solution is to educate himself and change
his occupation. With the help of a school teacher and an upper caste girl.
he escapes from bonded labour and joins the Brahmo Samaj, where he is
given the opportunity to study. Venkanna secures B.A. degree and
becomes deputy collector. The play "is an urge for social equality and
the acquisition of knowledge and education by Dalit masses for a decent
living as well as for a respectable place in society. In it there is a
suggestion that through education and inter-caste marriage social
mobility is possible. The author opined that the problems of Dalits is not
only that of class .... Hence Dalits should be educated first and obtain
5
good official positions. " ·'

Rauvri Ekambaram is another poet and organizer who moved

long with Ambedkar in Andhra and together with him addressed many

'I Ibid.
'~ Tarakam 's article in Ganmnala Gnancswar (cd. ). Huiee /lheemanna .\'ahilee
Shastipurthi Sanchika.
· satyanamyana, op.cll.
'1 .
public meetings. Ekampram has written many poems and songs on
Dalits depicting their hatred, agony and future hope. His an::hoiogv of
poems on Ambedkar, Amhedkq_ta Samara_ Simha (Ambedkar the warrior
Jim1) created tremendous consciousness in Andhra about Amhedkar's
personality and his revolutionary ideas. His Ambedkqr Ramayanamu,
Am!Jedkar Bharatam and anthology of poems are still the most pcpular
54
songs on Ambedkar.

Endluri Chinrraia's A!!llledkar 's Life History has been the m!lst
forcefui :.•1ei highly influential political propaganda document on
Ambedkar in Telugu. Vizaya Bharati, _daughter _of Boy Bheemanna and
wife of Bo_ija Tarak~, the _first Da!i! WOil13.Jl Jq_g~t a doctorate in f.f!dhra
Pr~desh, translated many of Ambedkar's works into Telugu. Her
translations into Telugu of Amhedkar: L!fe and Mission and Mahatma
Phule's life history, both by Dananjaj Kheer, have inculcated a dynamic
political consciousness and heightened the Dalits' perception of
Ambedkar in Telugu country. These books have been widely read and
have been responsible for the widely promoted Ambedkar cultural and
youth organizations in Andhra Pradesh. Modukuci--:h:>hndon 's play
Nichehana Metlu (Laughter) also played a significant role in building an
. hegemomc
aItemat1ve 'd eo Iogy. 55
. 1

The counter-hegemonic ideology was also propagated through

many media of expression by Dalit organic intellectuals. Saik~r

( 1920-97), an OBC Muslim, adopted and ~r.ri~!1:!d a folk fonn of story-

telling called Burrakatha for his mass communication. Burrakaktha is

q Interview with Gancswar, 21 January 1997.

H Vijaya Bhamthi. op. cit.

165
simple and colloquial, and totally different both in fonn and content
from the highly Sanskritized Harikatha, which is maialy nsed by the
upp~r cast.::>. Suddaia Hanumanthu was another singer and lyricist
whuse poems on Petti exploitation and the heroic role of the
Communists during the Telengana movement have become the main
56
source of cultural movernent. Both Nazer and Hanumanthu played a
significant role during the Telengana struggle.

Unlike Marath~ Dalit literature, Andhra Dalit organic intellectuais

were profoundly influenced by the Ambedkarite movement, Marxist-
Leninist movement, Naxalbari and Srikakulam and the Dalit Panthers
--- --- -- --- --
Movement in Maharastra. This remarkable change may be noticed in the)
Dalit literature from the seventies onwards. K.G atyamurty, who is
popularly known by his pen name 'Shiva gar' is a rebel, and a leader
of peasants and proletariat. Some of his poems, 'Gong Bells' ( 1969),
'Narudo! Bhaskaruda!' ( 1970), 'llclyamam Nelahaludu' ( 1971 ), 'Sister

Chandramma' (1971) have been classics of Naxalbari movement. In

'Udyamam Nelahaludu' (1971) he labelled himself thus:

I am Naxalbari!

I am Mushahari!
I am Srikakulam!
Renegade! I am Revolution
I am the man who sprouted
57
from the blood flood of those martyrs!

