1.

Gerund
The gerund is a non-finite form of the verb. The other non-finite verb forms
are the infinitive and the participle.
2. Using gerund as prepositions
Gerunds are often used after prepositions. Gerunds in the function of
prepositional indirect objects are used after various phrasal verbs, adjectives
and participles that require certain prepositions. Gerunds as prepositional
objects are used after many phrasal verbs, for example, after "accuse of,
agree on, apologize for, approve of, believe in, blame for, care about,
complain about, complain of, confess to, consent to, consist in, consist of,
count on, depend on, disapprove of, dream of, feel like, feel up to, forget
about, forgive for, insist on, keep from, lead to, long for, look forward to,
mean by, object to, pay for, persist in, prevent from, remind of, result in,
return to, save from, succeed in, suspect of, take to, talk into, talk out of,
thank for, think about, think of, work on, worry about".

Excuse me for interrupting you.

Thank you for coming.

3. Common verbs by gerund

admit He admitted cheating on the test.

advise [9] The doctor generally advised drinking low-fat milk.
allow [9] Ireland doesn't allow smoking in bars.
anticipate I anticipated arriving late.
appreciate I appreciated her helping me.
avoid He avoided talking to her.
begin [14] I began learning Chinese.
can't bear [14] He can't bear having so much responsibility.
can't help He can't help talking so loudly.
can't see I can't see paying so much money for a car.
can't stand [14] He can't stand her smoking in the office.
cease [14] The government ceased providing free healthcare.
complete He completed renovating the house.
consider She considered moving to New York.
continue [14] He continued talking.
defend The lawyer defended her making such statements.
delay He delayed doing his taxes.
deny He denied committing the crime.
despise She despises waking up early.
discuss We discussed working at the company.
dislike She dislikes working after 5 PM.
don't mind I don't mind helping you.
dread [13] She dreads getting up at 5 AM.
encourage [9] He encourages eating healthy foods.
enjoy We enjoy hiking.
finish [13] He finished doing his homework.
forget [13] I forgot giving you my book.
hate [14] I hate cleaning the bathroom.
imagine He imagines working there one day.
involve The job involves traveling to Japan once a month.
keep She kept interrupting me.
like [14] She likes listening to music.
love [14] I love swimming.
mention He mentioned going to that college.
mind Do you mind waiting here for a few minutes.
miss She misses living near the beach.
need [13] The aquarium needs cleaning.
neglect [14] Sometimes she neglects doing her homework.
permit [9] California does not permit smoking in restaurants.
postpone He postponed returning to Paris.
practice She practiced singing the song.
prefer [14] He prefers sitting at the back of the movie theater.
propose [14] I proposed having lunch at the beach.
quit [13] She quit worrying about the problem.
recall Tom recalled using his credit card at the store.
recollect She recollected living in Kenya.
recommend Tony recommended taking the train.
regret [13] She regretted saying that.
remember [13] I remember telling her the address yesterday.
report He reported her stealing the money.
require [9] The certificate requires completing two courses.
resent Nick resented Debbie's being there.
resist He resisted asking for help.
risk He risked being caught.
start [14] He started studying harder.
 stop [13] She stopped working at 5 o'clock.
suggest They suggested staying at the hotel.
tolerate I tolerated her talking.
try [13] Sam tried opening the lock with a paperclip.
understand I understand his quitting.
urge [9] They urge recycling bottles and paper.

4. Special expressions by gerund

The gerund is necessary after the expressions can't help, can't stand, to be
worth, & it's no use.

She couldn't help falling in love with him.

I can't stand being stuck in traffic jams.
It's no use trying to escape.
It might be worth phoning the station to check the time of the train.

He apologized for being late.

They objected to going hiking.
He prevented her from going out.
She complained about having a headache.
They insisted on talking to the manager.
They enjoyed watching Northern Exposure.
She avoided going through the Common.
She didn't mind writing the letter again.
She considered applying for a post at that company.
She suggested performing a play at school.
They don't risk being late.
They liked going to the zoo when they were little.
He prefers riding to walking. (but: I prefer to do this now.)
They hate getting homework. (but: I hate to do it now.)
They dislike getting homework.
She would not even think of cheating.
He succeeded in becoming a famous physician.
He isn't interested in emigrating to the U.S.A.
He dreams of becoming a rich man.
We look forward to meeting them again.
He is proud of being good at English.
She doesn't feel like going out tonight.
He couldn't help laughing when he saw her in that dress.
I can't stand taking exams.
It's not worth mentioning.
It's no use complaining about that.
They aim at becoming rich and famous.

5.Common verbs by infinitive

agree Tom agreed to help me.

appear His health appeared to be better.
arrange Naomi arranged to stay with her cousin in Miami.
ask [8] She asked to leave.
begin [13] He began to talk.
can't bear [14] He can't bear to be alone.
can't stand [14] Nancy can't stand to work the late shift.
care He doesn't care to participate in the activity.
cease [14] The government ceased to provide free healthcare.
choose [8] I chose to help.
claim She claimed to be a princess.
continue [14] She continued to talk.
decide We decided to go to Hawaii.
demand He demanded to speak to Mr. Harris.
deserve He deserves to go to jail.
dread [13] I dread to think what might happen.
expect [8] They expect to arrive early.
fail He failed to get enough money to pay for the new project.
forget [13] I forgot to lock the door when I left.
get (be allowed to)Debbie gets to go to the concert next week! Why can't I?
happen She happened to be at the bank when it was robbed.
hate [14] He hates to clean dishes.
hesitate She hesitated to tell me the problem.
hope I hope to begin college this year.
intend We intend to visit you next spring.
learn I learned to speak Japanese when I was a kid.
like [14] Samantha likes to read.
love [14] We love to scuba dive.
manage He managed to open the door without the key.
need [8,13] I need to study.
neglect [14] She neglected to tell me the date of the meeting.
offer Frank offered to drive us to the supermarket.
plan We plan to go to Europe this summer.
prefer [14] He prefers to eat at 7 PM.
prepare [8] They prepared to take the test.
pretend The child pretended to be a monster.
promise [8] She promised to stop smoking.
propose [14] Drew proposed to pay for the trip.
refuseThe guard refused to let them enter the building.
regret [13] I regret to inform you that your application was rejected.
remember [13] Did you remember to lock the door when you left?
seem Nancy seemed to be disappointed.
start [13] Marge started to talk really fast

6.common verbs by infinitive and gerund

7.verbs by gerund infinitive !

