Divergence of a Vector Field:

In study of vector fields, directed line segments, also called flux lines or streamlines,
represent field variations graphically. The intensity of the field is proportional to the density of
lines. For example, the number of flux lines passing through a unit surface S normal to the
vector measures the vector field strength.

Fig 1.18: Flux Lines

We have already defined flux of a vector field as

....................................................(1.57)

For a volume enclosed by a surface,

.........................................................................................(1.58)

We define the divergence of a vector field at a point P as the net outward flux from a
volume enclosing P, as the volume shrinks to zero.

.................................................................(1.59)

Here is the volume that encloses P and S is the corresponding closed surface.

 
 Fig 1.19: Evaluation of divergence in curvilinear coordinate

Let us consider a differential volume centered on point P(u,v,w) in a vector field . The flux
through an elementary area normal to u is given by ,

........................................(1.60)

Net outward flux along u can be calculated considering the two elementary surfaces perpendicular to u .

.......................................(1.61)
Considering the contribution from all six surfaces that enclose the volume, we can write

.......................................(1.62)

Hence for the Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical polar coordinate system, the expressions for divergence can be
written as:

In Cartesian coordinates:

................................(1.63)

In cylindrical coordinates:
 ....................................................................(1.64)

and in spherical polar coordinates:

......................................(1.65)

In connection with the divergence of a vector field, the following can be noted

 Divergence of a vector field gives a scalar.

 ..............................................................................(1.66)

Divergence theorem :
Divergence theorem states that the volume integral of the divergence of vector field is equal
to the net outward flux of the vector through the closed surface that bounds the volume.

Mathematically,

Proof:

Let us consider a volume V enclosed by a surface S . Let us subdivide the volume in large
number of cells. Let the kth cell has a volume and the corresponding surface is denoted
by Sk. Interior to the volume, cells have common surfaces. Outward flux through these
common surfaces from one cell becomes the inward flux for the neighboring cells. Therefore
when the total flux from these cells are considered, we actually get the net outward flux
through the surface surrounding the volume. Hence we can write:

......................................(1.67)

In the limit, that is when and the right hand of the expression can be

written as .

Hence we get , which is the divergence theorem.

We have defined the circulation of a vector field A around a closed path as .

Curl of a vector field is a measure of the vector field's tendency to rotate about a point. Curl
, also written as is defined as a vector whose magnitude is maximum of the net
circulation per unit area when the area tends to zero and its direction is the normal direction
to the area when the area is oriented in such a way so as to make the circulation maximum.

Therefore, we can write:

......................................(1.68)

To derive the expression for curl in generalized curvilinear coordinate system, we first

compute and to do so let us consider the figure 1.20 :

If C1 represents the boundary of , then we can write

......................................(1.69)

The integrals on the RHS can be evaluated as follows:

.................................(1.70)

................................................(1.71)

The negative sign is because of the fact that the direction of traversal reverses. Similarly,

..................................................(1.72)
 ............................................................................(1.73)

Adding the contribution from all components, we can write:

........................................................................
(1.74)

Therefore, .........................................
.............(1.75)

In the same manner if we compute for and we can write,

.......(1.76)

This can be written as,

......................................................(1.77)

In Cartesian coordinates: .......................................(1.78)

In Cylindrical coordinates, ....................................(1.79)

Curl operation exhibits the following properties:

..............(1.81)

Stoke's theorem :

It states that the circulation of a vector field around a closed path is equal to the integral of
over the surface bounded by this path. It may be noted that this equality holds
provided and are continuous on the surface.

i.e,

                                                        ..............(1.82)

Proof:Let us consider an area S that is subdivided into large number of cells as shown in
the figure 1.21.
 Fig 1.21: Stokes theorem

Let kthcell has surface area and is bounded path Lk while the total area is
bounded by path L. As seen from the figure that if we evaluate the sum of the line
integrals around the elementary areas, there is cancellation along every interior
path and we are left the line integral along path L. Therefore we can write,

   ..............(1.83)

As 0

.                                 .............(1.84)

which is the stoke's theorem.