1
" II ma
. h. op. ctt.
.
1
• Shiva Sagar, Uclayamam Nalahaludu (an anthology of poems). (Srujana
Pmcharanalu, Hanumakonda. 19M3), p. 49 (Tmnslatcd by the researcher).
 'Shiva Sagar' has been the bridge between the Progressive
writers of the f~ and the Revolutionary writers of the sev.IM1'(ies,
roatinuing the ongoing Dalit democra,t.ft revolution. As a revolutionary
he sounded his revolutionary 'Gong bells' as early as the seventies, to
unite all working classes. This poem reveals:

Workers, Fanners,

Weavers, Labourers

Hamali, Kalasi,

Kammari, Kummari,

Oppressed, Suppressed

March on! March on!

Bang the Gong bells

trot out! trot!!

5R
Move on! Move on!

'Shiva Sagar's' 'Chelli! Chandramma' poem became the

symbolic representation of thousands of Dalit women who have silently
borne the suppression by the hegemonic caste oppressors. It was a
glowing tribute to all those Dalit women who were harassed and
tormented by the landlords. His other poems, 'Nantdol Hhaskantda!'
and '0! Vilukada!' (0! Bowman!, 1973) both have documented the

\" Ibid .. p. H(translated by the researcher).

course of revolutionary struggle. Despite State repression, the movement
survived and continues, he says. The bullet hit ou;y the thigh, which
cfipplcfi movement, but not thP. chest, vvhich would have killed tb;
movement.

C. Varahala Rao, or 'CV' as he is knovm in the litenu-y wotld,

ber.ame the starting point for the present generation of Dalit poetry. His
poems 'Satyakama .lahha/i', 'Narahhali' (Human Sacrifice),
'Samskritika Punarujjee\'Gnam' (Cultural renaisance) and
'Varnavyavastha' (Caste System) have been masterpieces of Dalit
poetry. They have played a significant role in the production of a
counter-hegemonic ideology. In addition they reflect the sorrow a..:d
anguish of the Dalits. In his 'Paris Commune' poem CV suggested an
lndianized Marxism with class/caste debate. His poems have given the
earliest direction for the synthesization of Marxism and Ambedkar. )'l

Present-day Dalit literature is an inevitable spontaneous upsurge

of the suppressed voice of the Dalit masses. Their literary expressions\
are a compulsive outburst of stored anger, untold misery, resentment,
poverty, injustice, disillusionment. mental and physical persecutions.
They give voice to the Dalits' tom1ents and distressful social position in
the oppressive caste system. Bo.ija Tarakam in his poem 'I am an
Untouchable' (I 976) laments:

I am an untouchable
My carcass smells dirt

'~ Taken from the introductory poem on CV by Shambhuka. l'oyicleemihenol/am

(an anthology of poems). (Dalila Vimochana Samithi, Mangalagiri. 1'.192). p. 10.
(Telugu)
 My life is full of bonded cry
My eyes filled with radiance
0 r... sunne d m
· s·· un, o.r rame
· d ·m ram,
·

My head like
tighten banyan suckers

I was told to cany the dead cows

I was told to make shoes out of it
I was told not to wear them, never
I was told to live like tha{'0

But he repudiates this endless prostrating life and asserts confidently:

I am coming ...
by mutilating thy
despotic darkness
I am erupting ...
by cracking thy
barriers and trammels

I am whirlwind, Gust
Mud, Pyramid
Thunder, Flash
Chasm, Ocean
Current, Deluge
Magnanimous, Inferno

"" Tarakarn Bo_ija. Nadipuuna <iontuka (Jail Pomes) (Janapada Pmchuranalu.

Hyderabad. 19!!3), p. 7!! (Tmnslatcd by the researcher).
 Alpha, Omega
. hi
I am ccmmg

Dal!t identity metati1Gi'pl:osed from PaHC~-~-~ u~..;habie, r

Harijan to Dalit. Each stage itas its own hi:;torical significance. in
---\
Andhra, the Daiit fuather metamorphosed into a r~axalite. SaiandrC<· in his
historic poem 'Dalit Manifesto' ( 1981) disputes and chr.llcnges all that
past paradoxical record of the hegemonic caste system:

Mine
You asked me not to enter into the temple
Well, anyhow
I am happy being an atheist
Mine
Proscribes not to study
It I study ordered to show the tongue
Well, anyhow

l comprehend how gullible you are

how prodigious you are

One uttered me
As an 'untouchable'
Another affinned
As 'Harijan'
Some rogue judged me

''' Ibid .. p.!IK (Translated by the researcher)

170
 as a 'Wretched'
What is it for me?