Verbs that are followed by other verbs can take either the gerund or the
infinitive. A gerund is a verb ending in "ing" that functions as a noun. An
infinitive is the basic or root form of a verb, typically preceded with "to.

8 using verbs of perception

In English grammar, a verb of perception is a verb (such as see, watch, look,
hear, listen, feel, and taste) that conveys the experience of one of the
physical senses. Also called perception verb or perceptual verb.
Distinctions can be drawn between subject-oriented and object-oriented
verbs of perception
Hear, see, watch, notice and similar verbs of perception can be followed by
object + infinitive without to or object + -ing form.

There is usually a difference of meaning between the two structures.

The infinitive is used after these verbs when we want to say that we hear or
see the whole of an action or event. The –ing form is used to suggest that we
hear an action or event in progress.

I saw him throwing stones at the dogs. (= He kept throwing stones.)

After these verbs possessive forms cannot be used with an –ing form.

I saw Peter getting out of the train. (NOT I saw Peter’s getting out of the
train.)

Object + past participle

The verbs see, hear, watch, notice etc., can also be followed by an object +
past participle.

In this structure, the past participle has a passive meaning.

I heard my name repeated several times. (= My name was repeated several
times.)

Look at

Look at can be followed by object + -ing form. In American English, object

+ infinitive is also possible.

Look at him dancing!

9. Causative Verbs In English: Let, Help

Grammatical structure:

LET + PERSON/THING + VERB (base form)

Examples:

I don’t let my kids watch violent movies.

Oops! I wasn’t paying attention while cooking, and I let the food burn.
.
Remember: The past tense of let is also let; there is no change!

Note: The verbs allow and permit are more formal ways to say “let.”
However, with allow and permit, we use to + verb:

I don’t allow my kids to watch violent movies.

Our boss doesn’t permit us to eat lunch at our desks.

Grammatical structure:

HELP + PERSON + VERB (base form)

HELP + PERSON + TO + VERB
After “help,” you can use “to” or not – both ways are correct. In general, the
form without “to” is more common:

He helped me carry the boxes.

He helped me to carry the boxes.
Reading before bed helps me to relax
10. it+ infinitive
11.too and enough ,adj after infinitive

'Too' and 'Enough'

When used with the adverbs 'too' and 'enough', the infinitive describes the
conditions needed for something to be done. The conditions can be signified
by an adjective. For example, “warm” - adjective

TOO
There can only be a specific amount of “warmth” for something to be done.
If the condition of “warmth” is over this limit, we use

'too' + adjective + infinitive

to describe this situation:

“It is too warm to work.”

(This means that the level of 'warmth' is over the limit needed to work)

ENOUGH
If the level of “warmth” is the correct amount, we use

adjective + 'enough' + infinitive:

“It is warm enough to work.”

(We can work because the amount of 'warmth' available is sufficient)
 12 passive and past form of infinitive and gerund

13.using gerund or passive infinitive following need

14.using a possessive to modify a gerund

15.infinitive of pupose

We can use to + infinitive to say why we do something. It tells the other person the
reason. We need to have a normal verb as well.

I went on holiday (this is what I did) to relax (this is why I did it).

She studies hard to get good marks.

He gave up cakes to lose weight.

Be careful! In many languages, we use 'for + infinitive'. This is not correct in

English. NOT: I went on holiday for relax.

The main verb can be in any tense. For example:

Present simple: I exercise every day to stay healthy.

Present continuous: He's saving money to buy a flat.

Past simple: I went to university to get a degree.

Past continuous: She was walking to the shops to buy milk when she met John.

Future simple: He'll come to the party later to pick up Julia.

Present perfect: She's gone to the library to study.

We can also use 'in order to + infinitive' and 'so as to + infinitive'. 'In order to' is a
bit more formal but the meaning is the same as 'so as to' and 'to + infinitive'.

I went on holiday to relax.

I went on holiday in order to relax.

I went on holiday so as to relax.

We can use a negative infinitive of purpose by adding 'not' before 'to'. Often we do
this with 'in order not to' and 'so as not to'.

I drank coffee in order not to fall asleep.

We can only use the infinitive of purpose if the subject of the main verb and the
infinitive of purpose are the same. If they are different, we use 'so that + clause' or
'in order that + clause'.

I went to the library to study. (I went to the library and I studied - the subject are
both 'I'.)

With the verbs 'come' and 'go', we use an infinitive of purpose when they're in a
normal tense but we often use 'and + infinitive' with imperatives or after modal
verbs.

I went home to sleep.

You must go home and sleep!

16 using causative verbs make have get

17 bare infinitive

The word to is frequently used with an infinitive, but it is not an essential part or
sign of it. When an infinitive is used without the marker to it is called a bare
infinitive.

Uses of the bare infinitive

The infinitive is used without to after certain verbs like bid, let, make, see, hear,
need, dare etc.

Let him sit there. (NOT Let him to sit there.)

She made me cry. (NOT She made me to cry.)

I heard him sing a lovely song. (NOT I heard him to sing a lovely song.)

The bare infinitive is also used after the verbs will, would, shall, should, may,
might, can, could and must.
I will wait. (NOT I will to wait.)

He can speak five languages. (NOT He can to speak five languages.)

You should come to school in time. (NOT You should to come to school in time.)

