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THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768 1771.
SECOND ten 17771784.
THIRD eighteen 1788 1797.
FOURTH twenty 1801 1810.
FIFTH twenty 1815 1817.
SIXTH twenty '
1823 1824.
SEVENTH twenty-one 1830 1842.
EIGHTH twenty-two 1853 1860.
NINTH twenty-five 1875 1889.
TENTH ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 1903.
ELEVENTH published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XIX
MUN to ODDFELLOWS
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street
1911
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XIX. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS, WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
1
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. A. W. H. AMBROSIUS ARNOLD WILLEM HUBRECHT, LL.D., D.Sc., PH.D.
Professor of Zoology, and Director of the Institute of Zoology in the Nemertina (in part).
University-^
of Utrecht. Author of Nemertines. I
A. Ca. ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. I Numbers, Partition of.
See the biographical article CAYLEY, ARTHUR.
:
ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., (in part);
A. E. S. D.Sc., F.R.S. J JJematoda
Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University, i Nematomorpna;
Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. I-
Nemertina (in part).
A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. f
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' Nicholas, Henry;
College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- -j Northumberland, John Dudley,
1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of duke of.
England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. I
A. Ge. SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, K.C.B. \
See the biographical article GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD.
:
\
r Mutian;
A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. J ,_. US. '
Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester.
1
Myconius, Oswald.
A. Ha. ADOLF HARNACK, PH.D. Nnn
M 1" 0111
n|ot
80 ? an
nn icm I*
HARNACK, ADOLF.
l
See the biographical article: \
A. H.-S. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINBLER, C.I.E. f W eh ,.
\m
|
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak.
f Nestorians
A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. (f part);
Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United Independent) NestOHUS (in part);
College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member of |
New Jerusalem Church;
Mysore Educational Service. [ Nicholas of Basel.
A. L. ANDREW LANG, LL.D. f
Mytholop;
See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. Name (Local and Personal
Names).
A. LI. D. ARTHUR LLEWELLYN DAVIES (d. 1907).
Trinity College, Cambridge; Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Formerly Assistant -I Negligence.
Reader in Common Law under the Council of Legal Education.
A. M. CL AGNES MURIEL CLAY (Mrs Edward Wilde). ("
Late Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-editor of Sources of-{ Municipium.
Roman History, 133-70 B.C. l_
(
Nestor;
Nidiflcation (in part);
A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. .,
tmgaie,
.
fi
^
Vn lay. .
See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED.
Nutcracker; Nuthatch;
[ Oeydrome.
A. P. H. ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D., M.P. f
President, South African Medical Congress, 1893. Author of South African Studies ;
Served in Kaffir War, 1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical
all]w a tal (in
&c. I
hn.rf)
practice in South Africa till 1896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, '
and Political Prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for Hitchin division of Herts,
A. R. S.
1910.
SIR ALEXANDER RUSSELL SIMPSON, M.D., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.).
n
Emeritus Professor of Midwifery, Edinburgh University. Dean of the Faculty of -I Obstetrics.
Medicine and Professor in the University, 1870-1905.
A. S. E. ARTHUR STANLEY EDDINGTON, M.A., M.Sc., F.R.A.S. f
Chief Assistant at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. Fellow of Trinity College, \ Nebula.
Cambridge.
1
A complete list, showing all individual contributions, appears in the final volume.
1988
VI INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
A. S. P.-P. ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford J
Mysticism.
Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy.
Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos The Philosophical Radicals &c.
; ;
A. Ts. ALBERT THOMAS.
Member of the French Chamber of Deputies. Contributor to Vol. xi. of theH Napoleon III.
Cambridge Modern History. Author of Le second Empire, &c. I
A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND.
I Nonjurors.
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900
A. W. Hu. 'ARTHUR WOLLASTON HUTTON. f
Rector of Bow Church, Cheapside, London. Formerly Librarian of the National J
Liberal Club. Author of Life of Cardinal Manning. Editor of Newman's Lives 1
of the English Saints ; &c. I
B. -LORD BALCARRES, F.S.A., M.P.
Trustee of National Portrait Gallery. Hon. Secretary of Society for Protection
of Ancient Buildings; Vice-Chairman of National Trust. Junior Lord of the' Museums of Art..
Treasury, 1903-1905. M.P. for Chorley division of Lanes from 1895. Son and
heir of the 26th earl of Crawford.
S. R SIR BOVERTON REDWOOD, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.I.C., ASSOC.INST.C.E.,
M.INST.M.E.
Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, Home Office, India Office, Corporation of
"
London, and Port of London Authority. President of the Society of Chemical Naphtha.
Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Member of Council of
Institute of Chemistry. Author of Cantor Lectures on Petroleum; Petroleum and
its Products; Chemical Technology; &c.
B. S. P. BERTHA SURTEES PHILPOTTS, M.A. (Dublin).
Girton College, Cambridge. Norway: Early History.
Formerly Librarian of j
B. W.* BECKLES WILLSON.
Author of The Hudson's Bay Company ; The Romance of Canada &c. ;
Newfoundland.
C. F. M. B. CHARES FREDERIC MOBERLY BELL.
Managing Director of The Times. Correspondent in Egypt, 1865-1890. Author of JJubar Pasha.
Khedives and Pashas; From Pharaoh to Fellah; &c.
C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLY HAYES, A.M., PH.D.
Assistant Professor of History at Columbia University, New York City. Member J
r iis/.i.i.,
* las '
m" ru
IV
of the American Historical Association. [ (popes).
C. H. W. J. REV. CLAUDE HERMANN WALTER JOHNS, M.A., LITT.D.
Master of St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Canon of Norwich. Author of ) Nineveh.
Assyrian Deeds and Documents.
C. K. S. CLEMENT KING SHORTER. r
Editor of the Sphere. Author of Charlotte Bronte and her Circle; The Brontes :J *
Life and Letters &c.;
Illustrated Papers.
[
C. M. CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.TH. f
Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik <
Nicaea, Council of.
im Zeitalter Gregor VII. Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstlhums &c.
; ; [
C. Mi. CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. r
Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni-
potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895-1900, and 1902-
1903-
C.PL CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-ES L. f
Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of J Neustria.
Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux.
C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow .
J
ofMerton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. ]
Nlkltin;
Author of Henry the Navigator The Dawn ;of Modern Geography &c. ;
[
Norden, John.
C. S. S. CHARLES SCOTT SHERRINGTON, D.Sc., M.D., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D. r
Professor of Physiology, University of Liverpool. Foreign Member of Academies J Mnclim Ihn
of Rome, Vienna, Brussels, Gottingen, &c. Author of The Integrative Action
of]
the Nervous System. |_
D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. r
Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. Author of J mr.,-,1,. _ nli
rauscle
Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory; Selec-}
lions from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. [_
D. F. T. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. f
Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The
Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical
works.
D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis 1899 and
1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at
Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vn
Campaigns:
D. H. DAVID HANNAY. Naval
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Operations;
Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. Navarino, Battle of; Navy;
{Napoleonic
Nelson; Nile, Battle of the.
D. M. W. SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I. E., K.C.V.O.
Extra Groom-in-Waiting to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign Depart-
ment of The Times, 1891-1899. Joint-editor of new volumes (loth edition) of the { Nihilism.
Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia; Egypt and the Egyptian Question;
The Web of Empire; &c.
D. N. P. DIARMID NOEL PATON, M.D., F.R.C.P. (Edin.).
Regius Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Super- I
intendent of Research Laboratory of Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh. T Nutrition.
Biological Fellow of Edinburgh University, 1884. Author of Essentials of Human I
Physiology; &c.
D. Wr. DANIEL WRIGHT, M.D. "
Translated the History of Nepaul, from the Parbatiya, with an Introductory Nepal (in part).
-|
Sketch of the Country and People of Nepaul." L
E. A. F. EDWARD AUGUSTUS FREEMAN, LL.D. ("
Normans.
See the biographical article: FREEMAN, E. A.
\ Nobility;
E. B. T. EDWARD BURNETT TYLOR, D.C.L., LL.D.
See the biographical article: TYLOR, EDWARD BURNETT. Oath.
E. F. S. EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE.
Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of n llt,i,o,>*,,
lnkaesy.
Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects, Joint-editor 1
" ''
of Bell's Cathedral Series.
:
Norton, Thomas;
E.G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. J Norway: Norwegian Literature;
See the biographical article GOSSE, EDMUND.
:
[ Novel.
E. Gr. ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A.
See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY.
'.
Mycenae; Naucratis.
E.He. EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A.
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal Geographical Nyasa.
-j
Society, London.
E. H. M. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A.
University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian Neuri.
at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College.
Ed. M. EDWARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT. (Oxon.), LL.D.
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des Narses (King of Persia).
Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme.
E. N.-R. EUSTACE NEVILLE-ROLFE, C.V.O. (1845-1908). -f Nanles
'
Formerly H.M. Consul-General at Naples. Author of Naples in the 'Nineties; &c. \
E. Pr. EDGAR PRESTAGE.
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester.
Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com-
Nascimento.
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon
Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. Editor of Letters
of a Portuguese Nun Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea &c.
; ;
E. P. C. E. P. CATHCART, M.D. Nutrition (in part).
Grieve Lecturer in Chemical Physiology, University of Glasgow. |
E. R. L. SIR EDWIN RAY LANKESTER, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. f
Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. President of the British Association, 1906.
Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in University College, London,
1874-1890. Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898. Mussel (in part).
Director of the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907.
Vice-President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at Oxford, 1905.
Author of Degeneration; The Advancement of Science; The Kingdom of Man; &c.
E. S. G. EDWIN STEPHEN GOODRICH, M.A., F.R.S.
Fellow and Librarian of Merton College, Oxford. Aldrichian Demonstrator of Com- Myzostomida.
parative Anatomy, University Museum, Oxford.
E. Wa. REV. EDMOND WARRE, M.A., D.D., D.C.L., C.B., C.V.O.
Provost of Eton. Hon. Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. Headmaster of Eton Oar.
College, 1884-1905. Author of Grammar of Rowing; &c.
E. W. H.* SIR EDWARD WALTER HAMILTON, G.C.B., K.C.V.O. (1847-1908). r
v .. .
n
Joint Permanent Secretary to H.M. Treasury, 1902-1908. Author of National J
" onal "
Debt Conversion and Redemption. Conversions (in part).
F. E. B. FRANK EVERS BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S.
Prosector of the Zoological Society, London. Formerly Lecturer in Biology at ... ,. -,
Guy's Hospital, London. Naturalist to "Challenger" Expedition Commission, lematooa (in part).
1882-1884. Author of Text-Book of Zoogeography; Animal Coloration; &c.
F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge.
F. G. P.
-,
FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST.
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on
r
.
" uscu i ar system-
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. 1 Nerve;
'
M
Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. L Nervous System.
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. f
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of
Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Senior Censor, Student, Tutor -i
Numantia.
and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford, 1891-1907. Author of Monographs on
Roman History, especially Roman Britain &c. ;
F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A.
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and J
Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial
|
German Archaeological Institute. L
F. L. L. LADY LUGARD. f Nassarawa;
See the biographical article: LUGARD, SIR F. J. D. \ Nigeria.
F. N. M. COL. FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B.
**
("
jj aDO i eon i c
Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and the~{ f,...
World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign The Jena Campaign; &c.
; L
F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. ("Natal (in part); Niger;
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ Nile (in part).
F. W. Ha. FREDERICK WILLIAM HASLUCK, M.A. r
Assistant Director, British School of Archaeology, Athens. Fellow of King's^ Mysia.
College, Cambridge. Browne's Medallist, 1901. [_
F. W. Mo. FREDERICK WALKER MOTT, F.R.S., M.D., F.R.C.P. f"
Physician to Charing Cross Hospital, London. Pathologist to the London County J Neuralgia; Neurasthenia;
Asylums. Fullerian Professor of Physiology, Royal Institution. Editor of Archives Neuropathology.
|
I
of Neurology.
G. A. C.* REV. GEORGE ALBERT COOKE, M.A., D.D. f
Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture. University of Oxford. .
Fellow of Oriel College; Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's Cathedral,
Edinburgh. Formerly Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. L
G. B. M. GEORGE BALLARD MATHEWS, M.A., F.R.S. [
Professor of Mathematics, University College of N. Wales, Bangor, 1884-1896. 4 Number.
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. L
G. C. L. GEORGE COLLINS LEVEY, C.M.G.
Member of Board of Advice to Agent-General for Victoria. Formerly Editor and
Proprietor of the Melbourne Herald. Secretary, Colonial Committee of Royal Com- -\
New South Wales: History.
mission to Paris Exhibition, 1900. Secretary to Commissioners for Victoria at the
Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia and Melbourne.
G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HiST.S. \
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909-
J w
,, . ,
letnerianos.
1910. Employed by British Government in preparation of the British Case in the j
British Guiana- Venezuelan and British Guiana-Brazilian Boundary Arbitrations. [
G. F. H.* GEORGE FRANCIS HILL, M.A. r
Assistant in the Department of Coins, British Museum. Corresponding Member of I
v um sma tics
j
the German and Austrian Archaeological Institutes. Author of Coins of Ancient"]
Sicily Historical Greek Coins Historical Roman Coins &c.
; ; ; L
G. H. Bo. REV. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A. r
Rector of Sutton Sandy, Bedfordshire. Lecturer in Faculty of Theology, Uni- J Nahum
versity of Oxford. 1908-1909. Author of Short Introduction to Literature of the Old |
Testament; &c. t
G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. (Lond.). f
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: -I Neuroptera.
their Structure and Life.
G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER. f
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden J. Northampton, Assize of.
Society. [
G. K. G. GROVE KARL GILBERT, LL.D. r
Geologist, U.S. Geological Survey.President of the American Geological Society, J
wj aeara
1892-1893 and 1909-1910. Formerly Special Lecturer at Cornell, Columbia and 1
Johns Hopkins Universities. Author of Glaciers and Glaciation &c. ; L
G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. r-vi j._ rn, u - -
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old J HaDl?
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. Nawawl; Nosairis.
(
H. A. G. HERBERT APPOLD GRUEBER, F.S.A.
Keeper of Coins and Medals, British Museum. Treasurer of the Egypt Exploration I
Fund. Vice-President of the Royal Numismatic Society. Author of Coins of the'] Numismatics (in part).
Roman Republic &c.
;
H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. f National Debt <i
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the llth edition of -| H
the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition. newspapers.
[
H. D. T. H. DENNIS TAYLOR. / Objective.
Inventor of the Cooke Photographic Lenses. Author of A System of Applied Optics. \
H. E. KARL HERMANN ETHE, M.A., Pn.D. r
Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Nasir Khosrau;
Aberystwyth (University of J
Wales). Author of Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts in the India Office Library, 1 NizamL
London (Clarendon Press) &c.;
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix
H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S., PH.D. fvMii..
* HT / j i- i
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. Author \
" tton.
of Amphibia and Reptiles," in the Cambridge Natural History. I
H. F. P. HENRY FRANCIS PELHAM, LL.D., D.C.L. f
"'
.
See the biographical article : PELHAM, HENRY FRANCIS. \
H. L. B. HANS LIEN BRAEKSTAD. f
Vice-Consul for Norway in London. Author of The Constitution of the Kingdom of-< Norway: History, 1814-1007.
Norway; &c. L
H. M. C. HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A. f
Librarian and Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge, and University Lecturer in i Norns.
Scandinavian. Author of Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions.
H, BI. S. HENRY MORSE STEPHENS, M.A>
Balliol College, Oxford. Professor of History and Director of University Extension, j
Necker (in -barf)
University of California. Author of History of the French Revolution Modern ] ;
European History &c. ;
H. M. T. HENRY MARTYN TAYLOR, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. f
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge; formerly Tutor and Lecturer. Smith's ^ Newton, Sir Isaac.
Prizeman, 1865. Editor of the Pitt Press Euclid. L
H. N. D. HENRY NEWTON DICKSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.R.G.S. f
Professor of Geography at University College, Reading. Formerly Vice-President, J Morth Sea;
Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford University, j
Norwegian Sea.
Author of Meteorology Elements of Weather and Climate &c.
; ; L
H. R. M. HUGH ROBERT MILL, D.Sc., LL.D.
Director of British Rainfall Organization. Formerly President of the Royal
Meteorological Society. Hon. Member of Vienna Geographical Society. Hon.
Corresponding Member of Geographical Societies of Paris, Berlin, Budapest, St .
Ocean and Oceanography.
Petersburg, Amsterdam, &c. British Delegate to International Conference on the
Exploration of the Sea at Christiania, 1901. Author of The Realm of Nature; The
Clyde Sea Area; The English Lakes; The International Geography. Editor of
British Rainfall.
H. St. HENRY STURT. M.A. mj,,n
Author of Idola Theatri The Idea
; of a Free Church ; Personal Idealism. {
H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. r
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, J Murimuth* Nennius.
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins Charlemagne. ;
H. Wy. MAJOR-GENERAL HENRY WYLIE, C.S.I.
f
OfficiatingAgent to the Governor-General of India for Baluchistan, 1898-1900. <
Nepal (in part).
Resident at Nepal, 1891-1900. I.
H. W. R.* REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A. r
Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, J _. .. . ,. ..
Oxford, 1901. Author of "Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthrop- 1
Oaoian (in part).
ology," in Mansfield College Essays; &c. L
L A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. (" Nachmanides;
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President, m a j"ara
I
" .
Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Litera- \
"asi.
ture; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages. {.
J. A. C. SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE, K.C.M.G.
See the biographical article : CROWE, SIR JOSEPH ARCHER.
/-
\
H( er ' u.,,,
' V *-, c~n n ^\
f art >-
J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. (Lond.). f
Mncphoiiraiir-
rau!>l ne *"*
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London.
'
Author of -{
The Geology of Building Stones. I
Neocomian.
J. A. L. R. JOHN ATHELSTAN LAURIE RILEY, M.A. ..,
J Nl / . .%
istonans P art >-
Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Athos, or the Mountain of the Monks &c. ; \ (
J. A. P.* REV. JAMES .ALEXANDER PATERSON, M.A., D.D. f
Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, New College, Edinburgh. Editor < Numbers, BOOK of.
" "
of Book of Numbers in the Polychrome Bible; &c. L
J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. f
King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. J Nicholas (King of Monte-
Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of 1 neern)
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. [
J. F. -K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HiST.S. r
Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and_ Literature, Liverpool University.
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. J Nunez de Arce.
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of
Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. L
J. Hd. JOHN HOLLINGSHEAD (1827-1904). (*
Founder of the Gaiety Theatre, London. Member of Theatrical Licensing Reform -|
Music Halls.
Committee, 1866 and 1892. Author of Gaiety Chronicles; &c. [
Name: Gree * and &"*an
J. H. F. JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. [
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Names;
I Noricum.
J. H. H. JOHN HENRY Mn>DLET9N, M.A., LITT.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). r
Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director
of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South J
TWoratinn
Mural U6COra " fi -hurt)-
Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times;
Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times.
x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
J. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. f
Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and\ Neville (Family).
Pedigree. I
J. Holl. R. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lixx.D. ("
Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge Uni- J M* aann eon
P' onn
i i
versity Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I.; Napoleonic \
Studies ; The Development of the European Nations The Life of Pitt &c.
; ;
3. Ja. JOSEPH JACOBS, Lrrr.D.
Professor of English Literature in the New York Jewish Theological Seminary of I
America. Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Corre- 1 Nethinim.
spending Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of
Angevin England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; &c.
3. J. Lr. JOSEPH JACKSON LISTER, M.A., F.R.S. f
Myce tozoa.
Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.
J. L. E. D. JOHN Louis EMIL DREYER.
Director of Armagh Observatory. Author of Planetary Systems from Tholes to { Observatory.
Kepler; &c. I
J. M. By. J. M. BRYDON. f
w
Nfisfl pi d
Architect of Chelsea Town Hall and Polytechnic, &c. \
J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. fNaucrarv
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London -!
^ , .
N
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. [
Neoplaionism (in part).
J. P. Pe. REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D. ("
Canon Residentiary, P. E. Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in J Nejef ;
the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the University Expedition to Babylonia, ]
Nippur.
1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates. I
J. Si.* REV. JAMES SIBREE, F.R.G.S. I"
Principal Emeritus, United College (L.M.S. and F.F.M.A.), Antananarivo, Mada- J ___ ux
nossl" De>
gascar. Member de 1'Academie Malgache. Author of Madagascar and its People;
Madagascar before the Conquest; A Madagascar Bibliography; &c.
]
J. S. Bl. REV. JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A., LL.D.
Assistant-editor of the o.th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Joint-editor of -< Nestorius (in part).
the Encyclopaedia Biblica. [_
J.S.P. JOHN SMITH FLETT, DSc.F.G.S f Mylonite; Napoleonite;
Petrographer to H.M. Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology ml M.-I.. Wan i,.]i n - c uon ;* .
5C *' We P hell ne-Syenite,
Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsbv 1
Medallist of the Geological Society of London. [ Nephehmtes; Obsidian.
J. S. K. JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.).
Secretary, Royal Geographical Society. Knight of Swedish Order of North Star.
Commander of the Norwegian Order of St Olaf. Hon. Member, Geographical^ National Debt (in part).
Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, &c. Editor of Statesman's Year Book. Editor of I
the Geographical Journal.
J. T. Be. JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. rNikolayev (in part);
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical i Nizhniy-Novgorod (in part);
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. [Novgorod (in part).
J. T. C. JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. fiviiiccoi c A/,
Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly) ?T~
Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in Nautilus;
|
The University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. [ Octopus.
J. T. S.* JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, Pn.D. f M.-I,..,,
a / .,-,,1
Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. \
J. W. JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.
All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln -J
Navigation Laws.
College.
J. W.* JAMES WARD, LL.D. f
.
See the biographical article:
>m -
WARD, JAMES.
Jno. W. JOHN WESTLAKE, K.C., LL.D., D.C.L.
Professor of International Law, Cambridge, 1888-1908. One of the Members for
United Kingdom of International Court of Arbitration under the Hague Convention, J Naturalization.
1900-1906. Author of A Treatise on Private International Law," or the Conflict of
Laws; Chapters on the Principles of International Law; part i. Peace "; part ii.
J. W. G. JOHN WALTER GREGORY, D.Sc., F.R.S. f
Professor of Geology at the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and New South Wales: Geology;
I
Mineralogy in the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Dead Heart 1 "New Zealand: Geology,
of Australia; &c.
J. W. L. G. JAMES WHITBREAD LEE GLAISHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (~
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the Cambridge J H aD ;
er John
Philosophical Society, and the Royal Astronomical Society. Editor of Messenger ]
of Mathematics and the Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics. {.
K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. f
Mu sic*
.
! Box;
Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of Na" ,
Violin;
the'}
Orchestra. . L Nay; Oboe (in part).
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi
L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. f Muscovite*
Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of j M ,.
.
ne '
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Minera- 1
logical Magazine. [
Niccolite.
L. R. F. LEWIS RICHARD FARNELL, M.A., LITT.D. f
Fellow and Senior Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford University Lecturer in Classical
Archaeology; Wilde Lecturer in Comparative Religion. Corresponding Member
J
1
My sl*ry. f
of Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of Evolution of Religion &c. ; I
L. V.* LUIGI VlLLARI. r
Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper Correspondent I ..
in East of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906, Philadelphia, 1907, "aples, Kingdom Of.
]
and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country; &c. L
L. W. K. LEONARD WILLIAM KING, M.A., F.S.A. t
King's College, Cambridge. Assistant in Department of Egyptian and Assyrian j Mj nnllr . T/.. TV,;.,... v
Antiquities, British Museum; Lecturer in Assyrian at King's College and London 1
University. Author of The Seven Tablets of Creation &c. ; I
M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, PH.D. fltfohn-
* Nor<ral- Ninih-
Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. Author of Religion mD)
{
of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. L
" usKu ; Oannes.
M. N. T. MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. -I Nauarchia.
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.
N. THE RT. HON. LORD NORTHCLIFFE.
Founder of the Daily Mail; Chief Proprietor of The Times, and other papers and I Newspapers: Price of Ncws-
periodicals. Chairman of the Associated Newspapers, Ltd., and the Amalgamated 1 papers.
Press, Ltd. L
N. D. M. NEWTON DENNISON MERENESS, A.M., PH.D. f
jj ew York (in
Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province. \
**' rw
0. J. R. H. OSBERT JOHN RADCLIFFE HOWARTH, M.A. f Nnrwav
ao -/,*,.,, a,*,j
Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901. Assistant Secretary of the 1 wgrapny .
British Association. I
Statistics.
Ocean and Oceanography (in
Professor of Geography in the University of Kiel, and Lecturer in the Imperial
\
Naval Academy. Author of Handbuch der Ozeanographie. part) .
f New Siberia Archipelago;
P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVTTCH KROPOTKIN. J Nikolayev (in part) ;
See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. j Nizhniy-Novgorod (in part);
{
Novgorod (in part).
P. G. PERCY GARDNER, LL.D., LITT.D., F.S.A. f"
See the biographical article GARDNER, PERCY.
:
Myron.
|_
P. Gi. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., Lrrr.D. I"
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University I N.
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- 1 O.
logical Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology.
P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. f
Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. ]
Neer, Van der (in part).
Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c.
P. La. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S.
Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J r *;
of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1
Morway* , T>I. i
Physical Geography.
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Keyser's Comparative Geology. I
R. A. W. ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E.
Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary De-
limitation, and Superintendent, Survey of India. Served with Tirah Expeditionary
Force, 1897-1898; Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, Pamirs, 1895; &c.
R. C. T. SIR RICHARD CARNAC TEMPLE, BART., C.I.E. r
Lieut.-Colonel. Formerly Chief Commissioner, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Hon. Nicobar Islands.
-|
Fellow of Trinity Hall, Cambridge. Joint-author of Andamanese Language; &c. [
R. G. RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D., D.C.L. f Newman, Francis William;
See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. \Newton, Sir C. T.
R. J. M. RONALD JOHN MACNEILL, M.A. r
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's <
Murray Lord George
Gazette, London.
R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. f
Muntjac;
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J M us ir Ox- '
Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer\ ,
.
of All Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. I Mylodon.
R. La. ROBERT LATOUCHE.
Archivist of the department of Tarn et Garonne. Author of Histoire du comte du -j Normandy.
Maine au X. et au XI. siecle.
xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). f
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the -aAHae^-u- Nonean uonc-
"* en> Hans >
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, J
Nikon.
1613-1725 Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469
;
to 1706; &c.
*
i
R. S. B. SIR ROBERT STAWELL BALL, F.R.S., LL.D.
Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry, University of Cambridge. I
e i. u ar Thpnrv
neDUla
ij i
neory.
Director of the Cambridge Observatory and Fellow of King's College. Royal j
Astronomer of Ireland, 1874-1892. Author of The Story of the Heavens; &c.
R. S. P. REGINALD STUART POOLE, LL.D. Jw,, m i.... ,\
REGINALD STUART. Numismatics /
(in part) .
See the biographical article : POOLE, \
R. S. T. RALPH STOCKMANN TARR. f
Professor of Physical Geography, Cornell University. Special Field Assistant of the -j
New York (in part).
U.S. Geological Survey. Author of Physical Geography of New York State. [_
S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. f
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and J Nabataeans (in part) ;
Aramaic, London University, 19041908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904 Nazarite (in part) ]
1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Law of Moses and the Code of
Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient [
Palestine; &c.
St C. VISCOUNT ST CYRES. f
Nicole
See the biographical article, IDDESLEIGH, ist Earl of. \
S. H. V.* SYDNEY HOWARD VINES, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. f
Professor of Botany in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, J Naegeli.
Oxford. Hon. Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge. Fellow of the University of 1
London. Author of Student's Text Book of Botany; &c.
S. K. STEN KONOW, PH.D. I"
Professor of Indian Philology in the University of Christiania. Officier de 1'Academie J MundSs.
Frangaise. Author of Stamavidhana Brahmana The Karpuramanjari Munda
; ;
j
and Dravidian.
S. N. SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., LL.D. f __. -
D ,
A
See the biographical article NEWCOMB, SIMON. Neptu
:
\
T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., LITT.D. Nemorensis Lacus; Nepi;
f
Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Nola; Nomentana, Via;
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of the-| Nomentum; Nora; Norba;
Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topography of Novara; Nuceria Alfaterna;
the Roman Campagna. [ Nuoro
T. A. C. TIMOTHY AUGUSTINE COGHLAN, I.S.O. f M
Agent-General for New South Wales. Government Statistician, New South Wales, J New South Wales:
1886-1905. Author of Wealth and Progress of New South Wales; Statistical Account
|
Geography and Statistics,
of Australia and New Zealand; &c. L
T. A. I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. J Name: Law;
Trinity College, Dublin. I Octroi.
T. A. J. THOMAS ATHOL JOYCE, M.A. f
Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec. Anthropo- -j
Negro (in part).
logical Society. (.
T. Ba. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY. r
H.,,*--!-*,,.
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of .
the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems North Sea Fisheries Conven-
of\
International Practice and Diplomacy ; &c. M. P. for Blackburn, 1910. tion.
[
T. F. C. THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D. /
\ NeO-Caesarea, Synod
Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. Of.
T. H. THOMAS HODGKIN, LL.D., LITT.D. f v r
See the biographical article HODGHN, THOMAS. NarS6S ,
^ Roman General >-
:
\
T. H. H.* SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.S. \ Muscat;
Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier. Surveys, India, 1892-) North- West Frontier Pro-
1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M. Commissioner for the Perso- 1 .,
Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Gates of India; &c. L
T. M. L. REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, M.A., D.D. f
Principal and Professor of Church History, United Free Church College, Glasgow. { Occam, William of.
Author of Life of Luther &c.
; L
T. W. R. D THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D. r
Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the Pali
Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal Nagarjuna; Nikaya.
-{
Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists;
Early Buddhism Buddhist India Dialogues of the Buddha &c.
; ; ; L
V. H. VICTOR CHARLES MAHILLON. f
Principal of the Conservatoire Royal de Musique at Brussels. Chevalier of the < Oboe (in part).
Legion of Honour.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii
W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. (Bern), r
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haut Dauphine; The Range of J Neuchatel.
the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in
History; &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c. L
W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. f Murat- Nibeluneenlied-
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, <
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. L
Nlcnol S I (of Russia).
W. Bl. WILLIAM BLAIN, C.B. (d. 1908). f National Debt: Conversions
Principal Clerk and First Treasury Officer of Accounts, 1903-1908. \ (in part).
W. Cr. WALTER CRANE. f
M
Mnral narnratinn (in t>n.rt\
See the biographical article : CRANE, WALTER. \
W. E. G. SIR WILLIAM EDMUND GARSTIN, G.C.M.G. f
Governing Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation,-^
Nile (in part).
Egypt. Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908. L
W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. f f ., 4nce '
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, \
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). Obscenity. |_
W. F. R. WILLIAM FIDDIAN REDDAWAY, M.A. r
Censor of Non-Collegiate Students, Cambridge. Fellow and Lecturer of King's J
" Norway: History
College. Author of Scandinavia," in Vol. xi. of the Cambridge Modern History. 1
W. F. W. WALTER FRANCIS WILLCOX, LL.B., Pn.D. r
Chief Statistician, United States Census Bureau. Professor of Social Science and
Statistics, Cornell University. Member of the American Social Science Association Negro (United States).
!
and Secretary of the American Economical Association. Author of The Divorce
Problem: A Study in Statistics; Social Statistics of the United States; &c. I
W. G.* WALCOT GIBSON, D.Sc., F.G.S. I"
H.M. Geological Survey. Author of The Gold-Bearing Rocks of the S. Transvaal; 4 Natal: Geology.
Mineral Wealth of Africa; The Geology of Coal and Coal-mining; &c.
W. H. Be. REV^ WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT^M.A., D.D., D.Lrrr.
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London.
i.J Nimrod; I
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth 1 Noah
;
College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets; &c. I
W. H. F. SLR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. f ,__.,",
See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. 1
W. H. P. WALTER HERRIES POLLOCK, M.A. f
Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of Saturday Review, 1883-1894. Author of
-j
Mussel, Alfred de.
Lectures on French Poets; Impressions of Henry Irving; &c.
W. J. H. WILLIAM JACOB HOLLAND, A.M., D.D., LL.D., D.Sc., PH.D. f
Director of the Carnegie Institute, Pittsburg. President of the American Association
"j
Museums of Science,
of Museums, 1907-1909. Editor of Annals and Memoirs of Carnegie Museum. I
W. L. F. WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, A.M., PH.D. f
Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Author of Documentary Nullification.
-|
History of Reconstruction &c.;
W. L. G. WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. r
Professor of Colonial History, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly J W' nw
Beit Lecturer in Colonial History, Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy 1
ew Rrnnciik
BrunswlcK
Council (Canadian Series). L
W. Mo. WILLIAM MORRIS. /M,,I
Mural T\- *-/
Decoratl <" (*
See the biographical article :
MORRIS, WILLIAM. \
W. M. D. WILLIAM MORRIS DAVIS, D.Sc., PH.D. f
Professor of Geology in Harvard University. Formerly Professor of Physical i North America.
Geography. Author of Physical Geography &c. ;
W. M. R. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. f ...
See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G. munu0t
\
W. 0. M. WILLIAM O'CONNOR MORRIS (d. 1904).
Formerly Judge of
County Courts, Ireland; and Professor of Law to the King's J nTnnnnll ' uallel
Daniel '
Inns, Dublin. Author of Great Commanders of Modern Times; Irish History]
Ireland, 1798-1898; &c. L
W. P. R. THE HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES. f
Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Commissioner
for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education, Labour, and Justice, New-^ New Zealand.
Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of The Long White Cloud: a History of New Zealand;
&c.
W. R. E. H. WILLIAM RICHARD EATON HODGKINSON, PH.D., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.C.S. f
Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich. Formerly J Nitrnzlvpprin
Professor of Chemistry and Physics, R.M.A., Woolwich. Part-author of Valentin- 1
Hodgkinson's Practical Chemistry; &c. L
XIV INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
iV . r\. I"l j WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A. (d. 1910). r
Formerly Professor of Russian and other Slavonic Languages in the University of neslor
,,_*,.,. I
-
Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution .Oxford. Author of Russia; Slavonic^
Literature; &c. I
W. R. M.* WILLIAM ROBERT MARTIN.
Captain, R.N. Formerly Lecturer at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Author Navigation.
and Nautical Astronomy; &c.
t
of Treatise on Navigation
f Nabataeans (in part) ;
W. R. S. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. I Nazarite (in part) ;
See the biographical article SMITH,
: WILLIAM ROBERTSON. 1 Numeral;
I Obadiah (in part).
W. S. IVl. WILLIAM SYMINGTON M'CORMICK, M.A., LL.D.
Secretary to the Carnegie Trust of the Scottish Universities. Formerly Professor I Occleve.
of English, University College, Dundee. Author of Lectures on Literature; &c.
W. T. A. WALKER TALLMADGE ARNDT, M.A. |
New York (in part).
W. W. R.* WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, D. PH.
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Nimes, Councils of.
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Munich. Newcastle, Dukes of. Nice. North Dakota.
Murad. Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Nickel. Northumberland, Earls and
Muratori. New England. Nightingale, Florence. Dukes of.
Mushroom. New Guinea. Nimes. Northumberland.
Mutilation. New Hampshire. Nitre-Compounds. Norwich.
Mysore. New Hebrides. Nitrogen. Nottingham.
Narcissus. New Jersey. Norfolk, Earls and Dukes Nottinghamshire.
Narcotics. New Mexico. of. Novaya Zemlya.
Nashville. New Orleans. Norfolk. Nuremberg.
Nassau. New York City. Northampton, Earls and Nursing.
Nebraska. Ney. Marquesses of. Nut.
Nevada. Niam-Niam. Northamptonshire. Oak.
New Caledonia. Nicaragua. North Carolina. Oates, Titus.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XIX
MUN, ADRIEN ALBERT MARIE DE, COUNT (1841- ), remembered in his economics. Although written
history of
French was born at Lumigny, in the department of
politician, possibly about 1630, was not given to the public until 1664,
it
"
Seine-et-Marne, on the 28th of February 1841. He entered the when it was published for the Common good by his son John,"
army, saw much service in Algeria (1862), and took part in and dedicated to Thomas, earl of Southampton, lord high
the fighting around Metz in 1870. On the surrender of Metz, treasurer. In it we find for the first time a clear statement of
he was sent as a prisoner of war to Aix-la-Chapelle, whence he the theory of the balance of trade.
returned in time to assist at the capture of Paris from the MUNCHAUSEN, BARON. This name is famous in literary
Commune. A fervent Roman Catholic, he devoted himself history on account of the amusingly mendacious stories known as
to advocating a patriarch type of Christian Socialism. His elo- the Adventures of Baron Munchausen. In 1785 a little shilling
quence made him the most prominent member of the Cercles book of 49 pages was published in London (as we know from the
Catholiques d'Ouvriers, and his attacks on Republican social Critical Review for December 1785), called Baron Munchausen' s
policy at last evoked a prohibition from the minister of war. Narrative of his Marvellous Travels and Campaigns in Russia.
He thereupon resigned his commission (Nov. 1875), and in the No copy is known to exist, but a second edition (apparently
following February stood as Royalist and Catholic candidate identical) was printed at Oxford early in 1786. The publisher
for Pontivy. The influence of the Church was exerted to secure of both these editions was a certain Smith, and he then sold it
his election, and the pope during its progress sent him the order to another bookseller named Kearsley, who brought out in
of St Gregory. He was returned, but the election was declared 1786 an enlarged edition (the additions to which were stated in
invalid. He was re-elected, however, in the following August, the 7th edition not to be by the original author), with illustra-
and for many years was" the most conspicuous leader of the tions under the title of Gulliver Reviv'd: the Singular Travels,
anti-Republican
''
party. We form," he said on one occasion, Campaigns, Voyages, and Sporting Adventures of Baron Munnik-
the irreconcilable Counter-Revolution." As far back as 1878 he houson, commonly pronounced Munchaitsen; as he relates them
had declared himself opposed to universal suffrage, a declaration over a bottle when surrounded by his friends. Four editions
that lost him his seat from 1879 to 1881. He spoke strongly rapidly succeeded, and a free German translation by the poet
against the expulsion of the French princes, and it was chiefly Gottfried August Burger, from the fifth edition, was printed
through his influence that the support of the Royalist party was at Gottingen in 1786. The seventh English edition (1793),
given to General Boulanger. But as a faithful Catholic he obeyed which is the usual text, has the moral sub-title, Or the Vice of
the encyclical of 1892, and declared his readiness to rally to a Lying properly exposed, and had further new additions. In 1 792 a
Republican government, provided that it respected religion. Sequel appeared, dedicated to James Bruce, the African traveller,
In the following January he received from the pope a letter whose Travels to Discover the Nile (1790) had led to incredulity
commending his and encouraging him in his social
action, and ridicule. As time went on Munchausen increased in popu-
reforms. He was defeated at the general election of that larity and was translated into many languages. Continuations
year, but in 1894 was returned for Finistere (Morlaix). In were published, and new illustrations provided (e.g. by T.
1897 he succeeded Jules Simon as a member of the French Rowlandson, 1809; A. Crowquill, 1859; A. Cruikshank, 1869; the
Academy. This honour he owed to the purity of style French artist Richard, 1878; Gustave Dore, 1862; W. Strang
and remarkable eloquence of his speeches, which, with a few and J. B. Clark, 1895). The theme of Baron Munchausen,
" "
pamphlets, form the bulk of his published work. In Mavoca- the drawer of the long-bow par excellence, has become part
tion sociale (1908) he wrote an explanation and justification of of the common stock of the world's story-telling.
his career. The original author was at first unknown, and until 1824
MUN, THOMAS (1571-1641), English writer on economics, he was generally identified with Burger, who made the .German
was the third son of John Mun, mercer, of London. He began translation of 1786. But Burger's biographer, Karl von Rein-
by engaging in Mediterranean trade, and afterwards settled hard, in the Berlin Gesellschafter of November 1824, set the
down in London, amassing a large fortune. He was a member matter at rest by stating that the real author was Rudolf Erich
of the committee of the East India Company and of the standing Raspe (q.v.). Raspe had apparently become acquainted at
commission on trade appointed in 1622. In 1621 Mun published Gottingen with Hieronymus Karl Friedrich, Freiherr von
A Discourse of Trade from England unto the East Indies. But Miinchhausen, of Bodenwerder in Hanover. This Freiherr von
it is by his England's Treasure by
Forraign Trade that he is Miinchhausen (1720-1797) had been in the Russian service and
nx. i
MUNCH-BELLINGHAUSEN MUNDAS
served against the Turks, and on retiring in 1760 he lived on MUNDAS. The Munda (Munda) family is the least numerous
his estates at Bodenwerder and used to amuse himself and his of the linguistic families of India. It comprises several dialects
friends, and puzzle the quidnuncs and the dull-witted, by spoken in the two Chota Nagpur plateaux, the adjoining districls
relating extraordinary instances of his prowess as soldier and ofMadras and Ihe Central Provinces, and in the Mahadeo hills.
sportsman. His stories became a byword among his circle, The number of speakers of Ihe various dialects, according to
and Raspe, when hard up f^r a living in London, utilized the the census of 1901, are as follow: Santali, 1,795,113; Mundari,
suggestion for his little brochure. But his narrative owed much 460,744; Bhumij, 111,304; Birhar, 526; Koda, 23,873; Ho,
also to such sources, known to Raspe, as Heinrich Bebel's 371,860; Tun, 3880; Asuri, 4894; Korwa, 16,442; Korku, 87,675;
Facetiae bebelianae (1508), J. P. Lange's Ddiciae academicae Kharia, 82,506; Juang, 10,853; Savara, 157,136; Gadaba, 37,230;
(1665), a section of which is called Mendacia ridicula, total, 3,164,036. Santali, Mundari, Bhumij, Birhar, Koda, Ho,
Castiglione's Cortcgiano (1528), the Travels of the Finkenritter, Tun, Asuri and Korwa are only siighlly differing forms of one
attributed to Lorenz von Lauterbach in the i6th century, and and Ihe same language, which can be called Kherwari, a name
other works of this sort. Raspe can only be held responsible borrowed from Santali Iradition. Kherwari is the principal
for the nucleus of the book; the additions were made by book- Munda language, and quite 88% of all Ihe speakers of Munda
sellers' hacks, from such sources as Lucian's Vera historia, or longues belong lo it. The Korwa dialect, spoken in the western
the Voyages imaginaires (1787), while suggestions were taken part of Chota Nagpur, connects Kherwari with the remaining
from Baron de Toll's Memoirs (Eng. Irans. 1785), the conlem- Munda languages. Of Ihese il is mosl closely relaled lo the
porary aeronaulical feats of Montgolfier and Blanchard, and any Kurku language of the Mahadeo hills in Ihe Cenlral Provinces.
" "
topical sensations of the moment, such as Bruce's explora- Kurku, in ils lurn, in important poinls agrees with Kharia and
tions in Africa. Munchausen is thus a medley, as we have Juang, and Kharia leads over to Savara and Gadaba. The
it, a classical instance of the fanlastical mendacious literary Iwo lasl-menlioned forms of speech, which are spoken in the
genre. north-easl of Ihe Madras Presidency, have been much influenced
See the introduction by T. Seccombe to Lawrence and Bullen's by Dravidian languages.
edition of 1895. Adolf Ellisen, whose father visited Freiherr von The Munda dialecls are nol in sole possession of Ihe lerrilory
Mtinchhausen in 1795 and found him very uncommunicative, brought where Ihey are spoken. They are, as a rule, only found in Ihe
out a German edition in 1849, with a valuable essay on pseudology
in general. There is useful material in Carl Muller-Fraureuth's Die hills and jungles, while Ihe plains and valleys are inhabiled by
deutschenLugendichtungenaufMunchkausen(i88i)andinGriesbacYi's people speaking some Aryan language. When brought into
edition of Burger's translation (1890). close contacl with Aryan tongues the Munda forms of speech are
MUNCH-BELLINGHAUSEN, ELIGIUS FRANZ JOSEPH, apt to give way, and in the course of time they have been
FREIHERR VON (1806-1871), Austrian poet and dramatist (who partly superseded by Aryan dialecls. There are accordingly
"
Friedrich Halm ), was born al
>;
wrote under the pseudonym some Aryanized Iribes in norlhern India who have formerly
Cracow on Ihe 2nd of April 1806, the son of a districl judge. belonged lo Ihe Munda slock. Such are Ihe Cheros of Behar
Educaled al firsl al a private school in Vienna, he afterwards and Chota Nagpur, the Kherwars, who are found in the same
altended lectures al Ihe university, and in 1826, at the early localities, in Mirzapur and elsewhere, the Savaras, who formerly
age of twenty, married and entered Ihe governmenl service. extended as far north as Shahabad, and others. It seems
In 1840 he became Regierungsral, in 1845 Hofrat and custodian possible lo Irace an old Munda element in some Tibeto-Burman
of the royal library, in 1861 life member of the Austrian Herren- dialecls spoken in Ihe Himalayas from Bashahr easlwards.
haus (upper chamber), and from 1869 to 1871 was inlendanl By race the Mundas are Dravidians, and their language was
of the two court Iheatres in Vienna. He died at Hulteldorf likewise long considered as a member of Ihe Dravidian family.
near Vienna on the 2 2nd of May 1871. Miinch-Bellinghausen's Max Muller was the first to dislinguish the two families. He
dramas, among them notably Griseldis (1835; publ. 1837; nth also coined the name Munda for the smaller of them, which has
Der Adept (1836; publ. 1838), Camoens (1838), Der
ed., 1896), later on often been spoken of under other denominations, such as
Sohn der WUdnis (1842; loth ed., 1896), and Der Fechter von Kolarian and Kherwarian. The Dravidian race is generally
Ravenna (1854; publ. 1857; 6lh ed., 1894), are dislinguished by considered as the aboriginal population of soulhern India. The
elegance of language, melodious versification and clever construc- Mundas, who do nol appear lo have extended much farther
tion, and were for a lime exceedingly popular. towards the south than at presenl, must have mixed with
His poems, Gedichle, were published in Stuttgart, 1850 (new ed., the Dravidians from very early times. The so-called Nahali
Vienna. 1877). His works, Santliche Werke, were published in dialed of Ihe Mahadeo hills seems lo have been originally a
eight volumes (1856-1864), to which four posthumous volumes were Munda form of speech which has come under Dravidian influ-
added in 1872. Ausgewdhlte Werke, ed. by A. Schlossar, 4 vols.