Whosoever, whatever mrumer calls

When I myself am a 'Naxalite'
Ha\~ng on their values
becoming a blubbering burp
or a camel's eye
conjuring up his principles
in my trauma

Yes
What is it for me?
62
Whosoever calls, whatsoever manner

In the same tone Gaddar says that the Dalits, even if they change
religion, even if they change their caste, would not be able to change
their identity. The only way for them is to take up arms, to capture State J
power:

Slave Slave
they serf 0 lord saying so
he like how Iong-O Malanna
Why don't you revolt---0 Madiganna

6
~ G. Laxmi Nar.uasaiah and Srinivas Tripurdnei (cd.). Chikkanautunna /'ala: /Jalit
Poetry (Kavitwam Pr.tchuranalu. vijayawada. 1995). pp.204-5 (Tmnslatcd by the
researcher).

171
 In Madras State
Madigas Matas
unbearable of landlords' oppression
Then embraced Islam

Shankacharigadu
Skew whiffed
Hindu Society became
topsy-turvy

Even if you change religion

Your life won't be changing
Even if you change caste
you won't be getting food

You without ruling the State

Your fate does not change
For the State power Malanna
63
Take the rifle Madiganna

G. Anjaiah questions the dominance of the feudal landlordism

and asserts that without the labour and sweat of the Dalits there would
be no such thing as village or town. Every village is sustained by their
hard work, ploughing, guarding, grazing, washing. Every task has to be
done by them only. Without their contribution every socially productive
instrument designed and owned by the landlords would be of no use:

11
'· Sec, J. Tirumala Rao and Kuma Ashok (cd.). /)a/ita Geetalu (lnd part). (Sa.hithi
Circle. Hydembad. 1993), pp.l34-5. (Translated by the researcher)

172
 Village is ours! This street is ours!
Hamlet is ours! We are for every work!
Hammer is ours! Knife is ours!
Crowbar is ours! Spade is ours!
Cart is ours! Bullock is ours!
64
Why is lord and lordship

'Shambuka' (pen name) in his poem 'Poyedecmi Lenol/am' (We

have nothing to lose) exposes the real picture of caste hypocrisy and
how it has contaminated even the powerful Naxalite movement. He
wonders how hellish is caste hypocrisy:

If Madiga wear Khadi

He is a hopeless fool
If Karnma wears it
He is simple ideal Satyagrahi
Ah! Caste!
How cruel you are

If Brahmin says there is no caste

He is a great reformer
If Mala propagates the same
He is a dangerous casteist
Oh! caste!
How brutal your are

64
Jana Natya. Afandalit /'atalu Kranti /'rachuranalu. p. 21 (Translated by the
researcher).

171
 If Nagi Reddy, Pulla Reddy
You don't find caste
3ut in Satya Murthy, Padn.a Rao
Caste smell is gushing out
Ah! Caste!
. (>5
How f unny your are.

frhe present generation Dalit literature is not a stream of pleasure. \ .

it is not a regurgitation of freakish romantic memories, not even short-
lived emotions. It is, rather, a philosophical dialogue, a socio-cultural\
and politico-cultural assertion. It represents the struggle among the 1

social forces rather than individual forccs.r.c. The common contexts of\1
I
the present Dalit literature are: alienation. oppression, brutal force.
agony, perpetual atrocities, anger, pain, privations, and sorrows. At the
same time it aims at caste-class Dalit struggle, for the creation of ,
revolutionary consciousness, self-respect, emancipation, attacking on all
social evils. It aspir~_jru:-state power. It opposes· the concepts of
pessimism, cynicism. stoicism, fatalism. superstition and romanticism. It
is the real experiences of organic life. It is for new hope, humanism.
equality, brotherhood, it endeavours a new socio-cultural identity.;

After Karamchedu, Dalit literature was thoroughly radicalized. /

Many Dalit intellectuals emerged from the Karmchedu movement. Katti
Padma Rao, the leader of this movement has written many poems on
Dalits. His 'Jalu Gantalu' (1988), 'Jana Geetam', 'Desam Diary'

M Shambulla. l'oyedeeni /,enol/a (An anthology or poems). (Dalila Vimochana

Samithi. Mangalagi. 19'12). p. 33 (Translated by the researcher).
r.t. An Introduction "Question Hour" by Afsar to Ramesh.S. Tallikodi Hecharika.
long poem. Pmjwalilha Publications. Hyderabad. I'J95.