The infinitive is also used without to after had better, would rather, sooner than and
rather than.

18 verb with and without object

Some verbs always need an object. These are called transitive verbs. Some verbs
never have an object. These are called intransitive verbs. Some verbs can be used
with or without an object. These are called transitive (with an object) and
intransitive (without an object) uses of the verbs

these verbs are mostly used transitively:

ask, describe, get, need, take, attend, discuss, like, raise, telephone, believe,
emphasise, join, receive, use, buy, enjoy, lose, say, want, consider, expect, love,
suggest, watch, contact, find, make

Did you enjoy the film?

I can’t find her name on the list.

Suzanne took my car keys.

These objects (underlined above) are called direct objects.

Warning:

We don’t need a preposition after these verbs:

The book emphasises the role of the arts in society.

Verbs which are most commonly used intransitively:

Appear, die, lie, sneeze, arrive, disappear, live, snow, come, fall, rain, wait,
happen, rise, work

Rita looked upset – do you know what happened?

Did it rain last night?

Transitive or intransitive

Some verbs can be used with an object (transitively) or without an object

(intransitively). Sometimes the meaning is the same. (Objects are underlined.)

Transitive, intransitive

I just can’t eat hot food.

We should leave now.

How was the match? Did you win?

Some verbs can be followed by a direct object (underlined) and a clause containing
the -ed form of a verb

Many verbs which can be followed by a that-clause can also be used with a clause
beginning with who, what, when, where, which, whose, why or how as the direct
object. We call these wh-clauses (underlined in the examples below)

19 verb+wh-clause

Wh-words are what, when, where, who, which, why and how.

We use clauses with a wh- word:

In wh-questions (see Questions and Negatives):

What are you doing?

Who ate all the pies?

Why did you do that?

after verbs of thinking:

know - understand - suppose - remember - forget - wonder

I know where you live.

She couldn’t remember who he was.

NOTE: We also use clauses with if

I wonder if we’ll see Peter.

She couldn’t remember if she had posted the letter.

after verbs of saying:

ask - say - admit - argue - reply - agree - mention - explain - suggest

I asked what she wanted.

He tried to explain how the accident had happened.

Did he say when he would come?

tell and some other verbs of saying must always have a direct object (see clauses,
sentences and phrases):

tell - remind

We tried to tell them what they should do.

after some verbs of thinking and saying we use wh-words and the to-infinitive:

We didn’t know what to do.

Nobody told me what to do.

Can anyone suggest where to go for lunch?

NOTE: We use the to-infinitive:

-- When the subject of the to-infinitive is the same as the subject of the main verb:

He didn’t know what to do >>> He didn’t know what he should do

-- When the subject of the to-infinitive is the same as the person spoken to:

Nobody told me what to do. >>> Nobody told me what I should do.

after some nouns to say more about the noun:

Is there any reason why I should stay?.

Do you remember the day when we went to Edinburgh.

I missed my bus. That’s why I was late.

This is where I live.

That’s what I thought.

20.want smt done

To "want something done" simply means you are looking for someone to take
action.

For example:

Boss: "The shipment is late, where is it?"

Worker: "I'm not sure, do you want something done about it?"

Boss: "Of course!"

In the previous scenario the boss is complaining about something. The worker then
asks if the boss wants the worker to take an action to fix the problem.

As for the difference between just wanting something and wanting something done
you can think of wanting something as referring to the desire to receive something
as opposed to the desire to have someone take action.

21.Participle

A participle, in grammatical terms, is the form of a verb that ends either in present
participle, with “-ing,” or in past participle, with “-ed

a word formed from a verb (e.g. going, gone, being, been ) and used as an adjective
(e.g. working woman, burnt toast ) or a noun (e.g. good breeding ). In English
participles are also used to make compound verb forms (e.g. is going, has been ).

Participles play various major roles in a sentence. They function as parts of verbs
or nouns or adjectives. Due to their unique features of modifying the modifiers,
such as adjectives and adverbs, participles are mostly used to beautify a piece of
poetry or prose. They also connect sentences with one another for coherence, and
show timing of the actions.

22. Types of Participle

Present Participle – Present participles express active actions and work as

adjectives. They end in “-ing,” such as carrying, tapping, and sharing. For
example;

I like that shining star.

A laughing girl is stronger than a complaining girl.

Past Participle – Past participles appear with passive actions. The past participle of
regular verbs ends in “-ed,” and the past participle of irregular verbs ends in “-d,”
“-n,” “-en,” or “-t,” such as spent, broken, and opened, etc. For example:

She has learned

Do not waste your time looking at a closed

Perfect Participle – A perfect participle is created by adding the word “having” to a

past participle. The perfect participle demonstrates an action that occurred in the
past. It appears like this: “Having + past participle …” For instance:

Having read a horror book, the girl rushed out of her room.

Having washed the dishes, Mary sat down to relax.

In these sentences the actions of reading and washing the dishes were completed in
the past. Also, one action occurred after the other: the girl rushed out of the room
after she read the book; and Mary relaxed after she washed the dishes.

23. constrictions with participle

The present participle is used in constructions with complex object after the verbs
of sense perception "hear, see, watch, observe, notice, feel" to indicate the action in
progress. For example: I saw him locking the door. I saw him watching me. I see
her smiling.

The infinitive in such constructions usually expresses a completed action, but if the
verb is of continuing nature, the infinitive can express the action in progress

Constructions after "see, hear, want, consider"

The past participle is used in constructions with complex object to show that the
person or thing indicated by the object undergoes the action indicated by the
participle.

He saw his bags put into the trunk of a large car.

In constructions like "I had it done", the past participle is used after the verb "have"
(or after "get" in informal speech) to show that the action is performed for you by
someone, usually at your request

I had my car washed.

He had his hair cut yesterday.

However, in some cases the action expressed by the participle after the verb "have"
in such constructions is performed not at your request, and the action may be
unpleasant. Examples:

She had her purse stolen yesterday

Часть 2
1. what
is the future form of must?