(1904). See F. Pachler, Jugend und Lehrjahre des Dichters F. Halm ence, and finally passed under Ihe spell of Aryan longues. The
(1877); J. Simiani, Gedenkblatter an F. Halm (1873). Halm's same is perhaps the case with the numerous dialects spoken by
correspondence with Enk von der Burg has been published by Ihe Bhils. Al all evenls, Munda languages have apparently
R. Schachinger (1890).
been spoken over a wide area in central and north India. They
MUNCIE, a city and the county-seal of Delaware counly, were Ihen early superseded by Dravidian and Aryan dialecls,
Indiana, U.S.A., on Ihe West Fork of Ihe While river, about and al Ihe present day only scanty remnanls are found in the
57 m. N.E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1880), 5210; (1800), 11,345; hills and jungles of Bengal and the Cenlral Provinces.
(1900) 20,942, of whom 1235 were foreign-born; (1910 census) Though Ihe Munda family is not connected wilh any olher
24,005. It is served by the Cenlral Indiana, Ihe Chicago, languages in India proper, it does not form an isolaled group. It
Cincinnali & Louisville, Ihe Cleveland, Cincinnali, Chicago & belongs to a widely spread family, which extends from India in
Si Louis, the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, Ihe Forl the west to Easter Island in the easlern Pacific in Ihe easl. In
Wayne, Cincinnati & Louisville, and the Lake Erie & Western Ihe first place, we find a connected language spoken by the
railways, and by Ihe Indiana Union Traction, the Dayton & Khasis of the Khasi hills in Assam. Then follow the Mon-
Muncie Traction, and the Muncie & Portland Traction (eleclric Khmer languages of Farther India, Ihe dialecls spoken by Ihe
inler-urban) railways. The cily is buill on level ground (allitude aboriginal inhabilants of the Malay Peninsula, the Nancowry
950 ft.), and has an altractive residential section. It is one of Ihe Nicobars, and, finally, Ihe numerous dialecls of Auslro-
of the principal manufacturing centres in Indiana, owing largely nesia, viz. Indonesic, Melanesic, Polynesic, and so on. Among
lo ils silualion in Ihe natural gas belt. In 1900 and in 1905 Ihe various members of Ihis vast group the Munda languages
it was the largest producer of glass and glassware in Ihe are most closely related to the Mon-Khmer family of Farther
Uniled States, the value of product in 1905 being $2,344,462.
its India. Kurku, Kharia, Juang, Savara and Gadaba are more
Muncie (named after the Munsee Indians, one of the Ihree closely related lo lhal family lhan is Kherwari, the principal
principal divisions of Ihe Dela wares) was settled about 1833 Munda form of speech.
and was chartered as a city in 1865. We do not know if the Mundas enlered India from wilhoul.
MUNDAY
pronouns to the verb. Such pronominal affixes are inserted before
If so, they can only have immigrated from the east. At all
the assertive particle a.Thus the affix denoting a direct object of the
events they must have been settled in India from a very early third person singular ise, and by inserting it in dal-kef-a we arrive
period. The Sabaras, the ancestors of the Savaras, are already at a form dal-ked-e-a, somebody struck him. Similar affixes can be
mentioned in old Vedic literature. The Munda languages added to denote that the object or subject of an action belongs to
seem to have been influenced by Dravidian and Aryan forms somebody. Thus Santali hap&n-in-e dal-ket'-tako-tin-a, son-my-he
In most characteristics, however, they differ widely struck-theirs-mine, my son who belongs to me struck theirs.
of speech.
In a sentence such as har kord-e dal-ked-e-a, man boy-he struck-
from the neighbouring tongues. him, the man struck the boy, the Santals first put together the ideas
The Munda languages abound in vowels, and also possess a richly man, boy, and a striking in the past. Then the e tells us that the
developed system of consonants. Like the Dravidian languages, striking affects the boy, and finally the -a indicates that the whole
they avoid beginning a word with more than one consonant. While action really takes place. It will be seen that a single verbal form
those latter forms of speech shrink from pronouncing a short conso- in this way often corresponds to a whole sentence or a series of sen-
nant at the end of words, the Mundas have the opposite tendency, tences in other languages. If we add that the most developed
viz. to shorten such sounds still more. The usual stopped consonants Munda languages possess different bases for the active, the middle
viz. k, c (i.e. English ch), t and p are formed by stopping the and the passive, that there are different causal, intensive and recipro-
current of breath at different points in the mouth, and then letting it cal bases, which are conjugated throughout, and that the person of
pass out with a kind of explosion. In the Munda language this the subject is often indicated in the verb, it will be understood that
operation can be abruptly checked half-way, so that the breath does Munda conjugation presents a somewhat bewildering aspect. It
not touch the organs of speech in passing out. The result is a sound is, however, quite regular throughout, and once the mind becomes
that makes an abrupt impression on the ear, and has been described accustomed to these peculiarities, they do not present any difficulty
as an abrupt tone. Such sounds are common in the Munda languages. to the understanding.
They are usually written k', c', t' and p'. Similar sounds are also BIBLIOGRAPHY. Max Muller, Letter to Chevalier Bunsen on the
found in the Mon-Khmer languages and in Indo-Chinese.
Classification of the Turanian Languages. Reprint from Chr. K. J.
The vowels of consecutive syllables to a certain extent approach Bunsen, Christianity and Mankind, vol. iii. (London, 1854),
each other in sound. Thus in Kherwari the open sounds a (nearly
especially pp. 175 and sqq.; Friedrich Muller, Grundriss der Sprach-
English a in all) and a (the a in care) agree with each other and not vnssenschaft, vol. iii. part i. (Wien, 1884), pp. 106 and sqq., vol. iv.
with the corresponding close sounds o (the o in pole) and e (the e in i. (Wien, 1888), p. 229; Sten Konow, Munda and Dravidian
part
pen). The Santali passive suffix ok' accordingly becomes dk' after "
Languages in Grierson's Linguistic Survey of India, iv. i and teq.
a or d compare sdn-dk', go, but dal-ok', to be struck.
;
(Calcutta, 1906). (S. K.)
Words are formed from monosyllabic bases by means of various
additions, suffixes (such as are added after the base), prefixes (which
MUNDAY (or MONDAY), ANTHONY (c. 1553-1633), English
the base) and infixes (which are inserted into the base itself), dramatist and miscellaneous writer, son of Christopher Monday,
uffixes play a great r61e in the inflexion of words, while prefixes and
Precede a London draper, was born in 1553-1554. He had already
infixes are of greater importance as formative additions. Compare
Kurku k-on, Savara on, son Kharia ro-mong, Kherwari mu, nose appeared on the stage when in 1576 he bound himself
;
apprentice for eight years to John Allde, the stationer, an
;
Santali bar, to fear; bo-to-r, fear; dal, to strike; da-pa-l, to strike each
other. engagement from which he was speedily released, for in
The various classes of words are not clearly distinguished. The 1578 he was in Rome. In the opening b'nes of his English
same base can often be used as a noun, an adjective or a verb. The
words simply denote some being, object, quality, action or the like,
Romayne Lyfe (1582) he avers that in going abroad he
but they do not tell us how they are conceived.
was actuated solely by a desire to see strange countries and
Inflexion is effected in the usual agglutinative way by means of to learn foreign languages; but he must be regarded, if
" "
additions which are glued or joined to the unchanged base. not as a spy sent to report on the English Jesuit College in
In many respects, however, Munda inflexion has struck out peculiar
Rome, as a journalist who meant to make literary capital out of
lines. Thus there is no grammatical distinction of gender. Nouns
the designs of the English Catholics resident in France and
can be divided into two classes, viz. those that denote animate
beings and those that denote inanimate objects respectively. There Italy. He says that he and his companion, Thomas Nowell,
are three numbers the singular, the dual and the plural. On the were robbed of all they possessed on the road from Boulogne to
other hand, there are no real cases, at least in the most
typical Amiens, where they were kindly received by an English priest,
Munda, languages. The direct and the indirect object are indicated
means of certain additions to the Certain
who entrusted them with letters to be delivered in Reims.
by verb. relations in
time and space, however, are indicated by means of suffixes, which These they handed over to the English ambassador in Paris,
have probably from the beginning been separate words with a definite where under a false name, as the son of a well-known English
meaning. The genitive, which can be considered as an adjective Catholic, Munday gained recommendations which secured his
preceding the governing word, is often derived from such forms He was treated with
reception at the English College in Rome.
denoting locality. Compare Santali hdr-rd, in a man; Mr-ran, of
a man. special kindness by therector, Dr Morris, for the sake of his
Higher numbers are counted in twenties, and not in tens as in the supposed father. Hegives a detailed account of the routine of
Dravidian languages. the place, of the dispute between the English and Welsh students,
The pronouns abound in different forms. Thus there are double
of the carnival at Rome, and finally of the martyrdom of Richard
sets of the dual and the plural of the pronoun of the first person, one
including and the other excluding the person addressed. The Rev.
Atkins (? 1 559-1 581). He returned to England in 1 578-1 579, and
A. Nottrott aptly illustrates the importance of this distinction by became an actor again, being a member of the Earl of Oxford's
remarking how "
it is necessary to use the exclusive form if
telling the company between 1579 and 1584. In a Catholic tract entitled
servant that we shall dine at seven." Otherwise the speaker will A
invite the servant to partake of the meal. In addition to the usual
True Reporte of the death of M. Campion (1581), Munday
is accused of having deceived his master Allde, a charge which
personal pronouns there are also short forms, used as suffixes and
infixes, which denote a direct object, an indirect object, or a genitive. he refuted by publishing Allde's signed declaration to the con-
There is a corresponding richness in the case of demonstrative He
" " trary, and he is also said to have been hissed off the stage.
pronouns. Thus the pronoun that in Santali has different forms
was one of the chief witnesses against Edmund Campion and
to denote a living being, an inanimate object, something seen, some-
thing heard, and so on. On the other hand, there is no relative his associates, and wrote about this time five anti-popish
pronoun, the want being supplied by the use of indefinite forms of the pamphlets, among them the savage and bigoted tract entitled A
verbal bases, which can in this connexion be called relative Discoverie of Edmund Campion and his Confederates whereto
participles.
The most characteristic feature of Munda grammar is the verb,
is added the execution of Edmund Campion, Raphe Sherwin, and
especially in Kherwari. Every independent word can perform the
function of a verb, and every verbal form can, in its turn, be used as a Alexander Brian, the first part of which was read aloud from
noun or an adjective. The bases of the different tenses can there- the scaffold at Campion's death in December 1581. His political
fore be described as indifferent words which can be used as a services against the Catholics were rewarded in 1584 by the post
noun,
as an adjective, and as a verb, but which are in
reality none of them. of messenger to her Majesty's chamber, and from this time he
Each denotes simply the root meaning as modified by time. Thus
in Santali the base ddl-ket', struck, which is formed from the base seems to have ceased to appear on the stage. In 1 598-1 599, when
dal, by adding the suffix kef of the active past, can be used as a noun he travelled with the earl of Pembroke's men in the Low
(compare dal-ket'-ko, strikers, those that struck), as an adjective Countries, itwas in the capacity of playwright to furbish up old
(compare dal-ket'-hdr, struck man, the man that struck), and as a He devoted himself to writing for the booksellers and
verb. In the last case it is necessary to add an a if the action plays.
really the theatres, compiling religious works, translating Amadis de
takes place; thus, dal-kef-a, somebody struck.
It has already been remarked that the cases of the direct and Gaule and other French romances, and putting words to popular
indirect object are indicated by He was the chief pageant-writer for the City from 1605
adding forms of the personal airs.
M UNDELL A M UNDT
to 1616, and it is likely that he supplied most of the pageants grants. To his initiative was chiefly due the Factory Act
between 1592 and 1605, of which no authentic record has been of 1875, which established a ten-hours day for women and
kept. It is by these entertainments of his, which rivalled in children in textile factories; and the Conspiracy Act, which
success those of Ben Jonson and Middleton, that he won his removed certain restrictions on trade unions. It was he
greatest fame; but of all the achievements of his versatile talent also who established the labour department of the board of
the only one that was noted in his epitaph in St Stephens, trade and founded the Labour Gazette. He introduced and
Coleman Street, London, where he was buried on the loth of passed bills for the better protection of women and children in
August 1633, was his enlarged edition (1618) of Stow's Survey of brickyards and for the limitation of their labours in factories;
"
London. In some of his pageants he signs himself citizen and and he effected substantial improvements in the Mines Regula-
draper of London," and in his later years he is said to have tion Bill, and was the author of much other useful legislation.
followed his father's trade. In recognition of his efforts, a marble bust of himself, by Boehm,
Of the eighteen plays between the dates of 1584 and 1602 which subscribed for by 80,000 factory workers, chiefly women and
are assigned to Munday in collaboration with Henry Chettle, Michael children, was presented to Mrs Mundella. He died in London
Dray ton, Thomas Dekker and other dramatists, only four are extant. on the 2ist of July 1897.
John a Kent and John a Cumber, dated 1595, is supposed to be the
same as Wiseman of West Chester, produced by the Admiral's men MUNDEN, JOSEPH SHEPHERD (1758-1832), English actor,
at the Rae Theatre on the 2nd of December 1 594. Aballad of British was the son of a London poulterer, and ran away from home
Sidanen, on which it may have been founded, was entered at to join a strolling company. He had a long provincial experience
Stationers' Ha'.l in 1579. The Downfall of Robert Earl of Huntingdon,
as actor and manager. His first London appearance was in
afterwards called Re-bin Hood of merrie Sherwodde (acted in February
!
599) was followed in the same month by a second part, The Death 1790 at Covent Garden, where he practically remained until
of Robert Earl of Huntingdon (printed 1601), in which he collaborated 1811, becoming the leading comedian of his day. In 1813 he
with Henry Chettle. Munday also had a share with Michael Dray- was at Drury Lane. He retired in 1824, and died on the 6th
ton, Robert Wilson and Richard Hathway in the First Part of the of February 1832.
history of the life of Sir John Oldcastle (acted 1599), which was
printed in 1600, with the name of William Shakespeare, which was
MUNDEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
speedily withdrawn, on the title page. William Webbe (Discourse Hanover, picturesquely situated at the confluence of the Fulda
of English Poetrie, 1586) praised him for his pastorals, of which there and the Werra, 21 m. N.E. of Cassel by rail. Pop. (1905),
remains only the title, Sweet Sobs and Amorous Complaints of Shep- It is an ancient place, municipal rights having been
herds and Nymphs; and Francis Meres (Palladis Tamia, 1598) gives 10,755.
him among dramatic writers the exaggerated praise of being " our granted to it in 1 247. A few ruins of its former walls still survive.
best plotter." Ben Jonson ridiculed him in The Case is Altered The large Lutheran church of St Blasius (i4th-i5th centuries)
as Antonio Balladino, pageant Munday's works usuaUy contains the sarcophagus of Duke Eric of Brunswick-Calenberg
poet.
appeared under his own name, but he sometimes used the The 13th-century Church of St Aegidius was injured
" pseudonym (d. 1540).
of Lazarus Piot." A. H. Bullen identifies him with the Shepherd
" " " in the siege of 1625-26 but was subsequently restored. There is
Tony who contributed Beauty sat bathing by a spring and six
other lyrics to England's Helicon (ed. Bullen, 1899, 15). a new Roman Catholic church (1895). The town hall (1619),
p.
The completest account of Anthony Munday is T. Seccombe's and the ducal castle, built by Duke Eric II. about 1570, and
article in the Diet. Nat. Biog. A life and bibliography are prefixed rebuilt in 1898, are the principal secular buildings. In the
to the Shakespeare Society s reprint of John a Kent and John a
Cumber (ed. J. P. Collier, 1851). His two " Robin Hood " plays latter is the municipal museum. There are various small
"
were edited by J. P. Collier in Old Plays (1828), and his English industries and a trade in timber. Miinden,often called Hanno-
"
Romayne Lyfe was printed in the Harleian Miscellany, vii. 136 seq. versch-Munden (i.e. Hanoverian MUnden), to distinguish it
(ed. Park, 1811). For an account of his city pageants see F. W. from Prussian Minden, was founded by the landgraves of
Fairholt, Lord Mayor's Pageants (Percy Soc., No. 38, 1843).
Thuringia, and passed in 1247 to the house of Brunswick. It
MUNDELLA, ANTHONY JOHN (1825-1897), English educa- was for a time the residence of the dukes of Brunswick-Liineburg.
tional and
industrial reformer, of Italian extraction, was born at In 1626 it was destroyed by Tilly.
Leicester in 1825. After a few years spent at an elementary
See Willigerod, Geschichte von Miinden (Gottingen, 1808); and
school, he was apprenticed to a hosier at the age of eleven; He Henze, Fiihrer durch Miinden und Umgegend (Munden, 1900).
afterwards became successful in business in Nottingham, filled
several civic offices, and was known for his philanthropy. He MUNDRUCUS, a tribe of South American Indians, one of the
was sheriff of Nottingham in 1853, and in 1859 organized the most powerful on the Amazon. In 1788 they completely
tribes
first courts of arbitration for the settlement of disputes between defeated their ancient enemies the Murasi After 1803 they
masters and men. In November 1868 he was returned to lived at peace with the Brazilians, and many are civilized.
parliament for Sheffield as an advanced Liberal. He represented MUNDT, THEODOR (1808-1861), German author, was born
that constituency until November 1885, when he was returned at Potsdam on the igth of September 1808. Having studied
for the Brightside division of Sheffield, which he continued to philology and philosophy at Berlin, he settled in 1832 at Leipzig,
represent until his death. In the Gladstone ministry of 1880 as a journalist, and was subjected to a rigorous police supervision.
Mundella was vice-president of the council, and shortly after- In 1839 he married Klara Mtiller (1814-1873), who under the
wards was nominated fourth charity commissioner for England name of Luise Miihlbach became a popular novelist, and he
and Wales. In February 1886 he was appointed president removed in the same year to Berlin. Here his intention of
of the board of trade, with a seat in the cabinet, and was sworn entering upon an academical career was for a time thwarted
a member of the privy council. In August 1892, when the by his collision with the Prussian press laws. In 1842, however,
Liberals again came into power, Mundella was again appointed he was permitted to establish himself as privatdocent. In 1848
president of the board of trade, and he continued in this he was appointed professor of literature and history in Breslau,
position until 1894, when he resigned office. His resignation and in 1850 ordinary professor and librarian in Berlin; there he
was brought about by his connexion with a financial company died on the 3oth of November 1861. Mundt wrote extensively
which went into liquidation in circumstances calling for the on aesthetic subjects, and as a critic he had considerable influence
official intervention of the board of trade. However innocent in his time. Prominent among his works are Die Kunst der
his own connexion with the company was, it involved him in deutschen Prosa (1837); Geschichte der Liter atur der Gegerrwart
unpleasant public discussion, and his position became untenable. (1840); Aesthetik; die Idee der Schonheit und des Kunstwerks im
Having made a close study of the educational systems of Germany Lichte unserer Zeit (1845, new ed. 1868); Die Gotterwelt der
and Switzerland, Mundella was an early advocate of compulsory alien Vdlker (1846, new ed. 1854). He also wrote several
education in England. He rendered valuable service in con- historical novels; Thomas Milnzer (1841); Mendoza, der Voter
nexion with the Elementary Education Act of 1870, and the der Schelmen (1847) and Die Matadore (1850). But perhaps
educational code of 1882, which became known as the " Mundella Mundt's chief title to fame was his part in the emancipation of
Code," marked a new departure in the regulation of public women, a theme which he elaborated in his Madonna, Unter-
elementary schools and the conditions of the Government haltungen mil einer Heiligen (1835).
MUNICH
MUNICH (Ger. Miinchen), a city of Germany, capital of formed by the combination of older forms. At the east end it
the kingdom of Bavaria, and the third largest town in the is closed by the Maximilianeum, an extensive and imposing
German Empire. It is situated on an elevated plain, on the edifice, adorned externally with large sculptural groups and
river Isar, 25 m. N. of the foot-hills of the Alps, about midway internally with huge paintings representing the chief scenes in
between Strassburg and Vienna. Owing to its lofty site (1700 ft. the history of the world. Descending the street, towards the
above the sea) and the proximity of the Alps, the climate is west are passed in succession the old buildings of the Bavarian
changeable, and its mean annual temperature, 49 to 50 F., national museum, the government buildings in which the Com-
is little higher than that of many places much farther to the posite style of Maximilian has been most consistently carried
north. The annual rainfall is nearly 30 in. Munich lies at out, and the mint. On the north side of the Max- Joseph Platz
the centre of an important network of railways connecting lies the royal palace, consisting of the Alte Residenz, the
it directly with Strassburg (for Paris), Cologne, Leipzig, Berlin, Konigsbau, and the Festsaalbau. The Alte Residenz dates
Rosenheim (for Vienna) and Innsbruck (for Italy via the Brenner from 1601 to 1616; its apartments are handsomely fitted up
pass), which converge in a central station. in the Rococo and the private chapel and the treasury
style,
Munich is divided into twenty-four municipal districts, nine- contain several crowns and many other interesting and valuable
teen of which, including the old town, lie on the left bank of the objects. The Festsaalbau, erected by Klenze in the Italian
Isar, while the suburban districts of Au, Haidhausen, Giesing, Renaissance style, is adorned with mural paintings and sculp-
Bogenhausen and Ramersdorf are on the opposite bank. The tures, while the Konigsbau, a reduced copy of the Pitti Palace
old town, containing many narrow and irregular streets, forms a at Florence, contains a series of admirable frescoes from the
semicircle with its diameter towards the river, while round Niebelungenlied by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld. Adjoining
its periphery has sprung up the greater part of modern Munich, .the palace are two theatres, the Residenz or private theatre,
including the handsome Maximilian and Ludwig districts. and the handsome Hof theater, accommodating 2500 spectators.
The walls with which Munich was formerly surrounded have The Allerheiligen-Hofkirche, or court-church, is in the Byzantine
been pulled down, but some of the gates have been left. The style, with a Romanesque facade.
most interesting is the Isartor and the Karlstor, restored in The Ludwigstrasse and the Maximilianstrasse both end at
1835 and adorned with frescoes. The Siegestor (or gate of no great distance from the Frauenplatz in the centre of the old
victory) is a modern imitation of the arch of Constantine at town. On this square stands the Frauenkirche, the cathedral
Rome, while the stately Propylaea, built in 1854-1862, is a church of the archbishop of Munich-Freising, with its lofty cupola
reproduction of the gates of the Athenian Acropolis. capped towers dominating the whole town. It is imposing from
Munich owes its architectural magnificence largely to Louis I. its size, and interesting as one of the few examples of indigenous
of Bavaria, who ascended the throne in 1825, and his successors; Munich art. On the adjacent Marienplatz are the old town-
while its collections of art entitle it to rank with Dresden and hall, dating from the I4th century and restored in 1865, and
Berlin. Most of the modern buildings have been erected after the newtown-hall, the latter a magnificent modern Gothic
celebrated prototypes of other countries and eras, so that, as erection, freely embellished with statues, frescoes, and stained-
has been said by Moriz Carriere, a walk through Munich affords glass windows, and enlarged in 1900-1905. The column in the
a picture of the architecture and art of two thousand years. centre of the square was erected in 1638, to commemorate the
In carrying out his plans Louis I. was seconded by the architect defeat of the Protestants near Prague by the Bavarians during
Leo von Klenze, while the external decorations of painting and the Thirty Years' War.
sculpture were mainly designed by Peter von Cornelius, Wilhelm Among the other churches of Munich the chief place is due to
von Kaulbach and Schwanthaler. As opportunity offers, the St Boniface's, an admirable copy of an early Christian basilica.
narrow streets of the older city are converted into broad, straight It is adorned with a cycle of religious paintings by Heinrich
boulevards, lined with palatial mansions and public buildings. von Hess (1798-1863), and the dome is supported by sixty-
The hygienic improvement effected by these changes, and by four monoliths of grey Tyrolese marble. The parish church of
a new and excellent water supply, is shown by the mortality Au, in the Early Gothic style, contains gigantic stained-glass
averages 40-4 per thousand in 1871-1875, 30-4 per thousand windows and some excellent wood-carving; and the church
in 1881-1885, and 20-5 per thousand in 1903-1904. The archi- of St John in Haidhausen is another fine Gothic structure.
tectural style which has been principally followed in the later St Michael's in the Renaissance style, erected for the Jesuits in
public buildings, among them the law courts, finished in 1897, 1583-1595, contains the monument of Eugene Beauharnais by
the German bank, St Martin's hospital, as well as in numerous Thorwaldsen. The facade is divided into storeys, and the
private dwellings, is the Italian and French Rococo, or Renais- general effect is by no means ecclesiastical. St Peter's is inter-
sance, adapted to the traditions of Munich architecture in the esting as the oldest church in Munich (i2th century), though no
1 7th and i8th centuries. A large proportion of the most notable trace of the original basilica remains. Among newer churches
buildings in Munich are in two streets, the Ludwigstrasse and the most noticeable are the Evangelical church of St Luke, a
the Maximilianstrasse, the creations of the monarchs whose Transitional building, with an imposing dome, finished in 1896,
names they bear. The former, three-quarters of a mile long and the Gothic parochial church of the Giesing suburb, with a
and 40 yds. wide, chiefly contains buildings in the Renaissance tower 312 ft. high and rich interior decorations (1866-1884).
style by Friedrich von Gartner. The most striking of these are The valuable collections of art are enshrined in handsome
the palaces of Duke Max and of Prince Luitpold; the Odeon, a buildings, mostly in the Maximilian suburb on the north side
large building for concerts, adorned with frescoes and marble of the town. The old Pinakothek, erected by Klenze in 1826-
busts; the war office; the royal library, in the Florentine palatial 1836, and somewhat resembling the Vatican, is embellished
style; the Ludwigskirche, a successful reproduction of the externally with frescoes by Cornelius and with statues of twenty-
Italian Romanesque style, built in1829-1844, and containing four celebrated painters from sketches by Schwanthaler. It
a huge fresco of the Last Judgment by Cornelius; the blind contains a valuable and extensive collection of pictures by the
asylum; and, lastly, the university. At one end this street is earlier masters, the chief treasures being the early German
terminated by the Siegestor, while at the other is the Feldher- and Flemish works and the unusually numerous examples of
renhalle (or hall of the marshals), a copy of the Loggia dei Lanzi Rubens. It also affords accommodation to more than 300,000
at Florence, containing statues of Tilly and Wrede by Schwan- engravings, over 20,000 drawings, and a large collection of
thaler. Adjacent is the church of the Theatines, an imposing vases. Opposite stands the new Pinakothek, built 1846-1853,
though somewhat over-ornamented example of the Italian the frescoes on which, designed by Kaulbach, show the effects of
Rococo style; it contains the royal burial vault. In the Maxi- wind and weather. It is devoted to works by painters of the
milianstrasse, which extends from Haidhausen on the right bank last century, among which Karl Rottmann's Greek landscapes
of the Isar to the Max- Joseph Platz, King Maximilian II. tried are perhaps the most important. The Glyptothek, a building by
to introduce an entirely novel style of domestic architecture, Klenze in the Ionic style, and adorned with several groups and
MUNICH
single statues, contains a valuable series of sculptures, extending colossal bronze statue of Bavaria, 170 ft. high, designed by
from Assyrian and Egyptian monuments down to works by Schwanthaler. The botanical garden, with its large palm-house,
Thorwaldsen and other modern masters. The celebrated the Hofgarten, surrounded with arcades containing frescoes of
Aeginetan marbles preserved here were found in the island of Greek landscapes by Rottmann, and the Maximilian park to
Aegina in 1811. Opposite the Glyptothek stands the exhibition the east of the Isar, complete the list of public parks.
building, in the Corinthian style, it was finished in 1845, and is The population of Munich in 1905 was 538,393. The per-
used for periodic exhibitions of art. In addition to the museum manent garrison numbers about 10,000 men. Of the population,
of plaster casts, the Antiquarium (a collection of Egyptian, Greek 84% are Roman Catholic, 14% Protestants, and 2% Jews.
and Roman antiquities under the roof of the new Pinakothek) Munich is the seat of the archbishop of Munich-Freising
and the Maillinger collection, connected with the historical and of the general Protestant consistory for Bavaria. About
museum, Munich also contains several private galleries. Fore- twenty newspapers are published here, including the Allgemeine
most among these stand the Schack Gallery, bequeathed by Zeitung. Some of the festivals of the Roman Church are cele-
the founder, Count Adolph von Schack, to the emperor William brated with considerable pomp; and the people also cling to
II. in 1894, rich in works by modern German masters, and the various national fetes, such as the Metzgersprung, the Schaffler-
Lotzbeck collection of sculptures and paintings. Other struc- tanz, and the great October festival.
tures and institutions are the new buildings of the art association ;
Munich has long been celebrated for its artistic handicrafts,
the academy of the plastic arts (1874-1885), in the Renaissance such as bronze-founding, glass- staining, silversmith's work, and
style; and the royal arsenal (Zeughaus) with the military wood-carving, while the astronomical instruments of Fraunhofer
museum. The Schwanthaler museum contains models of most and the mathematical instruments of Traugott Lieberecht von
of the great sculptor's works. Ertel (1778-1858) are also widely known. Lithography, which
The immense scientific collection in the Bavarian national was invented at Munich at the end of the i8th century, is
museum, illustrative of the march of progress from the Roman extensively practised here. The other industrial products
period down tp the present day, compares in completeness include wall-paper, railway plant, machinery, gloves and
with the similar collections at South Kensington and the Musee artificial flowers. The most characteristic industry, however,
de Cluny. The building which now houses this collection was is brewing. Four important markets are held at Munich
erected in 1894-1900. On the walls is a series of well-executed annually. The city is served by an extensive electric tramway
frescoes of scenes from Bavarian history, occupying a space of system.
16,000 sq. ft. The ethnographical museum, the cabinet of History. The Villa Munichen or Forum ad monachos, so
coins, and the collections of fossils, minerals, and physical called from the monkish owners of the ground on which it lay,
and optical instruments, are also worthy of mention. The art was first called into prominence by Duke Henry the Lion, who
union, the oldest and roost extensive in Germany, possesses a established a mint here in 1158, and made it the emporium for
good collection of modern works. The chief place among the the salt coming from Hallein and Reichenhall. The Bavarian
scientific institutions is due to the academy of science, founded dukes of the Wittelsbach house occasionally resided at Munich,
in 1759. The royal library contains over 1,300,000 printed and in 1255 Duke Louis made it his capital, having previously
volumes and 30,000 manuscripts. The observatory is equipped surrounded it with walls and a moat. The town was almost
with instruments by the celebrated Josef Fraunhofer. entirely destroyed by fire in 1327, after which the emperor Louis
At the head of the educational institutions of Munich stands the Bavarian, in recognition of the loyalty of the citizens,
the university, founded at Ingolstadt in 1472, removed to rebuilt it very much on the scale it retained down to the beginning
Landshut in 1800, and transferred thence to Mumch in 1826. of the 1 9th century. Among the succeeding rulers those who did
In addition to the four usual faculties there is a fifth of political most for the town in the erection of handsome buildings and the
economy. In connexion with the university are medical and foundation of schools and scientific institutions were Albert V.,
other schools, a priests' seminary, and a library of 300,000 William V., Maximilian I., Max Joseph and Charles Theodore.
volumes. The polytechnic institute (Technische Hochschule) in In 1632 Munich was occupied by Gustavus Adolphus, and in
1899 acquired the privilege of conferring the degree of doctor 1705, and again in 1742, it was in possession of the Austrians.
of technical science. Munich contains several gymnasia or In 1791 the fortifications were razed.
grammar-schools, a military academy, a veterinary college, an Munich's importance in the' history of art is entirely of modern
agricultural college, a school for architects and builders, and growth, and may be dated from the acquisition of the Aeginetan
several other technical schools, and a conservatory of music. marbles by Louis I., then crown prince, in 1812. Among the
The general prison in the suburb of Au is considered a model eminent artists of this period whose names are more or less
of its kind; and there is also a large military prison. Among identified with Munich were Leo von Klenze (1784-1864),
other public buildings, the crystal palace (Glas-palast), 765 ft. Joseph Daniel Ohlmiiller (1791-1839), Friedrich von Gartner
in length, erected for the great exhibition of 1854, is now used, (1792-1847), and Georg Friedrich Ziebland (1800-1873), the
as occasion requires, for temporary exhibitions. The Wittelsbach von Cornelius (1783-1867), Wilhelm von Kaul-
architects; Peter
palace, built in 1843-1850, in the Early English Pointed style, is bach (1804-1874), Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld (1794-1872),
one of the residences of the royal family. Among the numerous and Karl Rottmann, the painters; and Ludwig von Schwanthaler,
monuments with which the squares and streets are adorned, the sculptor. Munich is still the leading school of painting in
the most important are the colossal statue of Maximilian II. Germany, but the romanticism of the earlier masters has been
in the Maximilianstrasse, the equestrian statues of Louis I. and abandoned for drawing and colouring of a realistic character.
the elector Maximilian I., the obelisk erected to the 30.000 Karl von Piloty (1826-1886) and Wilhelm Diez (1839-1907) long
Bavarians who perished in Napoleon's expedition to Moscow, stood at the head of this school.
the Wittelsbach fountain (1895), the monument commemorative See Mittheilungcn de.s statistischen Bureaus der Stadt Munchen (vols.
of -the peace of 1871, and the marble statue of Justus Liebig, i.-v., 1875-1882); Sold, Munchen mil seinen Umgebungen (1854);
Reber, Bautechnischer Fiihrer durch die Stadt Munchen (1876) Daniel,
;
the chemist, set up in 1883. Handbuch der Geographic (new ed., 1895); Prantl, Geschichte der
The English garden (Englischer Garten), to the north-east of Ludwig- Maximilians Universitat (Munich, 1872); Goering, 30 Jahre
the town, is 600 acres in extent, and was laid out by Count Munchen (Munich, 1904); von Ammon, Die Gegend von Munchen
Rumford in imitation of an English park. On the opposite bank sologisch geschildert (Munich, 1895); Kronegg, Illustrierte Geschichte
er Stadt Munchen (Munich, 1903); the Jahrbuch fur Munchener
of the Isar, above and below the Maximilianeum, extend the
Geschichte, edited by Reinhardstottner and Trautmann (Munich,
Gasteig promenades, commanding fine views of the town. To 1887-1894); Aufleger and Trautmann, Alt-Miinchen in Bild und
the south-west of the town is the Theresienwiese, a large common Wort (Munich, 1895) Rohmeder, Munchen als Handelsstadt (Munich,
;
where the popular festival is celebrated in October. Here is 1905); H. Tinsch, Das Stadtrecht von Munchen (Bamberg, 1891);
F. Pecht, Geschichte der munchener Kunst im 19 Jahrhundert (Munich,
situated the Ruhmeshalle or hall of fame, a Doric colonnade
1888) and Trautwein, Fiihrer durch Munchen (2Othed., 1906). There
;
containing busts of eminent Bavarians. In front of it is a is an English book on Munich by H..R. Wadleigh (1910).
MUNICIPALITY MUNICIPIUM
MUNICIPALITY, a modern term (derived from Lat. muni- a municeps of Arpinum (between 107 and 100 B.C.), and the
cipium; see below), now used both for a city or town which strength of the support given to Tiberius Gracchus in the
is organized for self-government under a municipal corporation, assembly by the voters from Italian towns (133 B.C.) show what
and also for the governing body itself. Such a corporation an important influence the members of these municipia could
in Great Britain consists of a head as a mayor or provost, and occasionally exercise over Roman politics. The cities thus
of superior members, as aldermen and councillors, together with privileged, however, though receiving complete Roman citizen-
the simple corporators, who are represented by the governing ship, were not, as the logic of public law might seem to demand,
body; it acts as a person by its common seal, and has a perpetual incorporated in Rome, but continued to exist as independent
succession, with power to hold lands subject to the restrictions urban units; and this anomaly survived in the municipal system
of the Mortmain laws; and it can sue or be sued. Where which was developed, on the basis of these grants of citizen-
necessary for its primary objects, every corporation has power ship, after the Social War. That system recognized the municeps
to make by-laws and to enforce them by penalties, provided they as at once a citizen of a self-governing city community, and
are not unjust or unreasonable or otherwise inconsistent with a member of the city of Rome, his dual capacity being illustrated
the objects of the charter or other instrument of foundation. by his right of voting both in the election of Roman magistrates
See BOROUGH, COMMUNE, CORPORATION, LOCAL GOVERNMENT, and in the election of magistrates for his cwn town.
FINANCE, &c., and for details of the functions of the municipal The result of the Social War which broke out in 91 B.C.
government see the sections under the general headings of the (see ROME: History) was the establishment of a new uniform
different countries and the sections on the history of these countries.
municipality throughout Italy, and the obliteration of any
MUNICIPIUM (Lat. munus, a duty or privilege, capere, to important distinction between the three classes established
take), in ancient Rome, the term applied primarily to a status, after the Latin War. By the Lex Julia of 90 B.C. and the
a certain relation between individuals or communities and the Lex Plautia Papiria of 89 B.C. every town in Italy which made
Roman state; subsequently and in ordinary usage to a com- application in due form received the complete citizenship.
munity, standing in such a relation to Rome. Whether the The term municipium was no longer confined to a particular
name signifies the taking up of burdens or the acceptance of class of Italian towns but was adopted as a convenient name
privileges is a disputed point. But as ancient authorities are for all urban communities of Roman citizens in Italy. The
unanimous in giving munus in this connexion the sense of organization of a municipal system, which should regulate the
" " "
duty or service," it is probable that the chief feature governments of all these towns on a uniform basis, and define
of municipality was the performance of certain services to their relation to the Roman government, was probably the work
Rome. 1 This view is confirmed by all that we know about of Sulla, who certainly gave great impetus to the foundation
the towns to which the name was applied in republican times. in the provinces of citizen colonies, which were the earliest
The status had its origin in the conferment of citizenship upon municipia outside Italy, and enjoyed the same status as the
Tusculum in 381 B.C. (Livy vi. 26; cf. Cic. pro Plane. 8, 19), Italian towns. Julius Caesar extended the sphere of the Roman
and was widely extended in the settlement made by Rome at municipal system by his enfranchisement of Cisalpine Gaul,
the close of the Latin War in 338 B.C. (see ROME, History). and the consequent inclusion of all the towns of that region
Italian towns were then divided into three classes: (i) Coloniae in the category of municipia. He seems also to have given
civium Romanorum, whose members had all the rights of citizen- a more definite organization to the municipia as a whole. But,
ship; (2) municipia, which received partial citizenship; (3) foeder- excepting those in Cisalpine Gaul, the municipal system still
alae civitates (including the so-called Latin colonies), which embraced no towns outside Italy other than the citizen colonies.
remained entirely separate from Rome, and stood in relations Augustus and his successors adopted the practice of granting
with her which were separately arranged by her for each state by to existing towns in the provinces either the full citizenship,
treaty (foedus). The munitipia stood in very different degrees or a partial ciiritas known as the jus Latii. This partial civitas
of dependence on Rome. Some, such as Fundi (Livy viii. 14; does not seem to have been entirely replaced, as in Italy, by
cf. ibid. 19), enjoyed a local self-government only limited in the the grant of full privileges to the communities possessing it,
matter of jurisdiction; others, such as Anagnia (Livy ix. 43; and the distinction survived for some time in the provinces
" between
Festus, de verb, signification, s.v. municipium," p. 127, ed. municipia juris Romani, and municipia juris
coloniae,
Muller), were governed directly from Rome. But they all had Latini. But the uniform system of administration gradually
certain features in common. Their citizens were called upon adopted in all three classes rendered the distinction entirely
to pay the same dues and perform the same service in the legions unimportant, and the general term municipium is used of all
as full Roman citizens, but were deprived of the chief privileges alike. The incorporation of existing towns, hitherto non-Roman,
of citizenship, those of voting in the Comitia (jus suffragii), and in the uniform municipal system of the principate took place
of holding Roman magistracies (jus honorum). It would also mainly in the eastern part of the Empire, where Greek civiliza-
appear from Festus (op. cit. s.v. praefectura, p. 233) that juris- tion had long fostered urban life. In the west city commu-
diction was entrusted in every municipium to praefecti juri nities rapidly sprang up under direct Roman influence. The
dicundo sent out from Rome to represent the Praetor Urbanus. 2 development of towns of the municipal type on the sites where
The conferment of municipality can therefore hardly have been legions occupied permanent quarters can be traced in several
regarded as other than an imposing of burdens, even in the of the western provinces; and it cannot be doubted that this
case of those cities which retained control of their own affairs. development became the rule wherever a body of Roman
But after the close of the second Punic War, when Rome had subjects settled down
together for any purpose and permanently
become the chief power, not only in Italy, but in all the neigh- occupied a region. At any rate by the end of the ist century
bouring lands round the Mediterranean, we can trace a growing of the principate municipia are numerous in the western as
tendency among the Italian cities to
regard citizenship of this well as the eastern half of the Empire, and the towns are every-
great state as a privilege, and
to claim complete citizenship as where centres of Roman influence.
a reward of their services in helping to build up the Roman Of the internal life of the municipia very little is known
power. During the 2nd century B.C. the jus suffragii and jus before the Empire. For the period after Julius Caesar, however,
honorum were conferred upon numerous municipia (Livy xxxviii. we have two important sources of information. A series of
36, 37), whose citizens were then enrolled in the Roman tribes. municipal laws gives us a detailed knowledge of the constitution
They can have exercised their public rights but seldom, owing to imposed, with slight variations, on all the municipia; and a
their distance from Rome; but the consulships of C. Marius, host of private inscriptions gives particulars of their social life.
1
The municipal constitution of the ist century of the principate
For a contrary view, however, see Marquardt, Rom. Staatsverw.
is based upon the type of government common to Greece and
i. p. 26, n. 2 (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1881), and authorities there cited.
1
For a different view see Willems, Droit public romain, p. 381 Rome from earliest times. ,
The government of each town
(Louvain, 1874). consists of magistrates, senate and assembly, and is entirely
8 MUNICIPIUM
Roman government From a social point of view the municipia of the Roman Empire
independent of the except in certain cases
of higher civil jurisdiction, which come under the direct cog- may be treated under three heads: (i) as centres of local self-
government, (2) as religious centres, (3) as industrial centres, (i)
nisance of the praetor urbanus at Rome. On the other hand, The chief feature of the local government of the towns is the wide-
each community is bound to perform certain services to the spread activity of the municipal authorities in improving the general
conditions of life in the town. In the municipalities, as in Rome,
Imperial government, such as the contribution of men and
horses for military service, the maintenance of the imperial provision was made out of the public funds for feeding the poorest
of the population, and providing a supply of corn which could
post through its neighbourhood, and the occasional entertain- e bought Dy ordinary citizens at a moderate price.
Eart In Pliny's
ment of Roman officials or billeting of soldiers. The citizens time there existed in many towns public schools controlled by the
were of two classes: whether by birth, naturalization
(i) cives, municipal authorities, concerning which Pliny remarks that they
were a source of considerable disturbance in the town at the times
or emancipation, (2) incolae, who enjoyed a partial citizenship
when it was necessary to appoint teachers. He himself encouraged
based on domicile for a certain period. Both classes were the establishment of another kind of municipal school at Como,
liable to civic burdens, but the incolae had none of the privi- where the leading townspeople subscribed for the maintenance of
The the school, and the control, including the appointment of teachers,
leges of citizenship except a limited right of voting.
remained in the hands of the subscribers. Physicians seem to have
citizens were grouped in either tribes or curiae, and accordingly
been maintained in many towns at the public expense. The water-
the assembly sometimes bore the name of Comitia Tributa,
supply was also provided out of the municipal budget, and controlled
sometimes that of Comitia Curiata. The theoretical powers by magistrates, appointed for the purpose. To enable it to bear the
of these comitia were extensive both in the election of magis- expense involved in all these undertakings, the local treasury was
trates and in legislation. But the growing influence of the generally assisted by large benefactions, either in money or in works,
from individual citizens; but direct taxation for municipal purposes
senate over elections on the one hand, and on the other hand the was hardly ever resorted to. The treasury was filled out of the
increasing reluctance of leading citizens to become candidates of the landed possessions of the community, especially such
for office (see below), gradually made popular election a mere uitful sources of revenue as mines and quarries, and out of import
Eroceeds
form. The senatorial recommendation of the necessary number
and export duties. It was occasionally subsidized by the emperor
on occasions of sudden and exceptional calamity.
of candidates seems to have been merely ratified in the comitia; 2. The chief feature in the religious life of the towns was the
and a Spanish municipal law of the ist century makes special important position they occupied as centres for the cult of the
provision for occasions on which an insufficient number of emperor. Caesar-worship as an organized cult developed sponta-
candidates are forthcoming. In Italy, however, the reality of neously in many provincial towns during the reign of Augustus,
and was fostered by him and his successors as a means of promoting
popular elections seems to have survived to a later date. The in these centres of vigour and prosperity a strong loyalty to Rome
inscriptions at Pompeii, for instance, give evidence of keenly and the emperor, which was one of the firmest supports of the latter's
contested elections in the 2nd century. The local senate, or power. The order of Augustales, officials appointed to regulate the
curia, always exercised an important influence on municipal
worship of the emperor in the towns, occupied a position of dignity
and importance in provincial society. It was composed of the lead-
Its members formed the local nobility, and at an
politics. ing and the wealthiest men among the lower classes of the popula-
early date special privileges were granted by Rome to provincials tion. By the organization of the order on these lines Augustus
who were senators in their native towns. For the composition, secured the double object of maintaining Caesar-worship in all the
most vigorous centres of provincial life, and attracting to himself
powers, and history of the provincial senate see DECURIO. and his successors the special devotion of the industrial class which
The magistrates were elected annually, and were six in number, had its origin in the municipia of the Roman Empire, and has become
forming three pairs of colleagues. The highest magistrates the greatest political force in modern Europe.
were the Ilviri (Duoviri) juri dicundo, who had charge, as their 3. The development of this free industrial class is the chief feature
name implies, of all local jurisdiction, and presided over the of the municipia considered as centres of industry and handicraft.