17-l
(1989), 'Telugu vari Hochiman Shiv Sagar', 'Red Star', 'On
Sankarcharia' have created tremendous Dal it consciousness. His 'Des am
Diary' has been the most per1inent critique of Telugu Desam
government:

Padirikuppam, Karamchedu
Tadiparthi, Kottakota,
Neerukona, Dontali
Shiraluru, Bandlapalli
Countrywide bloodshed
by the oppressed Dalits
for their emancipatory struggles
7
Welcome! Welcome('

Gorate Venkanna also asks the Dalits to revolt against the

atrocities inflicted on them by upper castes:

How many times these macabre

How many shall we perish
(Dalitanna) get organized or we can't stand
(Dalitanna) raise the rifle, or we can't Iive. 6R

Vanga Poudu Prasad depicts the deplorable plight of Dalits in

their poverty-stricken, dirty, thatched colony:

There is Malapeta
at the end of the village

67
Satyanrayana, Telugu/o /)a/ita Sahi~vam.
N< Tirumala Rao and Kununa Ashok. p. IOIJ.

175
 of being oppressed
61
at the end of the village. '

Masterji, singer, lyricist, dramatist, is among the leading Dalit

organic intellectuals who is propagating Ambedkarism along with
Marxism. Masterji's song on Ambedkar, 'Take Salutes Baba Ambedkar'
became the chorus for the present Dalit movement. His song 'Deena
Bandavulu' (Saviours of the Helpless) became the Dalit national

anthem.

Great many born great

But all are not saviours of helpless
few only could liquidate our problems
Who really gave up their lives
Among them were Phule
70
Ambedkar and Periyar

Masterji propounds and propagates his own theory called

---
'Moolavasi Siddantam' or the theory of aboriginism. According to this
theory, Mala, Madiga and other bahujans are the real natives of this
land, but in the historical process they have been suppressed and made
slaves by the Aryans who were barbarians:

Adi Hindus-Nations Nudes

Real Indians are-Adi Indians
Aryans invaded-fought

n'J K. CharJkadu (compiled). Dalila /'ala /'mmur (loka~·ata Pmchuranalu. JIJ')(,).

p. 70.
70
Mastetji, Dalila Cieelalu (Dalit Writers. Anisls. Intellectuals United Forum.
Hydembad). p. 2.

176
 Weaponless-Dravidians were
defeated and-made slaves
Today they-are the Dalits.
-,

His poem 'Nee/-/,a/' (Blue and Red) seeks a synthesis of

Ambedkarism and Marxism:

Under Blue Red flag "0 Sister"

You and me as equals "0 Sister"
Be ready for the Struggle "0 sister"
then only
Oppressed would get emancipation "0 sister"
To dismantle the oppressor's rule "0 sister"
72
To accomplish the Dalit rule "0 sister"

Gaddar and Masterii are two powerful agents of the new

demo~ratic Dalit cultural revolution. Gaddar represents the Marxist-
Leninist party and he leads its cultural organization Janana~dali (
JNM). Masterji represents the Dalit bahujan organization and in 1978
started the Dalita Kala Mandali, an independent Dalit cultural
organization. Gaddar's songs are dynamic, a torrent, and a powerful
weapon for revolutionary movement. But his conclusions are class
struggle, armed struggle and Marxism and revolution. Masterji's songs
are having a moving force, they represent the real organs of Dalit history
a(Jd culture. His songs are mostly centered around Ambedkarism.

71
Ibid., pp. 7-X.
12
Ibid .. p. 4'J.

177
 U. Sarnbashi\'a Rao, Krantikiran, Satish__ Chaday, G. Shank;r,
Endheri _Sudhakar, Johnoor, Sahu. G. Anjaiah. Rama Ra<.\ Kalekuri
Prasad (Yuruka) and many other poets and lyricists have also come up.
Satish Chandar's J>anchama Vedam, an anthology of poems, created
considerable heat in Telugu literature. U. Sambashra Rao's song en
'Dalit Maslim bhai bhai' seeks to unite the Daiit struggle.