Past and future tense of 'must' 'Must' is effectively the present tense form of a
modal verb. Because of the nature of one of its meanings (roughly: be obliged to),
what one is obliged to do usually happens after the obligation is imposed: He must
(present obligation) go (in the future) to the doctor.

2. In
what tenses is must used?

Answers. As the past tense of "must" is also "must" (identical in form) the modal
must is normally used only in present tense to avoid ambiguity. When you need the
past tense you have to use forms of substitution verbs. "must2" (the past tense
form) can be used only in very limited cases.

3. What
is the difference between must and have to?

Must and have (got) to are used in the present to say that something is necessary or
should be done. Have to is more common in North American English, especially in
speech.

In British English there is a difference between them:

Must is used to talk about what the speaker or listener wants:

I must finish this essay today. I’m going out tomorrow.

Have (got) to is used to talk about rules, laws and other people’s wishes:
I have to finish this essay today. We have to hand them in tomorrow.

In negative sentences both must not and don’t have to are used, but with different
meanings:

Must not is used to tell somebody not to do something: Passengers must not smoke
until the signs have been switched off. The short form mustn’t is used especially in
British English: You mustn’t leave the gate open.

Don’t have to is used when it is not necessary to do something: You don’t have to
pay for the tickets in advance. She doesn’t have to work at weekends.

Both must and have to are used to say that you are certain about something (have
to is the usual verb is North American English):

He has (got) to be the worst actor on TV!

This must be the most boring party I’ve ever been to.

4. What
is the difference between must not and don’t have to?

Must not means that the action is illegal or dangerous. If I overhear the first
speaker, I think this is a doctor telling someone that his health will be ruined if
alcohol crosses his lips. He might have a serious heart condition or be taking
medication that even a drop of alcohol will impact negatively. Perhaps the speaker
is a flight or driving school instructor warning students against operating an
aircraft or a car while under the influence of alcohol. The message is that the
action could kill you and everyone else. At the very least, you will lose your
license.

Do not have to, in contrast, suggests that something isn’t necessary, that it’s a
choice. The second speaker is saying that there are many different types of
beverages in the world—water, fruit juice, soda, tea, coffee—alcohol is only one
among them. If you don’t want to drink alcohol, for reasons of taste, health or
religion, it isn’t necessary. You can decide.

5.What is the future form of can?

Сan is a defective verb, which means it does not have all valid forms used in
different tenses. For example it is not used in Future tenses, but it can be replaced
with a phrase "to be able to" which has all forms and can be used in any tense
(excluding continuous/progressive tenses which are not used for modal verbs can,
must, should etc.).

The forms of phrase "be able to" consist of appropriate form of verb "to be" +
"able to". Examples:

Future Simple: will be able to

Present Perfect: have/has been able to

Future Perfect: will have been able to

6. !!! What is the synonym of don’t have to do?

We use don’t have to to show that there is no obligation. You can do something if
you want to but it’s not compulsory.

You don’t have to wear a tie in our office. You can wear a tie if you want to but
it’s OK if you don’t.

It’ll be nice if you do but you don’t have to come with me if you don’t want to.

You don’t have to dress up for the party. Wear whatever you feel comfortable in.

7.In what cases is zero type conditional used ?

The zero conditional is used to make statements about the real world, and often
refers to general truths, such as scientific facts. In these sentences, the time is now
or always and the situation is real and possible. The zero conditional is also often
used to give instructions, using the imperative in the main clause.

If you freeze water, it becomes a solid.

Plants die if they don't get enough water.

If my husband has a cold, I usually catch it.

8.In what cases is the first type conditional used?

The type 1 conditional refers to a possible condition and its probable result. These
sentences are based on facts, and they are used to make statements about the real
world, and about particular situations. We often use such sentences to give
warnings. In type 1 conditional sentences, the time is the present or future and the
situation is real.

If I have time, I'll finish that letter.

What will you do if you miss the plane?

Nobody will notice if you make a mistake

In type 1 conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead
of the future tense to express the degree of certainty, permission, or a
recommendation about the outcome.

EXAMPLES

If you drop that glass, it might break.

9. In
what cases is second type conditional used?

Second Conditional

Learn English Grammar - Second Conditional

If I were an animal, I’d be a tiger!

Use the Second Conditional to talk about impossible, imaginary, or unlikely

situations:

If I were an animal, I’d be a tiger. (impossible)

What would you do if you had a billion dollars? (imaginary)

If Americans ate less fast food, they’d be healthier. (unlikely)

CONDITION: if + subject + past simple

RESULT: subject + would/might/could + verb

With would, it’s common to use the contractions:

I’d, you’d, he’d, she’d, we’d, they’d

10. In
what cases is the third type conditional used?

In a Type 3 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and
the tense in the main clause is the perfect conditional or the perfect continuous
conditional.

As in all conditional sentences, the order of the clauses is not fixed. You may have
to rearrange the pronouns and adjust punctuation when you change the order of the
clauses, but the meaning is identical.

If it had rained, you would have gotten wet.

You would have gotten wet if it had rained.

The type 3 conditional refers to an impossible condition in the past and its probable
result in the past. These sentences are truly hypothetical and unreal, because it is
now too late for the condition or its result to exist. There is always some
implication of regret with type 3 conditional sentences. The reality is the opposite
of, or contrary to, what the sentence expresses. In type 3 conditional sentences, the
time is the past and the situation is hypothetical.
EXAMPLES

If I had worked harder I would have passed the exam. (But I didn't work hard, and
I didn't pass the exam.)

In type 3 conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead
of "would" to express the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation
about the outcome.

EXAMPLES

If I had worked harder I might have passed the exam.

11 What mixed types of conditionals do you know?

As in all conditional sentences, the order of the clauses is not fixed. You may have
to rearrange the pronouns and adjust punctuation when you change the order of the
clauses, but the meaning is identical.