The rise to power of the equestrian order in Rome during the last
assembly. Candidates for this office were required to be over century of the Republic had to some extent modified the old Roman
25 years of age, to have held one of the minor magistracies, principle that trade and commerce were beneath the dignity of
and to possess all the qualifications required of members of the the governing class; but long after the fall of the Republic the aristo-
local senate (see DECURIO). Next in dignity were the Hviri cratic notion survived in Rome that industry and handicrafts were
aediles, who had charge -of the roads and public buildings, the
only fit for slaves. In the provincial towns, however, this idea was
rapidly disappearing in the early years of the Empire, and even in
games and the corn-supply, and exercised police control through- the country towns of Italy the inscriptions give evidence not much
out the town. They appear to have been regarded as sub- later of the existence of a large and nourishing free industrial class,
ordinate colleagues (collegae minores) of the Hviri juri dicundo, proud of its occupation, and bound together by a strong esprit de
and in some towns at least to have had the right to convene corps. Already the members of this class show a strong tendency
to bind themselves together in gilds (collegia, sodalitates) and the
,
and preside over the comitia in the absence of the latter. Indeed existence of countless associations of the kind is revealed by the
many inscriptions speak of IVviri (Quatluorviri) consisting of inscriptions. The formation of societies for religious and other
two IVviri juri dicundo and two IVviri aediles; but in the purposes was frequent at Rome from the earliest times in all classes
of the free population. After the time of Sulla these societies were
majority of cases the former are regarded as distinct and regarded by the government with suspicion, mainly on account of the
superior magistrates. The two quaestores, who appear to have political uses to which they were turned, and various measures were
controlled finance in a large number of municipia, cannot be passed for their suppression in Rome and Italy. This policy was
traced in others; and it is probable that in the municipia, as continued by the early emperors and extended to the whole Empire,
but in spite of opposition the gilds in the provincial towns grew and
at Rome, the quaestorship was locally instituted, as need arose,
flourished. The ostensible objects of nearly all such collegia of which
to relieve the supreme magistrates of excessive business. Other we have any knowledge were twofold, the maintenance of the
municipal magistrates frequently referred to in the inscriptions worship of some god, and provision for the performance of proper
are the quinquennales and praefecti. The quinquennales super- funerary rights for its members. But under cover of these two main
seded the Ilviri or IVviri juri dicundo every five years, and objects, the only two purposes for which such combinations were
allowed under the Empire, associations of all kinds grew up. The
differed from them only in possessing, in addition to their other
organization of the gilds was based on that of the municipality.
powers, those exercised in Rome before the time of Sulla by the Each elected its officers and treasurers at an annual meeting, and
censors. Two classes of praefecti are found in the municipalities every five years a revision of the list of members was held, correspond-
under the Empire, both of which are to be distinguished from ing to that of the senators held quinquennially by the city magis-
trates. It is doubtful how far these societies served to organize
the officials who bore that name in the municipia before the and improve particular industries. There is no evidence to show
Social War. The first class consists of those praefecti who were that any societies during the first three centuries consisted solely
nominated as temporary delegates by the Ilviri, when through of workers at a single craft. But there can be little doubt that the
later craft gilds were a development, through the industrial gilds
illness or compulsory absence they were unable to discharge
of the provincial towns, of one of the most ancient features of Roman
the duties of their office. The second class, referred to in life.
inscriptions by the name of praefecti ab decurionibus creati Remarkable concord seems generally to have existed in the
lege Petronia, seem to have been appointed by the local senate municipia between the various classes of the population. This
in case of a complete absence of higher magistrates, such as is accounted for partly by the strong civic feeling which formed
would have led in Rome to the appointment of an interrex. a bond of unity stronger than most sources of friction, and
MUNIMENT MUNKACS
partly to the general prosperity of the towns, which removed the table-land to the plain. The greater part of the country
any acute discontent. The wealthy citizen seems always to is covered with dense primeval forest. This forest growth is
have had to bear heavy financial burdens, and to have enjoyed due to the fertility of the soil and the great rainfall, Spanish
in return a dignity and an actual political preponderance which Guinea with the neighbouring Cameroon country possessing
made the general character of municipal constitutions distinctly one of the heaviest rain records of the world. The humidity
timocratic. of the climate joined to the excessive heat (the average tempera-
The policy adopted by the early emperors of encouraging, ture is 78 F.) makes the climate trying. In the eastern parts
within the limits of a uniform system, the independence and of the protectorate the forest is succeeded by more open country.
civic patriotism of the towns, was superseded in the 3rd and Among the most common trees are oil-palms, rubber-trees, ebony
4th centuries by a deliberate effort to use the towns as instru- and mahogany. The forests are the home of monkeys and of
ments of the imperial government, under the direct control of innumerable birds and insects, often of gorgeous colouring.
the emperor or his representatives in the provinces. This In the north-east of the country elephants are numerous.
policy was accompanied by a gradual decay of civic feeling and The inhabitants are Bantu-Negroid, the largest tribe repre-
municipal enterprise, which showed itself mainly in the un- sented being the Fang (q.v.), called by the Spaniards Pamues.
willingness of the townsmen to become candidates for local They are immigrants from the Congo basin and have pushed
magistracies, or to take up the burdens entailed in membership of before them the tribes, such as the Benga, which now occupy
the municipal senate. Popular control of the local government the coast-lands. The villages of the Fang are usually placed
of the towns was ceasing to be a reality as early as the end of on the top of small hills. They cultivate the yam, banana and
the ist century of the Empire. Two centuries later local manioc, and are expert fishers and hunters. The European
government was a mere form. And the self-governing com- settlements are confined to the coast. There are trading stations
munities of the middle ages were a restoration, rather than a at the mouths of the Campo, Benito and Muni rivers, at Bata,
development, of the flourishing and independent municipalities midway between the Campo and Benito, and on Elobey Chico.
of the age of Augustus and his immediate successors. There are cocoa, coffee and other plantations, but the chief
AUTHORITIES. C. Bruns, Fontes juris romani, c. III., No. 18, trade is in natural products, rubber, palm oil and palm kernels,
and c. IV. (Freiburg, 1893), for Municipal Laws and references to and timber. Cotton goods and alcohol are the principal imports.
Mommsen's commentary in C.I.L. E. Kuhn, Stadtische u. burgerliche
; Trade is largely in the hands of British and German firms. The
Verfasxung des rom. Reichs (Leipzig, 1864): Marquardt, Romische annual value of the trade in 1903-1906 was about 100,000.
Staatsverwaltung, I. i. (Leipzig, 1881); Toutain. in Daremberg-
Saglio Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques el romaines, s.v.
"
Munici- Spain became possessed of Fernando Po at the end of the
pium "; S. Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius, c. 2 i8tb century, and Spanish traders somewhat later established
and 3 (London, 1904). For the gilds see Mommsen, De collegiis el " "
factories on the neighbouring coasts' of the mainland, but
sodaliciis Romanorum (Keil, 1843); Liebenam, Geschichte u. Organi-
no permanent occupation appears to have been contemplated.
sation des rom. Vereinswesens (Leipzig, 1890). (A. M. CL.)
During the igth century a number of treaties were concluded
MUNIMENT, a word chiefly used in the plural, as a collective betv/een Spanish naval officers and the chiefs of the lower
term for the documents, charters, title-deeds, &c. relating to Guinea coast, and when the partition of Africa was in progress
the property, rights and privileges of a coiporation, such as a Spain laid claim to the territory between the Campo river and
" "
college, a family or private person, and kept as evidences the Gabun. Germany and France also claimed the territory,
for defending the same. Hence the medieval usage of the word but in 1885 Germany withdrew in favour of France. After
munimenlum, in classical Latin, a defence, fortification, from protracted negotiations between France and Spain a treaty
munire, to defend. was signed in June 1900 by which France acknowledged Spanish
MUNI RIVER SETTLEMENTS, or SPANISH GUINEA, a Spanish sovereignty over the coast region between the Campo and
protectorate on the Guinea Coast, West Africa, rectangular Muni rivers and the hinterland as far east as 11 20' E. of
in form, with an area of about 9800 sq. m. and an estimated Greenwich, receiving in return concessions from Spain in the
population of 150,000. The protectorate extends inland about Sahara (see Rio DE ORC), and the right of pre-emption over
125 miles and is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by the German Spain's West African possessions. In 1901-1902 the eastern
colony of Cameroon, E. and S. by French Congo. The coast- frontier was delimited, being modified in accordance with
line, 75 m. long, stretches from the mouth of the Campo in natural features. The newly acquired territories were placed
2 10' N. to the mouth of the Muni in i N., on the north arm under the superintendence of the governor-general of Fernando
of Corisco Bay. The small islands of Corisco ((?..), Elobey Po, sub-governors being stationed at Bata, Elobey Chico and
Grande, Elobey Chico and Bana in Corisco Bay also belong Corisco.
to Spain. See R. Beltran y R6zpide, La Guinea espanola (Madrid, 1901),
From the estuary of the Campo the coast trends S.S.W. in and Guinea continental espanola (Madrid, 1903); H. Lorin, "Lea
"
colonies espagnoles du golfe de Guinee in Quest, dip. et col., vol.
a series of shallow indentations, until at the bold bluff of Cape "
xxi. (1906);E. L. Perea, Estado actual de los territories espafioles
San Juan it turns eastward and forms Corisco Bay. The coast "
de Guinea in Revisia de geog. colon, y mercantil (Madrid, 1905) J. B.
;
plain, from 12 to 25 m. wide, is succeeded by the foot-hills of Roche, Aupays des Pahouins (Paris, 1904). A good map compiled
the Crystal Mountains, which traverse the country in a north by E. d'Almonte on the scale of 1 :2oo,ooo was published in Madrid
in 1903. Consult also the works cited under FERNANDO Po.
to south direction. These are a table-land, from which rise
granitic hills 700 to 1200 ft. above the geueral level, which is MUNKACS, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bereg,
about 2500 ft. above the sea. The mountainous region, which 220 m. E.N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,640. It
extends inland beyond the Spanish frontier, contains many is situated on the Latorcza river, and on the outskirts of the
narrow valleys and marshy depressions. The greater part of East Beskides mountains, where the hills touch the plains. Its
the country forms the basin of the river Benito, which, rising most noteworthy buildings are the Greek Catholic cathedral
in French Congo a little east of the frontier, flows through the and the beautiful castle of Count Schonborn. In the vicinity,
centre of the Spanish protectorate and enters the sea, after a on a steep hill 580 ft. high, stands the old fort of Munkacs,
course of 300 m., about midway between the Campo and Muni which played an important part in Hungarian history, and was
estuaries. The southern bank of the lower course of the Campo especially famous for its heroic defence by Helene Zrinyi, wife
and the northern bank of the lower course of the Muni, form of Emeric Tokoli and mother of Francis Rakoczy II., for three
part of the protectorate. The mouths of the Campo and years against the Austrians (1685-1688). It was afterwards
Benito are obstructed by sand bars, whereas the channel leading used as a prison. Ypsilanti, the hero of Greek liberty, and
to the Muni is some 36 ft. deep and the river itself is more than Kazinczy, the regenerator of Hungarian letters, were confined in
double that depth. It is from this superiority of access that it. According to tradition, it was near Munkacs that the
the country has been named after the Muni River. The course Hungarians, towards the end of the gth century, entered the
"
of all the rivers is obstructed by rapids in their descent from country. In 1896 in the fort was built one of the millennial
10 MUNKACSY MUNRO, R.
monuments " established at seven different points of the execution, and withdrawn from the scaffold, he was later sent to
kingdom. Siberia, where he remained fcr several years, until the accession
MUNKACSY, MICHAEL VON (1844-1900), Hungarian painter, of Peter III. brought about his release in 1762. Catherine II.,
whose real name was MICHAEL (MISKA) LEO LIEB, was the third who soon displaced Peter, employed the old field-marshal
son of Michael Lieb, a collector of salt-tax in Munkacs, Hungary, as director-general of the Baltic ports. He died in 1767. Feld-
and of Cacilia Rock. He was born in that town on the 2oth marschall Miinnich was a fine soldier of the professional type,
of February 1844. In 1848 his father was arrested at Miskolcz and many future commanders, notably Louden and Lacy,
for complicity in the Hungarian revolution, and died shortly served their apprenticeship at Ochakov and Khotin. As a
after his release; a little earlier he had also lost his mother, statesman he is regarded as the founder of Russian Philhellenism.
and became dependent upon the charity of relations, of whom He had the grade of count of the Holy Roman Empire. The
an uncle, Rock, became mainly responsible for his maintenance Russian 37th Dragoons bear his name.
and education. He was apprenticed to a carpenter, Langi, in He wrote an bauche pour donner une idee de la forme de V empire
"~e Russie (Leipzig, 1774), and his voluminous diaries have
1855, but shortly afterwards made the acquaintance of the appeared
in various publications Herrmann, Beitrage zur Geschichte des russi-
painters Fischer and Szamossy, whom he accompanied to Arad schen Reichs (Leipzig. 1843). See Hempel, Leben Miinnichs (Bremen.
in 1858. From them he received his first real instruction in 1742); Halem, Geschichte des F. M. Grafen Miinnich (Oldenburg^
art. He worked mainly at Budapest during 1863-1865, and 1803 2nd ed., 1838) Kostomarov, Feldmarschall Miinnich (Russische
; ;
at this time adopted, from patriotic motives, the name by
first Geschichte inBiographien,v. 2).
which he is always known. In 1865 he visited Vienna, returning MUNRO, SIR HECTOR (1726-1805), British general, son of
to Budapest in the following year, and went thence to Munich,
Hugh Munro of Novar, in Cromarty, was born in 1726, and
where he contributed a few drawings to the Fliegende Blatter. entered the army in 1749. He went to Bombay in 1761, in
About the end of 1867 he was working at Dusseldorf, where he command of the Sgth regiment, and in that year effected the
was much influenced by Ludwig Knaus, and painted (1868- surrender of Mahe from the French. Later, when in command of
"
1869) his firstpicture of importance, The Last Day of a the Bengal army, he suppressed a mutiny of sepoys at Patna,
Condemned Prisoner," which was exhibited in the Paris Salon and on the 23rd of October 1764 won the victory of Buxar
in 1870, and obtained for him a mMaille unique and a very against Shuja-ud-Dowlah, the nawab wazir of Oudh, and Mir
considerable reputation. He had already paid a short visit to
Kasim, which ranks amongst the most decisive battles ever
Paris in 1867, but on the 25th of January 1872 he took up his
fought in India. Returning home, he became in 1768 M.P.
permanent abode in that city, and remained there during the for the Inverness Burghs, which he continued to represent in
rest of his working life. Munkacsy's other chief pictures are parliament for more than thirty years, though a considerable
" "
Milton dictating Paradise Lost to his Daughters (Paris portion of this period was spent in India, whither he returned
" " " "
Exhibition, 1878), Christ before Pilate (1881), Golgotha in 1778 to take command of the Madras army. In that year
" " "
(1883), The Death of Mozart (1884), Arpad, chief of the he took Pondicherry from the French, but in 1780 he was defeated
Magyars, taking possession of Hungary," painted for the new by Hyder Ali near Conjeeveram, and forced to fall back on
House of Parliament in Budapest, and exhibited at the Salon St Thomas's Mount. There Sir Eyre Coote took over command
"
in 1893, and Ecce Homo." He had hardly completed the of the army, and in 1781 won a signal victory against Hyder Ali
latter work when a malady of the brain overtook him, and he at Porto Novo, where Munro was in command of the right
died on the 3Oth of April 1900, at Endenich, near Bonn. Just division. Negapatam was taken by Munro in November of
before his last illness he had been offered the directorship of the same year; and in 1782 he returned to England. He died on
the Hungarian State Gallery at Budapest. Munkacsy's masterly the 27th of December 1805.
characterization, forceand power of dramatic composition MUNRO, HUGH ANDREW JOHNSTONS (1810-1885), British
secured him a great vogue for his works, but it is doubtful if scholar, was born at Elgin on the igth of October 1819. He
his reputation will be maintained at the level it reached during was educated at Shrewsbury school, where he was one of
"
his lifetime.
"
Christ before Pilate and " Golgotha " were sold Kennedy's first pupils, and proceeded to Trinity College, Cam-
for 32,000 and 35,000 respectively to an American buyer. bridge, in 1838. He became scholar of his college in 1840,
Munkacsy received the following awards for his work exhibited second classic and first chancellor's medallist in 1842, and
at Paris: Medal, 1870, Medal, 2nd class; Legion of Honour, fellow of his college in 1843. He became classical lecturer at
1877; Medal of Honour, 1878; Officer of the Legion, 1878; Grand Trinity College, and in 1869 was elected to the newly-founded
Prix, Exhibition of 1889; "Commander of the Legion, 1889. chair of Latin at Cambridge, but resigned it in 1872. The
See F. Walther Ilges, M. von Munkacsy," Kiinstler Mono-
great work on which his reputation is mainly based is his
graphieji (1899); C. Sedelmeyer,
"
Christ before Pilate (Paris, 1886);
I. Beavington Atkinson, Michael Munkacsy," Magazine of Art edition of Lucretius, the fruit of the labour of many years (text
(1881). (E. F. S.) only, i vol., 1860; text, commentary and translation, 2 vols.,
MtiNNICH, BURKHARD CHRISTOPH, COUNT (1683-1767), 1864). As a textual critic his knowledge was profound and
Russian soldier and statesman, was born at Neuenhuntorf, in his judgment unrivalled; and he made close archaeological
Oldenburg, in 1683, and at an early age entered the French studies by frequent travels in Italy and Greece. In 1867 he
service. Thence he transferred successively to the armies of published an improved text of Aetna with commentary, and
Hesse-Darmstadt and of Saxony, and finally, with the rank of in the following year a text of Horace with critical introduction,
general-in-chief and the title of count, he joined the army of illustrated by specimens of ancient gems selected by C. W. King.
Peter II. of Russia. In 1732 he became field-marshal and His knowledge and taste are nowhere better shown than in his
president of the council of war. In this post he did good Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus (1878). He was a master
service in the re-organization of the Russian army, and founded of the art of Greek and Latin verse composition. His contri-
the cadet corps which was destined to supply the future genera- butions to the famous volume of Shrewsbury verse, Sabrinae
tions of officers. In 1 734 he took Danzig, and with 1 736 began corolla, are among the most remarkable of a remarkable collec-
the Turkish campaigns which made Munnich's reputation as a tion. His Translations into Latin and Greek Verse were privately
soldier. Working along the shores of the Black Sea from the printed in 1884. Like his translations into English, they are
Crimea, he took Ochakov after a celebrated siege in 1737, and characterized by minute fidelity to the original, but never cease
in 1739 won the battle of Stavutschina, and took Khotin (or to be idiomatic. He died at Rome on the 3Oth of March 1885.
Choczim), and established himself firmly in Moldavia. Marshal See Memoir by J. D. Duff, prefixed to a re-issue of the trans, of
" "
Miinnich now began to take an active part in political affairs, Lucretius in Bohn's Classical Library ('908).
the particular tone of which was given by his rivalry with Biron, MUNRO, MONEO or MONROE, ROBERT (d. c. 1680), Scots
or Bieren, duke of Courland. But his activity was brought to general,was a member of a well-known family in Ross-shire,
a close by the revolution of 1741; he was arrested on his way the Munroes of Foulis. With several of his kinsmen he served
to the frontier, and condemned to death. Brought out for in the continental wars under Gustavus Adolphus; and he
MUNRO, SIR T. MUNSTER ii
appears to have returned to Scotland about 1638, and to have matters connected with the renewal of the company's charter,
taken some part in the early incidents of the Scottish rebellion he returned to Madras in 1814 with special instructions to reform
against Charles I. In 1642 he went to Ireland, nominally as the judicial and police systems. On the outbreak of the Pindari
second in command under Alexander Leslie, but in fact in chief War in 1817, he was appointed as brigadier-general to command
command of the Scottish contingent against the Catholic rebels. the reserve division formed to reduce the southern territories of
After taking and plundering Newry in April 1642, and ineffec- the Peshwa. Of his signal services on this occasion Canning
"
tually attempting to subdue Sir Phelim O'Neill, Munro succeeded said in the House of Commons: He went into the field with
in taking prisoner the earl of Antrim at Dunluce. The arrival not more than five or six hundred men, of whom a very small pro-
of Owen Roe O'Neill in Ireland strengthened the cause of the portion were Europeans. Nine forts were surrendered to him
. . .
rebels (see O'NEILL), and Munro, who was poorly supplied with or taken by assault on his way; and at the end of a silent and
provisions and war materials, showed little activity. Moreover, scarcely observed progress he emerged leaving everything
. . .
the civil war in England was now creating confusion among parties secure and tranquil behind him." In 1820 he was appointed
in Ireland, and the king was anxious to come to terms with governor of Madras, where he founded the systems of revenue
the Catholic rebels, and to enlist them on his own behalf against assessment and general administration which substantially
the parliament. The duke of Ormonde, Charles's lieutenant- remain to the present day. His official minutes, published by
general in Ireland, acting on the king's orders, signed a cessation Sir A. Arbuthnot, form a manual of experience and advice for
of hostilities with the Catholics on the isth of September 1643, the modern civilian. He died of cholera on the 6th of July 1827,
" "
while on tour in the ceded districts, where his name is preserved
and exerted himself to despatch aid to Charles in England.
Munro in Ulster, holding his commission from the Scottish by more than one memorial. An equestrian statue of him, by
parliament, did not recognize the armistice, and his troops Chantrey, stands in Madras city.
accepted the solemn league and covenant, in which they were See biographies by G. R. Gleig (1830), Sir A. Arbuthnot (1881)
joined by many English soldiers who left Ormonde to join him. and J. Bradshaw (1894).
In April 1644 the English parliament entrusted Munro with the MUNSHI, or MOONSHI, the Urdu name of a writer or secretary,
command of all the forces in Ulster, both English and Scots. used in India of the native language teachers or secretaries
He thereupon seized Belfast, made a raid into the Pale, and employed by Europeans.
unsuccessfully attempted to gain possession of Dundalk and MUNSTER, GEORG, COUNT zu (1776-1844), German palae-
Drogheda. His force was weakened by the necessity for sending ontologist, was born on the i7th of February 1776. He formed
troops to Scotland to withstand Montrose; while Owen Roe a famous collection of fossils, which was ultimately secured by the
O'Neill was strengthened by receiving supplies from Spain and Bavarian and formed the nucleus of the palaeontological
state,
the pope. On the sth of June 1646 was fought the battle of museum Munich. Count Miinster assisted Goldfuss in his
at
Benburb, on the Blackwater, where O'Neill routed Munro, but great work Petrefacta Germaniae. He died at Bayreuth on the
suffered him to withdraw in safety to Carrickfergus. In 1647 23rd of December 1844.
Ormonde was compelled to come to terms with the English MUNSTER, SEBASTIAN (1489-1552), German geographer,
parliament, who sent commissioners to Dublin in June of that mathematician and Hebraist, was born at Ingelheim in the
year. The Scots under Munro refused to surrender Carrick- Palatinate. After studying at Heidelberg and Tubingen, he
fergus and Belfast when ordered by the parliament to return entered the Franciscan order, but abandoned it for Luther-
to Scotland, and Munro was superseded by the appointment of anism about 1529. Shortly afterwards he was appointed court
Monk to the chief command in Ireknd. In September 1648 preacher at Heidelberg, where he also lectured in Hebrew and
Carrickfergus was delivered over to Monk by treachery, and Old Testament exegesis. From 1536 he taught at Basel, where
Munro was taken prisoner. He was committed to the Tower he published his Cosmographia universalis in 1544, and where
of London, where he remained a prisoner for five years. In he died of the plague on the 23rd of May 1552. A disciple
1654 he was permitted by Cromwell to reside in Ireland, where of Elias Levita, he was the first German to edit the Hebrew
he had estates in right of his wife, who was the widow of Viscount Bible (2 vols., fol., Basel, 1534-1535); this edition was accom-
Montgomery of Ardes. Munro continued to live quietly near panied by a new Latin translation and a large number of anno-
Comber, Co. Down, for many years, and probably died there tations. He published more than one Hebrew grammar, and
about 1680. He was in part the original of Dugald Dalgetty in was the first to prepare a Grammatica chaldaica (Basel, 1527).
Sir Walter Scott's Legend of Montrose. His lexicographical labours included a Dictionarium chaldaicum
See Thomas Carte, History of the Life of James, Duke of Ormonde (1527), and a Dictionarium trilingue, of Latin, Greek and
(6 vols., Oxford, 1851); Sir J. T. Gilbert, Contemporary History of Hebrew (1530). But his most important work was his Cosmo-
Affairs in Ireland 1641-1652 (3 vols., Dublin, 1879-1880) and
graphia, which also appeared in German as a Beschreibung oiler
History of the Irish Confederation and the War in Ireland (7 vols.,
Dublin, 1882-1891); John Spalding, Memorials of the Troubles in Lander, the first detailed, scientific and popular description of
Scotland and England (2 vols., Aberdeen, 1850); The Montgomery the world in Munster's native language, as well as a supreme
MSS., 1603-1703, edited by G. Hill (Belfast, 1869); Sir Walter effort of geographical study and literature in the Reformation
Scott, The Legend of Montrose, author's preface.
period. In this Miinster was assisted by more than one hundred
MUNRO, SIR THOMAS (1761-1827), Anglo-Indian soldier and and twenty collaborators.
statesman, was born at Glasgow on the 27th of May 1761, the The most valued edition of the Cosmographia or Beschreibung
son of a merchant. Educated at Glasgow University, he was is that of 1550, especially prized for its
portraits and its city and
at first intended to enter his father's business, but in 1789 he costume pictures. Besides the works mentioned above we may
notice Munster's Germaniae descriptio of 1530, his Novus orbis of
was appointed to an infantry cadetship in Madras. He served
1532, his Mappa Europae of 1536, his Rhaelia of 1538, his editions
with his regiment during the hard-fought war against Hyder of Solinus, Mela and Ptolemy in 1538-1540 and among non-
Ali (1780-83), and again in the first campaign against Tippoo treatises his Horologiographia, 1531, on dialling (see
(1790-92). He was then chosen as one of four military g:ographical
IAL), his Organum uranicum of 1536 on the planetary motions, and
his Rudimenta mathematica of 1551. His published maps numbered
officers to administer the Baramahal, part of the territory
142.
acquired from Tippoo, where he remained for seven years, See V. Hantzsch, Sebastian Miinster (1898), in vol. xviii. of the
learning the principles of revenue survey and assessment which Publications of the Royal Society of Sciences of Saxony, Historical-
he afterwards applied throughout the presidency of Madras. Philological Section).
After the final downfall of Tippoo in 1799, he spent a short time MUNSTER, a town of Germany, in the district of Upper
restoring order in Kanara; and then for another seven years Alsace, 16 m. from Colmar by rail, and at the foot of the Vosges
(1800-1807) he was placed in charge of the northern districts Mountains. Pop. (1905), 6078. Its principal industries are
" "
ceded by the nizam of Hyderabad, where he introduced spinning, weaving and bleaching. The town owes its origin
the ryotwari system of land revenue. After a long furlough to a Benedictine abbey, which was founded in the yth century,
in England, during which he gave valuable evidence upon and at one time it was a free city of the empire. In its
12 MUNSTER MUNSTERBERG, H.
neighbourhood is the ruin of Schwarzenberg. The Ministerial, Christoph Bernhard von Galen took the place by force, built a
or Gregoriental, which is watered by the river Fecht, is famous citadel, and deprived the citizens of many of their privileges.
for its cheese. During the Seven Years' War Munster was occupied both
See Rathgeber, Milnster-im-Gregoriental (Strassburg, 1874) and by the French and by their foes. Towards the close of the
F. Hecker, Die Stadt und das Tal zu Miinster im St Gregoriental 1 8th century the town was
recognized as one of the intellectual
(Munster, 1890). centres of Germany.
MUNSTER, a town of Germany, capital of the Prussian pro- The bishopric of Munster embraced an area of about 2500 sq. m.
vince of Westphalia, and formerly the capital of an important and contained about 350,000 inhabitants. Its bishops, who
bishopric. It lies in a sandy plain on the Dortmund-Ems canal, resided generally at Ahaus, were princes of the empire. In
at the junction of several railways, 107 m. S.W. of Bremen the 1 7th century Bishop Galen, with his army of 20,000 men.
on the line to Cologne. Pop. (1885), 44,060; (1905) 81,468. was so powerful that his alliance was sought by Charles II. of
The town preserves its medieval character, especially in the England and other European sovereigns. The bishopric was
" "
Prinzipal-Markt and other squares, with their lofty gabled and its lands annexed to Prussia in 1803.
secularized
houses and arcades. The fortifications were dismantled during See Geisberg, Merkwiirdigkeiten der Stadt Munster (1877) Erhard,
;
the 1 8th century, their place being taken by gardens and prome- Geschichte Munslers (1837); A.Tibus, Die Stadt Miinster (Munster,
nades. Of the many churches of Munster the most important 1882); Hellinghaus, Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte der
Stadt Munster (Munster, 1898); Pieper, Die alte Universitiit Munster
is the cathedral, one of the most striking in Germany, although
1773-1818 (Munster, 1902). See also Tucking, Geschichte des Stifts
disfigured by modern decorations. It was rebuilt in the i3th Munster unter C. B. von Galen (Munster, 1865).
and I4th centuries, and exhibits a combination of Romanesque MUNSTER, a province of Ireland occupying the S.W. part of
and Gothic forms; its chapter-house is specially fine. The the island. It includes the counties Clare, Tipperary, Limerick,
beautiful Gothic church of St Lambert (i4th century) was
Kerry, Cork and Waterford (q.v. for topography, &c.). After
on its tower, which is 312 ft. in height,
largely rebuilt after 1868; the occupation of Ireland by the Milesians, Munster (Mumha)
hang three iron cages in which the bodies of John of Leiden became nominally a provincial kingdom; but as the territory was
and two of his followers were exposed in 1536. The church of divided between two families there was constant friction and
St Ludger, erected in the Romanesque style about 1170, was it was not until 237 that Oliol Olum established himself as
king
extended in the Gothic style about 200 years later; it has a over the whole. In 248 he divided his kingdom between his
tower with a picturesque lantern. The church of St Maurice, two Desmond
sons, giving (q.v., Des-Mumha) to Eoghan and
founded about 1070, was rebuilt during the igth century, and Thomond (Tuadh-Mumha) or north Munster to Cormac. He
the Gothic church of Our Lady dates from the i4th century. also stipulated that the rank of king of Munster should belong
Other noteworthy buildings are the town-hall, a fine Gothic in turn to their descendants. In this way the kingship of
building of the i4th century, and the Stadtkeller, which contains Munster survived until 1194; but there were kings of Desmond
a collection of early German paintings. The room in the town- and Thomond down to the i6th century. Munster was originally
hall called the Friedens Saal, in which the peace of Westphalia of the same extent as the present province, excepting that it
was signed in October 1648, contains portraits of many ambas- included the district of Ely, which belonged to the O'Carrols
sadors and princes who were present at the ceremony. The and formed a part of the present King's County. During the
Schloss, built in 1767, was formerly the residence of bishops of 1 6th
century, however, Thomond was for a time included in
Munster. The private houses, many of which were the winter Connaught, being declared a county under the name of Clare
residences of the nobility of Westphalia, are admirable examples Part of Munster had been included
(q.v.) by Sir Henry Sidney.
of German domestic architecture in the i6th, i7th and i8th in the system of shiring generally attributed to King John. In
centuries. The university of Munster, founded after the Seven
1570 a provincial presidency of Munster (as of Connaught)
Years'War and closed at the beginning of the igth century, was established by Sidney, Sir John Perrot being the first
was reopened as an academy in 1818, and again attained the president,and lasted until 1672. Under Perrot a practically
rank of a university in 1902. It possesses faculties of theology, new shiring was carried out.
philosophy and law. In connexion with it are botanical and MUNSTER AM STEIN, a watering-place of Germany, in the
zoological gardens, several scientific collections, and a library of Prussian Rhine province, on the Nahe, 2^ m. S. of Kreuznach,
1 20,000 volumes. Munster is the seat of a Roman Catholic on the railway from Bingerbriick to Strassburg. Pop. (1905),
bishop and of the administrative and judicial authorities of 915. Above the village are the ruins of the castle of Rhein-
Westphalia, and is the headquarters of an army corps. The grafenstein (i2th century), formerly a seat of the count palatine
Westphalian society of antiquaries and several other learned of the Rhine, which was destroyed by the French in 1689, and
bodies also have their headquarters here. Industries include those of the castle of Ebernburg, the ancestral seat of the lords
weaving, dyeing, brewing and printing, and the manufacture of of Sickingen,and the birthplace of Franz von Sickingen, the
furniture and machines. There is a brisk trade in cattle, grain famous landsknecht captain and protector of Ulrich von Hutten,
and other products of the neighbourhood. to whom a monument was erected on the slope near the ruins
History. Munster is first mentioned about the year 800, in 1889. The spa (saline and carbonate springs), specific in
when Charlemagne made it the residence of Ludger, the newly- cases of feminine disorders, is visited by about 5000 patients
appointed bishop of the Saxons. Owing to its distance from annually.
any available river or important highway, the growth of the See Welsch, Das Sol- und Thermalbad Munster am Stein (Kreuz-
settlement round the monasterium was slow, and it was not nach, 1886) and Messer, Fiihrer durch Bad Kreuznach und Munster
until after 1186 that it received a charter, the name Munster am Stein (Kreuznach, 1905).
Having supplanted the original name of Mimegardevoord about MUNSTERBERG, HUGO ( 1 863- German-American psycho-
) ,
a century earlier. During the I3th and I4th centuries the physiologist, was born Having been extraordinary
at Danzig.
town was one of the most prominent members of the Hanseatic professor at Freiburg-im-Breisgau, he became in 1892 pro-
League. At the time of the Reformation the citizens were fessor of psychology at Harvard University. Among his more
inclined to adopt the Protestant doctrines, but the excesses important works are Beitriige zur experimentellen Psychologic
of the Anabaptists led in 1535 to the armed intervention of (4 vols., Freiburg, 1889-1892); Psychology and Life (New
the bishop and to the forcible suppression of all divergence York, 1899); Grundzuge der Psychologic (Leipzig, 1900);
from the older faith. The Thirty Years' War, during which American Traits from the Point of View of a German (Boston,
Munster suffered much from the Protestant armies, was ter- 1901); Die Amerikaner (several ed.; Eng. trans. 1904); Science
minated by the peace of Westphalia, sometimes called the peace and Idealism (New York, 1906); Philosophic der Werte (Leipzig,
of Munster, because it was signed here on the 24th of October 1908); Aus Deulsch-Amerika (Berlin, 1908); Psychology and
1648. The authority of the bishops, who seldom resided at Crime (New York, 1908). He has been prominently identified
Munster, was usually somewhat limited, but in 1661 Bishop with the modern developments of experimental psychology
MUNSTERBERG MUNZER
(see PSYCHOLOGY), and his sociological writings display the Muntjacs are solitary animals, even two being rarely seen
acuteness of a German philosophic mind as applied to the study together. They are fond of hilly ground covered with forests,
of American and manners.
life in the dense thickets of which they pass most of their time, only
MUNSTERBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian pro- coming to the skirts of the woodsmorning and evening to
at
vince of Silesia, on the Ohlau, 36 m. by rail S. of Breslau. Pop. graze. They carry the head and neck low
and the hind-quarters
(1905), 8475. It is partly surrounded by medieval walls. It high, their action in running being peculiar and not elegant,
has manufactures of drain-pipes and fireproof bricks; there are somewhat resembling the pace of a sheep. Though with no
also sulphur springs. Miinsterberg was formerly the capital power of sustained speed or extensive leaping, they are remark-
of the principality of the same name, which existed from the able for flexibility of body and facility of creeping through
I4th century down to 1791, when it was purchased by the tangled underwood. A popular name with Indian sportsmen
"
Prussian crown. Near the town is the former Cistercian abbey is barking deer," on account of the alarm-cry a kind of short
of Heinrichau. shrill bark, like that of a fox, but louder. When attacked by
MUNTANER, RAMON '(1265-1336?), Catalan historian, was dogs, the males use their sharp canine teeth, which inflict deep
born at Peralada (Catalonia) in 1265. The chief events of his and even dangerous wounds.
career are recorded in his chronicle. He accompanied Roger de In" the Indian muntjac the height of the buck is from 20 tc 22 in.;
Flor to Sicily in 1300, was present at the siege of Messina, allied types, some of which have received distinct names, occur in
served in the expedition of the Almogavares against Asia Minor, Burma and the Malay Peninsula and Islands. Among these, the
Burmese C. muntjac grandicornis is noteworthy on account of its
and became the first governor of Gallipoli. Later he was
large antlers. The Tibetan muntjac (C. lachrymans) from Moupin
,
appointed governor of Jerba or Zerbi, an island in the Gulf of in eastern Tibet and Hangchow in China, is somewhat smaller than
Gabes, and finally entered the service of the infante of Majorca. the Indian animal, with a bright reddish-brown coat. The smallest
On the isth of May 1325 (some editions give the year 1335) he member of the genus (C. reevest) occurs in southern China and has a
reddish-chestnut coat, speckled with yellowish and a black
began his Chronica, o descripcio dels jets, e hazanas del inclyt grey
band down the nape. The Tenasserim muntjac (C. feae), about the
reyDon laume Primer, in obedience, as he says, to the express size of the Indian species, is closely allied to the hairy-fronted
command of God who appeared to him in a vision. Muntaner's muntjac (C. crinifrons) of eastern China, but lacks the tuft of hair
on the forehead. The last-mentioned species, by its frontal tuft,
book, which was first printed at Valencia in 1558, is the chief
small rounded ears, general brown coloration, and minute antlers,
authority for the events of his period, and his narrative, though connects the typical muntjacs with the small tufted deer or tufted
occasionally prolix, uncritical and egotistical, is faithful and muntjacs of the genus Elaphodus of eastern China and Tibet. These
vivid. He is said to have died in 1336. last have coarse bristly hair of a purplish-brown colour with light
His chronicle is most accessible in the edition published by Karl markings, very large head-tufts, almost concealing the minute
Lanz at Stuttgart in 1844. antlers, of which the pedicles do not extend as ribs down the face.
MUNTJAC, the Indian name of a small deer typifying the They include E. cephalophus of Tibet, E. michianus of Ningpo, and
E. ichangensis of the mountains of Ichang. (R. L.*)
genus Cerndus, all the members of which are indigenous to the
southern and eastern parts of Asia and the adjacent islands, MUNZER, THOMAS (c. 1480-1525), German religious enthu-
and are separated by marked characters from all their allies. siast,was born at Stolberg in the Harz near the end of the 1 5th
For the distinctive features of the genus see DEER. As regards century, and educated at Leipzig and Frankfort, graduating is
general characteristics, all muntjacs are small compared with theology. He held preaching appointments in various places,
the majority of deer, and have long bodies and rather short but his restless nature prevented him from remaining in one
limbs and neck. The antlers of the bucks are small and simple; position for any length of time. In 1520 he became a preacher
at the church of St Mary, Zwickau, and his rude eloquence,
together with his attacks on the monks, soon raised him to
influence. Aided by Nicholas Storch, he formed a society the
principles of which were akin to those of the Taborites, and
claimed that he was under the direct influence of the Holy
Spirit. His zeal for the purification of the Church by casting
out all unbelievers brought him into conflict with the governing
body of the town, and he was compelled to leave Zwickau. He
then went to Prague, where his preaching won numerous ad-
herents, but his violent language brought about his expulsion
from this city also. At Easter 1523 Miinzer came to Allstedt,
and was soon appointed preacher at the church of St John,
where he made extensive alterations in the services. His
violence, however, aroused the hostility of Luther, in retaliation
for which Miinzer denounced the Wittenberg teaching. His
preaching soon produced an uproar in Allstedt, and after holding
his own for some time he left the town and went to Miihlhausen,
where Heinrich Pfeiffer was already preaching doctrines similar
to his own. The union of Miinzer and Pfeiffer caused a disturb-
ance in this city and both were expelled. Miinzer went to
Nuremberg, where he issued a writing against Luther, who had
The Indian Muntjac (Cervulus muntjac). been mainly instrumental in bringing about his expulsion from
the main stem or beam, after giving off a short brow-tine, in- Saxony. About this time his teaching became still more violent.
clining backwards and upwards, being unbranched and pointed, He denounced established governments, and advocated common
and when fully developed curving inwards and somewhat down- ownership of the means of life. After a tour in south Germany
wards at the tip. These small antlers are supported upon he returned to Miihlhausen, overthrew the governing body of
pedicles, or processes of the frontal bones, longer than in any the city, and established a communistic theocracy. The
other deer, the front edges of these being continued downwards Peasants' War had already broken out in various parts of
as strong ridges passing along the sides of the face above the Germany; and as the peasantry around Miihlhausen were imbued
eyes. From this feature the name rib-faced deer has been with Miinzer's teaching, he collected a large body of men to
suggested for the muntjac. The upper canine teeth of the males plunder the surrounding country. He established his camp at
are large and sharp, projecting outside the mouth as tusks, and Frankenhausen; but on the isth of May 1525 the peasants were
loosely implanted in their sockets. In the females they are dispersed by Philip, landgrave of Hesse, who captured Mtinzer
much smaller. and executed him on the 27th at Miihlhausen. Before his
MUNZINGER MURAD
death he is said to have written a letter admitting the justice of The state of Europe facilitated Murad's projects: civil war and
his sentence. anarchy prevailed in most of the countries of Central Europe,
His Aussgetriickte Emplossung des falschen Glaubens has been where the feudal system was at its last gasp and the small
(
edited by R. Jordan (Muhlhausen, 1901), and a life of Munzer, Balkan states were divided by mutual jealousies. The capture
Die Histori von Thome Muntzer des Anfengers der duringischen of Adrianople, followed by other conquests, brought about a
Uffrur, has been attributed to Philip Melanchthon (Hagenau, 1525).
See G. T. Strobel, Leben, Schriften und Lehren Thomd Miinlzers coalition under the king of Hungary against Murad, but his able
(Nuremberg, 1795); J. K. Seidemann, Thomas Munzer (Leipzig, lieutenant Lalashahin, the first beylerbey of Rumelia, defeated
1842); O. Merx, Thomas Munzer und Heinrich Pfeiffer (Gottingen, the allies at the battle of the Maritsa in 1363. In 1366 the
1889) G. Wolfrau, Thomas Munzer in Allstedt (Jena, 1852).
king of Servia was defeated at Samakov and forced to pay
;
MUNZINGER, WERNER Swiss linguist and
(1832-1875), tribute. Kustendil, Philippopolis and Nish fell into the hands,
traveller, was born at Olten on the 2ist of April
in Switzerland, of the Turks; a renewal of the war in 1381 led to the capture
1832. After studying natural science, Oriental languages and of Sofia two years later. Europe was now aroused; Lazar,
history, at Bern, Munich and Paris, he went to Egypt in 1852 king of Servia, formed an alliance with the Albanians, the
and spent a year in Cairo perfecting himself in Arabic. Entering Hungarians and the Moldavians against the Turks. Murad
a French mercantile house, he went as leader of a trading expe- hastened back to Europe and met his enemies on the field of
dition to various parts of the Red Sea, fixing his quarters at Kossovo (1389). Victory finally inclined to the side of the
Massawa, where he acted as French consul. In 1855 he removed Turks. When was complete, a Servian
the rout of the Christians
to Keren, the chief town of the Bogos, in the north of Abyssinia, named Milosh Kabilovich penetrated Murad's tent on pretence
to
which country he explored during the next six years. In 1861 of communicating an important secret to the sultan, and stabbed
he joined the expedition under T. von Heuglin to Central Africa, the conqueror. Murad was of independent character and
but separated from him in November in northern Abyssinia, remarkable intelligence. He was fond of pleasure and luxury,
proceeding along the Gash and Atbara to Khartum. Thence, cruel and cunning. Long relegated to the command of a distant
having meantime succeeded Heuglin as leader of the expedition, province in Asia, while his brother Suleiman occupied an enviable
he travelled in 1862 to Kordofan, failing, however, in his attempt post in Europe, he became revengeful; thus he exercised great
to reach Darfur and Wadai. After a short stay in Europe in cruelty in the repression of the rebellion of his son Prince Sauji,
1863, Munzinger returned to the north and north-east border- the first instance of a sultan's son taking arms against his father.
lands of Abyssinia, and in 1865, the year of the annexation of Murad transferred the Ottoman capital from Brusa to Adrianople,
Massawa by Egypt, was appointed British consul at that town. where he built a palace and added many embellishments to
He rendered valuable aid to the Abyssinian expedition of the town. The development of the feudal system of timars and
1867-68, among other things exploring the almost unknown ziamets and its extension to Europe was largely his work.
Afar country. In acknowledgment of his services he received the MURAD II. (1403-1451) succeeded his father Mahommed I.