The Dalit story and novel also occupied a distinct place in Telugu
literature. The themes of these stories reveal the reality and typical
depiction of the Dalits' life, centered around their daily struggle against
the caste-ridden society. Similarly, they reflected the denial of public
places, traditional impositions, poverty, pain, humiliations. Kolukaalill:.i
Euaya~~b.a~:'i~~~2L!La short story about the denial of access to
the public well in a small village. In order to protest the upper caste
dominance Dalits unitedly dumped the carcass of an animal in the public
. well, which led to retaliation by the upper castes.n

Boya Jangaiah's 'Bancha Rai' (1984) is a short story about the

grabbing of Dalit land by the upper caste landlords in the name of a
temple or sacred place. B.S. Ramulu 's Bratukupoom (Struggle for
Existence, 1982), is a novel about the wretched beedi (cigar) workers'
life in Telengana, written in language typical ofTelengana. B.S. Ramulu
has also written Contradictions ( 1990) and Bandhi ( 1995). His works
are widely read in Andhra. P. Nasaraiah's Eporatam AKadu (1992) is a
collection of short stories about the Dalits' life in coastal Andhra. There
are nine stories, dealing with bonded labour, land alienation, temple

1
: Chandrashekar Reddy and K. La.ximinarayana (cd.), /)a/ita 1\atha/u (Vishalandra
Publishing House, Hydcrabad. IIJIJ(,). pp. IJIJ-12(,,

17X
entry, education, etc. Allam Rajaiah 's Bhoomi ( 1982) and Agnikanam
( 1983), which are collections of stories, have become the primary
weapons for introducing revolutionary ideas among the tribals and other
Dalits in Telengana. Sahu and Dadattyat have also written stories
depicting Dalit problems.

After Kararnchedu, the first Alllndia_ Dalit Writers-Conference

v-
was h5_1~7 at Hyderabad. Nearly 528 delegates for all over India
attended. The conference was a unique effort of Boii!l Tarakarn. The r

conference unanimously took an oath saying that Dalit writers would

hold the torch of liberation and participate in people's movements. The
aims of the conference was to promote a casteless and classless society
based on human values, justice, liberty, equality and fraternity. It was
also emphasized at the conference that Dalit literature should should not
only act as a source of inspiration for oppressed people but also become
74
an instrument to ignite consciousness and courage.

The establishment of the Ambedkar Memorial Trust in 1986 also

helped to create a counter-ideology to caste dominance. ·The objectives
of the trust were to propagate the ideals of Ambedkar for establishing a
casteless and classless society; to publish books, journals and
periodicals, phamplets and conduct seminars mainly impressing the
necessity to abolish the caste system and eradicate untouchability; to
encourage writers, artists and dramatists who worked for the
propagation of removal of untouchability and the caste system. In
keeping with its mandate, the trust has played a significant role m

14
See B. Tar.tkam (cd.). The Frist A/I India LJalit Writers Conference.

171)
 75
conducting seminars and memorial lectures regularly. The emerge1!:e
of organic Dalit cultural and literacy organizations like Dalit_Kala
Mandali, the Qalit Writers, Artist~ and Intellectuals United Fon::n
(DWAIUF)_ ~n the post-Chundur (_1_92_!) period have brought about a
perceptible ch3!!ge in the socio-cultural milieu. "These organizations
have been an instrumental in spreading the anti-caste message of
76
Ambedkar through song, story and speech". Further the DWAIUF has
regularly conducted workshops for Dalit young men and women to
identity their inclination and talents and to train them to realize their
potential. 77 The starting of their own publications like Lokayata, Nalupu,
Eduveetam have also played a vital role in spreading the counter-

hegemonic ideology.

Dalit literary criticism of Katti Padma Rao 's Social

Revolutionary Writers: A /Jalitist Utermy Critique ( 1995) has been the

best literary critique. It forms part of the syllabus for postgraduate

students of Telugu. His essay on reservations, entitled "Reservation and
Hindu Mathonmadam" ( 1991) and his book Caste and Alternative
Culture ( 1995) have been trenchant critiques of the hegemonic upper
caste culture and ideology. Kancha llaiah 's essays on reservations,
particularly 'Paranna Bukkulu Pratihha (iurinch Matladutunnai'
(Parasites are talking about the merit), which were regularly published
in Nalupu, his highly Dalit organic intellectual mature work, Why I am
not a Hindu, A Sudra Critique of Hindutva l'hilo.wphy, Culture and
J'olitical Economy (1996) have become critical texts of the present

'' Interview with Gnaneswar. 21 January I'J<J7

° K. Srinivasulu ... BSP and Caste Politics··. F/'11'.
7
I October I<J<J.t
77
Ibid.

IXO
ongoing Dalit literary movement. Bo.ija Tarakam' s essay, "Caste Class"
(1996), B.S. Ranulu's, Amhedkarism and Socialism (1994), U.
Sambhasiva Rao' s qandani Prakkadasi Pattinchi, Errajandin lvfuduku
Teesu/eelagalar? (Distracting Agenda, Can you carry forward the Red
flag?) was a critical evaluation of the Marxist-Leninist movement from
1967 to 1987. Among the other literary critics from the Dalit intellectual
community are: G. Laxmi Narasaiah, Endhuri Sudhakar, K.S. Chalam,
Shiva Sagar, Bo.ija Tarakam and Vijaya Bharathi.