EXAMPLES

If I had worked harder at school, I would have a better job now.

I would have a better job now if I had worked harder at school.

This type of mixed conditional refers to an unreal past condition and its probable
result in the present. These sentences express a situation which is contrary to
reality both in the past and in the present. In these mixed conditional sentences, the
time is the past in the "if" clause and in the present in the main clause.

EXAMPLES
If I had studied I would have my driving license. (but I didn't study and now I don't
have my license)

In these mixed conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause
instead of would to express the degree of certainty, permission, or a
recommendation about the outcome.

EXAMPLES

If you had crashed the car, you might be in trouble.

12 What does a construction I wish+ past simple mean?

Expresses a desire related to the present or the near future, in which the speaker is
dissatisfied, annoyed or impatient. This construction can't be used when referring
to oneself (e.g. I wish I would work less ). I understand that wish + past simple
cannot be used when referring to a future action.

Constructions with the verb WISH express hypothetical, unlikely, or unreal

wishes. The Subjunctive Mood is used in the subordinate clauses after the verb
WISH to express wishes about the situations that exist at the present time (I wish
you were here) and about the situations that existed in the past (I wish you had
done it).

Construction WISH + Past Subjunctive

Конструкция WISH + Past Subjunctive

The existing situation is not the way the speaker would like it to be, but changing
the situation is unreal or unlikely. The speaker expresses regret about the existing
situation in the form of a wish that the situation were different. The verb in the
subordinate clause after WISH is used in the Past Subjunctive, which is the same
in form as the Simple Past for main verbs (e.g., asked, did), and the verb BE has
the form WERE for all persons. The examples below show the existing situations
and the wishes for changing these situations.

I don't know his address. - wish I knew his address. Meaning: I would like to know
his address, but I don't know it, and I can't find it out now. It's a pity that I don't
know his address.

13 What does a construction I wish+ past perfect mean?

The situation existed in the past. The speaker regrets that something happened (or
didn't happen) in the past. Though changing the past situation is impossible, the
speaker expresses regret in the form of a wish that the situation in the past had
been different. The verb in the subordinate clause after WISH is used in the Past
Perfect Subjunctive, which is the same in form as the Past Perfect (e.g., had asked,
had done).

The examples below show the past situations and wishes / regrets about them.

I forgot to call her yesterday. – I wish I hadn't forgotten to call her yesterday.

14 What does a construction I wish+ would mean?

The verb WOULD with the simple infinitive is used after WISH to express a wish
that someone would do something to change the existing situation. The wish is
usually a combination of a request to do something and a complaint about the
existing situation or about someone's actions. Since the speaker addresses his wish
to someone else, WOULD is used with the pronouns "he, she, it, you, they", but
not with "I, we".

Situation: You use my computer without my permission. – Wish: I wish you

wouldn't use my computer without my permission
15 What are the ways to omit if in conditional sentences?

Omitting If in Conditional Sentences

When using the conditional with the verbs “be”, “have”, and “should”, the word “if
may be omitted.

Example: If
Mary had known that she would get into trouble, she would have spoken to Prof.
Donahue.

With a sentence as the one above, here are the steps to follow:

1. The
word “if” is deleted.

2. The
subject, Mary, is placed between had and known.

3. If the
sentence is negative, the negation goes after the subject.

Example: Had
Mary known that she would get into trouble, she would have spoken to Prof.
Donahue.

Had the boys not spoken to their dad, they would have been punished.

16 What tense forms can be followed by wish?

When we use wish followed by a verb in the to-infinitive form, wish means the
same as want, but it is more formal. We do not normally use wish in the
continuous form when we use it with a to-infinitive:
I wish to speak to Mr Hennessy, please.

Not: I’m wishing to speak to …

We don’t use a that-clause after wish when it is a more formal version of want:

I wish to visit you in the summer, if possible.

Not: I wish (that) I visit you in the summer …

We can use an object (underlined), before the to-infinitive:

I did not wish my family to know about Sara, so I told them nothing.

When we use an object after wish, we must also use a verb in the to-infinitive
form. Alternatively, we can say want or (more politely) would like:

We wish to have a table near the window, please. (or We would like a table near
the window, please.)

Not: We wish a table near the window …

Wish + indirect object + direct object

We use wish with two objects, an indirect object + a direct object (underlined), for
expressions of good wishes and hopes that good things will happen to people:
(io = indirect object; do = direct object)

I wish

[IO]

you

[DO]

success

in your new job.

17 What other words/expressions can be used instead of if?

. Replacing if

If can be replaced by words or expressions with a similar meaning.

The most common are:

as long as

assuming (that)

on condition (that)

on the assumption (that)

provided (that)

supposing (that)

unless

with the condition (that)

2. Omitting if

Had I known... (instead of If I had known...)

Were you my daughter,... (instead of: If you were my daughter,...)

Should you need my advice,... (instead of: If you should need my advice,...)

3. if ↔ when

3.1. if and when are interchangeable when the statement of the conditional clause
is a fact or a general issue (also known as zero conditional)

If you heat ice, it melts.

When you heat ice, it melts

3.2. if is used for something that, according to the speaker, might happen.

We can spend the afternoon on the beach if the weather is fine.

3.3. when is used for something that, according to the speaker, will happen.

I will clean up the kitchen right away when I'm back from work.

4. in case ↔ if

in case of can be used to shorten an if-clause as shown below:

If there is a fire, leave the room.

In case of fire, leave the room.

While if expresses a condition (1), in case is used to express a possibility (2).

I need painkillers if I'm in severe pain.

I need painkillers in case I'm in severe pain.

The expression just in case is used pretty much the same way.

I got you a pizza just in case you were hungry. (I don't know whether you are
hungry)

18 In what cases is past simple used in conditionals?

Use of the Simple Future in the If-Clause

Generally speaking, the simple future should be used only in the main clause. One
exception is when the action in the if-clause will take place after the action in the
main clause. For example, consider the following sentence:

If aspirin will ease my headache, I will take a couple tonight.