C.B. In 1868 he was appointed French consul at Massawa, and in 1421. The attempt of his uncle Prince Mustafa to usurp
in 1871 was named by the khedive Ismail governor of that town the throne, supported as it was by the Greeks, gave trouble at
with the title of bey. In 1870, with Captain S. B. Miles, Mun- the outset of his reign, and led to the unsuccessful siege of
zinger visited southern Arabia. As governor of Massawa he Constantinople in 1422. Murad maintained a long struggle
annexed to Egypt the Bogos and Hamasen provinces of northern against the Bosnians and Hungarians, in the course cf which
Abyssinia, and in 1872 was made pasha and governor-general Turkey sustained many severe reverses through the valour oi
of the eastern Sudan. It is believed that it was on his advice Janos Hunyadi. Accordingly in 1444 he concluded a treaty at
that Ismail sanctioned the Abyssinian enterprise, but on the war Szegedin for ten years, by which he renounced all claim to Servia
assuming larger proportions in 1875 the command of the Egyptian and recognized George Brancovich as its king. Shortly after
troops in northern Abyssinia was taken from Munzinger, who was this, being deeply affected by the death of his eldest son Prince
selected to command a small expedition intended to open up Ala-ud-din, he abdicated in favour of Mahommed, his second
communication with Menelek, king of Shoa, then at enmity with son, then fourteen years of age. But the treacherous attack, in
the negus Johannes (King John) and a potential ally of Egypt. violation of treaty, by the Christian powers, imposing too hard
Leaving Tajura Bay on the 27th of October 1875 Munzinger a task on the inexperienced young sovereign, Murad returned
started for Ankober with a force of 350 men, being accompanied from his retirement at Magnesia, crushed his faithless enemies
by an envoy from Menelek. The desert country to be traversed at the battle of Varna (Novemebr 10, 1444), and again withdrew
was in the hands of hostile tribes, and on reaching Lake Aussa to Magnesia. A
revolt of the janissaries induced him to return
the expedition was attacked during the night by Gallas Mun- to power, and he spent the remaining six years of his life in
zinger, with his wife and nearly all his companions, being warfare in Europe, defeating Hunyadi at Kossovo (October
killed. 17-19, 1448). He died at Adrianople in 1451, and was buried
Munzinger's contributions to the knowledge of the country, at Brusa. By some considered as a fanatical devotee, and by
people and languages of north-eastern Africa are of solid value. others as given up to mysticism, he is generally described as
See Proc. R.G.S., vol. xiii.; Journ. R.G.S., vols. xxxix., xli. and xlvi.
kind and gentle in disposition, and devoted to the interests of
(obituary notice); Petermanns Mitteilungen for 1858, 1867, 1872
et seq. Dietschi and Weber, Werner Munzinger, ein Lebensbild his country.
;
(1875); J- v Keller-Zschokke, Werner Munzinger Pasha (1890).
- MURAD III. (1546-1595), was the eldest son of Selim II.,
Munzinger published the following works: Vber die Sitten und das and succeeded his father in 1574. His accession marks the
Recht der Bogos (1859); Ostafrikanische Studien (1864; 2nd ed., 1883;
definite beginning of the decline of the Ottoman power, which
his most valuable book) Die deutsche Expedition in Ostafrika (1865)
; ;
Vocabulaire de la langue de Tigre (1865), besides papers in the geo- had only been maintained under Selim II. by the genius of the
graphical serials referred to, and a memoir on the northern borders all-powerful grand vizier Mahommed Sokolli. For, though
of Abyssinia in the Zeitschrift fur allgemeine Erdkunde, new series, Sokolli remained in office until his assassination in October 1578,
vol. ih.
his authority was undermined by the harem influences, which
MURAD, or AMURATH, the name of five Ottoman sultans. with Murad were supreme. Of these the most powerful
III.
MURAD I., surnamed Khudavendighiar (1310-1389), was the was that of the sultan's chief wife, named Safie (the pure), a
son of Orkhan and the Greek princess Nilofer, and succeeded beautiful Venetian of the noble family of Baffo, whose father
his father in 1359. He was the first Turkish monarch to obtain had been governor of Corfu, and who had been captured as a
a definite footing in Europe, and his main object throughout child by Turkish corsairs and sold into the harem. This lady,
his career was to extend the European dominions of Turkey. in spite of the sultan's sensuality and of the efforts, temporarily
The revolts of the prince of Caramania interfered with the successful, to supplant her in his favour, retained her ascendancy
realization of this plan, and trouble was caused from this quarter over him to the last. Murad had none of the qualities of a
more than once during his reign until the decisive battle of Konia ruler. He was good-natured, though cruel enough on occasion:
(1387), when the power of the prince of Caramania was broken. his accession had been marked by the murder, according to the
MURAENA
custom then established, of his five brothers. His will-power His severity has remained legendary. Death was the penalty
had early been undermined by the opium habit, and was further for the least offence, and no past services as Koes Mahommed
weakened by the sensual excesses that ultimately killed him. was to find to his cost were admitted in extenuation. The use
Nor had he any taste for rule; his days were spent in the society of tobacco, coffee, opium and wine were forbidden on pain
of musicians, buffoons and poets, and he himself dabbled in of death; eighteen persons are said to have been put to death in
verse-making of a mystic tendency. a single day for infringing this rule. During his whole reign,
His one attempt at reform, the order forbidding the sale of indeed, supposed offenders against the sultan's authority were
intoxicants so as to stop the growing intemperance of the done to death, singly or in thousands. The tale of his victims is
janissaries, broke down on the opposition of the soldiery. He said to have exceeded 100,000.
was the first sultan to share personally in the proceeds of the But if he was the most cruel, Murad was also one of the most
corruption which was undermining the state, realizing especially manly, of the later sultans. He was of gigantic strength, which
large sums by the sale of offices. This corruption was fatally he maintained by constant physical exercises. He was also
apparent in the army, the feudal basis of which was sapped by fond of hunting, and for this reason usually lived at Adrianople.
the confiscation of fiefs for the benefit of nominees of favourites He broke through the alleged tradition, bequeathed by Suleiman
of the harem, and by the intrusion, through the same influences the Magnificent to his successors, that the sultan should not
of foreigners and rayahs into the corps of janissaries, of which command the troops in person, and took command in the
the discipline became more and more relaxed and the temper Persian war which led to the capture of Bagdad (1638) and the
increasingly turbulent. In view of this general demoralization conclusion of an honourable peace (May 7, 1639). Early in 1640
not even the victorious outcome of the campaigns in Georgia, he died, barely twenty-nine years of age. The cause of his death
the Crimea, Daghestan, Yemen and Persia (1578-1590) could was acute gout brought on by excessive drinking. In spite of
prevent the decay of the Ottoman power; indeed, by weakening his drunkenness, however, Murad was a bigoted Sunni, and the
the Mussulman states, they hastened the process, since they main cause of his campaign against Persia was his desire to
facilitated the advance of Russia to the Black Sea and the extirpate the Shia heresy. In the intervals of his campaignings
Caspian. and cruelties the sultan would amuse his entourage by exhibit-
Murad, who had welcomed the Persian War as a good oppor- ing feats of strength, or compose verses, some of which were
tunity for ridding himself of the presence of the janissaries, published under the pseudonym of Muradi.
whom he dreaded, had soon cause to fear their triumphant See, for details of the lives of the above, J. von Hammer-Purgstall,
return. Incensed by the debasing of the coinage, which robbed Geschichte des osmanischen Retches (Pest, 1840), where further
authorities are cited.
them of part of their pay, they invaded the Divan clamouring
for the heads of the sultan's favourite, the beylerbey of Rumelia, MURAD V. (1840-1904), eldest son of Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid,
and of the defterdar (finance minister), which were thrown to was born on the 2ist of September 1840. On the accession of
them (April 3, 1589). This was the first time that the janissaries his uncle Abd-ul-Aziz, Prince Mahommed Murad Effendi
had invaded the palace: a precedent to be too often followed. as he was then called was deprived of all share in public
The outbreak of another European war in 1592 gave the sultan affairs and imprisoned, owing to his opposition to the sultan's
an opportunity of ridding himself of their presence. Murad died plan for altering the order of succession. On the deposition of
in 1595, leaving to his successor a legacy of war and anarchy. Abd-ul-Aziz on the 3oth of May 1876, Murad was haled from his
It was under Murad III. that England's relations with the " "
prison by a mob of softas and soldiers of the Young Turkey
Porte began. Negotiations were opened in 1579 with Queen "
party under Suleiman Pasha, and proclaimed emperor by the
Elizabeth through certain British merchants; in 1580 the first grace of God and the will of the people." Three months later,
Capitulations with England were signed; in 1583 William however, his health, undermined by his long confinement, gave
Harebone, the first British ambassador to the Porte, arrived way; and on the 313! of August he was deposed to make room
at Constantinople, and in 1593 commercial Capitulations were for his younger brother, Abd-ul-Hamid II. He was kept in
signed with England granting the same privileges as those confinement in the Cheragan palace till his death on the zgth of
enjoyed by the French. (See CAPITULATIONS.) August 1904.
MURAD IV. (1611-1640) was the son of Sultan Ahmed I., See Keratry, Mourad V., prince, sultan, prisonnier d'ftat 1840-
and succeeded his uncle Mustafa I. in 1623. For the first nine 1876 (Paris, 1878); Djemaleddin Bey, Sultan Murad V., the Turkish
years of his reign his youth prevented him from taking more than Dynasty Mystery, 1876-1895 (London, 1895).
an observer's part in affairs. But the lessons thus learnt were MURAENA, the name of an eel common in the Mediterranean,
sufficiently striking to mould his whole character and policy. and highly esteemed by the ancient Romans; it was afterwards
The minority of the sultan gave full play to the anarchic elements
in the state; the soldiery, spahis and janissaries, conscious of
their power and reckless through impunity, rose in revolt
whenever the whim seized them, demanding privileges and the
heads of those who displeased them, not sparing even the
sultan's favourites. In 1631 the spahis of Asia Minor rose in
revolt,in protest against the deposition of the grand vizier
Khosrev: their representatives crowded to Constantinople,
stoned the new grand vizier, Hafiz, in the court of the palace,
and pursued the sultan himself into the inner apartments,
clamouring for seventeen heads of his advisers and favourites,
on penalty of his own deposition. Hafiz was surrendered, a
voluntary martyr; other ministers were deposed; Mustafa
Pasha, aga of the janissaries, was saved by his own troops.
But Mura-d was now beginning to assert himself. Khosrev was
executed in Asia Minor by his orders; a plot of the spahis to
depose him was frustrated by the loyalty of Koes Mahommed, Muraena from the Indo- Pacific.
picta,
aga of the janissaries, and of the spahi Rum Mahommed
(Mahommed the Greek); and on the 2gth of May 1632, by a applied to the whole genus of fishes to which the Mediterranean
successful personal appeal to the loyalty of the janissaries, species belongs,and which is abundantly represented in tropical
Murad crushed the rebels, whom he surrounded in the Hippo- and sub-tropical seas, especially in rocky parts or on coral reefs.
drome. At the age of twenty he found himself possessed of Some ninety species are known. In the majority a long fin
effective autocratic power. runs from the head along the back, round the tail to the vent,
i6 MURAL DECORATION
but are destitute of pectoral and ventral fins. The skin is
all lions of the domestic life and occupations of the Egyptians.
scaleless and smooth, in many species ornamented with varied The latter tombs, as a rule, have sculptures depicting the religious
and bright colours, so that these fishes are frequently mistaken ritual and belief of the people, and the temples combine these
for snakes. The mouth is wide, the jaws strong and armed with hieratic subjects with the history of the reigns and victor'es of
formidable, generally sharply pointed, teeth, which enable the the Egyptian kings.
Muraena not only to seize its prey (which chiefly consists of The above remarks as to style and manner of execution may
other fishes) but also to inflict serious, and sometimes danger- be applied also to the wall-sculptures from the royal palaces of
ous, wounds on its enemies. It attacks persons who approach Nineveh and Babylon, the finest of which are shown by inscrip-
its places of concealment in shallow water, and is feared by tions to date from the time of Sennacherib to that of Sardana-
fishermen. palus (from 705 to 625 B.C.). These are carved in low relief with
Some of the tropical Muraenas exceed a length of 10 ft., but almost gem-like delicacy of detail on enormous slabs of white
most of the species, among them the Mediterranean species, marble. The sacred subjects, generally representing the king
attain to only half that length. The latter, the
"
morena " of worshipping one of the numerous Assyrian gods, are mostly
the Italians and the Muraena Helena of ichthyologists, was large, often colossal in scale. The other subjects, illustrating
considered by the ancient Romans to be one of the greatest the life and amusements of the king, his prowess in war or
delicacies, and was kept in large ponds and aquaria. It is not hunting, or long processions of prisoners and tribute-bearers
confined to the coasts of southern Europe, but is spread over the coming to do him homage, are generally smaller and in some cases
Indian Ocean, and is not uncommon on the coasts of Australia. very minute in scale (fig. i). The arrangement of these reliefs
Its body is generally of a rich brown, marked with large yellowish
spots, each of which contains smaller brown spots.
MURAL DECORATION, a general term for the art of ornament-
ing wall surfaces. There is scarcely one of the numerous
branches of decorative art which has not at some time or other
been applied to this purpose. 1 For what may be called the
practical or furnishing point of view, see WALL-COVERINGS.
Here the subject is treated rather as part of the history of art.
x. Reliefs sculptured in Marble or Stone. This is the oldest
method of wall-decoration, of which numerous examples exist.
The tombs and temples of Egypt are rich in this kind of mural
ornament of various dates, extending over nearly 5000 years.
These sculptures are, as a rule, carved in low relief; in many cases
"
they are counter-sunk," that is, the most projecting parts of
the figures do not extend beyond the flat surface of the ground.
Some unfinished reliefs discovered in the rock-cut tombs of
Thebes show the manner in which the sculptor set to work.
The plain surface of the stone was marked out by red lines into a
number of squares of equal size. The use of this was probably
twofold: first, as a guide in enlarging the design from a small
drawing, a method still commonly practised; second, to help the
artist to draw his figures with just proportions, following the
strict canons which were laid down by the Egyptians. No
excessive realism or individuality of style arising from a careful
study of the life-model was permitted.
2
When the surface had FIG. i. -Assyrian Relief, on a Marble Wall-slab from the Palace
been covered with these squares, the artist drew with a brush of Sardanapalus at Nineveh.
dipped in red the outlines of his relief, and then cut round them in long horizontal bands, and their reserved conventional treat-
with his chisel. ment are somewhat similar to those of ancient Egypt, but they
When the relief was finished, it was, as a rule, entirely painted show a closer attention to anatomical truth and a greater
over with much minuteness and great variety of colours. More love for dramatic effect than any of the Egyptian reliefs. As in
rarely the ground was left the natural tint of the stone or marble, the art of Egypt, birds and animals are treated with greater
and only the figures and hieroglyphs painted. In the case of realism than human figures. A relief in the British Museum,
sculpture in hard basalt or granite the painting appears often
representing a lioness wounded by an arrow in her spine and
to have been omitted altogether. The absence of perspective
dragging helplessly her paralysed hind legs, affords an example
effects and the severe self-restraint of the sculptors in the matter
of wonderful truth and pathos. Remarkable technical skill is
of composition show a sense of artistic fitness in this kind of
shown in all these sculptures by the way in which the sculptors
decoration. That the rigidity of these sculptured pictures did
have obtained the utmost amount of effect with the smallest
not arise from want of skill or observation of nature on the part
possible amount of relief, in this respect calling strongly to mind
of the artists is apparent when we examine their representations
a similar peculiarity in the work of the Florentine Donatello.
of birds and animals; the special characteristics of each creature
The palace at Mashita on the hajj road in Moab, built by the
and species were unerringly caught by the ancient Egyptian, Sasanian Chosroes II. (A.D. 614-627), is ornamented on the
and reproduced in stone or colour, in a half-symbolic way, exterior with beautiful surface sculpture in stone. The designs
suggesting those peculiarities of form, plumage, or movement are of peculiar interest as forming a link between Assyrian and
which are the " differentia " of each, other ideas bearing less
Byzantine art, and they are not remotely connected with the
directly on the point being eliminated. decoration on Moslem of modern
buildings comparatively
The subjects of these mural sculptures are endless; almost date. 3
every possible incident in man's life here or beyond the grave
Especially in Italy during the middle ages a similar treatment
is reproduced with the closest detail. The tomb of Tih at *
Sakkarah (about 4500 B.C.) has some of the finest and earliest Among the Mashita carvings occurs that oldest and most widely
spread of all forms of Aryan ornament the sacred tree "
between two
specimens of these mural sculptures, especially rich in illustra- animals. The sculptured slab over the " lion-gate at Mycenae
1
See also CERAMICS MOSAIC PAINTING SCULPTURE TAPESTRY has the other common variety of this
; ; ; ; ;
motive^ the fire-altar between
TILES; also EGYPT; Art and Archaeology; GREEK ART; ROMAN ART; the beasts. These designs,
occasionally varied by figures of human
&c. worshippers instead of the beasts, survived long after their meaning
1
During the earliest times more than 4000 years before our era had been forgotten; even down to the present day they frequently
there appear to have been exceptions to this rule. appear on carpets and other textiles of Oriental manufacture.
MURAL DECORATION
of marble in low relief was frequently used for wall-decoration. painted on the tiles, after the first firing, in a copper-like colour
The most notable example is the beautiful series of reliefs on the with strong metallic lustre, produced by the deoxidization of
west front of Orvieto Cathedral, the work of Giovanni Pisano and a metallic salt in the process of the second firing. Bands and
his pupils in the early part of the i4th century. These are small friezes with Arabic inscriptions, modelled boldly in high relief,
reliefs, illustrative of the Old and New Testaments, of graceful were used to break up the monotony of the surface. In these,
design and skilful execution. A growth of branching foliage as a rule, the projecting letters were painted blue, and the flat
serves to unite and frame the tiers of subjects. ground enriched with very minute patterns in the lustre-colour.
Of a widely different class, but of considerable importance in This combination of bold relief and delicate painting produces
the history of mural decoration, are the beautiful reliefs, sculp- great vigour and richness of effect, equally telling whether viewed
tured in stone and marble, with which Moslem buildings in in the mass or closely examined tile by tile. In the i5th century
many parts of the world are ornamented. These are mostly lustre-colours, though still largely employed for plates, vases and
geometrical patterns of great intricacy, which cover large other vessels, especially in Spain, were little used for tiles; and
surfaces, frequently broken up into panels by bands of more another class of ware, rich in the variety and brilliance of its
flowing ornament or Arabic inscriptions. The mosques of colours, was extensively used by Moslem builders all over the
Cairo, India and Persia, and the domestic Moslem buildings of Mahommedan world. The most sumptuous sorts of tiles used
Spain are extremely rich in this method of decoration. In for wall-coverings are those of the so-called
"
Rhodian " and
western Europe, especially during the isth century, stone Damascene wares, the work of Persian potters at many places.
panelled-work with rich tracery formed a large part of the scheme Those made at Rhodes are coarsely executed in comparison with
of decoration in all the more splendid buildings. Akin to this, the produce of the older potteries at Isfahan and Damascus
though without actual relief, is the stone tracery inlaid flush (see CERAMICS). These are rectangular tiles of earthenware,
"
into rough flint walls which was a mode of ornament largely covered with a white slip," and painted in brilliant colours with
used for enriching the exteriors of churches in the counties of slight conventionalized representations of various flowers,
Norfolk and Suffolk. It is almost peculiar to that district, and especially the rose, the hyacinth and the carnation. The red
is an example of the skill and taste with which the medieval used is applied in considerable body, so as to stand out in slight
builders adapted their method of ornamentation to the materials relief. Another class of design is more geometrical, forming
in hand. regular repeats; but the most beautiful compositions are those
2. Marble Veneer. Another widely used method of mural in which the natural growth of trees and flowers is imitated, the
decoration has been the application of thin marble linings to branches and blossoms spreading over a large surface covered by
wall-surfaces, the decorative effect being produced by the natural hundreds of tiles without any repetition. One of the finest
beauty of the marble itself and not by sculptured reliefs. One of examples the
"
Mecca wall " in the mosque of Ibrahim Agha,
is
"
the oldest buildings in the world, the so-called Temple of the Cairo; and other Egyptian mosques are adorned in the same way
"
Sphinx among the Giza pyramids, is built of great blocks of (fig. 2). Another variety, the special production of Damascus,
granite, the inside of the rooms being lined with slabs of semi-
transparent African alabaster about 3 in. thick. In the ist cen-
tury thin veneers of richly coloured marbles were largely used
by the Romans to decorate brick and stone walls. Pliny (H. N.
xxxvi. 6) speaks of this practice as being a new and degenerate
invention in his time. Many examples exist at Pompeii and in
other Roman buildings. Numerous Byzantine churches, such
as St Saviour's at Constantinople, and St George's, Thessalonica,
have the lower part of the internal walls richly ornamented in
this way. It was commonly used to form a dado, the upper part
of the building being covered with mosaic. The cathedral of
Monreale and other Siculo-Norman buildings owe a great deal
of their splendour to these linings of richly variegated marbles.
In most cases the main surface is of light-coloured marble or
alabaster, inlaid bands of darker tint or coloured mosaic being
used to divide the surface into panels. The peculiar Italian-
Gothic of northern and central Italy during the I4th and isth
centuries, and at Venice some centuries earlier, relied greatly
for its effects on this treatment of marble. St Mark's at Venice
and the cathedral of Florence are magnificent examples of this
work used externally. Both inside and out most of the richest
examples of Moslem architecture owe much to this method of
decoration; the mosques and palaces of India and Persia are in
many cases completely lined with the most brilliant sorts of
marble of contrasting tints.
FIG. One of the Wall-tiles from the Mosque of
2. Ibrahim
Wall-Linings of Glazed Bricks or Tiles. This is a very
3. Agha, Cairo. (10 in. square.)
important class of decoration, and from its almost imperishable
nature, its richness of colour, and its brilliance of surface is has the design almost entirely executed in blue. It was about
capable of producing a splendour of effect only rivalled by glass A.D. 1600, in the reign of Shah Abbas
that this class of pottery
I.,
mosaics. In the less important form that of bricks modelled was brought to greatest perfection, and it is in Persia that the
or stamped in relief with figures and inscriptions, and then coated most magnificent examples are found, dating from the izth to
with a brilliant colour in siliceous enamel it was largely used the 1 7th centuries. The most remarkable examples for beauty
by the ancient Egyptians and Assyrians as well as by the later and extent are the mosque at Tabriz, built by Ah' Khoja in the
Sasanians of Persia. In the nth and 1 2th centuries the Moslems 1 2th century, the ruined tomb of Sultan Khodabend
(A.D. 1303-
of Persia brought this art to great perfection, and used it on a 1316) at Sultaniyas, the palace of Shah Abbas I. and the tomb
large scale, chiefly, though not invariably, for internal walls. of Abbas II. (d. A.D. 1666) at Isfahan, all of which buildings are
The main surfaces were covered by thick earthenware tiles, covered almost entirely inside and out.
overlaid with a white enamel. These were not rectangular, but Another important class of wall-tiles are those manufactured
of various shapes, mostly some form of a star, arranged so as to "
by the Spanish Moors, called azulejos," especially during the
fit closely together. Delicate and minute patterns were then 1 4th century. These are in a very different style, being designed
i8 MURAL DECORATION
to suggest or imitate mosaic. They have intricate inter- figures of nymphs, cupids, animals and wreaths, all of which are
lacing geometrical patterns marked out by lines in slight models of grace and elegance, and remarkable for the dexterous
relief; brilliant enamel colours were then burned into the tile, way in which a few rapid touches of the modelling tool or thumb
the projecting lines forming boundaries for the pigments. A have produced a work of the highest artistic beauty (fig. 3).
produced by this combination of relief apd colour.
rich effect is Roman specimens of this sort of decoration are common, fine
They are mainly used for dadoes about 4 ft. high, often sur- examples have been found in the baths of Titus and numerous
mounted by a band of tiles with painted inscriptions. The tombs near Rome, as well as in many of the houses of Pompeii.
Alhambra and Generalife Palaces at Granada, begun in the
I3th century, but mainly built and decorated by Yusuf I. and
Mahommed V. (A.D. 1333-1391), and the Alcazar at Seville have
"
the most beautiful examples of these azulejos." The latter
building chiefly owes its decorations to Pedro the Cruel (A.D.
1364), who employed Moorish workmen for its tile-coverings
and other ornaments. Many other buildings in southern Spain
are enriched in the same way, some as late as the i6th century.
Almost peculiar to Spain are a variety of wall-tile the work of
Italians in the i6th and I7th centuries. These are effective,
though rather coarsely painted, and have a rich yellow as the
predominant colour. The Casa de Pilatos and Isabel's Chapel
in the Alcazar Palace, both at Seville, have the best specimens
of these, dating about the year 1 500. In other Western countries
tiles have been used more for pavements than for wall-decoration.
4. Wall-Coverings of Hard Stucco, frequently enriched with
Reliefs. The Greeks and Romans possessed the secret of making
a hard kind of stucco, creamy in colour, and capable of receiving
a polish like that of marble; it would stand exposure to the
weather. Those of the early Greek temples which were built,
not of marble, but of stone, such as the Doric temples at Aegina,
Phigaleia, Paestum and Agrigentum, were all entirely coated
inside and out with this material, an admirable surface for the
further polychromatic decoration with which all Greek buildings
seem to have been ornamented. Another highly artistic use
of stucco among the Greeks and Romans, for the interiors of
buildings, consisted in covering the walls and vaults with a
smooth coat, on which while still wet the outlines of figures,
FIG. 4. Stucco Wall-Relief, from the Alhambra.
These are mostly executed with great skill and frequently
with good taste, though in some cases, especially at Pompeii,
elaborate architectural compositions with awkward attempts at
effects of violent perspective, modelled in slight relief on flat
wall-surfaces, produce an unpleasing effect. Other Pompeian
examples, where the surface is divided into flat panels, each
containing a figure or group, have great merit for their delicate
richness, v/ithout offending against the canons of wall-decoration,
one of the first conditions of which is that no attempt should be
made to disguise the fact of its being a solid wall and a flat
surface.
The Moslem architects of the middle ages made great use of
stucco ornament both for external and internal walls. The
stucco is modelled in high or low relief in great variety of geo-
metrical patterns, alternating with bands of more flowing
ornament or long Arabic inscriptions. Many of their buildings,
such as the mosque of Tulun at Cairo (A.D. 879), owe nearly all
their beauty to this fine stucco work, the purely architectural
shell of the structure being often simple and devoid of ornament.
These stucco reliefs were, as a rule, further decorated with
delicate painting in gold and colours. The Moorish tower at
Segovia in Spain is a good example of this class of ornament used
externally. With the exception of a few bands of brick and the
stone quoins at the angles, the whole exterior of the tower is
covered with a network of stucco reliefs in simple geometrical
patterns. The Alhambra at Granada and the Alcazar at Seville
have the richest examples of this work. The lower part of the
walls is lined with marble or tiles to a height of about 4 ft. and
above that in many cases the whole surface is encrusted with
FIG. 3. Modelled Stucco Wall-Relief, from a Tomb in Magna these reliefs, the varied surface of which, by producing endless
Graecia. (About half full size.)
gradations of shadow, takes away any possible harshness from
groups and other ornaments were sketched with a point; more the brilliance of the gold and colours (fig. 4).
stucco was then applied in lumps and rapidly modelled into During the i6th century, and even earlier, stucco wall-reliefs
delicate relief before it had time to set. Some tombs in Magna were used with considerable skill and decorative effect in Italy,
Graecia of the 4th century B.C. are decorated in this way with England and other Western countries. Perhaps the most graceful
MURAL DECORATION
examples are the reliefs with which Vasari in the i6th century in tone. Italy and Spain (especially Cordova) were important
encrusted pillars and other parts of the court in the Florentine seats of this manufacture; and in the 17th century a large
Palazzo Vecchio, built of plain stone by Michelozzo in 1454. quantity was produced in France. Fig. 5 gives a good example
Some are of flowing vines and other plants winding spirally of Italian of the i6th century.
stamped leather In England,
round the columns. The English examples of this work are chiefly at Norwich, this manufacture was carried on in the
effectively designed, though coarser in execution. The outside 1 7th and i8th centuries. In durability and richness of effect
of a half-timbered house in the market-place at Newark-upon- stamped leather surpasses most other forms of movable wall-
Trent has high reliefs in stucco of canopied figures, dating from decoration.
the end of the isth century. The counties of Essex and Suffolk 7. Painted Cloth. Another form of wall-hanging, used most
are rich in examples of this work used externally; and many largely during the isth and i6th centuries, and in a less extensive
16th-century houses in England have fine internal stucco way a good deal earlier, is canvas painted to imitate tapestry.
decoration, especially Hardwicke Hall (Derbyshire), one of the English medieval inventories both of ecclesiastical and domestic
"
rooms of which has the upper part of the wall enriched with goods frequently contain items such as these: stayned cloths
"
life-sized stucco figures in high relief, forming a deep frieze all for hangings," paynted cloths with stories and batailes," or
" "
round. paynted cloths of beyond sea work," or of Flaunder's work."
5. Sgraffito. This is a variety of stucco work used chiefly in Many good artists working at Ghent and Bruges during the first
Italy from the i6th century downwards, and employed only for half of the isth century produced fine work of this class, as well
exteriors of buildings, especially the palaces of Tuscany and as designs for real tapestry. Several of the great Italian artists
northern Italy. The wall is covered with a coat of stucco made devoted their skill in composition and invention to the painting
black by an admixture of charcoal; over this a second thin coat of these wall-hangings. The most important existing example
of white stucco is laid. When it is all hard the design is produced is the series of paintings of the
triumph of Julius Caesar executed
by cutting and scratching away the white skin, so as to show the by Andrea Mantegna (1485-1492) for Ludovico Gonzaga, duke
black under-coat. Thus the drawing appears in black on a white of Mantua, and now at Hampton Court. These are usually,
ground. This work is effective at a distance, as it requires a but wrongly, called " cartoons," as if they were designs meant
bold style of handling, in which the shadows are indicated by to be executed in tapestry; this is not the case, as the paintings
cross-hatched lines more or less near together. 1 Flowing ara- themselves were used as wall-hangings. They are nine in number
besques mixed with grotesque figures occur most frequently in and each compartment, 9 ft. square, was separated from the next
sgraffito. In recent years the sgraffito method has been revived; by a pilaster. They form a continuous procession, with life-
and the result of Mr Moody's experiments may be seen on the sized figures, remarkable for their composition, drawing and
east wall of the Royal College of Science in Exhibition Road, delicate colouring the latter unfortunately much disguised by
London. "
restoration." Like most of these painted wall-hangings,
6. Stamped Leather. This was a magnificent and expensive they are executed in tempera, and rather thinly painted, so
form of wall-hanging, chiefly used during the i6th and lyth that the pigment might not crack off through the cloth falling
centuries. Skins, generally of goats or calves, were well tanned slightly into folds. Another remarkable series of painted cloth
and cut into rectangular shapes. They were then covered with hangings are those at Reims Cathedral. In some cases dyes
were used for this work. A MS. of the isth century gives
"
receipts for painted cloth," showing that sometimes they were
dyed in a manner similar to those Indian stuffs which were
afterwards printed, and are now called chintzes. These
receipts are for real dyes, not for pigments, and among them
isthe earliest known description of the process called "setting"
the woad or indigo vat, as well as a receipt for removing or
" "
discharging the colour from a cloth already dyed. Another
method employed was a sort of " encaustic " process; the cloth
was rubbed all over with wax, and then painted in tempera;
heat was then applied so that the colours sank into the melting
wax, and were thus firmly fixed upon the cloth.
8. Printed Hangings and Wail-Papers. The printing of
various textiles with dye-colours and mordants is probably one
of the most ancient arts. Pliny (H. N. xxxv.) describes a
dyeing process employed by the ancient Egyptians, in which
the pattern was probably formed by printing from blocks.
Various methods have been used for this work wood blocks in
relief, engraved metal plates, stencil plates and even hand-
painting; frequently two or more of these methods have
been employed for the same pattern. The use of printed stuffs
is of great antiquity among the Hindus and Chinese, and
was certainly practised in western Europe in the I3th century,
and perhaps earlier. The Victoria and Albert Museum has
13th-century specimens of block-printed silk made in Sicily, of
beautiful design. Towards the end of the i4th century a
great deal of block-printed linen was made in Flanders, and
largely imported into England.
Wall-papers did not come into common use in Europe till the
FIG. 5. Italian Stamped Leather; i6th century, 18th century, though they appear to have been used much
which was varnished with a transparent yellow lacquer
silver leaf, earlier by the Chinese. A few rare examples exist in England
making the silver look like gold. The skins were then stamped which may be as early as the i6th century; these are imitations,
or embossed with patterns in relief, formed by heavy pressure generally in flock, of the fine old Florentine and Genoese cut
from metal dies, one in relief and the other sunk. The reliefs velvets, and hence the style of the design in no way shows the
were then painted by hand in many colours, generally brilliant date of the wall-paper, the same traditional patterns being
1
A good description of the process is given by Vasari, Tre arti del reproduced for many years with little or no change. Machinery
disegno, cap. xxvi. enabling paper to be made in long strips was not invented till
20 MURAL DECORATION
the end of the i8th century, and up to that time wall-papers distant nations. In the 6th century B.C. Egyptian colonists,
were printed on small square pieces of hand-made paper, difficult introduced by Cambyses into Persepolis, influenced the painting
to hang, disfigured by numerous joints, and comparatively and sculpture of the great Persian Empire and throughout the
costly; on these accounts wall-papers were slow in superseding valley of the Euphrates. In a lesser degree the art of Babylon
the older modes of mural decoration. A little work by Jackson and Nineveh had felt considerable Egyptian influence several
of Battersea, printed in London in 1744, throws some light on centuries earlier. The same influence affected the early art of
the use of wall-papers at that time. He gives reduced copies the Greeks and the Etrurians, and it was not till the middle of
of his designs, mostly taken from Italian pictures or antique the 5th century B.C. that the further development and perfecting
sculpture during his residence in Venice. Instead of flowing of art in Greece obliterated the old traces of Egyptian mannerism.
patterns covering the wall, his designs are all pictures land- After the death of Alexander the Great, when Egypt came into
scapes, architectural scenes or statues treated as panels, with the possession of the Lagidae (320 B.C.), the tide of influence
plain paper or painting between. They are all printed in oil, flowed the other way, and Greek art modified though it did not
with wooden blocks worked with a rolling press, apparently an seriously alter the characteristics of Egyptian painting and
invention of his own. They are all in the worst possible taste, sculpture, which retained much of their early formalism and
and yet are offered as great improvements on the Chinese papers severity. Yet the increased sense of beauty, especially in the
which he says were then in fashion. Fig. 6 is a good English human face, derived from the Greeks was counterbalanced by
loss of vigour; art under the Ptolemies became a dull copy ism
of earlier traditions.
The general scheme of mural painting in the buildings of
ancient Egypt was complete and magnificent. Columns,
mouldings and other architectural features were enriched with
patterns in brilliant colours; the fiat wall -spaces were covered
with figure-subjects, generally in horizontal bands, and the
ceilings were ornamented with sacred symbols, such as the vulture
or painted blue and studded with gold stars to symbolize the
sky. The wall-paintings are executed in tempera on a thin skin
(Taken from Lottie's Ride in Egypt.)
FIG. 7. Egyptian Wall-Painting of the Ancient Empire
in the Bulak Museum.
of fine lime, laid over the brick, stone or marble to form a smooth
and slightly absorbent coat to receive the pigments, which were
most brilliant in tone and of great variety of tint. Not employing
"
fresco, the Egyptian artists were not restricted to earth colours,"
but occasionally used purples, pinks and greens which would
have been destroyed by fresh lime. The blue used is very
beautiful, and is generally laid on in considerable body it is
" "
frequently a or deep-blue glass, coloured by copper
smalt
oxide, finely powdered. Red and yellow ochre, carbon-black,
FIG. 6. Early 18th-century Wail-Paper. (22 in. wide.) and powdered chalk-white are most largely used. Though in
of 18th-century wall-paper printed on squares of stout the paintings of animals and birds considerable realism is often
example
hand-made paper 22 in. wide. The design is apparently copied seen (fig. 7), yet for human figures certain conventional colours
from an Indian chintz. are employed, e.g. white for females' flesh, red for the males, or
In the iQth century in England, a great advance in the black to indicate people of negro race. Heads are painted in
profile, and little or no shading
is used. Considerable knowledge
designing of wall-papers was made by William Morris and his
school. of harmony is shown in the arrangement of the colours; and
This is naturally the most important and the otherwise harsh combinations of tints are softened and brought
9. Painting.
most widely used of all forms of wall-decoration, as well as into keeping by thin separating lines of white or yellow. Though
at first sight the general colouring, if seen in a museum, may
perhaps the earliest.
Egypt EGYPT: Art and Archaeology) is the chief store-
(see appear crude, yet it should be remembered that the internal
house of ancient specimens of this, as of almost all the arts. paintings were much softened by the dim light in Egyptian
buildings, and those outside were subdued by contrast
with the
Owing to the intimate connexion between the
and painting of early times, the remarks brilliantsunshine under which they were always seen.
platings, sculpture
above as to subjects and treatment under the head The rock-cut sepulchres of the Etrurians supply the only
existing specimens of their mural painting; and,
unlike the
of Egyptian wall-sculpture will to a great extent apply also to
the paintings. It is an important fact, which testifies to the tombs of Egypt, only a small proportion appear to BtruKM
antiquity of Egyptian civilization, that the earliest paintings, have been decorated in this way. The actual dates pa ia tiag
.
of these paintings are very uncertain, but they range
dating more than 4000 years before our era, are also the cleverest
both in drawing and execution. In later times the influence of possibly from about the 8th century B.C. down to almost the
Egyptian art, especially in painting, was important even among Christian era. The tombs which possess these paintings are
MURAL DECORATION 21
mostly square-shaped rooms, with slightly-arched or gabled roofs, hiding the joints and getting a more absorbent surface, the
excavated in soft sandstone or tufa hillsides. The earlier ones marble, however pure and fine in texture, was covered with a
show Egyptian influence in drawing and in composition they : thin skin of stucco made of mixed lime and powdered marble.
are broadly designed with flat unshaded tints, the faces in profile, An alabaster sarcophagus, found in a tomb near Corneto, and
except the eyes, which are drawn as if seen in front. Colours, as now in the Etruscan museum at Florence, is decorated outside
in Egypt, are used conventionally male flesh red, white or with beautiful purely Greek paintings, executed on a stucco
pale yellow for the females, black for demons. In one respect skin as hard and smooth as the alabaster. The pictures represent
these paintings differ from those of the Egyptians; few colours combats of the Greeks and Amazons. The colouring, though
are used red, brown, and yellow ochres, carbon-black, lime or rather brilliant, is simply treated, and the figures are kept
chalk-white, and occasionally blue are the only pigments. The strictly to one plane without any attempt at complicated
rock-walls are prepared by being covered with a thin skin of perspective. Other valuable specimens of Greek art, found at
lime stucco, and lime or chalk is mixed in small quantities with Herculaneum and now in the Naples Museum, are some small
"
all the colours; hence the restriction to earth pigments," made paintings, one of girls playing with dice, another of Theseus and
necessary by the dampness of these subterranean chambers. the Minotaur. These are painted with miniature-like delicacy on
The process employed was in fact a kind of fresco, though the the bare surface of marble slabs; they are almost monochromatic,
stucco ground was not applied in small patches only sufficient and are of the highest beauty both in drawing and in gradations
for the day's work; the dampness of the rock was enough to of shadow quite unlike any of the Greek vase-paintings. The
keep the stucco skin moist, and so allow the necessary infiltration first-mentioned painting is signed AAEEANAPOS A6HNAI02.
of colour from the surface. Many of these paintings when first It is probable that the strictly archaic paintings of the Greeks,
discovered were fresh in tint and uninjured by time, but they are such as those of Polygnotus in the 5th century B.C., executed
soon dulled by exposure to light. In the course of centuries with few and simple colours, had much resemblance to those on
great changes of style naturally took place; the early Egyptian vases, but Pliny is wrong when he asserts that, till the time of
influence, probably brought to Etruria through the Phoenician Apelles (c. 350-310 B.C.), the Greek painters only used black,
2
traders, was succeeded by an even more strongly-marked Greek white, red and yellow. Judging from the peculiar way in which
influence at first archaic and stiff, then developing into great the Greeks and their imitators the Romans used names of
the
beauty of drawing, and finally yielding to the Roman spirit, as colours, it appears that they paid more attention to tones and
the degradation of Greek art advanced under their powerful but relations of colour than to actual hues. Thus most Greek and
inartistic Roman conquerors. Latin colour-names are now untranslatable. Homer's " wine-
" " "
Throughout this succession of styles Egyptian, Greek and like sea (olvoi/), Sophocles's wine-coloured ivy ((Ed. Col.),
Graeco-Roman there runs a distinct undercurrent of individu- and Horace's " purpureus olor " probably refer less to what we
ality due to the Etruscans themselves. This appears not only should call colour than to the chromatic strength of the various
in the drawing but also in the choice of subjects. In addition objects and their more or less strong powers of reflecting light,
to pictures of banquets with musicians and dancers, hunting either in motion or when at rest. Nor have we any word like
"
and racing scenes, the workshops of different craftsmen and other Virgil's flavus," which could be applied both to a lady's hair
domestic subjects, all thoroughly Hellenic in sentiment, other and to the leaf of an olive-tree. 3
paintings occur which are very un-Greek in feeling. These During the best periods of Greek art the favourite classes of
represent the judgment and punishment of souls in a future life. subjects were scenes from poetry, especially Homer and con-
Mantus, Charun and other infernal deities of the Rasena, temporary history. The names TnvaKoOriia] and trroa iromXij
hideous in aspect and armed with hammers, or furies depicted were given to many public buildings from their walls being
as black-bearded demons winged and brandishing live snakes, covered with paintings. Additional interest was given to the
terrify or torture shrinking human souls. Others, not the earliest historical subjects by the introduction of portraits; e.g. in the
in date, represent human sacrifices, such as those at the tomb of great picture of the battle of Marathon (490 B.C.), on the walls of
Patroclus a class of subjects which, though Homeric, appears the errod irotKtXij in Athens, portraits were given of the Greek
rarely to have been selected by Greek painters. The constant generals Miltiades, Callimachus, and others. This picture was
import into Etruria of large quantities of fine Greek painted painted about forty years after the battle by Polygnotus and
vases appears to have contributed to keep up the supremacy of Micon. One of the earliest pictures recorded by Pliny (xxxv. 8)
Hellenic influence during many centuries, and by their artistic represented a battle of the Magnesians (c. 716 B.C.); it was
superiority to have prevented the development of a more original painted by Bularchus, a Lydian artist, and bought at a high
and native school of art. Though we now know Etruscan price by King Candaules. Many other important Greek
painting only from the tombs, yet Pliny mentions (H . N. xxxv. 3) historical paintings are mentioned by Pausanias and earlier
that fine wall-paintings existed in his time, with colours yet writers. The Pompeian mosaic of the defeat of the Persians by
fresh, on the walls of ruined temples at Ardea and Lanuvium, Alexander is probably a Romanized copy from some celebrated
executed, he says, before the founding of Rome. As before men- Greek painting; it obviously was not designed for mosaic
tioned, the actual dates of the existing paintings are uncertain. work.
It cannot therefore be asserted that any existing specimens are Landscape painting appears to have been unknown among the
much older than 600 B.C., though some, especially at Veii, Greeks, even as a background to figure-subjects. The poems
certainly appear to have the characteristics of more remote especially of Homer and Sophocles show that this was not through
antiquity. The most important of these paintings have been want of appreciation of the beauties of nature, but partly,
discovered in the cemeteries of Veii, Caere, Tarquinii, Vulci, probably, because the main object of Greek painting was to tell
Cervetri and other Etruscan cities. some and also from their just sense of artistic
definite story,
Even in Egypt the use of colour does not appear to have been fitness, which prevented them from attempting in their mural
more universal than it was among the Greeks (see GREEK ART), decorations to disguise the flat solidity of the walls by delusive
'
Greek
w ^ a PPue d lt freely to their marble statues and effects of aerial perspective and distance.
Paiatiag. reliefs, the whole of their buildings inside and out, It is interesting to note that even in the time of Alexander
as well as for the decoration of flat wall-surfaces. the Great the somewhat archaic works of the earlier painters
They appear to have cared little for pure form, and not to have were still appreciated. In particular Aristotle praises Polygnotus,
valued the delicate ivory-like tint and beautiful texture of their *
Pliny's remarks on subjects such as this should be received with
fine Pentelic and Parian marbles, except as a ground for coloured caution. He was neither a scientific archaeologist nor a practical
ornament. A whole class of artists, called A-yaX/jdmoi' tyKavarai, artist.
s
were occupied in colouring marble sculpture, and their services So also a meaning unlike ours is attached to Greek technical
words by rivm they meant, not " tone," but the gradations of
were very highly valued. 1 In seme cases, probably for the sake of
light and shade, and by ApiMty/i the relations of colour. See Pliny,
1
This process, circumlitio, is mentioned by Pliny (H. N. xxxv. 40). H. N. xxxv. 5 and Ruskin, Mod. Painters, pt. iv. cap. 13.
;
22 MURAL DECORATION
both for his power of combining truth with idealization We have reason to think that some at least of the Pompeian
in his and for his skill in depicting men's mental
portraits pictures are copies, probably at third or fourth hand, from
characteristics; on this account he calls him 6 i70o7P<i</>os. celebrated Greek originals. The frequently repeated subjects
Lucian too praises Polygnotus alike for his grace, drawing and of Medea meditating the murder of her children and Iphigenia
colouring. Later painters, such as Zeuxis and Apelles, appear at the shrine of the Tauric Artemis suggest that the motive
to have produced easel pictures more than mural paintings, and composition were taken from the originals of these subjects
and these, being easy to move, were mostly carried off to Rome by Timanthes. Those of lo and Argus, the finest example of
" "
by the early emperors. Hence Pausanias, who visited Greece which is in the Palatine villa of Livia and of Andromeda
in the time of Hadrian, mentions but few works of the later and Perseus, often repeated on Pompeian walls, may be from
artists. Owing to the lack of existing specimens of Greek the originals by Nicias.
painting it would be idle to attempt an account of their technical In many cases these mural paintings are of high artistic
methods, but no doubt those employed by the Romans described merit, though they are probably not the work of the most
below were derived with the rest of their art from the Greeks. distinguished painters of the time, but rather of a humbler
Speaking of their stucco, Pliny refers its superiority over that class of decorators, who reproduced, without much original
made by the Romans
to the fact that it was always made of invention, stock designsout of some pattern-book. They
lime at least three years old, and that it was well mixed and are, however, all remarkable for the rapid skill and extreme
" "
pounded a mortar before being laid on the wall; he is here
in verve and freedom of hand with which the designs are, as
speaking of the thick stucco in many coats, not of the thin skin it were, flung on to the walls with few but effective touches.
mentioned above as being laid on marble. Greek mural painting, Though in some cases the motive and composition are superior
like their sculpture, was chiefly used to decorate temples and to the execution, yet many of the paintings are remarkable
public buildings, and comparatively rarely either for tombs or
1
both for their realistic truth and technical skill. The great
private buildings at least in the days of their early republican painting of Ceres from Pompeii, now in the Naples Museum,
simplicity. is a work of the highest merit.