After Chundur many anthologies of poems have been published

by Dalit intellectuals. Some of them was, Rakta Khsetram (Blood-
soaked Field, 1991 ), a long heart-rending poem by Padma Rao about the
Chun~sacre. ( .'hikkanau:hunna Pata (Song of Solidarity, 1995), is
an anthology of poems written by Dalits, OBCs and minorities. These
illuminating, rebellious poems were a spontaneous outpouring in
reaction to Karamchedu, Chundur and Ayodhya events where the upper
castes had instigated a carnage against the Dalits. These poems are
testimony to the inflating, sharpening Dalit literary tone in Andhra
Pradesh.

Sunkara Ramesh' s Tall ikodi Hec:hcharika (The caution of mother

hen, 1995), is a long poem. In it the mother hen cautions her Dalit brood
about the conspiracies of the upper castes to swallow them. M. Nagesh
Babu' s Velinade ( 1991) is an anthology of poems on sundry issues.
Exposing the evil practices of caste system and atrocities committed by
the upper castes on Dalits and minorities, he asks the Dalit mothers to
conceive swords in order to bring about Dalit revolution:

lXI
 Tell our
expectant mothers
to beget razor-sharp SWO!lls
tell our fellows
Not to make shoes with own skin
78
And ask them to use their landlord's skin.

Nishani ( 1995) is an anthology of protest poems written by

Khaza, Nagesh Babu and Theresh Babual Veeraiah. These poems brim
with anger against the upper caste pseudo writers on Dalit themes. They
attack those writers who intend to write on Dalits only to earn a name
and fame without losing their upper caste identity. The Dalit Manifesto
( 1995) is another anthology of poems written by Dalit activists,
intellectuals and young Dalit scholars. Shiv~'s famous poem
'Marching History' appears in it. This poem has been regarded as the
"poem of the present generation". Summarizing the present Dalit
movement Shiva Sagar notes:

Shambuka Sneeringly
Slaying Rama
Ekalavya's hatchet hewing
the thumbs of Orona
Bali's tiny foot trampling
Vamana underneath
Manu of being pinned eyes
of snapping off tongue

'" M. Nagcsh Babu, l"e/ivada, An Antho/ol!._v of /'onus Narasa Rao /'oet (Srija
Publications. 1995), p. 40.

IX2
 of pouring lead in ears
Foiling in the graveyard

Positioned on the butchered

cutter of the epoch
the roaring chandal~
sibilating four hunter hounds
on Shankara

Well done ... !

The present marching history
79
in the history of real Chanda Ia!

Summing up

The emergence of the Dalit movement was associated with the

outpouring of prodigious and powerful literature bearing on the theme
of Dalit erniDJcipation. Dalit literature had transformed from passive
supplication and pleading of an earlier generation to the higher level of
revolutionary consciousness while posing a challenge to the established
order. There has been a vast gulf between Dalit organic intellectuals and
non-Dalit writers, in their expression and content. Though non-Dalit
writers have dealt with the caste and untouchability problem in their
writings, their literary expressions were not able to touch the inner
psychological world of Dalit agony. At best, they remained sympathetic
but did not pose any systematic attack on the real oppressive institutions.

''' /)a/it Manifesto: An Antholoxv of /'oems hv l"ispotana (Ccntml University.

Hydcrbad, 1995). p. 114.

IX3
 Dalit literature has created a vast space for the emergence of new
organic Oalit intellectuals. They were the real actors in the new
democratic revolutionary movement. They were also acri·.:e!y invoived
in the construction of new ideas, and were producers of new knowledge
which was based on their real social experience. The secular fornt of
Oalit literature could be noticed with the emergence of the new Dalit
bahujan literature encompassing the minorities, women and other
bahujan oppressed classes. Its secular content is not just the expression
of their reflective mode of thinking but it fundamentally aimed at the
intended new democratic revolution which would alter the present
position of Dalits and other oppressed masses. Thus Dalit literature is
evolving with a tremendo~ __p.oten.tiaLofemancipatm-y-zeaLand \ Vith
1

hurnani:zing content alo!lg with the Dalit movement.

IM4