The action in the if-clause is the aspirin easing the headache, which will take place
only after the speaker takes them later that night.

“Were to” in the If-Clause

The verb phrase were to is sometimes used in conditional sentences when the
likely or unlikely result is particularly awful or unthinkable. In this case, were to is
used to place emphasis on this potential outcome. Consider these sentences:

If I were to be sick, I would miss another day of work.

If she were to be late again, she would have to have a conference with the
manager.

Note that the emphatic “were to” can be used to describe hypothetical scenarios in
the present, future, and past.
19. In what cases is past perfect used in conditionals?

In a Type 3 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and
the tense in the main clause is the perfect conditional or the perfect continuous
conditional.

If it had rained, you would have gotten wet.

You would have gotten wet if it had rained.

The type 3 conditional refers to an impossible condition in the past and its probable
result in the past. These sentences are truly hypothetical and unreal, because it is
now too late for the condition or its result to exist. There is always some
implication of regret with type 3 conditional sentences. The reality is the opposite
of, or contrary to, what the sentence expresses. In type 3 conditional sentences, the
time is the past and the situation is hypothetical.

The perfect conditional of any verb is composed of three elements:

would + have + past participle

Have followed by the past participle is used in other constructions as well. it is

called the "perfect infinitive".

20. What does a construction should+present perfect mean?

1: Should have + past participle can mean something that would have been a good
idea, but that you didn't do it. It's like giving advice about the past when you say it
to someone else, or regretting what you did or didn't do when you're talking about
yourself.

Shouldn't have + past participle means that something wasn't a good idea, but you
did it anyway.

I should have studied harder! (= I didn't study very hard and so I failed the exam.
I'm sorry about this now.)

I should have gone to bed early (= I didn't go to bed early and now I'm tired).
I shouldn't have eaten so much cake! (= I did eat a lot of cake and now I don't feel
good.)

You should have called me when you arrived (= you didn't call me and I was
worried. I wish that you had called me).

John should have left early, then he wouldn't have missed the plane (= but he didn't
leave early and so he did miss the plane).

2: We can also use should have + past participle to talk about something that, if
everything is normal and okay, we think has already happened. But we're not
certain that everything is fine, so we use 'should have' and not the present perfect
or past simple. It's often used with 'by now'.

His plane should have arrived by now (= if everything is fine, the plane has
arrived).

John should have finished work by now (= if everything is normal, John has
finished work).

We can also use this to talk about something that would have happened if
everything was fine, but hasn't happened.

Lucy should have arrived by now, but she hasn't.

21. What tenses can be used after modals?

We use modal verbs to show if we believe something is certain, probable or

possible (or not). We also use modals to do things like talking about ability, asking
permission making requests and offers, and so on.

The modal verbs can only be used in present tense and in past tense. They have no
infinitive and no past participle as normal verbs. So you can form no will-future or
a conditional form with would. And you can't form perfect tenses.

"must" is normally used only in present tense. The use of must (past tense) is
restricted to special cases.

22. What is the difference between could and was/were able to?
The use of ‘can/could’ and ‘to be able to’ in order to express ability, can at times
cause confusion. So, today we are going to look at these different verb
constructions and how they are used the same, and differently, to talk about ability.

Can and to be able to are usually used in the same way without a difference in
meaning, but not always…

‘Can’ is a modal auxiliary verb that expresses general ability in the present tense;
‘could’ works the same way, but in the past tense.

‘To be able to’ is not a modal auxiliary verb. It is the conjugated verb ‘to be’ + the
adverb ‘able’ + the infinitive ‘to’.

When talking/writing about ability in the present tense you can use either ‘can’ or
‘be able to’, but ‘can’ is generally more common among native speakers.

Examples:

I can speak two languages.

I am able to speak two languages.

When talking/writing about past ability you can use ‘could’ or ‘was/were able to’
in order to discuss an ability that existed for a long time, but now no longer exists.

Examples:

When I was young, I was able to speak two languages.

When I was young, I could speak two languages.

But you should only use ‘was/were able to’ with action verbs to talk about an
ability related to a single event or incident in the past.

Examples:

I was able to surprise my teacher yesterday.

Don’t say: I could surprise my teacher yesterday.

You can use either ‘could’ or ‘was/were able to’ with some stative verbs (see, hear,
feel, taste) to discuss ability related to a single event or incident in the past.

Examples:

I was able to see the teacher well from my seat yesterday.

I could see the teacher well from my seat yesterday.

It is also okay to use ‘couldn’t’ or ‘wasn’t/weren’t able to’ for negative statements
for both single events and a long period of time in the past.

Examples:

I wasn’t able to surprise my teacher yesterday. or I was never able to surprise my

teacher.

I couldn’t surprise my teacher yesterday. or I couldn’t ever surprise my teacher.

Lastly, when talking/writing about future ability in English we only use ‘will be
able to.’ We never use ‘can’ for an ability that may exist in the future.

Examples:

When I finish the advanced level English class I will be able to speak like a native
speaker.

Don’t say: When I finish the advanced level English class I can speak like a native
speaker.

But it is okay to use either ‘can’ or ‘will be able to’ when we are talking about
decisions and future arrangements.

Examples:

I can attend the class next week.

I will be able to attend the class next week.

I hope this post helps clear up any confusion you had about the different uses of
‘can/could’ and ‘to be able to’ when you are talking about present, past, and future
ability.

23. How can we express a request in English?

These are a few ways to ask permission or make a request. The actual questions
are:

‘Would you mind taking our picture?’

‘Do you mind if I leave early tomorrow?’

‘Is it OK if I use your phone?’

‘Could I borrow one of yours?’

Each different structure depends on the relationship between the people involved
and the nature of the request. 1 and 2 are more formal than 3 and 4.