A large number Roman mural paintings (see also ROMAN
of In the usual scheme of decoration the broad wall-surfaces are
ART) now which many were discovered in the private
exist, of broken up into a series of panels by pilasters, columns, or other
houses and baths of Pompeii, nearly all dating architectural forms. Some of the panels contain pictures with
Painting,
between A.D. 63, when the city was ruined by an figure-subjects; others have conventional ornament, or hanging
earthquake, and A.D. 79, when it was buried by festoons of fruit and flowers. The lower part of the wall is
Vesuvius. A catalogue of these and similar paintings from Hercu- painted one plain colour, forming a dado; the upper part some-
laneum and Stabiae, compiled by Professor Helbig, comprises 1 966 times has a well-designed frieze of flowing ornaments. In the
specimens. The excavations in the baths of Titus and other better class of painted walls the whole is kept flat in treatment,
ancient buildings in Rome, made in the early part of the i6th and is free from too great subdivision, but in many cases great
century, excited the keenest interest and admiration among the want of taste is shown by the introduction of violent effects of
painters of that time, and largely influenced the later art of the architectural perspective, and the space is broken up by ccm-
" "
Renaissance. These paintings, especially the grotesques plicated schemes of design, studded with pictures in varying
or fanciful patterns of scroll-work and pilasters mixed with scales which have little relation to their surroundings. The
semi-realistic foliage and figures of boys, animals and birds, colouring is on the whole pleasant and harmonious unlike the
designed with great freedom of touch and inventive power, seem usual chromo-lithographic copies. Black, yellow, or a rich deep
to have fascinated Raphael during his later period, and many of red are the favourite colours for the main ground of the walls,
his pupils and contemporaries. The " loggie " of the Vatican the pictures in the panels being treated separately, each with its
and of the Farnesina palace are full of carefully studied own background.
16th-century reproductions of these highly decorative paintings. An interesting series of early Christian mural paintings exists
The excavations in Rome have brought to light some mural in various catacombs, especially those of Rome and Naples.
paintings of the ist century A.D., perhaps superior in execution They are of value both as an important link in the Egrly
even to the best of the Pompeian series (see Plate). history of art and also as throwing light on the Christian
The range of subjects found in Roman mural paintings is large mental state of the early Christians, which was dis- Painting la
mythology, religious ceremonies, genre, still life and even tinctly influenced by the older faith. Thus in the ltaly '
landscape (the latter generally on a small scale, and treated in an earlier paintings of about the 4th century we find Christ repre-
artificial and purely decorative way), and lastly history. Pliny sented as a beardless youth, beautiful as the artist could make
mentions several large and important historical paintings, such him, with a lingering tradition of Greek idealization, in no degree
"
as those with which Valerius Maximus Messala decorated the like the Man of Sorrows " of medieval painters, but rather
walls of the Curia Hostilia, to commemorate his own victory over a kind of genius of Christianity in whose fair outward form
Hiero II. and the Carthaginians in Sicily in the 3rd century B.C. the peace and purity of the new faith were visibly symbolized,
The earliest Roman
painting recorded by Pliny was by Fabius, just as certain distinct attributes were typified in the persons
surnamed Pictor, on the walls
of the temple of Salus, executed of the gods of ancient Greece. The favourite early subject,
" "
about 300 B.C. (H.N. xxxv. 4). Christ the Good Shepherd (fig. 8), is represented as Orpheus
Pliny (xxxv. i) laments the fact that the wealthy Romans playing on his lyre to a circle of beasts, the pagan origin of the
of his time preferred the costly splendours of marble and por- picture being shown by the Phrygian cap and by the presence of
phyry wall-linings to the more artistic decoration of paintings lions, panthers and other incongruous animals among the listen-
by good artists. Historical painting seems then to have gone ing sheep. In other cases Christ is depicted standing with a sheep
out of fashion; among the numerous specimens now existing borne on His shoulders like Hermes Criophoros or Hermes
few from Pompeii represent historical subjects; one has the Psychopompos favourite Greek subjects, especially the former,
scene of Massinissa and Sophonisba before Scipio, and another a statue of which Pausanias (ix. 22) mentions as existing at
of a riot between the people of Pompeii and Nocera, which Tanagra in Boeotia. Here again the pagan origin of the type
happened 59 A.D. is shown by the presence in the catacomb paintings of the pan-
Mythological scenes, chiefly from Greek sources, occur most pipes and pedum, special attributes of Hermes, but quite foreign
frequently: the myths of Eros and Dionysus are especial to the notion of Christ. Though in a degraded form, a good
favourites. Only five or six relate to purely Roman mythology. deal survives in some of these paintings, especially in the earlier
ones, of the old classical grace of composition and beauty of
1
One mentioned by Pausanias
instance only of a tomb-painting is
(vii. 22). Some fine specimens have been discovered in the Crimea, drawing, notably in the above-mentioned representations where
but not of a very early date; see Stephani, Compte rendu, &c., old models were copied without any adaptation to their new
(St Petersburg, 1878), &c. meaning. Those of the sth and 6th centuries follow the classical
MURAL DECORATION
A WALL PAINTING IN THE MUSEO NAZIONALE. AT ROME, FROM A ROMAN VILLA DISCOVERED IN 1878, EARLY IMPERIAL STYLE
MURAL DECORATION
lines, though in a rapidly deteriorating style, until the introduc- first half of the I3th century, which show no artistic improve-
tion of a foreign the Byzantine element, which created a ment over those at S. Clemente four or five centuries older.
fresh starting-point on different lines. The old naturalism and It was not in fact till the second half cf the I3th century
survival of classical freedom of drawing is replaced by stiff, that stiff traditional Byzantine forms and colouring began
conventionally hieratic types, superior in dignity and strength to be superseded by the revival of native art in Italy by
to the feeble compositions produced by the degradation into the painters of Florence, Pisa and Siena. During the fiist
which the native art of Rome had fallen. The designs of this thirteen centuries of the Christian era mural painting appears
second period of Christian art are similar to those of the mosaics, to have been for the most part confined to the repre-
sentation of sacred subjects. It is remarkable that during
the earlier centuries council after council of the Christian
Church forbade the painting of figure-subjects, and especially
those of any Person of the Trinity; but in vain. In spite
of the zeal of bishops and others, who sometimes with their
own hands defaced the pictures of Christ on the walls of
the churches, in spite of threats of excommunication, the for-
bidden paintings by degrees became more numerous, till the walls
of almost every church throughout Christendom were decorated
with whole series of pictured stories. The useless prohibition
was becoming obsolete when, towards the end of the 4th century,
the learned Paulinus, bishop of Nola, ordered the two basilicas
which he had built at Fondi and Nola to be adorned with wall-
paintings of sacred subjects, with the special object, as he says,
of instructing and refining the ignorant and drunken people.
These painted histories were in fact the books of the unlearned,
and we can now hardly realize their value as the chief mode of
religious teaching in ages when none but the clergy could read
or write.
During the middle ages, just as long before among the ancient
Greeks, coloured decoration was used in the widest possible
manner not only for the adornment of flat walls, English
but also for the enrichment of sculpture and all the Mural
FIG. 8. Painted Vault from the Catacombs of St.Callixtus, Rome. fittings and architectural features of buildings,
P'fattag.
In the centre Orpheus, to represent Christ the Good Shepherd, whether the material to be painted was plaster, stone, marble
and round are smaller paintings of various types of Christ.
or wood. It was only the damp and frosts of northern climates
such as many at Ravenna, and also to the magnificently illumi- that to some extent limited the external use of colour to the less
nated MSS. For some centuries there was little change or exposed parts of the outsides of buildings. The varying tints
development in this Byzantine style of art, so that it is impossible and texture of smoothly worked stone appear to have given no
in most cases to be sure from internal evidence of the date of pleasure to the medieval eye; and in the rare cases in which the
any painting. This to some extent applies also to the works poverty of some country church prevented its walls from being
of the earlier or pagan school, though, roughly speaking, it may adorned with painted ornaments or pictures the whole surface
be said that the least meritorious pictures are the latest in of the stonework inside, mouldings and carving as well as
date. flat wall-spaces, was covered with a thin coat of whitewash.
These catacomb paintings range over a long space of time; Internal rough stonework was invariably concealed by stucco,
some may possibly be of the ist or 2nd century, e.g. those forming a smooth ground for possible future paintings. Un-
in the cemetery of Domitilla, Rome; others are as late as the happily a great proportion of mural paintings have been de-
oth century, e.g. some full-length figures of St Cornelius and stroyed, though many in a more or less mutilated state still exist
St Cyprian in the catacomb of St Callixtus, under which earlier in England. It is difficult (and doubly so since the so-called
" restoration " of most old
paintings may be traced. In execution they somewhat resemble buildings) to realize the splendour
the Etruscan tomb-paintings; the walls of the catacomb passages of effect once possessed by every important medieval church.
and chambers, excavated in soft tufa, are covered with a thin From the tiled floor to the roof all was one mass of gold and
skin of white stucco, and on that the mural and ceiling paintings colour. The brilliance of the mural paintings and richly
are simply executed in earth colours. The favourite subjects coloured sculpture and mouldings was in harmony with the
of the earliest paintings are scenes from the Old Testament splendour of the oak-work screens, stalls, and roofs all
which were supposed to typify events in the life of Christ, such decorated with gilding and painting, while the light, passing
as the sacrifice of Isaac (Christ's death), Jonah and the whale through stained glass, softened and helped to combine
(the Resurrection), Moses striking the rock, or pointing to the the whole into one mass of decorative effect. Colour was
manna (Christ the water of life, and the Eucharist), and many boldly applied everywhere, and thus the patchy effect was
others. The later paintings deal more with later subjects, avoided which is so often the result of the modern timid and
either events in Christ's life or figures of saints and the miracles partial use of painted ornament. Even the figure-sculpture
they performed. A fine series of these exists in the iower church was painted in a strong and realistic manner, sometimes by a
of S. Clemente in Rome, apparently dating from the 6th to the wax encaustic process, probably the same as the circumlitio
loth centuries; among these are representations of the passion of classical times. In the accounts for expenses in decorating
and death of Christ subjects never chosen by the earlier Orvieto cathedral wax is a frequent item among the materials
Christians, except as dimly foreshadowed by the Old Testament used for painting. In one place it is mentioned that wax was
types. When Christ Himself is depicted in the early catacomb supplied to Andrea Pisano (in 1345) for the decoration of the
paintings it is in glory and power, not in His human weakness and beautiful reliefs in white marble on the lower part of the west
suffering. front.
Other early Italian paintings exist on the walls of the church From the nth to the i6th century the lower part of the walls,
of the Tre Fontane near Rome, and in the Capella di S. Urbano generally 6 to 8 ft. from the floor, was painted with a dado
alia Caffarella, executed in the early part of the nth century. the favourite patterns till the I3th century being either a sort
The atrium of S. Lorenzo fuori le mura, Rome, and the church of sham masonry with a flower in each rectangular space
of the Quattro Santi Incoronati have mural paintings of the (fig. 9), or a conventional representation of a curtain with
24 MURAL DECORATION
iegula.1 folds stiffly treated, Above this dado ranges of any of the smaller works even of such men as Cimabue and Duccio
pictures with figure-subjects were painted in tiers one di Buoninsegna, who were living when these Westminster
above the other, each picture paintings were executed. Unhappily, partly through the
frequently surrounded by a poverty and anarchy brought about by the French wars and
painted frame with arch and the Wars of the Roses, the development of art in England made
gable of architectural design. little progress after the beginning of the I4th century, and it
Painted bands of chevron or
other geometrical ornament
till the I3th century, and
flowing ornament afterwards,
usually divide the tiers of pic-
tures horizontally and form the
top and bottom boundaries of
the dado. In the case of a
FIG. 9. Wall-Paintingof the I3th
" church, the end walls usually
century. Masonry pattern."
have figures to a larger scale.
On the east wall of the nave over the chancel arch there was
"
generally a large painting of the Doom " or Last Judgment.
One of the commonest subjects is a colossal figure of St Chris-
topher (fig. 10) usually on the nave wail opposite the principal
FIG. 10. Wall-Painting of St Christopher. (Large life-size.)
entrance selected because the sight of a picture of this saint
was supposed to bring good luck for the rest of the day. Figures
were also often painted on the jambs of the windows and on the
piers and soffit of the arches, especially that opening into the
chancel.
The little Norman church at Kempley in Gloucestershire (date
about noo) has perhaps the best-preserved specimen of the com-
plete early decoration of a chancel.
1
The north and south walls
are occupied by figures of the twelve apostles in architectural
niches, six on each side. The east wall had single figures of saints
at the sides of the central window, and the stone barrel vault is
covered with a representation of St John's apocalyptic vision
Christ in majesty surrounded by the evangelistic beasts, the seven
candlesticks and other figures. The chancel arch itself and the
jambs and mouldings of the windows have stiff geometrical designs, FIG. 1 1 St John the Evangelist.
and over the arch, towards the nave, is a large picture of the
. i sth-century English Painting
"
Doom." The whole scheme is very complete, no part of the
was not till a time when the renaissance of art in Italy had fallen
internal plaster or stonework being undecorated with colour.
Though the drawing is rude, the figures and their drapery are into decay that its influence reached the British shores. In
treated broadly and with dignity. Simple earth colours are used, the 1 5th century some beautiful work, somewhat affected by
painted in tempera on a plain white ground, which covers alike Flemish influence, was produced in England (fig. n), chiefly
both the plaster of the rough walls and the smooth stone of the
in the form of figures painted on the oak panels of chancel
arches and jambs.
and chapel screens, especially in Norfolk and Suffolk; but these
In the I3th century the painters of England reached a high
cannot be said to rival the works of the Van Eycks and other
point of artistic power and technical skill, so that paintings were To return to the i^th
painters of that time in Flanders.
produced by native artists equal, if not superior, to those of
century, the culminating period of English art in painting and
the same period anywhere on the Continent. The central
sculpture, much was owed to Henry III.'s love for and patronage
paintings on the walls of the chapter-house and on the retable of the fine arts; he employed a large number of painters to
of the high altar of Westminster Abbey are not surpassed by
decorate his various castles and palaces, especially the palace of
"
Westminster, one large hall of which was known as the
1
See Archoeologia, vol. xlvi. (1880). painted
MURAL DECORATION
"
chamber from the rovvs of fine pictures with which its walls Subjects of Medieval Wall- Paintings. In churches and domestic
" " buildings alike the usual subjects represented on the walls were
were covered. After the i3th century the masonry pattern
specially selected for their moral and religious teaching, either
was disused for the lower parts of walls, and the chevrony and
other stiff patterns for the borders were replaced by more flowing
designs. The character of the painted figures became less
monumental in style; greater freedom of drawing and treatment
was adopted, and they cease to recall the archaic majesty and
grandeur of the Byzantine mosaics.
It may be noted that during the I4th century wall-spaces
unoccupied by figure-subjects were often covered by graceful
flowing patterns, drawn with great
freedom and rather avoiding geo-
metrical repetition. Fig. 12, from
the church of Stanley St Leonard's,
Gloucestershire, is a good character-
istic specimen of 14th-century decora-
tion; on the walls of the chancel,
it is
filling up the spaces between the
painted figures; the flowers are blue,
and the lines red on a white ground.
In some cases the motive of the
design is taken from encaustic tiles,
:
* Bengeo Church, Herts, where
tne wa U ls divided into squares, each
tury Wall-Painting.
containing an heraldic lion. This
imitative notion occurs during all periods masonry, hanging
curtains, tilesand architectural features such as niches and
canopies being very frequently represented, though always
in a simple decorative fashion with no attempt at actual
deception not probably from any fixed principle that shams
were wrong, but because the good taste of the medieval
painters taught them that a flat unrealistic treatment gave FIG. 14. 15th-century Wall-Painting, the design copied from
the best and most decorative effect. Thus in the isth and a 13th-century Sicilian silk damask.
1 6th centuries the commonest forms of unpictorial wall-
stories from the Bible and Apocrypha, or from the lives of saints,
decoration were various patterns taken from the beautiful
or, lastly,symbolical representations setting forth some important
damasks and cut velvets of Sicily, Florence, Genoa and other theological truth, such as figures of virtues and vices, or the Scala
" " "
places in Italy, some form of the pine-apple or rather arti- humanae salyationis, showing the. perils and temptations of the
" human soul in its struggle to escape hell and gain paradise a rude
choke pattern being the favourite (fig. 13), a design which,
foreshadowing of the great scheme worked out with such perfection
by Dante in his Commedia. A fine example of this subject exists
on the walls of Chaldon church, Surrey. 1 In the selection of saints
for paintings in England,
those of English origin are
naturally most frequently
represented, and different
districts had certain local
favourites. St Thomas of
Canterbury was one of the
most widely popular; but
few examples now remain,
owing to Henry VIII.'s
special dislike to this saint
and the strict orders that
were issued for all pictures
of him to be destroyed.
For a similar reason most
paintings of saintly popes
were obliterated.
Methods of Execution.
Though Eraclius, who
probably wrote before the
loth century, mentions
the use of an oil-medium,
yet till about the I3th
century mural paintings
appear to have been exe-
FIG. 13. 15th-century Wall-Painting, taken from a Genoese cuted in the most simple FlG i 5 ._p ow derings used in i 5 th-
or Florentine velvet design. way, in tempera mainly century Wall Painting,
with earth colours applied
developed partly from Oriental sources, and coming to perfection on dry stucco; even when a smooth stone surface was to be
at the end of the i$th century, was copied and reproduced in
painted a thin coat of whitening or fine gesso was laid as a
textiles, printed stuffs and wall-papers with but little change ground. In the 131(1 century, and perhaps earlier, oil was com-
down to the present century a remarkable instance of survival monly used both as a medium for the pigments and also to make
in design. Fig. 14 is a specimen of isth-century English decora-
a varnish to cover and fix tempera paintings. The Van Eycks
introduced the use of dryers of a better kind than had yet been
tive painting, copied from a 14th-century Sicilian silk damask.
used, and so largely extended the application of oil-painting.
Diapers, powderings with flowers, sacred monograms and
. Before their time it seems to have been the custom to dry wall-
if they were
sprays of blossom were frequently used to ornament large paintings laboriously by the use of charcoal braziers,
in a position where the sun could not shine upon them. This is
surfaces in a simple way. Many of these are extremely beautiful
(fig. IS)- 'See Collections of Surrey Archaeol. Soc. vol. v. pt. ii. (1871).
26 MURANO
specially recorded in the valuable series of accounts for the expenses being broken up by some such delicate reliefs as that shown in
of wall-paintings in the royal palace of Westminster during the fig. 16, so its effectwas never dazzling, (W. Mo.; J. H. M.)
reign of Henry III., printed in Vetusta monumenta, vol. vi. (1842). Mural painting in into disuse in the i6th century,
All the materials used, including charcoal to dry the paintings and England fell
the wages paid to the artists, are given. The materials mentioned until attempts to revive it were made in the igth century.
are plumbum album el rubeum, viridus, vermilio, synople, acre, For domestic purposes wood panelling, stamped leather, and
azura, aurum, argentum, collis, oleum, vernix. tapestry were chiefly used as wall-coverings. In the reign of
Two foreign painters were employed Peter of Spain and William
of Florence at sixpence a day, but the English painters seem to Henry VIII., probably in part through Holbein's influence, a
rather coarse tempera wall-painting, German in style, appears
to have been common. 1 A good example of arabesque painting
of this period in black and white, rudely though boldly drawn
and Holbeinesquein character, was discovered in 1881 behind the
panelling in one of the canons' houses at Westminster. Other
examples exist at Haddon Hall (Derbyshire) and elsewhere.
Many efforts have been made in England to revive fresco
painting. The Houses of Parliament bear witness to this, the
principal works there being those of William Dyce and Daniel
Maclise. That of G. F. Watts, whose easel work also is generally
distinguished by its mural feeling, is full of serious purpose and
"
dignity of conception. Buono fresco " (the painting in tempera
a laid
" "
upon freshly ground of plaster while wet), spirit fresco
or Gambier-Parry method (the painting with a spirit medium
upon a specially prepared plaster or canvas ground 2 ) and "water- ,
"
glass painting (wherein the method is similar to water-colour
painting on a prepared plastered wall, the painting when finished
being covered with a chemical solution which hardens and
protects the surface), have all been tried. Other processes are
also in the experimental stage, such as that known as Keim's,
which has been successfully tried by Mrs Merritt in a series of
mural paintings in a church at Chilworth. Unless, however,
some means can be found of enabling the actual painted wall
to resist the natural dampness of the English climate, it does not
seem likely that true fresco painting can ever be naturalized in
Great Britain. Of two of the few modern artists entrusted
FIG. 16. Pattern in Stamped and Moulded Plaster, decorated with with important mural work in England, Ford Madox Brown
gilding and transparent colours; 15th-century work. (Full size.) and Frederick J. Shields, the former distinguished especially for
have done most of the work and received higher pay. William, his fine series of mural paintings in the Manchester town-hall, in
an English monk in the adjoining Benedictine abbey of West- the later paintings there adopted the modern method of painting
minster, received two shillings "a day. Walter of Durham and the design upon canvas in flat oil colour, using a wax medium,
various members of the Otho family, royal goldsmiths and moneyers,
worked for many years on the adornment of Henry III.'s palace and afterwards affixing the canvas to the wall by means of white
and were well paid for their skill. Some fragments of paintings lead. This is a usual method with modern decorators. Mr
from the royal chapel of St Stephen are now in the British Shields has painted the panels of his scheme of mural decoration
Museum. They are delicate and carefully painted subjects from in the chapel of the Ascension at Bayswater, London, also
the Old Testament, in rich colours, each with explanatory inscrip-
tion underneath. The scale is small, the figures being scarcely upon canvas in oils, and has adopted the method of fixing them
a foot high. Their method of execution is curious. First the to slabs of slate facing the waD so as to avoid the risk of damp
smooth stone wall was covered with a coat of red, painted in oil, from the wall itself. Friezes and frieze panels or ceilings in
probably to keep back the damp; on that a thin skin of fine gesso private houses are usually painted upon canvas in oil and affixed
(stucco) has been applied, and the outlines of the figures marked to the wall or inserted upon their strainers, like pictures in a
with a point; the whole of the background, crowns, borders of
dresses, and other ornamental parts have then been modelled and frame. (Walter Crane has used fibrous plaster panels, painting in
stamped with very minute patterns in slight relief, impressed on ordinary oil colours with turpentine as a medium, as in Redcross
the surface of the gesso while it was yet soft. The figures have then
Hall.) Recently there has been a revival of tempera painting,
been painted, apparently in tempera, gold leaf has been applied
to the stamped reliefs, and the whole has been covered with an oil
and a group of painters are producing works on panel and canvas
varnish. It is difficult to realize the labour required to cover large painted in tempera or fresco secco, with yolk of egg as a medium,
"
halls such as the above chapel and the painted chamber," the according to the practice of the early Italian painters and the
latter about 83 ft. by 27 ft., with this style of decoration. directions of Cennino Cennini. A pure luminous quality of
In many cases the grounds were entirely covered with shining
colour is produced, valuable in mural decoration and also-
.metal leaf, over which the paintings were executed; those parts,
such as the draperies, where the metallic lustre was wanted, were durable, especially under varnish. (W. CR.)
painted in oil with transparent colours, while the
flesh was painted MURANO (anc. Ammariuno), an island in the Venetian lagoon
in opaque tempera. The effect of the bright metal shining through
the rich colouring is magnificent. This minuteness of much of the abouj i m. north of Venice. It is 5 m. in circumference,
and a large part of it is occupied by gardens. It contained 5436
medieval wall-decoration is remarkable. Large wall-surfaces and
intricate mouldings were often completely covered by elaborate inhabitants in 1901, but was once much more populous than
gesso patterns in relief of almost microscopic delicacy (fig. 1 6). it is at present, its inhabitants numbering 30,000. It was a
The cost of stamps for this is among the items in the Westminster favourite resort of the Venetian nobility before they began to
accounts. These patterns when set and dry were further adorned
build their villas on the mainland; land in the isth and i6th
with gold and colours. So also with the architectural painting;
the artist was not content simply to pick out the various members centuries its gardens and casinos, of which some traces remain,
of the mouldings in different colours, but he also frequently covered were famous. It was here that the literary clubs of the Vigilanti,
each bead or fillet with painted flowers and other patterns, as the Studiosi and the Occulti, used to meet.
delicate as those in an illuminated MS. so minute and highly-
"
finished that they are almost invisible at a little distance, but yet 'Shakespeare, Henry IV., Part. II. act n. sc. i: Falstaff. And
add greatly to the general richness of effect. All this is neglected for thy walls, a pretty slight drollery, or the story of the prodigal,
in modern reproductions of medieval painting, in which both or the German hunting in waterwork, is worth a thousand of these
touch and colour are coarse and harsh caricatures of the old bed-hangings and these fly-bitten tapestries."
work, such as disfigure the Sainte Chapelle in Paris, and many It was in this method that the lunettes by Lord Leighton at the
1
cathedrals in France, Germany and England. Gold was never Victoria and Albert Museum were painted on the plaster wall. The
used in large quantities without the ground on which it was laid same painter produced a fresco at Lyndhurst Church, Hants.
MURAS MURAT 27
The town is built upon one broad main canal, where the conspicuously identified himself, he fell under suspicion and
tidal current runs with great force, and upon several smaller was recalled from the front.
ones. The cathedral, S. Donato, is a fine basilica, of the izth Returning to Paris (1795), he made the acquaintance of
century. The pavement (of mi) is as richly inlaid as that of Napoleon Bonaparte, another young officer out of employment,
St Mark's, and the mosaics cf the tribune are remarkable. The who soon gained a complete ascendancy over his vain, ambitious
exterior of the tribune is beautiful, and has been successfully and unstable nature. On the I3th Vendemiaire, when Bonaparte,
restored. The church of St Peter the Martyr (1509) contains a commissioned by Barras, beat down with cannon the armed
fine picture by Gentile Bellini and other works, and S. Maria degli insurrection of the Paris sections against the Convention, Murat
Angeli also contains several interesting pictures. Murano has was his most active and courageous lieutenant, and was rewarded
from ancient times been celebrated for its glass manufactories. by the lieutenant-colonelcy of the 2 ist Chasseurs and the appoint-
When and how the art was introduced is obscure, but there ment of first aide de camp to General Bonaparte in Italy. In
are notices of it as early as the nth century; and in 1250 Christo- the first battles of the famous campaign of 1796 Murat so
foro Briani attempted the imitation of agate and chalcedony. distinguished himself that he was chosen to carry the captured
From the labours of his pupil Miotto sprang that branch of flags to Paris. He was promoted to be general of brigade, and
the glass trade which is concerned with the imitation of gems. returned to Italy in time to be of essential service to Bonaparte
In the 1 5th century the first crystals were made, and in the at Bassano, Corona and Fort St Giorgio, where he was wounded.
1 7th the various gradations of coloured and iridescent glass He was then sent on a diplomatic mission to Genoa, but returned
"
were invented, together with the composition called aventu- in time to be present at Rivoli. In the advance into Tirol in
rine "; the manufacture of beads is now a main branch of the the summer of 1797 he commanded the vanguard, and by his
trade. The art of the glass-workers was taken under the passage of the Tagliamento hurried on the preliminaries of
protection of the Government in 1275, and regulated by a special Leoben. In 1798 he was for a short time commandant at Rome,
code of laws and privileges; two fairs were held annually, and and then accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt. At the battle
the export of all materials, such as alum and sand, which enter of the Pyramids he led his first famous cavalry charge, and so
into the composition of glass was absolutely forbidden. With distinguished himself in Syria that he was made general of
the decay of Venice the importance of the Murano glass-works division (October, 1 799). He returned to France with Bonaparte,
declined; but A. Salviati (1816-1890) rediscovered many of the and on the i8th Brumaire led into the orangery of Saint Cloud
old processes, and eight firms are engaged in the trade, the the sixty grenadiers whose appearance broke up the Council
most renewed being the Venezia Murano Company and Salviati. of Five Hundred. After the success of the coup d'ttat he was
The municipal museum contains a collection of glass illustrating made commandant of the consular guard, and on the 2oth of
the history and progress of the art. January 1800 he married Caroline Bonaparte, youngest sister
The island of Murano was first peopled by the inhabitants of the first consul. He commanded the French cavalry at
of Altino. It originally enjoyed independence under the rule the battle of Marengo, and was afterwards made governor in
of its tribunes and judges, and was one of the twelve confederate the Cisalpine Republic. As commander of the army of observa-
islands of the lagoons. In the i2th century the doge Vital tion in Tuscany he forced the Neapolitans to evacuate the Papal
Micheli II. incorporated Murano in Venice and attached it to States and to accept the treaty of Florence (March 28, 1801).
the Sestiere of S. Croce. From that date it was governed by In January 1804 he was given the post of governor of Paris,
a Venetian nobleman with the title of podesta whose office and in this capacity appointed the military commission by which
lasted sixteen months. Murano, however, retained its original the due d'Enghien was tried and shot (March 20); in May he was
constitution of a greater and a lesser council for the transaction made marshal of the empire; in February 1805 he was made
of municipal business, and also the right to coin gold and silver grand admiral, with the title of prince, and invested with the
as well as its judicial powers. The interests of the town grand eagle of the Legion of Honour. He commanded the
were watched at the ducal palace by a nuncio and a solicitor; cavalry of the Grand Army in the German campaign of 1805,
and this constitution remained in force till the fall of the and was sc conspicuous at Austerlitz that Napoleon made him
republic. grand duke of Berg and Cleves (March 15, 1806). He com-
See Venezia e sue Lagune; Paoletti, II Fiore di Venezia; Bus-
le manded the cavalry at Jena, Eylau, and Friedland, and in
solin, Guida fabbriche vetrarie di Murano; Romania, Storia
alle 1808 was made general-in-chief of the French aimies in Spain.
documentata di Venezia, i. 41.
He entered Madrid on the 25th of March, and on the 2nd of
MURAS, a tribe of South-American Indians living on the May suppressed an insurrection in the city. He did much to
Amazon, from the Madeira to the Purus. Formerly a powerful prepare the events which ended in the abdication of Charles IV.
people, they were defeated by their neighbours the Mundrucus and Ferdinand VII. at Bayonne; but the hopes he had cherished
in 1788. They are now partly civilized. Each village has of himself receiving the crown of Spain were disappointed. On
a chief whose office is hereditary, but he has little power. The the ist of August, however, he was appointed by Napoleon to
Muras are among the lowest of all Amazonian tribes. the throne of Naples, vacated by the transference of Joseph
MURAT, JOACHIM (1767-1815), king of Naples, younger Bonaparte to Spain.
son of an innkeeper at La Bastide-Fortuniere in the department King Joachim Napoleon, as he styled himself, entered Naples
of Lot, France, was born on the 25th of March 1767. Destined in September, his handsome presence and open manner gaining
for the priesthood, he obtained a bursary at the college of Cahors, him instantaneous popularity. Almost his first act as king
proceeding afterwards to the university of Toulouse, Tjhere was to attack Capri, which he wrested from the British; but,
he studied canon law. His vocation, however, was certainly this done, he returned to Naples and devoted himself to establish-
not sacerdotal, and after dissipating his money he enlisted in a ing his kingship according to his ideas, a characteristic blend
cavalry regiment. In 1789 he had attained the rank of martchal of the vulgarity of a fdnenu with the essential principles of
des logis, but in 1790 he was dismissed the regiment for in- the Revolution. He dazzled the lazzaroni with' the extravagant
subordination. After a period of idleness, he was enrolled, splendour of his costumes; he set up a sumptuous court, created
through the good offices of J. B. Cavaignac, in the new Constitu- a new nobility, nominated marshals. With an eye to the over-
tional Guard of Louis XVI. (1791). In Paris he gained a reputa- throw of his legitimate rival in Sicily, he organized a large army
tion for his good looks, his swaggering attitude, and the violence and even a fleet; but he also swept away the last relics of the
of his revolutionary sentiments. On the 3Oth of May 1792, the effete feudal system and took efficient measures for suppressing
guard having been disbanded, he was appointed sub-lieutenant brigandage. From the first his relations with Napoleon were
in the 2ist Chasseurs a cheval, with which regiment he served strained. The emperor upbraided him sarcastically for his
" "
in the Argonne and the Pyrenees, obtaining in the latter campaign monkey tricks (singeries); Murat ascribed to the deliberate
the command of a squadron. After the gth Thermidor, however, ill-will of the French generals who served with him, and even to
and the proscription of the Jacobins, with whom he had Napoleon, the failure of his attack on Sicily in 1810. He resented
MURAT
his subordination to the emperor, and early began his pose as an stipulated that Austria would use her good offices to secure the
Italian king by demanding the withdrawal of the French troops renunciation by Ferdinand of his rights to Naples, in return
from Naples and naturalization as Neapolitans of all Frenchmen for an indemnity to hasten the conclusion of peace between
Napoleon, of course, met this
in the service of the state (1811). Naples and Great Britain, and to augment the Neapolitan
demand with a curt refusal. A breach between the brothers- kingdom by territory embracing 400,000 souls at the expense
in-law was only averted by the Russian campaign of 1812 and of the states of the Church.
Napoleon's invitation to Murat to take command of the cavalry The project of the treaty having been communicated to
in the Grand Army. This was a call which appealed to all Castlereagh, he replied by expressing the willingness of the
British government to conclude an armistice with
"
his strongest military instincts, and he obeyed it. During the the person
"
disastrous retreat he showed his usual headstrong courage; but exercising the government of Naples (Jan. 22), and this was
in the middle of December he suddenly threw up his command accordingly signed on the 3rd of February by Bentinck. It
and returned to Naples. The reason of this was the suspicion, was clear that Great Britain had no intention of ultimately
which had been growing on him for two years past, that Napoleon recognizing Murat's right to reign. As for Austria, she would
was preparing for him the fate of the king of Holland, and that be certain that Murat's own folly would, sooner or later, give
his own wife, Queen Caroline, was plotting with the emperor her an opportunity for repudiating her engagements. For the
for his dethronement. To Marshal Davout, who pointed out to present the Neapolitan alliance would be invaluable to the Allies
him that he was only king of Naples " by grace of the emperor for the purpose of putting an end to the French dominion in
and the blood of Frenchmen," he replied that he was king of Italy. The plot was all but spoilt by the prince royal of Sicily,
Naples as the emperor of. Austria was emperor of Austria, and who in an order of the day announced to his soldiers that their
that he could do as he liked. He was, in fact, already dreaming legitimate sovereign had not renounced his rights to the throne
of exchanging his position of a vassal king of the French Empire of Naples (Feb. 20); from the Austrian point of view it was
for that ofa national Italian king. In the enthusiastic reception compromised by a proclamation issued by Bentinck at Leghorn
that awaited him on his return to Naples on the 4th of February on the i4th of March, in which he called on the Italians to rise
"
there was nothing to dispel these illusions. All the Italian in support of the great cause of their fatherland." From
parties flocked round him, flattering and cajoling him: the Dijon Castlereagh promptly wrote to Bentinck (April 3) to say
patriots, because he seemed to them loyal and glorious enough that the proclamation of the prince of Sicily must be disavowed,
to assume the task of Italian unification; the partisans of the dis- and that if King Ferdinand did not behave properly Great
possessed princes, because they looked upon him as a convenient Britain would recognize' Murat's title. A letter from Metternich
instrument and as simple enough to be made an easy dupe. to Marshal Bellegarde, of the same place and date, insisted
From this moment dates the importance of Murat in the that Bentinck 's operations must be altered; the last thing that
history of Europe during the next few years. He at once, Austria desired was an Italian national rising.
without consulting his minister of foreign affairs, despatched It was, indeed, by this time clear to the allied powers that
Prince Cariati on a confidential mission to Vienna; if Austria Murat's ambition had o'erleaped the bounds set for them.
"
would secure the renunciation of his rights by King Ferdinand Murat, a true son of the Revolution," wrote Metternich,
in the same letter,
"
and guarantee the possession of the kingdom of Naples to himself, did not hesitate to form projects of con-
he would place his army at her disposal and give up his claims quest when all his care should have been limited to simple
to Sicily. Austria herself, however, had not as yet broken calculations as to how to preserve his throne. ... He dreamed
definitively with Napoleon, and before she openly joined the of a partition of Italy between him and us. ... When we refused
Grand Alliance, after the illusory congress of Prague, many to annex all Italy north of the Po, he saw that his calculations
things had happened to make Murat change his mind. He was were wrong, but refused to abandon his ambitions. His attitude
"
offended by Napoleon's bitter letters and by tales of his slighting is most suspicious." Press the restoration of the grand-duke
"
comments on himself; he was alarmed by the emperor's scarcely in Tuscany," wrote Castlereagh to Bentinck; this is the true
veiled threats; but after all he was a child of the Revolution touchstone of Murat's intentions. We must not suffer him to
and a born soldier, with all the soldier's instinct of loyalty to carry out his plan of extended dominion; but neither must
a great leader, and he grasped eagerly at any excuse for believing we break with him and so abandon Austria to his augmented
that Napoleon, in the event of victory, would maintain him intrigues."
on his throne. Then came the emperor's advance into Germany, Meanwhile, Murat had formally broken with Napoleon, and
supported as yet by his allies of the Rhenish Confederation. on the i6th of January the French envoy quitted Naples. But
On the fatal field of Leipzig Murat once more faught on Napo- the treason by which he hoped to save his throne was to make
leon's side, leading the French squadrons with all his old valour its loss inevitable. He had betrayed Napoleon, only to be made
and dash. But this crowning catastrophe was too much for the cat's-paw of the Allies. Great Britain, even when con-
his wavering faith. On the evening of the i6th of October, descending to negotiate with him, had never recognized his
the first day of the battle, Metternich found means to open a title; she could afford to humour Austria by holding out hopes of
separate negotiation with him: Great Britain and Austria ultimate recognition, in order to detach him from Napoleon; for
would, in the event of Murat's withdrawal from Napoleon's Austria alone of the Allies was committed to him, and Castle-
army and refusal to send reinforcements to the viceroy of Italy, reagh well knew that, when occasion should arise, her obliga-
secure the cession to him of Naples by King Ferdinand, guarantee tions would not be suffered to hamper her interests. With the
him in its possession, and obtain for him further advantages downfall of Napoleon Murat's defection had served its turn;
in Italy. To accept the Austrian advances seemed now his moreover, his equivocal conduct during the campaign in Italy 1
only chance of continuing to be a king. At Erfurt he asked had blunted the edge of whatever gratitude the powers may
and obtained the emperor's leave to return to Naples; " our have been disposed to feel; his ambition to unite all Italy south
"
adieux," he said, were not over-cordial." of the Po under his crown was manifest, and the statesmen
He reached Naples on the 4th of November and at once responsible for the re-establishment of European order were
informed the Austrian envoy of his wish to join the Allies, little likely to do violence to their legitimist principles in order
suggesting that the Papal States, with the exception of Rome to maintain on his throne a revolutionary sovereign who was
and the surrounding district, should be made over to him as proving himself so potent a centre of national unrest.
his reward. On the 3ist of December Count Neipperg, after- At the very opening of the congress of Vienna Talleyrand,
"
wards the lover of the empress Marie Louise, arrived at Naples with astounding effrontery, affected not to know " the man
with powers to treat. The result was the signature, on the nth
He had contributed to the defeats of the viceroy Prince Eugene
1
ofJanuary 1814, of a treaty by which Austria guaranteed to in January and February 1814, but did not show any eagerness to
Murat the throne of Naples and promised her good offices to
press his victories to the advantage of the Allies, contenting himself
secure the assent of the other Allies. Secret additional articles with occupying the principality of Benevento.
MURAT 29
" from the peninsula, and establishing himself as a national
who had been casually referred to as the king of Naples ";
and he made it the prime object of his policy in the weeks that king.
followed to secure the repudiation by the powers of Murat's To contemporary observers in the best position to judge
title, and the restoration of the Bourbon king. The powers, the enterprise seemed by no means hopeless. Lord William
indeed, were very ready to accept at least the principle of this Bentinck, the commander of the English forces in Italy, wrote
" "
policy. Great Britain," wrote Castlereagh to Lord Liverpool to Castlereagh 7 that, having seen more of Italy," he doubted
"
on the 3rd of September from Geneva, has no objection, but whether the whole force of Austria would be able to expel Murat;
1 "
the reverse, to the restoration of the Bourbons in Naples." he has said clearly that he will raise the whole of Italy; and
2
Prussia saw in Murat the protector of the malcontents in Italy. there is not a doubt that under the standard of Italian indepen-
Alexander I. of Russia had no sympathy for any champion of dence the whole of Italy will rally." This feeling, continued
"
Liberalism in Italy save himself. Austria confessed sub Bentinck, was due to the foolish and illiberal conduct of the
" "
Most views
sigillo that she shared His Christian Majesty's restored sovereigns; the inhabitants of the states occupied by
"
as to the restoration of ancient dynasties." 3 The main difficul- the Austrian troops were discontented to a man "; even in Tus-
" "
ties in the way were Austria's treaty obligations and the means cany the same feeling and desire universally prevailed. All
by which the desired result was to be obtained. the provinces, moreover, were full of unemployed officers and
Talleyrand knew well that Austria, in the long run, would soldiers who, in spite of Murat's treason, would rally to his
break faith with Murat and prefer a docile Bourbon on the throne standard, especially as he would certainly first put himself into
of Naples to this incalculable child of the Revolution; but he communication with Napoleon in Elba; while, so far as Bentinck
" "
had his private reasons for desiring to score off Metternich, could hear of the disposition of the French army, it would be
"
the continuance of whose quasidiplomatic liaison with Caroline dangerous to assemble it anywhere or for any purpose." The
Murat he rightly suspected. He proposed boldly that, since urgency of the danger was, then, fully realized by the powers
Austria, in view of the treaty of Jan. n, 1814, was naturally even before Napoleon's return from Elba; for they were well
reluctant to undertake the task, the restored Bourbon king aware of Murat's correspondence with him. On the first news
of France should be empowered to restore the Bourbon king of of Napoleon's landing in France, the British government wrote
to Wellington 8 that this event together with
"
Naples by French arms, thus reviving once more the ancient the proofs of
Habsburg-Bourbon rivalry for dominion in Italy.
4
Murat's treachery " had removed " all remaining scruples " on
their part, and that they were now
"
Metternich, with characteristic skill, took advantage of this prepared to enter into a
situation at once to checkmate France and to disembarrass concert for his removal," adding that Murat should, in the event
"
Austria of its obligations to Murat. While secretly assuring of his resigning peaceably, receive a pension and all considera-
Louis XVTII., through his confidant Blacas, that Austria was tion." The rapid triumph of Napoleon, however, altered this
"
in favour of a Bourbon restoration in Naples, he formally tone. Bonaparte's successes have altered the situation," wrote
intimated to Talleyrand that a French invasion of Italian soil Castlereagh to Wellington on the 24th, adding that Great Britain
would mean war with Austria. 6 To Murat, who had appealed would enter into a treaty with Murat, if he would give guarantees
" "
to the treaty of 1814, and demanded a passage northward for by a certain redistribution of his forces and the like, and
"
the troops destined to oppose those of Louis XVIII., he explained that in spite of Napoleon's success he would be true to Europe."
that Austria, by her ultimatum to France, had already done all In a private letter enclosed Castlereagh suggested that Murat
that was necessary, that any movement of the Neapolitan "
might send an auxiliary force to France, where his personal
9
troops outside Naples would be a useless breach of the peace presence would be unseemly."
of Italy, and that it would be regarded as an attack on Austria Clearly, had King Joachim played his cards well he had the
and a rupture of the alliance. Murat's suspicions of Austrian game in his hands. But it was not in his nature to play them
sincerity were now confirmed;
6
he realized that there was no well. He should have made the most of the chastened temper
question now
of his obtaining any extension of territory at the of the Allies, either to secure favourable terms from them, or
expense of the states of the Church, and that in the Italy as to hold them in play until Napoleon was ready to take the field.
reconstructed at Vienna his own position would be intolerable. But his head had been turned by the flatteries of the " patriots";
Thus the very motives which had led him to betray Napoleon he believed that all Italy would rally to his cause, and that alone
he would be able to drive the " Germans
now led him to break with Austria. "
He would secure his throne over the Alps, and
by proclaiming the cause of united Italy, chasing the Austrians thus, as king of united Italy, be in a position to treat on equal
1
terms with Napoleon, should he prove victorious; and he
P.O. Vienna Congress, vii.
2
Mem. of Hardenberg, F.O. Cong. Pruss. Arch. 20. Aug. 14- determined to strike without delay. On the 23rd the news
June 15.
reached Metternich at Vienna that the Neapolitan troops were
3
Metternich to Bombelles. Jan. 13, 1815, enclosed in Castle- on the march to the frontier. The Allies at once decided to
reagh to Liverpool of Jan. 25. F.O. Congr. Vienna, xi. commission Austria to deal with Murat; in the event of whose
4
Sorel, viii. 41 1 seq.
'
Cf. a
" "
most secret communication to be made to M. de Blacas defeat, Ferdinand IV. was to be restored to Naples, on promising
" "
(in Metternich to Bombelles, Vienna, Jan. 13, 1815). Murat's a general amnesty and giving guarantees for a reasonable
10
aggressive attitude, and the unrest in Italy, are largely due to the system of government.
threatening attitude of France. . H.I.M. is not prepared to
. .
Meanwhile, in Naples itself there were signs enough that
"
risk a rising of Italy under the national flag." How will France
coerce Naples? By sending an army into Italy across our states,
Murat's popularity had disappeared. In Calabria the indiscrimi-
which would thus become infected with revolutionary views? nate severity of General Manhes in suppressing brigandage had
The emperor could not allow such an expedition. When Italy is made the government hated; in the capital the general dis-
settled and we will not allow Murat to keep the Marches . . .
affection had led to rigorous policing, while conscripts had to
he will lose prestige, and then . . will be the time for Austria to
.
be dragged in chains to join their regiments. 11 In these circum-
give effect to the views which, all the time, she shares with His
Most Christian Majesty." (In Castlereagh to Liverpool, " private," stances an outburst of national enthusiasm for King Joachim
Jan. 25, 1815. F.O. Vienna Congr. xi.) was hardly to be expected; and the campaign in effect proved a
* That
they were fully justified is clear from the following ex- complete fiasco. Rome and Bologna were, indeed, occupied with-
tract from a letter of Metternich to Bombelles at Paris (dated
" out serious opposition; but on the I2th of April Murat's forces
Vienna, Jan. 13, 1815). Whether Joachim or a Bourbon reigns
at is for us a very subordinate question. . When Europe . .
received a check from the advancing Austrians at Ferrara and
Naples
is established on solid foundations the fate of Joachim will no
longer on the 2nd of May were completely routed at Tolentino. The
be problematical, but do not let us risk destroying Austria and
France and Europe, in order to solve this question at the worst 7
Letter dated Florence, Jan. 7, 1815. F.O. Vienna Congr. xi.
moment it would be put on the tapis. This is no business of
. . .
8
F.O. Vienna Congr. xii., Draft to Wellington dated March 12.
the Congress, but let the Bourbon Powers declare that they maintain 9
F.O. Vienna Congr. xii.
their claims." (In Castlereagh's private letter to Lord Liverpool, 10
Ibid. Wellington to Castlereagh, Vienna, March 25.
Jan. 15, 1815, F.O. Vienna Congr. xi.) u F.O. Cong. xi. Munster to Castlereagh, Naples, Jan. 22.
;
MURATORI
Austrians advanced on Naples, when Ferdinand IV. was duly son, Joachim (b. 1856), who succeeded him as head of the family,
Queen Caroline and her children were deported to
restored, while and two daughters, of whom the younger, Anna (b. 1863),
Trieste. became the wife of the Austrian minister Count Goluchowski.
Murat himself escaped to France, where his offer of service (2) Achille (1847-1895), married Princess Dadian of Mingrelia.
was contemptuously refused by Napoleon. He hid for a (3) Louis (b. 1851), married in 1873 to the widowed Princess
while near Toulon, with a price upon his head; then, after Eudoxia Orbeliani (nee Somov), was for a time orderly officer
Waterloo, refusing an asylum in England, he set out for Corsica to Charles XV.' of Sweden. (4) Caroline (b. 1832), married in
(August). Here he was joined by a few rash spirits who urged 1850 Baron Charles de Chassiron and in 1872 Mr John Garden
him to attempt to recover his kingdom. Though Metternich (d. 1885). (5) Anna (b. 1841), married in 1865 Antoine de
offered to allow him to join his wife at Trieste and to secure Noailles, due de Mouchy.
him a dignified position and a pension, he preferred to risk AUTHORITIES. See A. Sorel, L'Europe el la r&vclution franfaise
all on a final throw for power. On the 28th of September he (8 yols., 1885-1892) passim, but especially vol. viii. for Murat's
policy after the 1812; Helfert, Joachim Murat, seine letzten Kampfe
sailed for Calabria with a flotilla of six vessels carrying some
und sein Ende (Vienna, 1878); G. Romano, Ricordi muratiani
250 armed men. Four of his ships were scattered by a storm; (Pavia, 1890); Correspondence de Joachim Murat, Juillet 1791-
one deserted him at the last moment, and on the 8th of October Juillet 1808, ed A. Lumbroso (Milan, 1899); Count Murat, Murat,
he landed at Pizzo with only 30 companions. Of the popular lieutenant de I'empereur en Espagne (Paris, 1897); Guardione,
Cioacchino Murat in Italia (Palermo, 1899); M. H. Weil, Prince
enthusiasm for his cause which he had been led to expect there
Eugene et Murat (5 vols., Paris, 1901-1904) Chavenon and Saint-
;
was less than no sign, and after a short and unequal contest he Yves, Joachim Murat (Paris, 1905); Lumbroso, L'Agonia di un
was taken prisoner by a captain named Trenta-Capilli, whose regnp; Cioacchino Murat al Pizzo (Milan, 1904). See also the
brother had been executed by General Manhes. He was im- bibliography to NAPOLEON I. (W. A. P.)
prisoned in the fort of Pizzo, and on the isth of October 1815 MURATORI, LUDOVICO ANTONIO (1672-1750), Italian
was tried by court-martial, under a law of his own, for disturbing scholar, historian and antiquary, was born of poor parents at
the public peace, and was sentenced to be shot in half an hour. Vignola in the duchy of Modena on the 2ist of October 1672.
After writing a touching letter of farewell to his wife and children, While young he attracted the attention of Father Bacchini,
he bravely met his fate, and was buried at Pizzo. the librarian of the duke of Modena, by whom his literary tastes
Though much good may be said of Murat as a king sincerely were turned toward historical and antiquarian research. Having
anxious for the welfare of his adopted country, his most abiding taken minor orders in 1688, Muratori proceeded to his degree
title to fame is that of the most dashing cavalry leader of the of doctor inutroquejurebelore 1694, was ordained priest in 1695
age. As a man he was rash, hot-tempered and impetuously and appointed by Count Carlo Borromeo one of the doctors
brave; he was adored by his troopers who followed their of the Ambrosian library at Milan. From manuscripts now
"
idol, the golden eagle," into the most terrible fire and against placed under his charge he made a selection of materials for
the most terrible odds. Napoleon lived to regret his refusal several volumes (Anecdota), which he published with notes.
to accept his services during the Hundred Days, declaring that The reputation he acquired was such that the duke of Modena
Murat's presence at Waterloo would have given more con- offered him the situation of keeper of the public archives of the
centrated power to the cavalry charges and might possibly have duchy. Muratori hesitated, until the offer of the additional
changed defeat into victory. post of librarian, on the resignation of Father Bacchini, deter-
By his wife Maria Annunciata Carolina Murat had two sons. mined him in 1700 to return to Modena. The preparation of
The elder, NAPOLEON ACHII.LE MURAT (1801-1847), during his numerous valuable tracts on the history of Italy during the middle
father's reign prince royal of the Two Sicilies, emigrated about ages, and of dissertations and discussions on obscure points
1821 to America, and settled near Tallahassee, Florida, where of historical and antiquarian interest, as well as the publication
in 1826-1838 he was postmaster. In 1826 he married a of his various philosophical, theological, legal, poetical and
great-niece of Washington. He published Lettres d'un citoyen other works absorbed the greater part of his time. These
des Etats-Unis A un de ses amis d Europe (Paris, 1830); Esquisse brought him into communication with the most distinguished
morale et politique des Etats-Unis (ibid. 1832); and Exposition des scholars of Italy, France and Germany. But they also exposed
principes du gouiiernement ripublicain lei qu'il a ete perfectionni en him in his later years to envy. His enemies spread abroad
Amerique (ibid. 1833). He died in Florida on the isth of April the rumour that the pope, Benedict XIV., had discovered in his
1847- writings passages savouring of heresy, even of atheism. Muratori
The second son, NAPOLEON LUCIEN CHARLES MURAT (1803- appealed to the pope, repudiating the accusation. His Holiness
1878), who was created prince of Ponte Corvo in 1813, lived assured him of his protection, and, without expressing his
with his mother in Austria after 1815, and in 1824 started to approbation of the opinions in question of the learned antiquary,
join his brother in America, but was shipwrecked on the coast freed him from the imputations of his enemies. Muratori
of Spain and held for a while a prisoner. Arriving in 1823, died on the 23rd of January 1750, and was buried with much
two years later he married in Baltimore a rich American, pomp in the church of Santa Maria di Pomposa, in connexion
Georgina Frazer (d.. 1879) but her fortune was lost, and for
;
with which he had laboured as parish priest for many years.
some years his wife supported herself and him by keeping a His remains were removed in 1774 to the church of St Augustin.
girls' school. After several abortive attempts to return to Muratori is rightly regarded as the " father of Italian history."
France, the revolution of 1848 at last gave him his opportunity. This is due to his great collection, Rerum italicarum scriptores,
He was elected a member of the Constituent Assembly and of to which he devoted about fifteen years' work (1723-1738).
the Legislative Assembly (1849), was minister plenipotentiary The gathering together and editing some 25 huge folio
at Turin from October 1849 to March 1850, and after the coup volumes of texts was followed by a series of 75 dissertations
d'ttat of the 2nd of December 1851 was made a member of the on medieval Italy (Antiquitates italicae medii aevi, 1738-1742, 6
consultative commission. On the proclamation of the Empire, vols. folio). To these he added a Novtts thesaurus inscriptionum
he was recognized by Napoleon III. as a prince of the blood royal, (4 vols. 1 739-1 743) which was of great importance in the develop-
, ,
with the title of Prince Murat, and, in addition to the payment ment of epigraphy. Then, anticipating the action of the learned
of 2,000,000 fr. of debts, was given
a^ income of 150,000 fr. societies of the igth century, he set about a popular treatment
As a member of the Senate he distinguished himself in 1861 of the historical sources he had published. These Annali
by supporting the temporal power of the pope, but otherwise d' Italia (1744-1749) reached 12 volumes, but were imperfect and
he played no conspicuous part. The fall of the Empire in Sep- are of little value. In addition to this national enterprise
tember 1870 involved his retirement into private life. He died (the Scriptores were published by the aid of the Societa palatina
on the loth of April 1878, leaving three sons and two daughters, of Milan) Muratori published Anecdota ex ambrosianae biblio-
(i) Joachim, Prince Murat (1834-1901), in 1854 married Maley thecaecodd. (2 vols. 4to, Milan, 1697, 1698; Padua, 1713);
Berthier, daughter of the Prince de Wagram, who bore him a Anecdota graeca (3 vols. 4to, Padua, 1709); Antichita Estens
MURAVIEV MURCHISON
Modena, 1717); Vita e rime di F. Petrarca (1711),
(2 vols. fol., by Queen Olga of Wiirttemberg. After the war he was succes-
and Vita ed cpere di L. Castehetro (1727). sively first secretary at Paris, chancellor of the embassy at Berlin,
In biblical scholarship Muratori is chiefly known as the dis- and then minister at Copenhagen. In Denmark he was brought
coverer of the so-called Muratorian Canon, the name given to a much into contact with the imperial family, and on the death of
fragment (85 which he found
lines) of early Christian literature, Prince Lobanov in 1897 he was appointed by the Tsar Nicholas II.
in 1740, embedded in an 8th-century codex which forms a to be his minister of foreign affairs. The next three and a half
compendium of theological tracts followed by the five early years were a critical time for European diplomacy. The Chinese
Christian creeds. The document contains a list of the books of and Cretan questions were disturbing factors. As regards Crete,
the New Testament, a similar list concerning the Old Testament Count Muraviev's policy was vacillating; in China his hands were
having apparently preceded it. It is in barbarous Latin which forced by Germany's action at Kiaochow. But he acted with
has probably been translated from original Greek the language singular Itgerete with regard at all events to his assurances to
prevailing in Christian Rome until c. 200. There is little doubt Great Britain respecting the leases of Port Arthur and Talienwan
that it was composed in Rome and we may date it about the from China; he told the British ambassador that these would
"
year 190. Lightfoot inclined to Hippolytus as its author. It be open ports," and afterwards essentially modified this
is the earliest document known which enumerates the books in pledge. When the Tsar Nicholas inaugurated the Peace Con-
order. ference at the Hague, Count Muraviev extricated his country
The first line of the fragment is broken and speaks of the from a situation of some embarrassment; but when, subsequently,
'
Gospel of St Mark, but there is no doubt that its compiler Russian agents in Manchuria and at Peking connived at the
knew also of St Matthew. Acts is ascribed to St Luke. He agitation which culminated in the Boxer rising of 1900, the
names thirteen letters of St Paul but says nothing of the Epistle relations of the responsible foreign minister with the tsar became
to the Hebrews. The alleged letters of Paul to the Laodiceans strained. Muraviev died suddenly on the 2ist of June 1900,
and Alexandrians he rejects, " for gall must not be mixed with of apoplexy, brought on, it was said, by a stormy interview
honey." The two Epistles of Peter and the Epistle of James with the tsar.
are not referred to, but that of Jude and two of John are accepted. MURCHISON, SIR RODERICK IMPEY (1792-1871), British
He includes the Apocalypse of John and also the Apocalypse geologist, was born at Tarradale, in eastern Ross, Scotland, on
of Peter. The Shtpherd of Hermas he rejects as not of apostolic the igth of February 1792. His father, Kenneth Murchison
origin, but this test of canonicity is not consistently applied (d. 1796), came of an old Highland clan in west Ross-shire, and
"
for he allows the Wisdom written by the friends of Solomon in having been educated as a medical man, acquired a fortune in
his honour." He rejects the writings of the Gnostics Valentinus India; while stilt in the prime of life he returned to Scotland,
and Basilides, and of Montanus. where, marrying one of the Mackenzies of Fairburn, he purchased
The not an authoritative decree, but a private register
list is the estate of Tarradale and settled for a few years as a resident
of what the author considers the prevailing Christian sentiment Highland landlord. Young Murchison left the Highlands when
in his neighbourhood. He notes certain differences among three years old, and at the age of seven was sent to the grammar
the Gospels, because not all the evangelists were eye-witnesses school of Durham, where he remained for six years. He was then
of the life of Jesus; yet Mark and Luke respectively have behind placed at the military college, Great Marlow, to be trained for
them the authority of Peter and of Paul, who is thus regarded the army. With some difficulty he passed the examinations,
as on a footing with the Twelve. The Fourth Gospel was and at the age of fifteen was gazetted ensign in the 36th regiment.
written by John at the request of the other apostles and the A year later (1808) he landed with Wellesley in Galicia, and was
bishops on the basis of a revelation made to Andrew. The present at the actions of Rorica and Vimiera. Subsequently
letters of Paul are written to four individuals and to seven under Sir John Moore he took part in the retreat to Corunna
different churches, like the seven letters in the Apocalypse of and the final battle there. This was his only active service.
John. The defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo seeming to close the prospect
It is interesting to notice the coincidence of his list with the of advancement in the military profession, Murchison, after
evidence gained from Tertullian for Africa and from Irenaeus eight years of service, quitted the army, and married the daughter
for Gaul and indirectly for Asia Minor. Before the year 200 of General Hugonin, of Nursted House, Hampshire. With her
there was widespread agreement in the sacred body of apostolic he then spent rather more than two years on the Continent,
writings read in Christian churches on the Lord's Day along with particularly in Italy, where her cultivated tastes were of signal
the Old Testament. influence in guiding his pursuits. He threw himself with all the
enthusiasm of his character into the study of art and antiquities,
a Life prefixed, were published by Lazzari,
Muratori's Letters, with
(2 vols., Venice, 1783). His nephew, F. G. Muratori, also wrote and for the first time in his life tasted the pleasures of truly
a Vita del celebre Ludov.Ant. Muratori (Venice, 1756). See also intellectual pursuits.
" "
A. G. Spinelli BibliographiadellelettereestampadiL. A. Muratori
Returning to England in 1818, he sold his paternal property
in Bolletinodell' institute storico italiano (1888), and Carducci's
in Ross-shire and settled in England, where he took to field
preface to the new Scriptores. The Muratorian Canon is given
in full with a translation in H. M. Gwatkin's Selections from Early sports. He soon became one of the greatest fox-hunters in the
Christian Writers. It is also published as No. I of H. Lietzmann's midland counties; but at last, getting weary of such pursuits and
Kleine Tcxte fur theologische Vorlesungen (Bonn, 1902). See also
meeting Sir Humphry Davy, who urged him to turn his energy
Journal of Theological Studies, viii. 537. to science, he was induced to attend lectures at the Royal
MURAVIEV, MICHAEL NIKOLAIEVICH, COUNT (1845-19(50), Institution. This change in the current of his occupations
Russian statesman, was born on the igth of April 1845. He was much helped by the sympathy of his wife, who, besides her
was the son of General Count Nicholas Muraviev (governor of artistic acquirements, took much interest in natural history.
Grodno), and grandson of the Count Michael Muraviev, who Eager and enthusiastic in whatever he undertook, he was fasci-
became notorious for his drastic measures in stamping out the nated by the young science of geology. He joined the Geological
Polish insurrection of 1863 in the Lithuanian provinces. He was Society of London and soon showed himself one of its most
educated at a secondary school at Poltava, and was for a short active members, having as his colleagues there such men as
time at Heidelberg University. In 1864 he entered the chancel- Sedgwick, W. D. Conybeare, W. Buckland, W. H. Fitton and
lery of the minister for foreign affairs at St Petersburg, and was Lyell. Exploring with his wife the geology of the south of
soon afterwards attached to the Russian legation at Stuttgart, England, he devoted special attention to the rocks of the north-
where he attracted the notice of Queen Olga of Wiirttemberg. west of Sussex and the adjoining parts of Hants and Surrey, on
He was transferred to Berlin, then to Stockholm, and back which, aided by Fitton, he wrote his first scientific paper, read
again to Berlin. In 1877 he was second secretary at the Hague. to the society in 1825. Though he had reached the age of thirty-
During the Russo-Turkish War of 1878 he was a delegate of the two before he took any interest in science, he developed his
Red Cross Society in charge of an ambulance train provided i taste and increased his knowledge so rapidly that in the first
MURCIA
three years of his scientific career he had explored large parts successive masses of the oldest gneisses have been torn up from
of England and Scotland, had obtained materials for three below and thrust bodily over the younger formations.
important memoirs, as well as for two more written in conjunction In 1855 Murchison was appointed director-general of the
with Sedgwick, and had risen to be a prominent member of the geological survey and director of the Royal School of Mines and
Geological Society and one of its two secretaries. Turning his the Museum of Practical Geology in Jermyn Street, London, in
attention for a little to Continental geology, he explored with succession to Sir Henry De la Beche, who had been the first to
Lyell the volcanic region of Auvergne, parts of southern France, hold these offices. Official routine now occupied much of his
northern Italy, Tirol and Switzerland. A little later, with time, but he found opportunity for the Highland researches
Sedgwick as his companion, he attacked the difficult problem just alluded to, and also for preparing successive editions of his
of the geological structure of the Alps, and their joint paper work Siluria (1854, ed. 5, 1872), which was meant to present
giving the results of their study will always be regarded as one of the main features of the original Silurian System together with
the classics in the literature of Alpine geology. a digest of subsequent discoveries, particularly of those which
It was in the year 1831 that Murchison found the field in which showed the extension of the Silurian classification into other
the chief work of his life was to be accomplished. Acting on countries. His official position gave him further opportunity
a suggestion made to him by Buckland he betook himself to for the exercise of those social functions for which he had always
the borders of Wales, with the view of endeavouring to discover been distinguished, and which a considerable fortune inherited
whether the greywacke rocks underlying the Old Red Sandstone from near relatives on his mother's side enabled him to display
could be grouped into a definite order of succession, as the on a greater scale. His house in Belgrave Square was one of the
Secondary rocks of England had been made to tell their story by great centres where science, art, literature, politics and social
William Smith. For several years he continued to work vigor- eminence were brought together in friendly intercourse. In
ously in that region. The result was the establishment of the 1863 he was made a K.C. B., and three years later was raised
Silurian system under which were grouped for the first time a to the dignity of a baronet. The learned societies of his own
remarkable series of formations, each replete with distinctive
'
country bestowed their highest rewards upon him: the Royal
organic remains ol ;r than and very different from those of Society gave him the Copley medal, the Geological Society its
the other rocks of England. These researches, together with Wollaston medal, and the Royal Society of Edinburgh its
descriptions of the coal-fields and overlying formations in south Brisbane medal. There was hardly a foreign scientific society
Wales and the English border counties, were embodied in The of note which had not his name enrolled among its honorary
Silurian System (London, 1839), a massive quarto in two parts, members. The French Academy of Sciences awarded him the
admirably illustrated with map, sections, pictorial views and prix Cuvier, and elected him one of its eight foreign members in
plates of fossils. The full import of his discoveries was not at succession to Faraday.
first perceived; but as years passed on the types of exigence One of the closing public acts of Murchison's life was the
brought to light by him from the rocks of the border counties founding of a chair of geology and mineralogy in the university
of England and Wales were ascertained to belong to a geological of Edinburgh, for which he gave the sum of 6000, an annual
period of which there are recognizable traces in almost all parts sum of 200 being likewise provided by a vote in parliament for
of the globe. Thus the term " Silurian," derived from the the endowment of the professorship. While the negotiations
name of the old British tribe Silures, soon passed into the with the Government in regard to this subject were still in
vocabulary of geologists in every country. progress, Murchison was seized with a paralytic affection on
The establishment of the Silurian system was followed by 2ist of November 1870. He rallied and was able to take
that of the Devonian system, an investigation in which, aided interest in current affairs until the early autumn of the follow-
by the palaeontological assistance of W. Lonsdale, Sedgwick ing year. After a brief attack of bronchitis he died on the
and Murchison were fellow-labourers, both in the south-west 22nd of October 1871. Under his will there was established
of England and in the Rhineland. Soon afterwards Murchison the Murchison Medal and geological fund to be awarded
projected an important geological campaign in Russia with the annually by the council of the Geological Society in London.
view of extending to that part of the Continent the classification See the Life of Sir Roderick I. Murchison, by Sir A. Geikie (2 vols.,
he had succeeded in elaborating for the older rocks of western 1875)- (A. GE.)
Europe. He was accompanied by P. E. P. de Verneuil (1805- MURCIA, a maritime province of south-eastern Spain, bounded
1873) and Count A. F. M. L. A. von Keyserling (1815-1891), in on the E. by Alicante, S.E. and S. by the Mediterranean Sea, W.
conjunction with whom he produced a magnificent work on by Almerfa and Granada and N. by Albacete. Pop. (1900),
Russia and the Ural Mountains. The publication of this mono- 577,987; area, 4453 sq. m. The extent of coast is about 75 m.;
graph in1845 completes the first and most active half of Murchi- from Cape Palos westwards to Villaricos Point (where Almeria
son's scientific career. In 1846 he was knighted, and in the begins) it is fringed by hills reaching their greatest elevation
same year he presided over the meeting of the British Association immediately east of Cartagena; northwards from Cape Palos
at Southampton. During the later years of his life a large part to the Alicante boundary a low sandy tongue encloses the
of his time was devoted to the affairs of the Royal Geographical shallow lagoon called Mar Menor. Eastward from the Mar
Society, of which he was in 1830 one of the founders, and he was Menor and northward from Cartagena stretches the plain known
president 1843-1845, 1851-1853, 1856-1859 and 1862-1871. So as El Campo de Cartagena, but the surface of the rest of the
constant and active were his exertions on behalf of geographical province is diversified by ranges of hills, belonging to the same
exploration that to a large section of the contemporary public he system as the Sierra Nevada, which connect the mountains of
was known rather as a geographer than a geologist. He particu- Almeria and Granada with those of Alicante. The general
larly identified himself with the fortunes of David Livingstone direction of these ranges is from south-west to north-east; they
in Africa, and did much to raise and keep alive the sympathy reach their highest point (5150 ft.) on the Sierra de Espufia,
of his fellow-countrymen in the fate of that great explorer. between the Mula and Sangonera valleys. They are rich in
The chief geological investigation of the last decade of his life iron, copper, argentiferous lead, alum, sulphur, and saltpetre.
was devoted to the Highlands of Scotland, where he believed Mineral springs occur at Mula, Archena (hot sulphur), and
he had succeeded in showing that the vast masses of crystalline Alhama (hot chalybeate). The greater part of the province
schists, previously supposed to be part of what used to be termed drains into the Mediterranean, chiefly by the Segura, which
the Primitive formations, were really not older than the Silurian enters it in the north-west below Hellin in Albacete, and leaves
period, for that underneath them lay beds of limestone and it a little above Orihuela ip Alicante; within the province it
quartzite containing Lower Silurian (Cambrian) fossils. Subse- receives on the left the Arroyo del Jua, and on the right the
quent research, however, has shown that this infraposition of Caravaca, Quipar, Mula, and Sangonera. The smaller streams
the fossiliferous rocks is not their original place, but has been of Nogalte and Albujon fall directly into the Mediterranean and
brought about by a gigantic system of dislocations, whereby the Mar Menor respectively. The climate is hot and dry, and
MURCIA MURDOCK 33
agriculture is largely dependent on irrigation, which, where measures; it has become a picture-gallery. There are two
practicable, has been carried on since the time of the Moors. training schools for teachers, a provincial institute and a museum.
Wheat, barley, maize, hemp, oil, and wine (the latter somewhat Since 1875 the industrial importance of Murcia has steadily
rough in quality) are produced; fruit, especially the orange, is increased. Mulberries (for silkworms), oranges and other fruits
abundant along the course of the Segura; mulberries for seri- are largely cultivated in the huerta, and the silk industry, which
culture are extensively grown around the capital; and the dates from the period of Moorish rule, is still carried on. Manu-
number of bees kept is exceptionally large. Esparto grass is factures of woollen, linen and cotton goods, of saltpetre, flour,
gathered on the sandy tracts. The live stock consists chiefly of leather and hats, have been established in more modern times,
asses, mules, goats and pigs; horses, cattle and sheep being and Murcia is the chief market for the agricultural produce of
relatively few. Apart from agriculture, the principal industry a large district. A numerous colony of gipsies has settled in the
is mining, which has its centre near Cartagena. Large quantities' west of the city.
of lead and esparto, as well as of zinc, iron and copper ores, and Murcia was an Iberian town before the Punic Wars, but its
sulphur, are exported. The province is traversed by a railway name then, and under Roman cule, is not known, though some
which connects Murcia with Albacete and Valencia; from have tried to identify it with the Roman Vergilia. To the Moors,
Alcantarilla there is a branch to Lorca and Baza. Near the who took possession early in the 8th century, it was known as
capital and other large towns there are good roads, but the Medinat Mursiya. Edrisi described it in the i2th century as
means of communication are defective in the remoter districts. populous and strongly fortified. After the fall of the caliphate
This deficiency has somewhat retarded the development of of Cordova it passed successively under the rule of Almeria,
mining, and, although it has been partly overcome by the Toledo and Seville. In 1172 it was taken by the Almohades, and
construction of light railways, many rich deposits of ore remain from 1223 to 1243 it became the capital of an independent
unworked. The chief towns are Murcia, the capital, Cartagena, kingdom. The Castilians took it at the end of this period,
Lorca, La Uni6n, Mazarron, Yecla, Jumilla, Aguilas, Caravaca, when large numbers of immigrants from north-eastern Spain
Totana, Cieza, Mula, Moratalla, and Cehegin. Other towns and Provence settled in the town; French and Catalan names are
with more than 7000 inhabitants are Alhama, Bulias. Fuente still not uncommon. Moorish princes continued to rule in name
Alamo, Molina and Torre Pacheco. over this mixed population, but in 1269 a rising against the
The province of Murcia was the first Spanish possession of suzerain, Alphonso the Wise, led to the final incorporation of
the Carthaginians, by whom Nova Carthago was founded. The Murcia (which then included the present province of Albacete)
Romans included it in Hispania Tarraconensis. Under the into the kingdom of Castile. During the War of the Spanish
Moors the province was known as Todmir, which included, Succession Bishop Luis de Belluga defended the city against
according to Edrisi, the cities Murcia, Orihuela, Cartagena, the archducal army by flooding the huerta. In 1810 and 1812
Lorca, Mula and Chinchilla. The kingdom of Murcia, which it was attacked by the French under Marshal Soult. It suffered
came into independent existence after the fall of Omayyads much from floods in 1651, 1879 and 1907, though the construc-
(see CALIPHATE) included the present Albacete as well as Murcia. tion of the Malecon has done much to keep the Segura within
It became subject to the crown of Castile in the I3th century. its own channel. In 1829 many buildings, including the
Until 1833 the province of Murcia also included Albacete. cathedral, were damaged by an earthquake.
MURCIA, the capital of the Spanish province of Murcia; MURDER, a person with malice
in law, the unlawful killing of
on the river Segura, 25 m. W. of the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. aforethought (see HOMICIDE). The O. Eng. morSor comes ulti-
(1900), 111,539. Murcia is connected by rail with all parts mately from the Indo-European root mar-, to die, which has
of Spain, and is an important industrial centre, sixth in respect also given Lat. mars, death, and all its derivatives in English,
of population among the cities of the kingdom. It has been an French and other Rom. languages; cf. Gr. |3por6$, for noprbs,
episcopal see since 1291. It is built nearly in the centre of a mortal. The O. Eng. form, Latinized as murdrum, murtrum,
low-lying fertile plain, known as the huerta or garden of Murcia, whence Fr. meurtre, is represented in other Teutonic languages
which includes the valleys of the Segura and its right-hand tribu- by a cognate form, e.g. Ger. Mord, Du. moord.
tary the Sangonera, and is surrounded by mountains. Despite MURDOCK, WILLIAM (1754-1839), British inventor, was
the proximity of the sea, the climate is subject to great varia- born near the village of Auchinleck in Ayrshire on the 2 rst of
tions, the summer heat being severe, while frosts are common in August 1754. His father, John Murdoch (as the name is spelt
winter. The city is built mainly on the left bank of the Segura, in Scotland), was a millwright and miller, and William was
which curves north-eastward after receiving the Sangonera below brought up in the same occupation. In 1777 he entered the
Murcia, and falls into the Mediterranean about 30 m. N.E. A employment of Boulton & Watt in the Soho works at Birming-
fine stone bridge of two arches gives access to the suburb of San ham, and about two years afterwards he was sent to Cornwall to
Benito, which contains the bull-ring. As a rule the streets are superintend the fitting of Watt's engines. It is said that while
broad, straight and planted with avenues of trees, but the staying at Redruth he carried a series of experiments in the
Calle de Plateria and Calle de la Traperia, which contain many distillation of coal so far that in 1792 he was able to light his
of the principal shops, are more characteristically Spanish, being cottage and offices with gas, but the evidence is not conclusive.
lined with old-fashioned balconied houses, and so narrow that However, after his return to Birmingham about 1799, he made
wheeled traffic is in most parts impossible. In summer these such progress in the discovery of practical methods for making,
thoroughfares are shaded by awnings. The Malecon, or embank- storing and purifying gas that in 1802 a portion of the exterior
ment, is a fine promenade skirting the left bank of the Segura; of the Soho factory was lighted with it in celebration of the peace
the river is here crossed by a weir and supplies power to several of Amiens, and in the following year it -was brought into use
silk-mills. The principal square is the Arenal or Plaza de la for the interior. Murdock was also the inventor of important
Constituci6n, planted with orange trees and adjoining the improvements in the steam-engine. He was the first to devise
Glorieta Park. The cathedral, dating from 1388-1467, is the an oscillating engine, of which he made a model about 1784; in
work of many architects; in the main it is late Gothic, but a 1786 he was busy somewhat to the annoyance of both Boulton
Renaissance dome and a tower 480 ft. high were added in 1521, and Watt with a steam carriage or road locomotive; and in
while a Corinthian facade was erected in the i8th century. 1799 he invented the long D slide valve. He is also believed to
There are some good paintings and fine wood-carving in the have been the real deviser of the sun and planet motion patented
interior. Other noteworthy buildings are the colleges of San by Watt in 1781. In addition his ingenuity was directed to
Fulgencio and San Isidro, the bishops' palace, the hospital of the utilization of compressed air, and in 1803 he constructed
San Juan de Dios, the Moorish Alhondiga, or grain warehouse, a steam gun. He retired from business in 1830, and died at Soho
the buildings of the municipal and provincial councils and on the isth of November 1839.
the Contraste, which is adorned with sculptured coats-of-arms, At the celebration of the centenary of gas lighting in 1892, a bust
and was originally designed to contain standard weights and of Murdock was unveiled by Lord Kelvin in the Wallace Monument.
XIX. 2
34 MURE MURGER
Stirling,and there is also a bust of him by Sir F. L. Chantrey at some years in Italy, he received and accepted the invitation of
Handsworth Church, where he was buried. His " Account of the
" the Cardinal Ippolyte d'Este to settle in Rome in 1559. In
Application of Gas from Coal to Economical Purposes appeared
in the Phil. Trans, for 1808. 1561 he revisited France as a member of the cardinal's suite
at the conference between Roman Catholics and Protestants held
MURE, SIR WILLIAM (1594-1657), Scottish writer, son of at Poissy. He returned to Rome in 1563. His lectures gained
Sir William Mure of Rowallan, was born in 1594. His mother him a European reputation, and in 15 78 he received a tempting
was Elizabeth, sister of the poet Alexander Montgomerie (q.v.). offer from the king of Poland to become teacher of jurisprudence
He was a member of the Scottish parliament in 1643, and took in hisnew college at Cracow. Muretus, however, who about
part in the English campaign of 1644. He was wounded at
1576 had taken holy orders, was induced by the liberality of
Marston Moor, but a month later was commanding a regiment
Gregory XIII. to remain in Rome, where he died on the 4th of
at Newcastle. He died in 1657. He wrote Dido and Aeneas;
June 1585.
a translation (1628) of Boyd of Trochrig's Latin Hecatombe
Complete editions of his works: editio princeps, Verona (1727-
Christiana; The True Crucifixe for True Catholikes (1629); a 1730); by D. Ruhnken (1789), by C. H. Frotscher (1834-1841);
paraphrase of the Psalms; the Historic and Descent of the two volumes of Scripta selecta, by J. Frey (1871); Variae lectiones,
House of Rowallane; A Counter-buff to Lysimachus Nicanor; by F. A. Wolf and J. H. Fasi (1791-1828). Muretus edited a number
of classical authors with learned and scholarly notes. His other
TheCry of Blood and of a Broken Covenant (1650); besides much works include Juvenilia et poemata varia, orationes and epistolae.
miscellaneous verse and many sonnets. See monograph by C. Dejob (Paris, 1881); J. E. Sandys, HisU
A complete edition of his works was edited by William Tough Class. Schol., (2nd ed., 1908), ii. 148-152.
for the Scottish Text Society (2 vols., 1898). Mure's Lute-Book,
a musical document of considerable interest, is preserved in the MUREXIDE (NH^Cs^NsOe.HzO), the ammonium salt of
Laing collection of MSS. in the library of the university of purpuric acid. It may be prepared by heating alloxantin in
Edinburgh. ammonia gas to 100 C., or by boiling uramil with mercuric oxide
MURE, WILLIAM (1799-1860), Scottish classical scholar, F. Wohler, Ann., 1838, 26, 319), 2C 4 H6N 3 O 3
(J. v. Liebig,
= +O
was born at Caldwell, Ayrshire, on the 9th of July 1799. He NH4-C 8 H4 N 6 O6+H 2 O. W. N. Hartley (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1905,
was educated at Westminster School and the universities of 87, 1791) found considerable difficulty in obtaining specimens
Edinburgh and Bcnn. From 1846 to 1855 he represented the of murexide sufficiently pure to give concordant results when
county of Renfrew in parliament in the Conservative interest, examined by means of their absorption spectra, and conse-
and was lord rector of Glasgow University in 1847-1848. For quently devised a new method of preparation for murexide. In
many years he devoted his leisure to Greek 'studies, and in this process alloxantin is dissolved in a large excess of boiling
1850-1857 he published five volumes of a Critical History of absolute alcohol, and dry ammonia gas passed into the solution
is
the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece, which, though for about three hours. The solution then filtered from the
is
uncompleted and somewhat antiquated, is still useful. He died precipitated murexide, which is washed with absolute alcohol
in London on the ist of April 1860. and dried. The salt obtained in this way is in the anhydrous
MURENA, the name of a Roman plebeian family from state. It may also be prepared by digesting alloxan with
Lanuvium, belonging to the Licinian gens, said to be derived alcoholic ammonia at about 78 C.; the purple solid so formed
from the fondness of one of the family for lampreys (murenae) . is easily soluble in water, and the solution produced is
The principal members of the family were Lucius Licinius indistinguishable from one of murexide.
Murena, who was defeated by Mithradates in Asia in 81 B.C., and On the constitution of murexide see also O. Piloty (Ann., 1904,
his son Lucius Licinius Murena, who was defended by Cicero 333. 3); R. Mohlau (Ber., 1904, 37, 2686); and M. Slimmer and J.
in 62 B.C. against a charge of bribery (Cic. Pro Murena). The Stieglitz (Amer. Chem. Jour., 1904, 31, 661).
son was for several years legate of Lucius Licinius Lucullus MURFREESBORO, a city and the county-seat of Rutherford
in the third Mithradatic War. In 65 he was praetor and made county, Tennessee, U.S.A., near the Stone River, 32 m. S.E. of
himself popular by the magnificence of the games provided by Nashville. Pop. (1890), 3739; (1900), 3999 (2248 negroes);
him. As administrator of Transalpine Gaul after his praetorship (1910), 4679. It is served by the Nashville Chattanooga & St
he gained the goodwill of both provincials and Romans by his Louis railway. It is in an agricultural region where cotton is
impartiality. In 62 he was elected consul, but before entering an important crop, and has a considerable trade in red cedar,
upon office he was accused of bribery by Servius Sulpicius,an hardwood, cotton, livestock and grain; it has also various
unsuccessful competitor, supported by Marcus Porcius Cato manufactures. At Murfreesboro are Soule College for girls
the younger and Servius Sulpicius Rufus, a famous jurist and (Methodist Episcopal South; 1852), Tennessee College for girls
son of the accuser. Murena was defended by Marcus Licinius (Baptist, 1906), Mooney School for boys (1901), and Bradley
Crassus (afterwards triumvir), Quintus Hortensius and Cicero, Academy for negroes. Murfreesboro was settled in 1811; was
and acquitted, although it seems probable that he was guilty. incorporated in 1817, and from 1819 to 1825 was the capital
During his consulship he passed a law {lex Junta Licinia) which of the state. It was named in honour of Colonel Hardy
enforced more strictly the provision of the lex Caecilia Didia Murfree (1752-1809), a native of North Carolina, who served as
that laws sjjould be promulgated three nundinae before they an officer of North Carolina troops in the War of Independence,
were proposed to the comitia, and further enacted that, in order and after 1807 lived in Tennessee. About 2 m. west of the
to prevent forgery, a copy of every proposed statute should be city the battle of Murfreesboro, or Stone River (q.v.), was
deposited before witnesses in the aerarium. fought on the 3ist of December 1862 and the 2nd of January
MURETUS, the Latinized name of MARC ANTOINE MURET 1863.
(1526-1585), French humanist, who was born at Muret near MURGER, HENRY (1822-1861), French man of letters, was
Limoges on the i2th of April 1526. At the age of eighteen he born in Paris on the 24th of March 1822. His father was a
attracted the notice of the elder Scaliger, and was invited to German concierge and a tailor. At the age of fifteen Murger was
lecture in the archiepiscopal college at Auch. He afterwards sent into a lawyer's office, but the occupation was uncongenial
taught Latin at Villeneuve, and then at Bordeaux. Some time and his father's trade still more so; and he became secretary to
before 1552 he delivered a course of lectures in the college of Count Alexei Tolstoi. He published in 1843 a poem entitled
Cardinal Lemoine at Paris, which was largely attended, Henry Via dolorosa, but it made no mark. He also tried journalism,
II. and his queen being among his hearers. His success made him and the paper Le Castor, which figures in his Vie de Bohdme
many enemies, and he was thrown into prison on a disgraceful as having combined devotion to the interests of the hat trade
charge, but released by the intervention of powerful friends. with recondite philosophy and elegant literature, is said to have
The same accusation was brought against him at Toulouse, and existed, though shortlived. In 1848 appeared the collected
he only saved his life by timely flight. The records of the town sketches called Scenes de la vie de BohZme.- This book describes
show that he was burned in effigy as a Huguenot and as shame- the fortunes and misfortunes, the loves, studies, amusements
fully immoral (1554). After a wandering and insecure life of and sufferings of a group of impecunious students, artists and
MURGHAB MURILLO 35
men of letters, of whom Rodolphe represents Murger himself, two routes, one via Wase and the other via Gatari, pass through
while the others have been more or less positively identified. this belt. In the south of the province a similar belt of hostile
Murger, in fact, belonged to a clique of so-called Bohemians, the pagans closed the access to the Cameroon except by two routes,
most remarkable of whom, besides himself, were Privat d'Angle- Takum and Beli. For Hausa traders to cross the Muri province
mont and Champfleury. La Vie de Boheme, arranged for the was a work of such danger and expense that before the advent
stage in collaboration with Theodore Barriere, was produced of British administration the attempt was seldom made.
at the Varietes on the 22nd of November 1849, and was a Muri came nominally under British control in 1900. The
triumphant success; it afterwards formed the basis of Puccini's principal effort of the administration has been to control and
opera, La Boheme (1898). From this time it was easy for open the trade routes. In 1904 an expedition against the
Murger to live by journalism and general literature. He was northern cannibals resulted in the capture of their principal
introduced in 1851 to the Revue des deux mondes. But he was a fortresses and the settlement and opening to trade of a large
slow, fastidious and capricious worker, and his years of hardship district, the various routes to the Benue being rendered safe.
and dissipation had impaired his health. He published among In 1905 an expedition against the Munshi, rendered necessary
other works Claude et Marianne in 1851 a comedy, Le Bonhomme
; by an unprovoked attack on the Niger Company's station at
Jadis in 1852; Le Pays Latin in 1852; Adeline Prolat (one of the Abinsi, had a good effect in reducing the riverain portion of
most graceful and innocent if not the most original of his tales) this tribe to submission. The absence of any central native
in 1853; and Les Buveurs d'eau in 1855. This last, the most authority delayed the process of bringing the province under
powerful of his books next to the Vie de Boheme, traces the fate administrative control. Its government "has been organized
of certain artists and students who, exaggerating their own on the same system as the rest of Northern Nigeria, and is under
powers and disdaining merely profitable work, come to an evil a British resident. It has been divided into three administrative
end not less rapidly than by dissipation. Some years before divisions east, central and west with their respective head-
his death, which took place in a maison de sanle near Paris on quarters at Lau, Amar and Ibi. Provincial and native courts
the 28th of January 1861, Murger went to live at Marlotte, near of justice have been established. The telegraph has been
Fontainebleau, and there he wrote an unequal book entitled carried to the town of Muri. Muri is one of the provinces in
Le Sabot rouge (1860), in which the character of the French which the slave trade was most active, and its position between
peasant is uncomplimentarily treated. German territory and the Hausa states rendered it in the early
See an article by A. de Pontmartin in the Revue des deux mondes days of the British administration a favourite route for the
{October 1861). smuggling of slaves.
MURGHAB, a river of Afghanistan, which flows into Russian MURILLO, BARTOLOM6 ESTEBAN (1617-1682), Spanish
territory. It rises in the Firozkhoi highlands, the northern painter, son of Caspar Esteban Murillo and Maria Perez, was
1
scarp of which is defined by the Band-i-Turkestan, and after born at Seville in 1617, probably at the end of the year, as he
traversing that plateau from east to west it turns north through was baptized on the first of January 1618. Esteban-Murillo
deep defiles to Bala Murghab. Beyond this, in the neighbour- appears to have been the compound surname of the father,
hood of Maruchak, it forms for a space the boundary-line between but some inquirers consider that, in accordance with a frequent
Afghan and Russian Turkestan; then joining the Kushk river Andalusian custom, the painter assumed the surname of his
at Pul-i-Khishti (Tash Kupri) it runs north to Merv, losing itself maternal grandmother, Elvira Murillo, in addition to that of
in the sands of the Merv desert after a course of about 450 m., his father. His parents (the father an artisan of a humble
its exact source being unknown. In the neighbourhood of class), having been struck with the sketches which the boy
Bala Murghab it is 50 yds. broad and some 3 ft. deep, with a was accustomed to make, placed him under the care of their
rapid current. In the lower part of its course it is flanked by distant relative, Juan del Castillo, the painter. Juan, a correct
a remarkable network of canals. The ancient city of Merv, draughtsman and dry colourist, taught him all the mechanical
which was on its banks, was the great centre of medieval Arab parts of his profession with extreme care, and Murillo proved
trade, and Buddhist caves are found in the scarped cliffs of its himself an apt pupil. The artistic appliances of his master's
right bank near Panjdeh. studio were not abundant, and were often of the simplest kind.
MURI, a province of the British protectorate of Northern A few casts, some stray fragments of sculpture and a lay figure
Nigeria. It lies approximately between 9 and 11 40' E. and formed the principal aids available for the Sevillian student of
7 10'and 9 40' N. The river Benue divides it through its art. A living model was a luxury generally beyond the means
length, and the portion on the southern bank of the river is of the school, but on great occasions the youths would strip in
watered by streams flowing from the Cameroon region to the turn and proffer an arm or a leg to be .studied by their fellows.
Benue. The province is bordered S. by Southern Nigeria, Objects of still life, however, were much studied by Murillo,
S.E. by German territory (Cameroon), E. by the province of and he early learnt to hit off the ragged urchins of Seville.