Would you mind/Do you mind...?

Would you mind/Do you mind are used in more formal situations and ‘Would you
mind’ is seen as more formal than ‘Do you mind’

‘Would you mind taking our picture?’ is slightly more formal than ‘Do you mind
taking our picture?’ but the structure is very similar.

However if the person speaking asks permission to do something it changes to:

‘Would you mind if I opened a window?’

‘Do you mind if I open a window?’

The reply to granting the request or giving permission is:

‘No of course not/No, not at all.’ This can be a little confusing but consider the
meaning:

Would you mind/Do you mind = Do you have a problem?

No, not at all/No, of course not = No I don’t have a problem.

Can I/ Could I/ Is it OK if...? Yes sure/Yes of course go ahead/here you are.

When refusing permission or denying a request it is considered polite to give a

reason with phrases like; I’m sorry but... I’m afraid...

‘Do you mind if I open a window?’ ‘Well actually I’m afraid I’m expecting a call
any moment and it’s quite noisy outside. Do you mind waiting a moment?’

‘Could I use your phone?’ ‘I’m sorry but I’m out of credit right now.’

24 What does should expresss? What are its synonyms

We use should most commonly to talk about what is the ideal or best thing to do in
a situation:

There should be more public hospitals.

They should reduce the price of petrol. It’s so expensive.

There should be four more candles on the cake.

We use should have + -ed form to talk about things that were ideal in the past but
which didn’t happen. It can express regret:

Everyone knows that this is a busy restaurant. They should have made a
reservation.

I should have studied harder when I was young. I wish I had gone to college.

Advice and suggestions

We often use should to give advice and make suggestions:

You should tell him what you think.

We should leave it until tomorrow; it’s late now.

Синоним - Ought is different from other auxiliary verbs: it is followed by a to-

infinitive. Ought expresses ideas such as duty, necessity and moral obligation. It is
not as forceful as must, but it is stronger than should. You ought to visit your
friends once in a while.

25. How can we express suggestions in English?

f we make a suggestion, it means that we mention a possible course of action to

someone. There are a number of expressions which we can use to make
suggestions.

How about/what about + -ing?

How about starting a book club?

What about opening your present now?

How about + present simple?

A:

How about I pick you up at eight o’clock on my way to the airport?

B:

Great. I’ll see you then.

We often use how about and what about + noun phrase when we make suggestions
about food or drink. These suggestions are invitations

A:

Are you hungry?

B:

Yeah, how about some lunch?

What about a coffee?

See also:

Ivitations

How

What

Supposing

Why not …? and why don’t …?

We can use why not to make a general suggestion. We often find it in advertising:

Why not take a break in the south-west?

Why not treat yourself to a meal at the Icon Restaurant?

We can use why don’t …? to make a specific suggestion:

You look really tired. Why don’t you take some time out and rest?

It’s getting late in the evening now. Why don’t we stop now and work on this
tomorrow morning?

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/functions/suggestions

26.What does can’t mean?

The “Can’t” which is really “I do not want” is the hard one because there is a
question of how much hardship (either physical or emotional) the person can take
and which really depends how important something is.
Too often we do not believe in our ability to do something, refuse to try, refuse to
learn or accept general preception in the world about something being impossible.

Too often we do not believe in our ability to do something, refuse to try, refuse to
learn or accept general preception in the world about something being impossible.

27. How is a possibility in the future expressed in English?

We use the modals could, might and may to show that something is possible in the
future, but not certain:

They might come later. (= Perhaps/Maybe they will come later.)

They may come by car. (= Perhaps/Maybe they will come by car.)

If we don’t hurry we could be late. (= Perhaps/Maybe we will be late)

We use could have, might have and may have to show that something was possible
now or at some time in the past:

It’s ten o’clock. They might have arrived now.

They could have arrived hours ago.

We use the modal can to make general statements about what is possible:

It can be very cold in winter. (= It is sometimes very cold in winter)

You can easily lose your way in the dark. (= People often lose their way in the
dark)

We use the modal could as the past tense of can:

It could be very cold in winter. (= Sometimes it was very cold in winter.)

You could lose your way in the dark. (= People often lost their way in the dark)

28.What does would rather do mean? What are its synonyms? What tenses
are used after it?

If you say that you would rather do something or you'd rather do it, you mean that
you would prefer to do it. If you say that you would rather not do something, you
mean that you do not want to do it.
If it's all the same to you, I'd rather work at home.

We use would rather or ’d rather to talk about preferring one thing to another.
Would rather has two different constructions. (The subjects are underlined in the
examples.)

n negative sentences with a different subject, the negative comes on the clause that
follows, not on would rather:

She’d rather you didn’t phone after 10 o’clock.

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/ru/грамматика/британская-грамматика/verb-
patterns/would-rather-would-sooner

синоним We use the phrases would sooner and would just as soon when we say
that we prefer one thing to another thing. They mean approximately the same as
would rather:

I don’t really want to go back to France again this year. I’d sooner go to Spain.

Thanks for the invitation, but, if you don’t mind, we’d just as soon stay at home
and watch it all on TV.

Would sooner is more common than would just as soon. However, would rather is
more common than both of these phrases.

29. How ca we ask for a permission and give a permission in English?

1. You have an idea of what you want to do and want to be polite

All three phrases have the same meaning, but each of them has a slightly different
effect when it comes to how polite you are being.

May I (please)…?

This is usually very polite, and used when you are asking someone who has
authority over you for something. To make it even more polite, add the please after
asking it.

Examples

May I please use the restroom?

May I go to the park with my friends today please?

May I look over this contract and discuss it with my family members before
signing it and getting it back to you?

Can I… (please)?

Asking can you do something is more direct than using may or could. In the case
of a very formal situation, it may be better to stick with the other ways of asking
the question, but it is acceptable in many situations. If you want to be politer, it is
best to add please into the sentence, especially when you are talking to someone
who has authority over you.