Yola, N. by Bauchi, W. by Nassarawa and Bassa. The district Murillo in a few years painted as well as his master, and as
of Katsena- Allah extends south of the Benue considerably. stiffly. His two pictures of the Virgin, executed during this
west of 9 approximate limit of the remainder of the
E., the period, show how thoroughly he had mastered the style, with all
province. Muri has an area of 25,800 sq. m. and an estimated its defects. Castillo was a kind man, but his removal to Cadiz
population of about 828,000. The province is rich in forest in 1639-1640 threw his favourite pupil upon his own resources.
products and the Niger Company maintains trading stations The fine school of Zurbaran was too expensive for the poor
on the river. Cotton is grown, and spinning thread, weaving lad; his parents were either dead or too poor to help him, and
and dyeing afford occupation to many thousands. The valley he was compelled to earn his bread by painting rough pictures
" "
of the Benue has a climate generally unhealthy to Europeans, for the feria or public fair of Seville. The religious daubs
but there are places in the northern part of the province, such exposed at that mart were generally of as low an order as the
" "
as the Fula settlement of Wase on a southern spur of the prices paid for them. A pintura de la feria (a picture for
Murchison hills, where the higher altitude gives an excellent the fair) was a proverbial expression for an execrably bad one;
climate. Muri includes the ancient Jukon empire together with yet the street painters who thronged the market-place with
various small Fula states and a number of pagan tribes, among "
their "clumsy saints and unripe Madonnas not unfrequently
whom the Munshi, who extend into the provinces of Nassarawa rose to be able and even famous artists. This rough-and-ready
and Bassa, are among the most turbulent. The Munshi occupy practice, partly for the market-place, partly for converts in
about 4000 sq. m. in the Katsena-Allah district. The pagan Mexico and Peru, for whom Madonnas and popular saints
tribes in the north of the province are lawless cannibals who by were produced and shipped off by the dozen, doubtless increased
constant outrages and murders of traders long rendered the main Murillo's manual dexterity; but, if we may judge from the
"
trade route to Bauchi unsafe, and cut off the markets of the picture of the Virgin and Child" shown in the Murillo-room at
Benue valley and the Cameroon from the Hausa states. Only Seville as belonging to this period, he made little improvement
MURILLO
in colouring or in general strength of design. Struck by the of the colouring may stillbe traced. The same year saw him
favourable change which travel had wrought upon the style engaged on four large semicircular pictures, designed by his
of his brother artist Pedro de Moya, Murillo in 1642 resolved friend and patron Don Justino Neve y Yevenes, to adorn the
to makea journey to Flanders or Italy. Having bought a large walls of the church of Santa Maria la Blanca. The first two
quantity of canvas, he cut it into squares of different sizes, which (now in Madrid) were meant to illustrate the history of the
he converted into pictures of a kind likely to sell. The American Festival of Our Lady of the Snow, or the foundation of the
traders bought up his pieces, and he found himself sufficiently Roman basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore. The one represents
rich to carry out his design. He placed his sister, who was the wealthy but childless Roman senator and his lady asleep
dependent on him, under the care of some friends, and without and dreaming; the other exhibits the devout pair relating
divulging his plans to any one set out for Madrid. On reaching their dream to Pope Liberius. Of these two noble paintings
the capital he waited on Velazquez, his fellow-townsman then the Dream is the finer, and in it is to be noticed the commence-
at the summit of his fortune and asked for some introduc- ment of Murillo's third and last style, known as the vaporoso or
tion to friends in Rome. The master liked the youth, and vapoury. It should be noted, however, that the three styles
offered him lodging in his own house, and proposed to procure are not strictly separable into date-periods; for the painter
him admission to the royal galleries of the capital. Murillo alternated the styles accordingly to his subject-matter or the
accepted the offer, and here enjoyed the masterpieces of Italy mood of his inspiration, the calido being the most frequent. In
and Flanders without travelling beyond the walls of Madrid. the vaporoso method the well-marked outlines and careful
The next two years- were chiefly spent in copying from Ribera, drawing of his former styles disappear, the outlines are lost
Vandyck and Velazquez; and in 1644 he so astonished the latter in the misty blending of the light and shade, and the general
with some of his efforts that they were submitted to the king finish betrays more haste than was usual with Murillo. After
and the court. His patron now urged him to go to Rome, many changes of fortune, these two pictures now hang in the
and offered him letters to smooth his way; but Murillo preferred Academy at Madrid. The remaining pieces executed for this
" "
returning to his sister and his native Seville. small church were a Virgin of the Conception and a figure of
"
The friars of the convent of San Francesco in Seville had Faith." Soult laid his hands on these also, and they have not
about this time determined to adorn the walls of their small been recovered.
cloister in amanner worthy of their patron saint. But the In 1658 Murillo undertook and consummated a task which
brotherhood had no money; and after endless begging they found had hitherto baffled all the artists of Spain, and even royalty
themselves incapable of employing an artist of name to execute itself. This was the establishing of a public academy of art. By
the task. Murillo was needy, and offered his services; after superior tact and good temper he overcame the vanity of Valdes
balancing their own poverty against his obscurity the friars Leal and the presumption of the younger Herrera, and secured
bade him begin. Murillo covered the walls with eleven large their co-operation. The Academy of Seville was accordingly
pictures of remarkable power and beauty displaying by turns opened for the first time in January 1660, and Murillo and the
the strong colouring of Ribera, the lifelike truthfulness of second Herrera were chosen presidents. The former continued
Velazquez, and the sweetness of Vandyck. Among them were to direct it during the following year; but the calls of his studio
to be found representations of San Francesco, of San Diego, of induced him to leave it in other hands. It was then flourishing,
Santa Clara and of San Gil. These pictures were executed but not for long.
in his earliest style, commonly called his frio or cold style. It Passing over some half-length pictures of saints and a dark-
was based chiefly on Ribera and Caravaggio, and was dark with haired Madonna, painted in 1668 for the chapter-room of the
a decided outline. This rich collection is no longer in Seville; cathedral of his native city, we enter upon the most splendid
Marshal Soult carried off ten of the works. The fame of these period of Murillo's career. In 1661 Don Miguel Manara Vicen-
" "
productions soon got abroad, and El Claustro Chico swarmed telo de Leca, who had recently turned to a life of sanctity from
daily with artists and critics. Murillo was no longer friendless one of the wildest profligacy, resolved to raise money for the
and unknown. The rich and the noble of Seville overwhelmed restoration of the dilapidated Hospital de la Caridad, of whose
him with their commissions and their praises. pious gild he was himself a member. Manara commissioned
In 1648 Murillo married a wealthy lady of rank, Dona Beatriz his friend Murillo to paint eleven pictures for this edifice of San
"
de Cabrera y Sotomayor, of the neighbourhood of Seville, and Jorge. Three of these pieces represented the Annunciation,"
" "
his house soon became the favourite resort of artists and the Infant Saviour," and the Infant St John." The remaining
connoisseurs. About this time he was associated with the land- eight are considered Murillo's masterpieces. They consist of
" "
scape-painter Yriarte the two artists interchanging figures and Moses striking the Rock," the Return of the Prodigal,"
"
landscapes for their respective works; but they did not finally Abraham receiving the Three Angels," the "Charity of San
" "
agree, and the co-operation came to an end. Murillo now Juan de Dios," the Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes," Our
" "
painted the well-known Flight into Egypt," and shortly Lord healing the Paralytic," St Peter released from Prison by
"
afterwards changed his earliest style of painting for his calido the Angel," and St Elizabeth of Hungary." These works
or warm style. His drawing was still well defined, but his occupied the artist four years, and in 1674 he received for his
outlines became softer and his figures rounder, and his colouring eight great pictures 78,115 reals or about 800. The " Moses, "
" "
gained in warmth and transparency. His first picture of this the Loaves and Fishes," the San Juan," and the three
style, according to Cean Bermudez, was a representation of subjects which we have named first, are still at Seville; the
" " "
Our Lady of the Conception," and was painted in 1652 for French carried off the rest, but the St Elizabeth and the
" "
the brotherhood of the True Cross; he received for it 2500 reals Prodigal Son are now back in Spain. For compass and
" " " " "
(26). In 1655 he executed his two famous paintings of San vigour the Moses stands first; but the Prodigal's Return
" " "
Leandro and San Isidoro at the order of Don Juan Federigo, " "
and the St Elizabeth were considered by Bermudez the
archdeacon of Carmona, which are now in the cathedral of most perfect of all as works of art. The front of this famous
Seville. These are two noble portraits, finished with great care hospital was also indebted to the genius of Murillo; five large
and admirable effect, but the critics complain of the figures designs in blue glazed tiles were executed from his drawings.
being rather short. His next picture, the " Nativity of the He had scarcely completed the undertakings for this edifice
Virgin," painted for the chapter, is regarded as one of the most when his favourite Franciscans again solicited his aid. He
delightful specimens of his calido style. In the following year accordingly executed some twenty paintings for the humble
(1656) the same body gave him an order for a vast picture of San little church known as the Convent de los Capucinos. Seventeen
Antonio de Padua, for which he received 10,000 reals (104). of these Capuchin pictures are preserved in the Museum of
" "
This is one of his most celebrated performances, and still hangs Seville. Of these the Charity of St Thomas of Villanueva "
" "
in the baptistery of the cathedral. It was repaired in 1833; is reckoned the best. Murillo himself was wont to call it su
"
the grandeur of the design, however, and the singular richness lienzo (his own picture). Another little piece of extraordinary
MURIMUTH MURKER 37
" "
merit, which once hung in this church, is the Virgin of the Gallery, London, the chief example is the Holy Family "; this
" "
Napkin," believed to have been painted on a servilleta and was one of the master's latest works, painted in Cadiz. In
presented to the cook of the Capuchin brotherhood as a memorial public galleries in the United Kingdom there are altogether
of the artist's pencil. twenty-four examples by Murillo; in those of Spain, seventy-one.
In 1670 Murillo is said to have declined an invitation to court, Murillo, who was the last pre-eminent painter of Seville, was
preferring to labour among the brown coats of Seville. Eight an indefatigable and prolific worker, hardly leaving his painting-
years afterwards his friend the canon Justino again employed room save for his devotions in church; he realized large prices,
him to paint three pieces for the Hospital de los Venerables: according to the standard of his time, and made a great fortune.
" "
the Mystery of the Immaculate Conception," St Peter His character is recorded as amiable and soft, yet independent,
"
Weeping," and the Blessed Virgin." As a mark of esteem, subject also to sudden impulses, not unmixed with passion.
Murillo next painted a full-length portrait of the canon. The See Stirling, Annals of the Artists of Spain (3 vols., London,
spaniel at the feet of the priest has been known to call forth a 1848); Richard Ford, Handbook for Spain (London, 1855); Curtis,
Catalogue of the Works of Velasquez and Murillo (1883); L. Alfonso,
snarl from a living dog. His portraits generally, though few,
Murillo, el hombre, &c. (1886); C. Justi, Murillo (illustrated,
are of great beauty. Towards the close of his life Murillo 1892); P. Lefort, Murillo elfes eleves (1892); F. M. Tubino, Murillo,
"
executed a series of pictures illustrative of the life of the su epoca, &c. (1864; Eng. trans., 1879); Dr G. C. Williamson,
"
glorious doctor for the Augustinian convent at Seville. This Murillo (1902) C. S. Ricketts, Th* Prado (1903).
; (W. M. R.)
brings us to the last work of the artist. Mounting a scaffolding MURIMUTH, ADAM (c. 1274-1347), English ecclesiastic and
one day at Cadiz (whither he had gone in 1681) to execute the
" chronicler, was born in 1274 or 1275 and educated in the civil
higher parts of a large picture of the Espousal of St Catherine," law at Oxford. Between 1312 and 1318 he practised in the
on which he was engaged for the Capuchins of that town, he
papal curia at Avignon. Edward II. and Archbishop Winchelsey
stumbled, and fell so violently that he received a hurt from which were among his clients, and his legal services secured for him
he never recovered. The great picture was left unfinished, and canonries at Hereford and St Paul's, and the precentorship
the artist returned to Seville to die. He died as he had lived, of Exeter Cathedral. In 1331 he retired to a country living
a humble, pious, brave man, on the 3rd of April 1682 in the arms
(Wraysbury, Bucks), and devoted himself to writing the history
of the chevalier Pedro Nunez de Villavicencio, an intimate of his own times. His Continuatio chronicarum, begun not
friend and one of his best pupils. Another of his numerous earlier than 1325, starts from the year 1303, and was carried
"
pupils was Sebastian Gomez, named Murillo's Mulatto."
up to 1347, the year of his death. Meagre at first, it becomes
Murillo left two sons (one of them at first an indifferent painter, fuller about 1340 and is specially valuable for the history of the
afterwards a priest) and a daughter his wife having died French wars. Murimuth has no merits of style, and gives a
before him. bald narrative of events. But he incorporates many documents
Murillo has always been one of the most popular of painters in the latter part of his book. The annals of St. Paul's which
not in Spain alone. His works show great technical attainment have been edited by Bishop Stubbs, are closely related to the
without much style, and a strong feeling for ordinary nature work of Murimuth, but probably not from his pen. The
and for truthful or sentimental expression without lofty beauty Continuatio was carried on, after his death, by an anonymous
or ideal elevation. His ecstasies of Madonnas and Saints are writer to the year 1380.
the themes of some of his most celebrated achievements. Take
" The only complete edition of the Continuatio chronicarum is that
as an example the Immaculate Conception " (or " Assumption
by E. M. Thompson (Rolls series, 1889). The preface to this edition,
of the Virgin," for the titles may, with reference to Murillo's and to W. Stubbs's Chronicles of Edward I. and II., vol. i. (Rolls
treatments of this subject, almost be interchanged) in the series, 1882), should be consulted. The anonymous continuation
is printed in T. Hog's edition of Murimuth (Eng. Hist. Soc., London,
Louvre, a picture for which, on its sale from the Soult collection,
one of the largest prices on record was given in 1852, some 1846). (H. W. C. D.)
24,600. His subjects may be divided into two great groups MURKER, THOMAS (1475-1537?), German satirist, was
the scenes from low life (which were a new experiment in Spanish born on the 24th of December 1475 at Oberehnheim near Strass-
art, so far as the subjects of children are concerned), and the burg. In 1490 he entered the order of Franciscan monks, and
Scriptural, legendary and religious works. The former, of in 1495 began a wandering life, studying and then teaching and
which some salient specimens are in the Dulwich Gallery, are, preaching in Freiburg-in-Breisgau, Paris, Cracow and Strassburg.
although undoubtedly truthful, neither ingenious not sym- The emperor Maximilian I. crowned him in 1505 poeta laureatus;
pathetic; sordid unsightliness and roguish squalor are their in 1506, he was created doctor theologiae, and in 1513 was ap-
foundation. Works of this class belong mostly to the earlier pointed custodian of the Franciscan monastery in Strassburg,
years of Murillo's practice. The subjects in which the painter an office which, on account of a scurrilous publication, he was
most excels are crowded compositions in which some act of forced to vacate the following year. Late in life, in 1518, he
saintliness, involving the ascetic or self-mortifying element, began the study of jurisprudence at the university of Basel,
is being performed subjects which, while repulsive in some of and in 1519 took the degree of doctor juris. After journeys in
their details, emphasize the broadly human and the expressly Italy and England, he again settled in Strassburg, but, disturbed
Catholic conceptions of life. A famous example is the picture, by the Reformation, sought an exile at Lucerne in Switzerland
now in the Madrid Academy, of St Elizabeth of Hungary washing in 1526. In 1533 he was appointed priest of Oberehnheim,
patients afflicted with the scab or itch, and hence commonly where he died in 1537, or, according to some accounts, in 1536.
named " El Tinoso." Technically considered, it unites his three Murner was an energetic and passionate character, who made
styles of painting, more especially the cold and the warm. His enemies wherever he went. There is not a trace of human
power of giving atmosphere to combined groups of figures is one kindness in his satires, which were directed against the cor-
of the marked characteristics of Murillo's art; and he may be said ruption of the times, the Reformation, and especially against
to have excelled in this respect all his predecessors or con- Luther. His most powerful satire and the most virulent
temporaries of whatever school. German satire of the period is Von dem grossen lulherischen
Seville must be visited by persons who wish to study
still Narren, wie ihn Dr Murner beschworen hat. Among others
Murillo thoroughly. A large number of the works which used may be mentioned Die Narrenbeschworung (1512); Die Schelmen-
to adorn this city have, however, been transported else- zunft (1512); Die Gauchmatt, which treats of enamoured fools
whither. In the Prado Museum at Madrid are forty-five (1519), and a translation of Virgil's Aeneid (1515) dedicated to
"
specimens of Murillo the Infant Christ and the Baptist " the emperor Maximilian I. Murner also wrote the humor-
"
(named Los Nifios della Concha "), " St Ildefonso vested with ous Chartiludium logicae (1507) and the Ludus studentum
a Chasuble by the Madonna," &c.; in the Museo della Trinidad, freiburgensium (1511), besides a translation of Justinian's
"
Christ and the Virgin appearing to St Francis in a Cavern " Institutiones (1519).
(an immense composition), and various others. In the National All Murner's more important works have been republished in
MUROM MURRAY, A. S.
a selection was published by G. Balke in Kiirsch-
critical editions;
MURPHYSBORO, a city and the county-seat of Jackson
ner's Deutsche Nationattiteratur (1890). Cf. W. Kawerau, Murner
und die Kirche des Mittelalters (1890); and by the same writer, county, U.S.A., in the south part of the state, on the
Illinois,
Murner und die deutsche Reformation (1891); also K. Ott, Uber Big Muddy River, about 57 m. N. of Cairo. Pop. (1890), 3880;
Murners Verhdltniss zu Geiler (1896). (1900), 6463, including 557 foreign-born and 456 negroes; (1910),
MUROM, a town of Russia, in the government of Vladimir, 7485. It is served by the Illinois Central, the Mobile &Ohio
on the craggy left bank of the Oka, close to its confluence with and the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railways. It is
the Tesha, 108 m. by rail S.E. of the city of Vladimir. Pop. the centre for a farming region, in which there are deposits of
(1900), 12,874. Muron has an old cathedral. It is the chief coal, iron, lead and shale, and there are various manufactures
entrepot for grain from the basin of the Ewer Oka, and carries in the city. Murphysboro was incorporated in 1867, and re-
on an active trade with Moscow and Nizhniy-Novgorod. It is incorporated in 1875.
famed, as in ancient times, for kitchen-gardens, especially for MURRAIN (derived through O. Fr. marine, from Lat. mori, to
its cucumbers and seed for canaries. Its once famous tanneries die), a general term for various virulent diseases in domesticated
have lost their importance, but the manufacture of linen has animals, synonymous with plague or epizooty. The principal
increased; it has also steam flour-mills, distilleries, manufac- diseases are dealt with under RINDERPEST; PLEURO-PNEUMONIA;
tories of soap and of iron implements. ANTHRAX; and FOOT AND MOUTH PISEASE. See also VETER-
MURPHY, ARTHUR (1727-1805), Irish actor and dramatist, INARY SCIENCE.
son of a Dublin merchant, was born at Clomquin, Roscommon, MURRAY (or MORAY), EARLS OF. The earldom of Moray was
on the 27th of December 1727. From 1738 to 1744, under one of the seven original earldoms of Scotland, its lands corre-
the name of Arthur French, he was a student at the English sponding roughly to the modern counties of Inverness and Ross.
college at St Omer. He entered the counting-house of a mer- Little is known of the earls until about 1314, when Sir Thomas
chant at Cork on recommendation of his uncle, Jeffery French, Randolph, a nephew of King Robert Bruce, was created earl
in 1747. A refusal to go to Jamaica alienated French's interest, of Moray (q.v.), and the Randolphs held the earldom until 1346,
and Murphy exchanged his situation for one in London. By when the childless John Randolph, 3rd earl of this line and a
the autumn of 1752 he was publishing the Gray's Inn Journal, soldier of repute, was killed at the battle of Neville's Cross.
a periodical in the style of the Spectator. Two years later he According to some authorities the earldom was then held by
became an actor, and appeared in the title-roles of Richard III. John's sister Agnes 1312-1369) and her husband, Patrick
(c.
and Othello; as Biron in Southerne's Fatal Marriage; and as Dunbar, earl of March
or Dunbar (c. 1285-1368). However
Osmyn in Congreve's Mourning Bride. His first farce, The this may be, in 1359 an English prince, Henry Plantagenet,
Apprentice, was given at Drury Lane on the 2nd of January duke of Lancaster (d. 1361), was made earl of Moray by King
1756. It was followed, among other plays, by The Upholsterer David II.; but in 1372 John Dunbar (d. 1391), a graiftlson of
(1757), The Orphan of China (1759), The Way to Keep Him Sir Thomas Randolph and a son-in-law of Robert II., obtained
(1760), All in the Wrong (1761), The Grecian Daughter (1772), the earldom. The last of the Dunbar earls was James Dunbar,
and Know Your Own Mind (1777). These were almost all who was murdered in August 1429, and after this date his
adaptations from the French, and were very successful, securing daughter Elizabeth and her husband, Archibald Douglas (d. 1455),
for their author both fame and wealth. .Murphy edited a called themselves earl and countess of Moray.
political periodical, called the Test, in support of Henry Fox, by The next family to bear this title was an illegitimate branch
whose influence he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, of the royal house of Stuart, James IV. creating his natural
although he had been refused at the Middle Temple in 1757 son, James Stuart (c. 1490-1544), earl of Moray. James died
on account of his connexion with the stage. Murphy also without sons, and after the title had been borne for a short time
wrote a biography of Fielding, an essay on the life and genius by George Gordon, 4th earl of Huntly (c. 1514-1562), who
of Samuel Johnson and translations of Sallust and Tacitus. was killed at Corrichie in 1562, it was bestowed in 1562 by
Towards the close of his life the office of a commissioner of Mary Queen of Scots upon her half-brother, an illegitimate son
bankrupts and a pension of 200 were conferred upon him of James V. This was the famous regent, James Stuart, earl
by government. He died on the i8th of June 1805. of Moray, or Murray (see below), who was murdered in January
MURPHY, JOHN FRANCIS (1853- ), American landscape 1570; after this event a third James Stuart, who had married
painter, was born at Oswego, New York, on the nth of the regent's daughter Elizabeth (d. 1591), held the earldom.
"
December 1853. He first exhibited at the National Academy He, who was called the bonny earl," was killed by his heredi-
of Design in 1876, and was made an associate in 1885 and a tary enemies, the Gordons, in February 1592, when his son James
full academician two years later. He became a member of the (d. 1638) succeeded to the title. The earldom of Moray has
Society of American Artists (1901) and of the American Water remained in the Stuart family since this date. Alexander, the
Color Society. 4th earl (d. 1701), was secretary of state for Scotland from 1680
MURPHY, ROBERT (1806-1843), British mathematician, the to 1689; and in 1796 Francis, the 9th earl (1737-1810), was
son of a poor shoemaker, was born at Mallow, in Ireland, in made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Stuart.
1806. At the age of thirteen, while working as an apprentice See vol. vi. of Sir R. Douglas's Peerage of Scotland, new ed. by
in his father's shop, he became known to certain gentlemen in Sir J. B. Paul (1909).
the neighbourhood as a self-taught mathematician. Through MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART (1841-1904), British
their exertions, after attending a classical school in his native archaeologist, was born at Arbroath on the 8th of January 1841,
town, he was admitted to Caius College, Cambridge, in 1825. and educated there, at Edinburgh high school and at the
Third wrangler in 1829, he was elected in the same year a fellow universities of Edinburgh and Berlin. In 1867 he entered the
of his college. A course of dissipation led him into debt; his British Museum as an assistant in the department of Greek and
fellowship was sequestered for the benefit of his creditors, and Roman antiquities under Sir Charles Newton, whom he suc-
he was obliged to leave Cambridge in December 1832. After ceeded in 1886. His younger brother, George Robert Milne
living for some time with his relations in Ireland, he repaired Murray (b. 1858), was made keeper of the botanical department
to London in 1836, a penniless literary adventurer. In 1838 in 1895, the only instance of two brothers becoming heads of
he became examiner in mathematics and physics at London departments at the museum. In 1873 Dr Murray published a
University. He had already contributed several mathematical Manual of Mythology, and in the following year contributed to
papers to the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions (1831-1836), the Contemporary Review two articles one on the Homeric
Philosophical Magazine (1833-1842), and the Philosophical question which led to a friendship with Mr Gladstone, the
Transactions (1837), and had published Elementary Principles of other on Greek painters. In 1880-1883 he brought out his
the Theories of Electricity (1833). He now wrote for the " Library History of Greek Sculpture, which at once became a standard
"
of Useful Knowledge a Treatise on the Theory of Algebraical work. In 1886 he was selected by the Society of Antiquaries of
Equations (1839). He died on the i2th of March 1843. Scotland to deliver the Rhind lectures on archaeology, out of
MURRAY, D. MURRAY, LORD GEORGE 39
which grew his Handbook of Greek Archaeology (1892). In life on the continent till 1724, when he returned to Scotland,
1894-1896 Dr Murray directed some excavations in Cyprus where in the following year he was granted a pardon. The duke
undertaken by means of a bequest of 2000 from Miss Emma of Atholl died in 1724 and was succeeded in the title by his second
Tournour Turner. The objects obtained are described and son James, owing to the attainder of Tullibardine; and Lord
illustrated in Excavations in Cyprus, published by the trustees George leased from his brother the old family property of
of the museum in 1900. Among Dr Murray's other official Tullibardine in Strathearn, where he lived till 1745.
publications are three folio volumes on Terra-cotta Sarcophagi, On the eve of the Jacobite rising of 1745 the duke of Perth
White Athenian Vases and Designs from Greek Vases. In 1898 made overtures to Lord George Murray on behalf of the
he wrote for the Portfolio a monograph on Greek bronzes, Pretender; but even after the landing of Charles Edward in
founded on lectures delivered at the Royal Academy in that Scotland in July, accompanied by Tullibardine, Murray's attitude
year, and he contributed many articles on archaeology to remained doubtful. He accompanied his brother the duke to
standard publications. In recognition of his services to archaeo- Crieff on the 2ist of August to pay his respects to Sir John Cope,
logy he was made LL.D. of Glasgow University in 1887 and the commander of the government troops, and he permitted
elected a corresponding member of the Berlin Academy of the duke to appoint him deputy-sheriff of Perthshire. It has
Sciences in 1900. He died in March 1904. been suggested that Murray acted with duplicity, but his
MURRAY, DAVID (1840- ), Scottish painter, was born in hesitation was natural and genuine; and it was not till early in
Glasgow, and spent some years in commercial pursuits before September, when Charles Edward was at Blair Castle, which had
he practised as an artist. He was elected an associate of the been vacated by the duke of Atholl on the prince's approach,
Royal Academy in 1891 and academician in 1905; and also that Murray decided to espouse the Stuart cause. He then
became an associate of the Royal Scottish Academy and of wrote to his brother explaining that he did so for conscientious
the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours, and a member reasons, while realizing the risk of ruin
it involved. On joining
of the Royal Scottish Water Colour Society. He is a landscape the Jacobite army Lord George received a commission as lieu-
"
painter of distinction, and two of his pictures,
" "
My
Love is tenant-general, though the prince ostentatiously treated him
gone a-sailing (1884) and In the Country of Constable " with want of confidence; and he was flouted by the Irish adven-
(1903), have been bought for the National Gallery of British turers who were the Pretenderis trusted advisers. At Perth
"
Art. Young Wheat," painted in 1890, is one of his most Lord George exerted himself with success to introduce discipline
noteworthy works. and organization in the army he was to command, and he gained
MURRAY, EUSTACE CLARE GRENVILLE (1824-1881), the confidence of the highland levies, with whose habits and
English journalist, was born in 1824, the natural son of the 2nd methods of fighting he was familiar. He also used his influence
duke of Buckingham. Educated at Magdalen Hall (Hertford to prevent the exactions and arbitrary interference with civil
College), Oxford, he entered the diplomatic service through the rights which Charles was too ready to sanction on the advice of
influence of Lord 'Palmerston, and in 1851 joined the British others. At Prestonpans, on the 2ist of September, Lord George,
embassy at Vienna as attache. At the same time he agreed who led the Jacobite left wing in person, was practically com-
to act as Vienna correspondent of a London daily paper, a mander-in-chief, and it was to his able generalship that the
breach of the conventions of the British Foreign Office which victory was mainly due. During the six weeks' occupation of
cost him his post. In 1852 he was transferred to Hanover, Edinburgh he did useful work in the further organization and
and thence to Constantinople, and finally, in 1855, was made disciplining of the army. He opposed Charles's plan of invading
consul-general at Odessa. In 1868 he returned to England, England, and when his judgment was overruled he prevailed
and devoted himself to journalism. He contributed to the on the prince to march into Cumberland, which he knew to be
early numbers of Vanity Fair, and in 1869 founded a clever but favourable ground for highlander tactics, instead of advancing
abusive society paper, the Queen's Messenger. For a libel against General Wade, whose army was posted at Newcastle.
published in this paper Lord Carrington horsewhipped him He conducted the siege of Carlisle, but on the surrender of the
on the doorstep of a London club. Murray was subsequently town on the I4th of November he resigned his command on
charged with perjury for denying on oath his authorship of the the ground that his authority had been insufficiently upheld by
article. Remanded on bail, he escaped to Paris, where he the prince, and he obtained permission to serve as a volunteer
subsequently lived, acting as correspondent of various London in the ranks of the Atholl levies. The dissatisfaction, however,
papers. In 1874 he helped Edmund Yates to found the World. of the army with the appointment of the duke of Perth to
Murray died at Passy on the aoth of December 1881. succeed him compelled Charles to reinstate Murray, who accord-
His score of books, several of which were translated into French ingly commanded the Jacobites in the march to Derby. Here
and published in Paris, include French Pictures in English Chalk on the sth of December a council was held at which Murray
(1876-1878); The Roving Englishman in Turkey (1854); Men of the urged the necessity for retreat, owing to the failure of the English
Second Empire (1872); Young Brown (1874); Sidelights on English
and Under the Lens: Social Photographs (1885). Jacobites to support the invasion and the absence of aid from
Society (1881);
France. As Murray was supported by the council the retreat
MURRAY, LORD GEORGE (1694-1760), Scottish Jacobite was ordered, to the intense chagrin of Charles, who never forgave
general, fifth son of John, ist duke of Atholl, by his first wife, him; but the failure of the enterprise was mainly chargeable
Catherine, daughter of the 3rd duke of Hamilton, was born to Charles himself, and it was not without justice that Murray's
at Huntingtower, near Perth, on the 4th of October 1694. "
aide de camp, the chevalier Johnstone, declared that had
He joined the army in Flanders in
June 1712; in 1715, contrary Prince Charles slept during the whole of the expedition, and
to their father's wishes, he and his brothers, the marquis of allowed Lord George Murray to act for him according to his
Tullibardine and Lord Charles Murray, joined the Jacobite rebels own judgment, he would have found the crown of Great Britain
under the earl of Mar, each brother commanding a regiment of on his head when he awoke." Lord George commanded the
men of Atholl. Lord Charles was taken prisoner at Preston, rear-guard during the retreat; and this task, rendered doubly
but after the collapse of the rising Lord George escaped with dangerous by the proximity of Cumberland in the rear and Wade
Tullibardine to South Uist, and thence to France. In 1719 on the flank, was made still more difficult by the incapacity
Murray took part in the Jacobite attempt in conjunction with and petulance of the Pretender. By a skilfully fought rear-
the Spaniards in the western highlands, under the command of guard action at Clifton Moor, Lord George enabled the army to
"
Tullibardine and the earl marischal, which terminated in the reach Carlisle safely and without loss of stores or war material;
"
affair of Glenshiel on the roth of June, when he was wounded and on the 3rd of January 1746 the force entered Stirling, where
while commanding the right wing of the Jacobites. After they were joined by reinforcements from Perth. The prince
hiding for some months in the highlands he reached Rotter- laid siege to Stirling Castle, while Murray defeated General
dam in May 1720. There is no evidence for the statement that Hawley near Falkirk; but the losses of the Jacobites by sickness
Murray served in the Sardinian army, and little is known of his and desertion, and the approach of Cumberland, made retreat
MURRAY, JAMES MURRAY, EARL OF
to the Highlands an immediate necessity, in which the prince decimated by disease, and it was only a remnant that Murray
was compelled to acquiesce; his resentment was such that he now led to join General Amherst at Montreal, and to be present
gave ear to groundless suggestions that Murray was a traitor, when the last batch of French troops in Canada surrendered.
which the latter's failure to capture his brother's stronghold In October 1760 he was appointed governor of Quebec, and he
of Blair Castle did nothing to refute. became governor of Canada after this country had been formally
In April 1746 the Jacobite army was in the neighbourhood ceded to Great Britain in 1763. In this year he quelled a
of Inverness, and the prince decided to give battle to the duke dangeious mutiny, and soon afterwards his alleged partiality for
of Cumberland. Charles took up a position on the left bank of the interests of the French Canadians gave offence to the British
the Nairn river at Culloden Moor, rejecting Lord George's Murray settlers; they asked for his recall, and in 1766 he retired from his
advice to select a much stronger position on the opposite bank. post. After an inquiry in the House of Lords, he was exonerated
The battle of Culloden, where the Stuart cause was ruined, from the charges which had been brought against him. In
was fought on the i6th of April 1746. On the following day the 1774 Murray was sent to Minorca as governor, and in 1781,
duke of Cumberland intimated to his troops that " the public while he was in charge of this island, he was besieged in Fort
orders' of the rebels yesterday was to give us no quarter"; St Philip by a large force of French and Spaniards. After a
Hanoverian news-sheets printed what purported to be copies stubborn resistance, which lasted nearly seven months, he was
of such an order, and the historian James Ray and other con- obliged to surrender the place; and on his return to England
temporary writers gave further currency to a calumny that has he was tried by a court-martial, at the instance of Sir William
been repeated by modern authorities. Original copies of Lord Draper, who had served under him in Minorca as lieutenant-
" "
George Murray's orders at Culloden are in existence, one of governor. He was acquitted and he became a general in 1783.
which is among Cumberland's own papers, while another was He died on the i8th of June 1794. Murray's only son was
in the possession of Lord Hardwicke, the judge who tried the James Patrick Murray (1782-1834), a major-general and member
Jacobite peers in 1746, and they contain no injunction to refuse of parliament.
quarter. After the defeat Murray conducted a remnant of the MURRAY, SIR JAMES AUGUSTUS HENRY (1837- ),
Jacobite army to Ruthven, and prepared to organize further British lexicographer, was born at Denholm, near Hawick,
resistance. Prince Charles, however, had determined to aban- Roxburghshire, and after a local elementary education proceeded
don the enterprise, and at Ruthven Lord George received an to Edinburgh, and thence to the university of London, where
order dismissing him from the prince's service, to which he replied he graduated B.A. in 1873. Sir James Murray, who received
in a letter upbraiding Charles for his distrust and mismanage- honorary degrees from several universities, both British and
ment. Charles's belief in the general's treachery was shared foreign, was engaged in scholastic work for thirty years, from
by several leading Jacobites, but there appears no ground for 1855 to 1885, chiefly at Hawick and Mill Hill. During this time
the suspicion. From the moment he threw in his lot with the his reputation as a philologist was increasing, and he was
exiled prince's cause Lord George Murray never deviated in his assistant examiner in English at the University of London from
loyalty and devotion, and his generalship was deserving of the 1875 to 1879 and president of the Philological Society of London
highest praise; but the discipline he enforced and jealousy of from 1878 to 1880, and again from 1882 to 1884. It was in
his authority made enemies of some of those to whom Charles connexion with this society that he undertook the chief work
was more inclined to listen than to the general who gave him of his life, the editing of the New English Dictionary, based on
sound but unwelcome advice. materials collected by the society. These materials, which had
Murray escaped to the continent in December 1746, and was accumulated since 1857, when the society first projected the
graciously received in Rome by the Old Pretender, who granted publication of a dictionary on philological principles, amounted
him a pension; but in the following year when he went to Paris to an enormous quantity, of which an idea may be formed from
Charles Edward refused to see him. Lord George lived at the fact that Dr Furnivall sent in " some ton and three-quarters
various places abroad until his death, which occurred at Medem- of materials which had accumulated under his roof." After
blik in Holland on the nth of October 1760. He married negotiations extending over a considerable period, the contracts
in 1728 Amelia, daughter and heiress of James Murray of between the society, the delegates of the Clarendon Press, and
Strowan and Glencarse, by whom he had three sons and two the editor, were signed on the ist of March 1879, and Murray
daughters. His eldest son John became 3rd duke of Atholl in began the examination and arrangement of the raw material,
1764; the two younger sons became lieutenant-general and and the still more troublesome work of re-animating and main-
"
vice-admiral respectively in the British service. taining the enthusiasm of readers." In 1885 he removed from
See A Military History of Perthshire, ed. by the marchioness of Mill Hill to Oxford, where his Scriptorium came to rank among
Tullibardine (2 vols., London, 1908), containing a memoir of Lord the institutions of the University city. The first volume of
George Murray and a facsimile copy of his orders at Culloden;
The Atholl Chronicles, ed. by the duke of Atholl (privately printed) the dictionary was printed at the Clarendon Press, Oxford,
;
The Chevalier James de Johnstone, Memoirs of the Rebellion in 1745 in 1888. A full account of its beginning and the manner of
(jrd ed., London, 1822); James Ray, Compleat Historic of the Rebel- working up the materials will be found in Murray 's presidential
lion, 1745-1746 (London, 1754); Robert Patten, History of the late address to the Philological Society in 1879, while reports of
Rebellion (2nd ed., London, 1717); Memoirs of Sir John Murray of
its progress are given in the addresses by himself and other
Brpughton, ed. by R. F. Bell (Edinburgh, 1898); Andrew Henderson,
History of the Rebellion, 1745-1746 (2nd ed., London, 1748). presidents in subsequent years. In addition to his work as a
(R. J- M.) philologist, Murray was a frequent contributor to the transac-
MURRAY, JAMES (c. 1710-1794), British governor of Canada, tions of the various antiquarian and archaeological societies of
was a younger son of Alexander Murray, 4th Lord Elibank which he is a member; and he wrote the article on the English
(d. 1736). Having entered the British army, he served with the language for this Encyclopaedia. In 1885 he received the
1 5th Foot in the West Indies, the Netherlands and Brittany, and
honorary degree of M.A. from Balliol College; he was an original
became lieut.enant-colonel of this regiment by purchase in 1751. fellow of the British Academy, and in 1908 he was knighted.
In 1757 he led his men to North America to take part in the MURRAY (or MORAY), JAMES STUART, EARL OF (c. 1531-
war against France. He commanded a brigade at the siege of 1570), regent of Scotland, was an illegitimate son of James V.
Louisburg, was one of Wolfe's three brigadiers in the expedition of Scotland by Margaret Erskine, daughter of John Erskine,
against Quebec, and commanded the left wing of the army in earl of Mar. In 1538 he was appointed prior of the abbey of
the famous battle in September 1759. After the British victory St Andrews in order that James V. might obtain possession of
and the capture of the city, Murray was left in command of its funds. Educated at St Andrews University, he attacked,
Quebec; having strengthened its fortifications and taken in September 1549, an English force which had made a descent
measures to improve the morale of his men, he defended it in on the Fife coast, and routed it with great slaughter. In
April and May 1760 against the attacks of the French, who were addition to the priory of St Andrews, he received those also of
soon compelled to raise the siege. The British troops had been Pittenweem and Macon in France, but manifested no vocation
MURRAY, JOHN
for a monastic life. The discourses of Knox, which he heard vengeance for the ill-treat inent of his wife; but the feud of the
at Calder, won his approval, and shortly after the return of the Hamiltons with the regent is the most reasonable explanation.
reformer to Scotland in 1559, James Stuart left the party of the As he rode through Linlithgow Murray was shot on the 2ist of
queen regent and joined the lords of the congregation, who January 1570 from a window by Hamilton, who had made careful
resolved forcibly to abolish the Roman service. After the preparation for the murder and his own escape. He was buried
return of Queen Mary in 1561, he became her chief adviser, and in the south aisle of St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh, amid general
his cautious firmness was for a time effectual in inducing her mourning. Knox preached the sermon and Buchanan furnished
to adopt a policy of moderation towards the reformers. At the the epitaph, both panegyrics. The elder of his two daughters,
beginning of 1562 he was created earl of Murray, a dignity also Elizabeth, married James Stuart (d. 1592), son of James, ist
held by George Gordon, earl of Huntly, who, however, had Lord Doune, who succeeded to the earldom of Murray in right
lost the queen's favour. Only a few days later he was made earl of his wife.
of Mar,*but as this title was claimed by John, Lord Erskine, Thematerials for the life of Murray are found in the records and
Stuart resigned it and received a second grant of the earldom of documents of the time, prominent among which are the various
Calendars of State Papers. Mention must also be made of the many
Murray, Huntly by this time having been killed in battle. books which treat of Mary, Queen of Scots, and of the histories of
Henceforward he was known as the earl of Moray, the alternative the time-^-especially J. A. Froude, History of England, and Andrew
Murray being a more modern and less correct variant. About Lang, History of Scotland.
this time the earl married Anne (d. 1583), daughter of William name
MURRAY, JOHN, the for several generations of a great
Keith, ist Earl Marischal. firm of London publishers, founded by John McMurray (1745-
After the defeat and death of Huntly, the leader of the I 793). a native of Edinburgh and a retired lieutenant of marines,
Catholic party, the policy of Murray met for a time with no who in 1768 bought the book business of William Sandby in
obstacle, but he awakened the displeasure of the queen by his Fleet Street, and, dropping the Scottish prefix, called himself
efforts in behalf of Knox when the latter was accused of high
John Murray. He was one of the twenty original proprietors
treason; and as he was also opposed to her marriage with of the Morning Chronicle, and started the monthly English
Darnley, he was after that event declared an outlaw and took Review (1783-1796). Among his publications were Mjtford's
refuge in England. Returning to Scotland after the murder Greece, Langhorne's Plutarch's Lives, and the part of Isaac
first
of Rizzio, he was pardoned by the queen. He contrived, D 'Israeli's Curiosities of Literature. He died on the 6th of
however, to be away at the time of Darnley's assassination, November 1793.
and avoided the tangles of the marriage with Bothwell by going
JOHN MURRAY (2) (1778-1843), his son, was then fifteen.
to France. After the abdication of Queen Mary at Lochleven,
During his minority the business was conducted by Samuel
in July 1567, he was appointed regent of Scotland. When Highley, who was admitted a partner, but in 1803 the partner-
Mary escaped from Lochleven (May 2, 1568), the duke of Chatel- ship was dissolved. Murray soon began to show the courage
herault and other Catholic nobles rallied to her standard, in literary speculation which earned for him later the name
but Murray and the Protestant lords gathered their adherents, "
given him by Lord Byron of the Anak of publishers." In
defeated her forces at Langside, near Glasgow (May 13, 1568),
1807 he took a share with Constable in publishing Marmion,
and compelled her to flee to England. Murray displayed and became part owner of the Edinburgh Review, although with
promptness in baffling Mary's schemes, suppressed the border the help of Canning he launched in opposition the Quarterly
thieves, and ruled firmly, resisting the temptation to place the Review (Feb. 1809), with William Gifford as its editor, and Scott,
crown on his own head. He observed the forms of personal
Canning, Southey, Hookham Frere and John Wilson Croker
piety; possibly he shared the zeal of the reformers, while he among its earliest contributors. Murray was closely connected
moderated their bigotry. But he reaped the fruits of the with Constable, but, to his distress, was compelled in 1813 to
conspiracies which led to the murders of Rizzio and Darnley. break this association on account of Constable's business methods,
He amassed too great a fortune from the estates of the Church which, as he foresaw, led to disaster. In 1811 the first two
to be deemed a pure reformer of its abuses. He pursued his cantos of Childe Harold were brought to Murray by R. C. Dallas,
sister with a calculated animosity which would not have spared
to whom Byron had presented them. Murray paid Dallas
her life had this been necessary to his end or been favoured by
500 guineas for the copyright. In 1812 he bought the pub-
Elizabeth. The mode of producing the casket letters and
lishing business of William Miller (1769-1844), and migrated to
the false charges added by Buchanan, deprive Murray of any
50, Albemarle Street. Literary London flocked to his house, and
claim to have been an honest accuser. His reluctance to charge
Murray became the centre of the publishing world. It was in
Mary with complicity in the murder of Darnley was feigned, his drawing-room that Scott and Byron first met, and here, in
and his object was gained when he was allowed to table the
1824, after the death of Lord Byron, the MS. of his memoirs,
accusation without being forced to prove it. Mary remained considered by Gifford unfit for publication, was destroyed.
a captive under suspicion of the gravest guilt, while Murray A close friendship existed between Byron and his publisher,
ruled Scotland in her stead, supported by nobles who had taken but for political reasons business relations ceased after the
part in the steps which ended in Bothwell's deed. During the publication of the 5th canto of Don Juan. Murray paid Byron
year between his becoming regent and his death several events some 20,000 for his various poems. To Thomas Moore he
occurred for which he has been censured, but which were
gave nearly 5000 for writing the life of Byron, and to Crabbe
necessary for his security: the betrayal to Elizabeth of the duke 3000 for Tales of the Hall. He died on the 27th of June 1843.
of Norfolk and of the secret plot for the liberation of Mary; the
His son, JOHN MURRAY (3) (1808-1892), inherited much of
imprisonment of the earl of Northumberland, who after the his business tact and judgment.
"
Murray's Handbooks
"
for
failure of his rising in the north of England had taken refuge
travellers were issued under his editorship, and he himself wrote
in Scotland; and the charge brought against Maitland of Leth-
several volumes (see his article on the
"
Handbooks " in Murray's
ington of complicity in Darnley's murder. Lethington was November 1889). He published many books of
Magazine,
committed to custody, but was rescued by Kirkaldy of Grange,
travel; also Campbell's Lives of the Chancellors, The Speaker's
who held the castle of Edinburgh, and while there " the chame- Smith's and works
Commentary, Dictionaries; by Hallam,
leon," as Buchanan named Maitland hi his famous invective, Gladstone, Lyell, Layard, Dean Stanley, Borrow, Darwin, Living-
gained over those in the castle, including Kirkaldy. Murray stone and Samuel Smiles. He died on the 2nd of April 1892,
was afraid to proceed with the charge on the day of trial, while and was succeeded by his eldest son, JOHN MURRAY (4) (b. 1851),
Kirkaldy and Maitland held the castle, which became the under whom, in association with his brother, A. H. Hallam
stronghold of the deposed queen's party. It has been suspected Murray, the firm was continued.
that Maitland and Kirkaldy were cognizant of the design of
See Samuel Smiles, A Publisher and his Friends, Memoirs and
Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh to murder Murray, for he had been Correspondence of the late John Murray (1891), for the second
. . .