Examples

Can I use your pen please?

Can I spend my weekend in Portland before traveling to Seattle?

Can I please see the detailed plans for your kitchen remodeling?

Could I… (please)?

Asking something with could is a gentler way to ask than can I. It is used the same
way as can.

Examples

Could I borrow some money to pay for dance class and pay you back next week?

Could I please watch the next episode of this show before we start cleaning the
house?

Could I get another glass of water please?

2. You know something that you could do and you really value the other person’s
opinion

For these phrases, you are suggesting something that you want to do, or something
that you could do, and trying to see whether the person you ask is approving of
your suggestion or not. Asking for permission in these ways shows that you value
the other person’s

https://www.myenglishteacher.eu/blog/ways-to-ask-for-permission-synonyms-for-
ask/
30. How is prohibition expressed in English?

Common English Words: Permission, Obligation, Prohibition

Permission = It’s OK

English Phrases - Permitted

You can smoke here. (Image source: MyDoorSign.com)

English words used for permission:

can

allowed

may

permitted

What’s The Difference?

The word “to” is used after allowed and permitted, but not after can or may.

You’re allowed to smoke in here.

You can to smoke in here.

You can smoke in here.

Can is more informal, may and permitted are more formal, and allowed is both
formal and informal.

For the past and future of “can,” you can use could / was allowed (in the past) and
will be allowed (in the future):

When I was a kid, I was allowed to stay up until 11 PM on Friday nights.

We‘ll be allowed to check two suitcases on the flight.

Obligation = It’s Necessary

English Phrases - Required

You have to show your photo ID.

English words used for obligation:

have to

need to

must

required

What’s the difference?

Must and required are more formal than have to and need to.

Don’t use “to” after “must.”

Supposed to / Not supposed to

You can use these words for “light” requirements and prohibitions – for example,
rules that are often not followed.

We’re supposed to arrive on time, but it’s OK if we’re a little late. Our boss is
pretty relaxed.

The employees aren’t supposed to eat lunch at their desks, but a lot of them do so
anyway.

Prohibition = It’s Not OK

English Phrases - Prohibited

You’re not allowed to swim here.

English words used for prohibition:

can’t

mustn’t

not allowed

not permitted

What’s the difference?

Can’t is more informal, mustn’t and not permitted are more formal, and not
allowed is both formal and informal.

Don’t use “to” after “mustn’t.”

Pronunciation
The first “t” in “mustn’t” is silent!

31. How is certainty expressed in English?

Expressing certainty

When you are sure that something will or will not happen in the future, use these
expressions.

For example to the question:

"Will John pass the exam?"

you may respond as follows:

https://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/communication-lesson-certainty-
uncertainty.php

32. How are possibility and lack of possiblity exressed in English?

The word "possibility" means that something is possible, but other possible
variants also exist. Possibility is expressed by the modal verbs MAY, MIGHT,
COULD, with the meaning that the speaker thinks that something is possible, but
doesn't know for sure and implies "maybe, perhaps".

The modal verbs MAY, MIGHT, COULD are very close synonyms in the meaning
"possibility", though MAY expresses a bit stronger possibility than MIGHT or
COULD.

The main meaning of MIGHT is "possibility". MAY and COULD can express
several meanings. It is important to know how to recognize the meaning in which
they are used.

http://usefulenglish.ru/grammar/possibility-may-might-could

33. What does can't have done mean?

Can't have seems to be used a great deal in present contexts where the events being
talked about are recent in time. It expresses a judgment about a recent action or
situation, a context in which the issues are still fresh and relevant to the present.
One use is in present real conditionals, e.g., in sentence (a):

Welcome to my personal page about the eclipse of the sun, if you find any of this
informative then I can't have written it right. (If A is true, then B is also true.)
Other uses of can't have express simple belief in the impossibility of a (recent) past
event or situation, as in (b), (c) and (d):

(b)

Her favourite film is Kes, and she talks with awe about the moment when the boy
finds the dead bird. She thinks, from the look on his face, that the child actor can't
have known in advance that the bird was dead

Additionally, can't have is used to express a meaning that has nothing to do with
possibility. Can't have is used for present (negative) obligation or permission.

his use of can't have, which means "You are not allowed to have (written...)" is
totally different in meaning from couldn't have, which is not used for negative
permission in the past.

http://www.pearsonlongman.com/ae/azar/grammar_ex/message_board/archive/arti
cles/00108.htm

34. What does must have done mean?

phrase "must have ___":

A: Where are Deanna and Jun?

B: They must have left already.

People use "must have" when they have a pretty strong reason or evidence for
thinking something. You don't use "must have" when you're just making a guess
about something you don't know about.

35. What does had better do mean? What are its synonyms? What tenses are
used after it?

n the verb phrase had better do something, the word had acts like an auxiliary verb;
in informal spoken contexts, it is often dropped, as in you better not come tonight.
In writing, the had may be contracted to ’d (you’d better call), but it should not be
dropped altogether (not you better call).

I had better ('it would be a good idea if I', 'it would be better for me to') is used as a
modal auxiliary verb:

I had (or I'd) better sleep now. It would be a good idea for me to sleep now.

You'd better discuss this issue with Bruno. You should discuss this issue with
Bruno.
We'd better leave before the police come. Let's leave before the police come.

He'd better not come. It would be a bad idea for him to come.

Had better is always followed by a verb in the infinitive without 'to':

You had better BE on time. You must or should be on time.

Had better is ALWAYS formed from the auxiliary verb 'have' in the past simple
('has better' or 'will have better' do not exist!).

She had better be ready for next week's meeting. She really must be ready for next
week's meeting.

In informal English, we sometimes say I had best, used with the same meaning:

I'd best go home. It would be good for me to go home.

You'd best listen to what he has to say. It would be a good idea for you to listen to
what he has to say.

Синоним - шуд и од ту