"
with them in the castle. This has been ascribed to private John Murray; a series of three articles by F. Espinasse on The
MURRAY, J.
MURREE
House of Murray," in The Critic (Jan. 1860) and a paper by the On the outbreak of the Civil War he returned to Scotland and
;
same writer in Harper's New Monthly Magazine (Sept. 1885). See
collected recruits for the royal cause. The triumph of Ciomwell
the Letters and Journals of Byron (ed. Prothero, 1898-1901).
MURRAY, JOHN (1778-1820), Scottish chemist, was born at compelled him for a time to return to France, but he took part
in the Scottish insurrection in favour of Charles II. in 1650, and
Edinburgh in 1778 and died there on the 22nd of July 1820.
He graduated M.D. at St Andrews in 1814, and attained some was named lord justice clerk and a privy councillor. These
which on account of the overthrow of the royal
reputation as a lecturer on chemistry and materia medica. He appointments,
was an opponent of Sir Humphry Davy's theory of chlorine, cause proved to be at the time only nominal, were confirmed at
the Restoration in 1660. Soon after this Sir Robert Murray
supporting the view that the substance contained oxygen, and
began to take a prominent part in the deliberations of a club
it was in the course of experiments made to disprove his argu-
ments that Dr John Davy discovered phosgene or carbonyl instituted in London for the" discussion of natural science, or,
chloride. He was a diligent writer of textbooks, including as it was then called, the new philosophy." When it was
Elements of Chemistry (1801); Elements of Materia Medica and proposed to obtain a charter for the society he undertook to
interest the king in the matter, the result being that on the
Pharmacy (1804), A System of Chemistry (1806), and (anony-
of July 1662 the club was incorporated by charter under
mously) A Comparative View of the Huttonian and Neptunian i5th
Systems of Geology. He is sometimes confused with another
the designation of the Royal Society. Murray was its first
president. He died in June 1673.
John Murray (1786-1851), a popular lecturer at mechanics'
institutes. The two men carried on a dispute about the inven- MURRAY, the largest river in Australia. It rises in the
tion of a miners' safety lamp in the Phil. Mag. for 1817.
Australian Alps in 36 40' S. and 147 E., and flowing north-west
skirts the borders of New South Wales and Victoria until it
MURRAY, SIR JOHN (1841- ), British geographer and
was born at on the passes into South Australia, shortly after which it bends south-
naturalist, Coburg, Ontario, Canada,
ward into Lake Alexandrina, a shallow lagoon, whence it makes
3rd of March 1841, and after some years' local schooling studied
in Scotland and on the Continent. He was then engaged for its way to the sea at Encounter Bay by a narrow opening at
some years in natural history work at Bridge of Allan. In 35 35' S. and 138 55' E. Near its source the Murray Gates,
1868 he visited Spitsbergen on a whaler, and in 1872, when the precipitous rocks, tower above it to the height of 3000 ft.;
voyage of the
"
Challenger
"
was projected, he was appointed and the earlier part of its course is tortuous and uneven.
one of the naturalists to the expedition. At the conclusion of Farther on it loses so much by evaporation in some parts as to
the voyage he was made principal assistant in drawing up the become a series
of pools. Its length till it debouches into Lake
Alexandrina is 1120 m., its average breadth in summer is 240 ft.,
scientific results, and in 1882 he became editor of the Reports,
which were completed in 1896. He compiled a summary of the its average depth about i6ft.;and it drains an area of about
results, and was part-author of the Narrative of the Cruise and of
270,000 sq. m. For small steamers it is navigable as far as
the Report on Deep-sea Deposits. He also published numerous Albury. Periodically it overflows, causing wide inundations.
on and marine In The principal tributaries of the Murray are those from New
important papers oceanography biology.
South Wales, including the Edward River, the united streams of
1898 he was made K.C.B., and the received many distinctions
from the chief scientific societies of the world. Apart from his the Murrumbidgee and Lachlan, and the Darling or Callewatta.
work in connexion with the " Challenger " Reports, he went in In 1829 Captain Sturt traced the Murrumbidgee River till it
1880 and 1882 on expeditions to explore the Faeroe Channel, debouched into the Murray, which he followed down to Lake
and between 1882 and 1894 was the prime mover in various Alexandrina, but he was compelled, after great hardships, to
biological investigations in Scottish waters. In 1897, with return without discovering its mouth. In 1831 Captain Barker,
the generous financial assistance of Mr Laurence Pullar and a while attempting to discover this, was murdered by the natives.
staff of specialists, he began a bathymetrical survey of the
MURRAY COD (Oligorus macquariensis) one of the largest
,
of the numerous fresh-water Perciform fishes of Australia, and
fresh-water lochs of Scotland, the results of which, with a
fine series of illustrations and maps, were published in 1910
the most celebrated for its excellent flavour. It belongs to
in six volumes. He took a leading part in the expedition the family Serranidae. Its taxonomic affinities lie in the direc-
which started in April 1910 for the physiological and biological tion of the perch and not of the cod family. The shape of the
investigation of the North Atlantic Ocean on the Norwegian body is that of a perch, and the dorsal fin consists of a spinous
"
vessel Michael Sars."
MURRAY, LINDLEY (1745-1826), Anglo-American gram-
marian, was born at Swatara, Pennsylvania, on the 22nd of
April 1745. His father, a Quaker, was a leading New York
merchant. At the age of fourteen he was placed in his father's
but he ran away to a school in Burlington, New Jersey.
office,
He was brought back to New York, but his arguments against
a commercial career prevailed, and he was allowed to study
law. On being called to the bar he practised successfully in
New York. In 1783 he was able to retire, and in 1784 he left Murray Cod.
America for England. Settling at Holgate, near York, he
devoted the rest of his life to literary pursuits. His first book
and rayed portion, the number of spines being eleven. The
was Power of Religion on the Mind (1787). In 1795 he issued length of the spines varies with age, old individuals having
his Grammar of the English Language.
shorter spines that is, a lower dorsal fin. The form of the
This was followed,
head and the dentition also resemble those of a perch, but
among other analogous works, by English Exercises, and the
none of the bones of the head has a serrated margin. The
English Reader. These books passed through several editions,
and the Grammar was the standard textbook for fifty years scales are small. The colour varies in different localities; it
is generally brownish, with a greenish tinge and numerous
throughout England and America. Lindley Murray died on
small dark green spots. As implied by the name, this fish has
the i6th of January 1826.
See the Memoir o/_ the Life and Writings of Lindley Murray its headquarters in the Murray River and its tributaries, but it
(partly autobiographical), by Elizabeth Frank (1826); Life of occurs also in the northern parts of New South Wales. It is the
Murray, by W. H. (New York, 1885).
Egle most important food fish of these rivers, and is said to attain
MURRAY (or MORAY), SIR ROBERT (c. 1600-1673), one- of a length of more than 3 ft. and a weight of 1 20 Ib.
the founders of the Royal Society, was the son of Sir Robert MURREE, a town and sanatorium of British India, in the
, Murray of Craigie, Ayrshire, and was born about the beginning Rawalpindi district of the Punjab, 7517 ft. above the sea. about
of the i-7th century. In early life he served in the French army, five hours' journey by cart-road from Rawalpindi town, and
and, winning the favour of Richelieu, rose to the rank of colonel. the starting-point for Kashmir. The houses are built on the
MURSHIDABAD MUSCAT 43
summit and sides of an irregular ridge, and command magnifi- a mythical seer and priest, the pupil or son of Orpheus, who was
cent views over forest-clad hills and deep valleys, studded with said to have been the founder of priestly poetry in Attica.
villages and cultivated fields, with the snow-covered peaks of According to Pausanias (i. 25) he was buried on the Museum hill,
Kashmir in the background. The population in 1901 was 1844;^ south-west of the Acropolis. He composed dedicatory and
but these figures omit the summer visitors, who probably number purificatoryhymns and prose treatises, and oracular responses.
10,000. The garrison generally consists of three mountain These were collected and arranged in the time of Peisistratus
batteries. Since 1877 the summer offices of the provincial by Onomacritus, who added interpolations. The mystic and
government have been transferred to Simla. The Murree oracular verses and customs of Attica, especially of Eleusis,
brewery, one of the largest in India, is the chief industrial are connected with his name (Herod, vii. 6; viii. 96; ix. 43).
establishment. The Lawrence Military Asylum for the children A Titanomachia and Theogonia are also attributed to him
of European soldiers is situated here. (G. Kinkel, Epicorum graecorum fragmenla, 1878). (2) The
MURSHIDABAD, or MOORSHEEDABAD, a town and district second was an Ephesian attached to the court of the kings of
of British India, in the Presidency division of Bengal. The Pergamum, who wrote a Perseis, and poems on Eumenes and
administrative headquarters of the district are at Berhampur. Attalus (Suidas, s.v.). (3) The third (called Grammaticus in
The town of Murshidabad is on the left bank of the Bhagirathi all the MSS.) is of uncertain date, but probably belongs to the
or old sacred channel of the Ganges. Pop. (1901), 15,168. beginning of the 6th century A.D., as his style and metre are
The city of Murshidabad was the latest Mahommedan capital evidently modelled after Nonnus. He must have lived before
of Bengal. In 1704 the nawab Murshid Kulia Khan changed Agathias (530-582) and is possibly to be identified with the
the seat of government from Dacca to Maksudabad, which he friend of Procopius whose poem (340 hexameter lines) on the
called after his own name. The
great family of Jagat Seth story of Hero and Leander is by far the most beautiful of the age
maintained their position as state bankers at Murshidabad (editions by F. Passow, 1810; G. H. Schafer, 1825; C. Dilthey,
from generation to generation. Even after the conquest of 1874). The love-poem Alpheus and Arethusa (Anthol. pal.
little
Bengal by the British, Murshidabad remained for some time ix. 362) is also ascribed to Musaeus.
the seat of administration. Warren Hastings removed the MUSA KHEL, a Pathan tribe on the Dera Ghazi Khan border
supreme civil and criminal courts to Calcutta in 1772, but in of the Punjab province of India. They are of Kakar origin,
1775 the latter court was brought back to Murshidabad again. numbering 4670 fighting men. They enter British territory
In 1 790, under Lord Cornwallis, the entire revenue and judicial by the Vihowa Pass, and carry on an extensive trade, but are
staffs were fixed at Calcutta. The town is still the residence not dependent on India for the necessaries of life. They are
of the nawab, who ranks as the first nobleman of the province a peaceful and united race, and have been friendly to the British,
with the style of nawab bahadur of Murshidabad, instead of but at enmity with the Khetrans and the Baluch tribes to the
nawab nazim of Bengal. His palace, dating from 1837, is a south of their country. In 1879 the Musa Khels and other
magnificent building in Italian style. The city is crowded with Pathan tribes to the number of 5000 made a demonstration
other palaces, mosques, tombs, and gardens, and retains such against Vihowa, but the town was reinforced and they dispersed.
industries as carving in ivory, gold and silver embroidery, and In 1884 they were punished, together with the Kakars, by the
silk-weaving. A college is maintained for the education of the Zhob Valley Expedition.
nawab 's family. MUSA' US, JOHANN KARL AUGUST (1735-1787), German
The DISTRICT OF MURSHIDABAD has an area of 2143 sq. m. author, was born on the 29th of March 1735 at Jena, studied
It is divided into two nearly equal portions by the Bhagirathi, theology at the university, and would have become the pastor
the ancient channel of the Ganges. The tract to the west, of a parish but for the resistance of some peasants, who objected
known as the Rarh, consists of hard clay and nodular limestone. that he had been known to dance. In 1760 to 1762 he published
The general level is high, but interspersed with marshes and in threevolumes his first work, Grandison der Zweite, afterwards
seamed by hill torrents. The Bagri or eastern half belongs to (in1781-1782) rewritten and issued with a new title, Der deutsche
alluvial plains of eastern Bengal. There are few permanent Grandison. The object of this book was to satirize Samuel
swamps; but the whole country low-lying, and liable to annual
is Richardson's hero, who had many sentimental admirers in
inundation. In the north-west are a few small detached hillocks, Germany. In 1763 Musaus was made master of the court pages
said to be of basaltic formation. Pop. (1901), 1,333,184, show- at Weimar, and in 1769 he became professor at the Weimar
ing an increase of 6-6% in the decade. The principal industry gymnasium. His second book Physiognomische Reisen did not
is that of silk, formerly of much importance, and now revived appear until 1778-1779. It was directed against Lavater, and
with government assistance. A narrow-gauge railway crosses attracted much favourable attention. In 1782 to 1786 he
the district, from the East Indian line at Nalhati to Azimganj published his best work Volksmiirchen der Deutschen. Even
on the Bhagirathi, the home of many rich Jain merchants; and in this series of tales, the substance of which Musaus collected
a branch of the Eastern Bengal railway has been opened. among the people, he could not refrain from satire. The stories,
HUS, the name of a Roman family of the plebeian Decian therefore, lack the simplicity of genuine folk-lore. In 1785
gens, (i) PUBLICS DECIUS Mus won his first laurels in the was issued Freund Heins Erscheinungen in Holbeins Manier by
Samnite War, when in 343 B.C., while serving as tribune of the J. R. Schellenberg, with explanations in prose and verse by
soldiers, he rescued the Roman main army* frdm an apparently Musaus. A collection of stories entitled Straussfedern, of which
hopeless position (Livy vii. 34). In 340, as consul with T. a volume appeared in 1787, Musaus was prevented from com-
Manlius Torquatus as colleague, he commanded in the Latin pleting by his death on the 28th of October 1787.
War. The decisive battle was fought near Mt Vesuvius. The Volksmiirchen have been frequently reprinted (Dusseldorf,
The consuls, in consequence of a dream, had agreed that the 1903, &c.). They were translated into French in 1844, and three
of the stories are included in Carlyle's German Romance (1827);
general whose troops first gave way should devote himself to Musaus's Nachgelassene Scriften were edited by his relative, A. von
destruction, and so ensure victory. The left wing under Decius Kotzebue (1791). See M. Miiller, /. K. A. Musaus (1867), and an
became disordered, whereupon, repeating after the chief pontiff essay by A. Stern in Beitrdge zur Literaturgeschichte des 18. Jahr-
the solemn formula of self-devotion he dashed into the ranks hunderts (1893).
of the Latins, and met his death (Livy viii. 9). (2) His son, MUSCAT, MUSKAT or MASKAT, a town on the south-east
also called PUBLIUS, consul for the fourth time in 295, followed coast of Arabia, capital of the province of Oman. Its value
the example of his father at the battle of Sentinum, when the as a naval base is derived from its position, which commands
left wing which he commanded was shaken by the Gauls (Livy the entrance to the Persian Gulf. The town of Gwadar, the
x. 28). The story of the elder Decius is regarded by Mommsen chief port of Makr5n, belongs to Muscat, and by arrangement
as an unhistorical
" "
doublette of what is related on better with the sultan the British occupy that port with a telegraph
authority of the son. station of the Indo-Persian telegraph service. An Indian
MUSAEUS, the name of three Greek poets, (i) The first was political residency is established at Muscat. In geographical
44 MUSCATINE MUSCLE AND NERVE
position it is from the interior of the continent. The
isolated was laid out in 1836, incorporated as a town under the name
mountains behind it in a rugged wall, across which no road
rise of Bloomington in 1839, and first chartered as a city, under its
exists. It is only from Matrah, a northern suburb shut off by present name, in 1851.
an intervening spur which reaches to the sea, that land com- MUSCHELKALK, in geology, the middle member of the
munication with the rest of Arabia can be maintained. Both German Trias. It consists of a series of calcareous, marly
Muscat and Matrah are defended from incursions on the land- and dolomitic beds which lie conformably between the Bunter
ward side by a wall with towers at intervals. Muscat rose to and Keuper formations. The name Muschelkalk (Fr., calcaire
importance with the Portuguese occupation of the Persian Gulf, coquillier; conchylien, formation of D'Orbigny) indicates a
and is noted for the extent of Portuguese ruins about it. Two characteristic feature in this series, viz. the frequent occurrence
lofty forts, of which the most easterly is called Jalali and the of lenticular banks composed of fossil shells, remarkable in the
western Merani, occupy the summits of hills on either side the midst of a singularly barren group. In its typical form the
cove overlooking the town; and beyond them on the seaward Muschelkalk is practically restricted to the German region
side are two smaller defensive works called Sirat. All these and its immediate neighbourhood; it is found in Thuringia,
are ruinous. A low sandy isthmus connects the rock and Harz, Franconia, Hesse, Swabia. and the Saar and Alsace
fortress of Jalali with the mainland, and upon this isthmus stands districts. Northward it extends into Silesia, Poland and Heligo-
the British residency. The sultan's palace is a three-storeyed land. Representatives are found in the Alps, west and south
building near the centre of the town, a relic of Portuguese of the Vosges, in Moravia, near Toulon and Montpellier,
occupation, called by the Arabs El Jereza, a corruption of in Spain and Sardinia; in Rumania, Bosnia, Dalmatia, and
Igrezia (church). This term is probably derived from the chapel beyond this into Asia in the Himalayas, China, Australia,
once attached to the buildings which formed the Portuguese California, and in North Africa (Constantine). From the nature
governor's residence and factory. The bazaar is insignificant, of the deposits, as well as from the impoverished fauna, the
and its most considerable trade appears to be in a sweetmeat Muschelkalk of the type area was probably laid down within
prepared from the gluten of maize. Large quantities of dates a land-locked sea which, in the earlier portion of its existence,
are also exported. had only imperfect communications with the more open waters
History. The early history of Muscat is the history of Portu- of the period. The more remote representatives of the formation
guese ascendancy in the Persian Gulf. When Albuquerque first were of course deposited in diverse conditions, and are only to
burnt the place after destroying Karyat in 1508, Kalhat was be correlated through the presence of some of the Muschelkalk
the chief port of the coast and Muscat was comparatively fossils.
" "
unimportant. Kalhat was subsequently sacked and burnt, the In the German area the Muschelkalk is from 250-350 ft.
great Arab mosque being destroyed, before Albuquerque returned thick; readily divisible into three groups, of which the
it is
"
to his ships, giving many thanks to our Lord." From that upper and lower are pale thin-bedded limestones with greenish-
date, through 114 years of Portuguese ascendancy, Muscat was grey marls, the middle group being mainly composed of
held as a naval station and factory during a period of local gypsiferous and saliniferous marls with dolomite. The Lower
revolts, Arab incursions, and Turkish invasion by sea; but it Muschelkalk consists, from below upwards, of the following
was not till 1622, when the Portuguese lost Hormuz, that Muscat rocks, the ochreous Wellen Dolomit, lower Wellen Kalk, upper
became the headquarters of their fleet and the most important Wellen Kalk (so called on account of the wavy character of the
place held by them on the Arabian coast. In 1650 the Portu- bedding) with beds of
"
Schaumkalk " (a porous cellular lime-
guese were finally expelled from Oman. Muscat had been stone), and Oolite and the Orbicularis beds (with Myophoria
reduced previously by the humiliating terms imposed upon the orbicularis) In the Saar and Alsace districts and north Eifel,
.
"
garrison by the imam of Oman after a siege in 1648. For five these beds take on a sandy aspect, the Muschelsandstein."
years the Persians occupied Oman, but they disappeared in The Middle Muschelkalk or Anhydrite group, as already indi-
1741. Under the great ruler of Oman, Said ibn Sultan (1804- cated, consists mainly of marls and dolomites with beds of
1856), the fortunes of Muscat attained their zenith; but on his anhydrite, gypsum and salt. The salt beds are worked at
death, when his kingdom was divided and the African possessions Hall, Friedrichshall, Heilbronn, Stettin and Erfurt. It is from
were parted from western Arabia, Muscat declined. In 1883- this division that many of the mineral springs of Thuringia and
1884, when Turki was sultan, the town was unsuccessfully south Germany obtain their saline contents. The cellular
besieged by the Indabayin and Rehbayin tribes, led by Abdul nature of much of the dolomite has given rise to the term
"
Aziz, the brother of Turki. In 1885 Colonel Miles, resident at Zellendolomit." The Upper Muschelkalk (Hauptmuschelkalk,
Muscat, made a tour through Oman, following the footsteps of Friedrichshallkalk of von Alberti) consists of regular beds of
Wellsted in 1835, and confirmed that traveller's report of shelly limestone alternating with beds of marl. The lower
" "
the fertility and wealth of the province. In 1898 the French portion or Trochitenkalk is often composed entirely of the
acquired the right to use Muscat as a coaling station. fragmentary stems of Encrinus liliiformis; higher up come the
See
"
Trading Ports of Persian Gulf," vol. ix. Geog. Journal,
Stiffe,
"
Nodosus " beds with Ceratites compressus, C. nodosus, and
and the the Indian government from the Persian
political reports of C. semipartitus in ascending order. In Swabia and Franconia
Gulf. Colonel Miles's explorations in Oman will be found in vol. vii. the highest beds are platy dolomites with Tringonodus Sander-
Geog. Journal (1896). (T. H. H.*)
gensis and the crustacean Bairdia. Stylolites are common in
MUSCATINE, a city and the county-seat of Muscatine county, allthe Muschelkalk limestones. The Alpine Muschelkalk differs
Iowa, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river (here crossed by a wagon in respects from that of the type area, and shows a closer
many
"
bridge), at the apex of the great bend," in the south-east part relationship with the Triassic Mediterranean sea; the more
of the state. Pop. (1890), 11,454; (1900), 14,073, of whom important local phases will be found tabulated in the article
2352 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 16,178. It is served TRIAS.
by the Chicago Milwaukee & Saint Paul, the Chicago Rock In addition to the fossils mentioned above, the following are
Island & Pacific, and the Muscatine North & South railways. Muschelkalk forms: Terebratulina vulgaris, Spiriferina Mantzeli
and 5. hirsuta, Myophoria vulgaris, Rhynchotites hirundo, Ceratites
It is built on high rocky bluffs, and is the centre of a pearl-
Miinsteri, Ptychites studeri, Balatonites balatonicus, Aspidura scutel-
button industry introduced in 1891 by J. F. Boepple, a German, lata, Daonella Lommeli, and in the Alpine region several rock-
the buttons being made from the shells of the fresh-water forming Algae, Bactryllium, Gyroporella, Diplopora, &c.
mussel found in the neighbourhood; and there are other manu- (J. A. H.)
factures. Coal is mined in the vicinity, and near the city are MUSCLE AND NERVE (Physiology). 1 Among the properties
large market-gardens, the water-melons growing on Muscatine of living material there is one, widely though not universally
Island (below the city) and sweet potatoes being their most present in it, which forms the pre-eminent characteristic of
important products. The municipality owns and operates the 'The anatomy of the muscles is dealt with under MUSCULAR
waterworks. Muscatine began as a trading-post in 1833. It SYSTEM, and of the nerves under NERVE and NERVOUS SYSTEM.
MUSCLE AND NERVE 45
muscular cells. This property is the liberation of some of quickly as to fall even during the continuance of the contraction
the energy contained in the chemical compounds of the cells excited by a first, elicits a second contraction. This second
in such a way as to give mechanical work. The contraction starts from whatever phase of previous contraction
mechanical work is obtained by movement resulting the muscle may have reached at the time. A third stimulus
from a change, it is supposed, in the elastic tension of the excites a third additional contraction, a fourth a fourth, and so
framework of the living cell. In the fibrils existing in the on. The increments of contraction become, however, less and
cell a sudden alteration of elasticity occurs, resulting in an less, until the succeeding stimuli serve merely to maintain, not
increased tension on the points of attachment of the cell to the to augment, the existing degree of contraction. We arrive thus
" "
neighbouring elements of the tissue in which the cell is placed. by synthesis at a summation of beats or of simple contrac-
"
These yield under the strain, and tne cell shortens between tions in the compound, or tetanic," or summed contraction of
those points of itsattachment. This shortening is called the skeletal muscles. The tetanic or summed contractions are
contraction. But the volume of the cell is not more extensive than the simple, both in space and time, and
"
appreciably altered, despite the change of its shape, liberate more energy, both as mechanical work and heat. The
Mm'"
for its one diameter increases in proportion as its tension developed by their means in the muscle is many times
other is diminished. The manifestations of contractility by greater than that developed by a simple twitch.
muscle are various in mode. By tonic contraction is meant Muscle respond by changes in their activity to changes
cells
a prolonged and equable state of tension which yields under in their environment, and thus are said to be " excitable."
analysis no element of intermittent character. This is mani- They are, however, less excitable than are the nerve Excit-
fested by the muscular walls of the hollow viscera and of the cells which innervate them. The change which
ability.
heart, where it is the expression of a continuous liberation of excites them is termed a stimulus. The least
energy in process in the muscular tissue, the outcome of the stimulus which suffices to excite is known as the stimulus of
latter's own intrinsic life, and largely independent of any con- threshold value. In the case of the heart muscle this threshold
nexion with the nervous system. The muscular wall of the stimulus evokes a beat as extensive as does the strongest
blood-vessels also exhibits tonic contraction, which, however, stimulus; that is, the intensity of the stimulus, so long as it
seems to be mainly traceable to a continual excitation of the is above threshold value, is not a function of the amount of the
muscle cells by nervous influence conveyed to them along their muscular response. But in the ordinary skeletal muscles the
nerves, and originating in the great vaso motor centre in the bulb. amount of the muscular contraction is for a short range of
In the ordinary striped muscles of the skeletal musculature, e.g. quantities of stimulus (of above threshold value) proportioned
gastrocnemius, tonic contraction obtains; but this, like the last to the intensity of the stimulus and increases with it. A value
mentioned, is not autochthonous in the muscles themselves; it of stimulus, however, is soon reached which evokes a maximal
is indirect and neural, and appears to be maintained reflexly. contraction. Further increase of contraction does not follow
The receptive organs of the muscular sense and of the semi- further increase of the intensity of the stimulus above that
circular canals are to be regarded as the sites of origin of this point.
reflex tonus of the skeletal muscles. Striped muscles possessing Just as in a nerve fibre, when excited by a localized stimulus,
an autochthonous tonus appear to be the various sphincter the excited state spreads from the excited point to the adjacent
"
muscles. unexcited ones, so in muscle the contraction," when excited
Another mode of manifestation of contractility by muscles at a point, spreads to the adjacent uncontracted parts. Both
is the rhythmic. A tendency to rhythmic contraction seems dis- in muscle and in nerve this spread is termed conduction.
coverable in almost all muscles. In some it is very marked, for It is propagated along the muscle fibres of the skeletal muscles
example in some viscera, the spleen, the bladder, the ureter, the at a rate of about 3 metres per second. In the heart muscle
uterus, the intestine, and especially in the heart. In several of it travels much more slowly. The disturbance travels as a
these it appears not unlikely that the recurrent explosive libera- wave of contraction, and the whole extent of the wave-like
tions of energy in the muscle tissue are not secondary to recurrent disturbance measures in ordinary muscles much more than the
explosions in nerve cells, but are attributable to decompositions whole length of any single muscle fibre. That the excited state
arising sua sponte in the chemical substances of the muscle cells spreads only to previously unexcited portions of the muscle
themselves in the course of their living. Even small strips of fibre shows that even in the skeletal variety of muscle there
the muscle of the heart, if taken immediately after the death of exists, though only for a very brief time, a period of inexcitability.
the animal, continue, when kept moist and warm and supplied The duration of this period is about yj"tr of a second in skeletal
" "
with oxygen, to beat rhythmically for hours. Rhythmic muscle.
contraction is also characteristic of certain groups of skeletal When muscle that has remained inactive for some time is
muscles, e.g. the respiratory. In these the rhythmic activity is, excited by a series of single and equal stimuli succeeding at
however, clearly secondary to rhythmic discharges of the nerve intervals too prolonged to cause summation the succeeding
cells constituting the respiratory centre in the bulb. Such contractions exhibit progressive increase up to a certain degree.
discharges descend the nerve fibres of the spinal cord, and through The tenth contraction usually exhibits the culmination of this
"
'the intermediation of various spinal nerve cells excite the so-called staircase effect." The explanation may lie in the
respiratory muscles through their motor nerves. A form of production of CO? in the muscle. That substance, in small
contraction intermediate in character between the tonic and doses, favours the contractile power of muscle. The muscle
the rhythmic is met in the auricle of the heart of the toad. There is a machine for utilizing the energy contained in its own chemical
slowly successive phases of increased and of diminished tonus compounds. It is not surprising that the chemical substances
regularly alternate, and upon them are superposed the rhythmic produced in it by the decomposition of its living material should
" "
beats of the pulsating heart. not be of a nature indifferent for muscular life. We find that
"
The beat," i.e. the short-lasting explosive contraction of if the series of excitations of the muscle be prolonged beyond
the heart muscle, can be elicited by a single, even momentary, the short stage of initial improvement, the contractions, after
application of a stimulus, e.g. by an induction shock. Similarly, being well maintained for a time, later decline in force and
such a single stimulus elicits from a skeletal muscle a single speed, and ultimately dwindle even to vanishing point. This
" "
beat," or, as it is termed, a twitch." In the heart muscle decline is said to be due to muscular fatigue. The muscle
during a brief period after each beat, that is, after each recovers on being allowed to rest unstimulated for a while,
single contraction of the rhythmic series, the muscle becomes and more quickly on being washed with an innocuous but non-
inexcitable. It cannot then be excited to contract by any nutritious solution, such as -6%, NaCl in water. The washing
agent, though the inexcitable period is more brief for strong seems to remove excreta of the muscle's own production, and
than for weak stimuli. But in the skeletal, voluntary or the period of repose removes them perhaps by diffusion, perhaps
striped muscles a second stimulus succeeding a previous so by breaking them down into innocuous material. Since the
46 MUSCLE AND NERVE
muscle produces lactic acids during activity, it has been sug- Non-myelinate nerve fibres are as resistant to fatigue as are
" "
gested that acids are among the fatigue substances with the myelinate.
which muscle poisons itself when deprived of circulating blood. The neuron is described as having a cell body or perikaryon
Muscles when active seem to pour into the circulation substances from which the cell branches dendrites and axon extend^
which, of unknown chemical composition, are physiologically and it is this perikaryon which, as its name implies,
recognizable by their stimulant action on the respiratory nervous contains the nucleus. It forms the trophic centre of
centre. The effect of the fatigue substances upon the contrac- the just as the nucleus-containing part of every
cell,
tion of the tissue is manifest especially in the relaxation process. cell isthe trophic centre of the whole cell. Any part of the cell
The contracted state, instead of rapidly subsiding after dis- cut off from the nucleus-containing part dies down: this is as
continuance of the stimulus, slowly and only partially wears true of nerve cells as of amoeba, and in regard to the neuron
off, the muscle remaining in a condition of physiological it constitutes what is known as the Wallerian degeneration.
" On the other hand, in some neurons, after severance of the axon
contracture." The alkaloid veratrin has a similar effect
upon the contraction muscle; it enormously delays the
of from the rest of the cell (spinal motor cell), the whole nerve
return from the contracted state, as also does epinephrin, an cell as well as the severed axon degenerates, and may eventu-
alkaloid extracted from the suprarenal gland. ally die and be removed. In the severed axon the degenera-
Nervous System. The work of Camillo Golgi (Pavia, 1885 tion is first evident in a breaking down of the naked nerve
and onwards) on the minute structure of the nervous system has filaments of the motor end plate. A
little later the breaking
led to great alteration of doctrine in neural physi- down of the whole axon, both axis cylinder and myelin sheath
Neuron
Theory. ology. It had been held that the branches of the alike, seems to occur simultaneously throughout its entire
nerve cells, that is to say, the fine nerve fibres length distal to the place of severance. The complex fat of
since all nerve fibres are nerve cell branches, and all nerve cell the myelin becomes altered chemically, while the other com-
branches are nerve fibres which form a close felt-work in the ponents of the sheath break down. This death of the sheath as
nervous centres, there combined into a network actually con- well as of the axis cylinder shows that it, like the axis cylinder,
tinuous throughout. This continuum was held to render possible is a part of the nerve cell itself.
conduction in all directions throughout the grey matter of the In addition to the trophic influence exerted by each part
whole nervous system. The fact that conduction occurred of the neuron on its other parts, notably by the perikaryon
preponderantly in certain directions was explained by appeal on the branches, one neuron also in many instances in-
cell
to a hypothetical resistance to conduction which, for reasons fluences the nutrition of other neurons. When, for instance,
unascertained, lay less in some directions than in others. The the axons of the ganglion cells of the retina are severed by
intricate felt-work has by Golgi been ascertained to be a mere section of the optic nerve, and thus their influence upon the
interlacement, not an actual anastomosis network; the branches nerve cells of the visual cerebral centres is set aside, the nerve
springing from the various cells remain lifelong unattached and cells of those centres undergo secondary atrophy (Gadden's
unjoined to any other than their own individual cell. Each atrophy). size; they do not, however, die.
They dwindle in
neuron or nerve cell is a morphologically distinct and discrete Similarly, of the motor spinal cells are by
when the axons
unit connected functionally but not structurally with its neigh- severance of the nerve trunk of a muscle broken through, the
" "
bours, and leading its own life independently of the destiny of muscle cells undergo degeneration dwindle, become fatty,
its neighbours. Among the properties of the neuron is con- and alter almost beyond recognition. This trophic influence
ductivity in all directions. But when neurons are linked together which one neuron exerts upon others, or upon the cells of an
it is found that nerve impulses will only pass from neuron A to extrinsic tissue, such as muscle, is exerted in that
neuron B, and not from neuron B to neuron A; that is, the direction which is the one normally
T a!c
* taken by the ^
T . Activity of
.
transmission of the excited state or nervous impulse, although natural nerve impulses. It seems, especially in ^eurong
possible in each neuron both up and down its own cell branches, the case of the nexus between certain neurons,
ispossible from one nerve cell to another in one direction only. that the influence, loss of which endangers nutrition, is associ-
That direction is the direction in which the nerve impulses ated with the occurrence of something more than merely the
flow under the conditions of natural life. The synapse, therefore, nervous impulses awakened from time to time in the leading
as the place of meeting of one neuron with the next is called, nerve cell. The wave of change (nervous impulse) induced
is said to valve the nerve circuits. This determinate sense in a neuron by advent of a stimulus is after all only a sudden
of the spread is called the law of forward direction. The synapse augmentation of an activity continuous within the neuron
appears to be a weak spot in the chain of conduction, or rather a transient accentuation of one (the disintegrative) phase of
to be a place which breaks down with comparative ease under the metaboh'sm inherent in and inseparable from its life. The
stress, e.g. under effect of poisons. The axons of the motor nervous impulse is, so to say, the sudden evanescent glow of an
neurons are, inasmuch as they are nerve fibres in nerve trunks, ember continuously black-hot. A continuous lesser " change "
easily accessible to artificial stimuli. It can be demonstrated or stream of changes sets through the neuron, and is distributed
that they are practically indefatigable repeatedly stimulated by it to other neurons in the same direction and by the same
by electrical currents,even through many hours, they, unlike synapses as are its nerve impulses. This gentle continuous
muscle, continue to respond with unimpaired reaction. .
activity of the neuron is called its tonus. In tracing the tonus
^ et wnen the muscular contraction is taken as index of neurons to a source, one is always led link by link against
" "
of the response of the nerve, it is found that unmis- the current of nerve force so to say, up stream to the
takable signs of fatigue appear even very soon after commence- first beginnings of the chain of neurons in the sensifacient surfaces
ment of the excitation of the nerve, and the muscle ceases of the body. From these, as in the eye, ear, and other sense
to give any contraction in response to stimuli applied indirectly to organs, tonus is constantly initiated. Hence, when cut off
it through its nerve. But the muscle will, when excited directly, from these sources, the nutrition of the neurons of various
e.g. by direct application of electric currents, contract vigorously central mechanisms suffers. Thus the tonus of the motor
after all response on its part to the stimuli (nerve impulses) neurons of the spinal cord is much lessened by rupture of the
applied to it indirectly through its nerve has failed. The great afferent root cells which normally play upon them.
inference is that the "fatigue substances" generated in .the A prominent and practically important illustration of neural
muscle fibres in the course of their prolonged contraction injure tonus is given by the skeletal muscles. These muscles exhibit
and paralyse the motor end plates, which are places of synapsis a certain constant condition of slight contraction, which dis-
between nerve cell and muscle cell, even earlier than they harm appears on severance of the nerve that innervates the muscle.
the contractility of the muscle fibres themselves. The alkaloid It is a muscular tonus of central source consequent on
curarin causes motor paralysis by attacking in a selective way the continual glow of excitement in the spinal motor neuron,
this junction of motor nerve cell and striped muscular fibre. whose outgoing end plays upon the muscle cells, whose ingoing
MUSCLE AND NERVE 47
end is played upon by other neurons spinal, cerebral and to thrust out new branches and to lengthen existing branches,
cerebellar. for many years far into adult life. They similarly possess power
with the neural element of muscle tonus that tendon pheno-
It is to repair and to regenerate their cell branches where these are
mena are intimately associated. The earliest-studied of these, the injured or destroyed by trauma or disease. This is the explana-
"
knee-jerk," may serve as example of the class. It is a brief ex- tion of the repair of nerve trunks that have been severed, with
tension of the limb at the knee-joint, due to a simple contraction of
the extensor muscle, elicited by a tap or other short mechanical consequent degeneration of the peripheral nerve fibres. As a
stimulus applied to the muscle fibres through the tendon of the rule, a longer time is required to restore the motor than the
muscle. The jerk is obtainable only from muscle fibres possessed sensory functions of a nerve trunk.
of neural tonus. If the sensory nerves of the extensor muscle be Whether examined by functional or by structural features,
"
severed, the "jerk is lost. The brevity of the interval between the conducting paths of the nervous system, traced from
the tap on the knee and the beginning of the resultant contraction
of the muscle seems such as to exclude the possibility of reflex beginning to end, never terminate in the centres of
development. A little experience in observations on "
the knee-jerk that system, but pass through them. All ultimately
imparts a notion of the average strength of the jerk." Wide emerge as efferent channels. efferent
Every
departures from the normal standard are met with and are sympto-
matic of certain nervous conditions. Stretching of the muscles channel, after entrance in the central nervous system, sub-
antagonistic to the extensors namely, of the flexor muscles divides; of its subdivisions some pass to efferent channels
reduces the jerk by inhibiting the extensor spinal nerve cells through soon, others pass further and further within the cord and brain
the nervous impulses generated by the tense flexor muscles. Hence before they finally reach channels of outlet. All the longest
a favourable posture of the limb for eliciting the jerk is one ensuring routes thus formed traverse late in their course the cortex of
relaxation of the hamstring muscles, as when the leg has been
crossed upon the other. In sleep the jerk is diminished, in deep the cerebral hemisphere. It is this relatively huge development
sleep quite abolished. Extreme bodily fatigue diminishes it. Con- of cortex cerebri which is the pre-eminent structural character
a cold bath increases it. The turning of attention towards " "
versely, of man. This means that the number of longest routes
the knee interferes with the jerk; hence the device of directing the
in man is, as compared with lower animals, disproportionately
person to perform vigorously some movement, which does not
involve the muscles ot the lower limb, at the moment when the great. In the lower animal forms there is no such nervous
light blow is dealt upon the tendon. A slight degree of contraction structure at all as the cortex cerebri. In the frog, lizard, and
of muscle seems the substratum of all attention. The direction of even bird, it is thin and poorly developed. In the marsupials
attention to the performance of some movement by the arm ensures it is more evident, and its excitation by electric currents evokes
that looseness and freedom from tension in the thigh muscles which
is essential for the provocation of the jerk. The motor cells of movements in the musculature of the crossed side of the body.
the extensor muscles, when preoccupied by cerebral influence, Larger and thicker in the rabbit, when excited it gives rise in
T. Ziehen has noted exaltation of the jerk to that animal to movements of the eyes and of the fore-limbs
appear refractory.
follow extirpation of a cortical centre. and neck; but it is only in much higher types, such as the
Although the cell body or perikaryon of the neuron, with dog, that the cortex yields, under experimental excitation,
its contained nucleus, is essential for the maintenance of the definitely localized foci, whence can be evoked movements
life of the cell branches, it has become recognized of the fore-limb, hind-limb, neck, eyes, ears and fate. In
Conduction .!_,, , ,. f t,
la Neurons.
^" a t" e ac t ua ' process and function of
*- con- the monkey the proportions it assumes are still greater, and
" number of foci, for distinct movements of this and that
duction in many neurons can, and does, go on the
without the cell body being directly concerned in the conduction. member, indeed for the individual joints of each limb, are
S. Exner first showed, many years ago, that the nerve impulse much more numerous, and together occupy a more extensive
travels through the spinal ganglion at the same speed as along surface, though relatively to the total surface of the brain a
the other parts of the nerve trunk that is, that it suffers no smaller one.
delay in transit through the perikarya of the afferent root- Experiment shows that in the manlike (anthropoid) apes the
"
neurons. Bethe has succeeded in isolating their perikarya differentiation of the foci or "centres of movement in the motor
from certain of the afferent neurons of the antennule of field of the cortex is even more minute. In them areas are found
Carcinus. The conduction through the amputated cell branches whence stimuli excite movements of this or that finger alone,
continues unimpaired for many hours. This indicates that of the upper lip without the lower, of the tip only of the tongue,
the conjunction between the conducting substance of the or of one upper eyelid by itself. The movement evoked from
dendrons and that of the axon can be effected without the a point of cortex is not always the same; its character is
intermediation of the cell body. But the proper nutntion determined by movements evoked from neighbouring points
of the conducting substance is indissolubly dependent on the of cortex immediately antecedently. Thus a point A
will, when
cell branches being in continuity with the cell body and nucleus excited soon subsequent to point B, which latter yields pro-
it contains. Evidence illustrating this nexus is found in the trusion of lips, itself yield lip-protrusion, whereas if excited
visible changes produced in the perikaryon by prolonged after C, which yields lip-retraction, it will itself yield lip-retrac-
activity induced and maintained in the conducting branches tion. The movements obtained by point-to-point excitation
of the cell. As a result the fatigued cells appear shrunken, of the cortex are often evidently imperfect as compared with
and their reaction to staining reagents alters, thus showing natural movements that is, are only portions of complete
chemical alteration. Most marked is the decrease in the normal movements. Thus among the tongue movements
volume of the nucleus, amounting even to 44% of the initial evoked by stigmatic stimulation of the cortex undeviated
volume. In the myelinated cell branches of the neuron, that protrusion or retraction of the organ is not found. Again,
is, in the ordinary nerve fibres, no visible change has ever been from different points of the cortex the assumption of the
demonstrated as the result of any normal activity, however requisite of the tongue, lips, cheeks, palate and
positions
great a striking contrast to the observations obtained on epiglottis, ascomponents in the act of sucking, can be pro-
the perikarya. The chemical changes that accompany activity voked singly. Rarely can the whole action be provoked, and
in the nerve fibre must be very small, for the production of then only gradually, by prolonged and strong excitation
COj is barely measurable, and no production of heat is of one of the requisite points, e.g. that for the tongue, with
observable as the result of the most forced tetanic activity. which the other points are functionally connected. Again,
The nerve cells of the higher vertebrata, unlike their blood no single point in the cortex evokes the act of ocular converg-
cells, their connective tissue cells, and even their muscle cells, ence and fixation. All this means that the execution of natural
Growth la early, and indeed in embryonic life, lose power of movements employs simultaneous co-operative activity of a
Nervous multiplication. The number of them formed is number of points in the motor fields on both sides of the brain
System.
definitely closed at an early period of the individual together.
life. Although, unlike so many other cells, thus early sterile for The accompanying simple figure indicates better than any
reproduction of their kind, they retain for longer than most cells verbal description the topography of the main groups of foci
a high power of individual growth. They continue to grow, and in the motor field of a manlike ape (chimpanzee). It will be
MUSCLE AND NERVE
noted from it that there is no direct relation between the extent of come to be furnished more and more with fibres that are fully
a cortical area and the mass of muscles which it controls. myelinate. At the beginning of its history each is unprovided
The mass of muscles in the trunk is greater than in the leg, and with myelinate nerve fibres. The excitable foci of the cerebral
in the leg is greater than in the arm, and in the arm is many times cortex are well myelinated long before the unexcitable are so.
greater than in the face and head; yet for the last the cortical The regions of the cortex, whose conduction paths are early
area is the most extensive of all, and for the first-named is completed, may be arranged in groups by their connexions
the least extensive of all. with sense-organs: eye-region, ear-region, skin and somaesthetic
The motor the cortex is, taken altogether, relatively
field of region, olfactory and taste region. The areas of intervening
to the size of the lower parts of the brain, larger in the anthropoid cortex, arriving at structural completion later than the above
than in the inferior monkey brains. But in the anthropoid sense-spheres, are called by some association-spheres, to indicate
Anus <J the view that they contain the neural mechanisms of
vagina* "
reactions (some have said ideas ") associated with
**? :XMftL ty* the sense perceptions elaborated in the several sense-
Knee ''^'^^^/^'^y^^ ..Chest
spheres.
Hip.
The name "
motor area " is given to that region
of cortex whence, as D. Ferrier's investigations
showed, motor reactions of the facial and Seasorl-
limb muscles are regularly and easily motor
evoked. This region is often called the &*"*.
sensori-motor cortex, and the term somaesthetic has
alsobeen used and seems appropriate. It has been
found that disturbance of sensation, as well as
disturbance of movement, is often incurred by its
injury. Patients in whom, for purposes of diagnosis,
it has been electrically excited, describe, as the
initial effect of the stimulation, tingling and obscure
but locally-limited sensations, referred to the part
whose muscles a moment later are thrown into
co-ordinate activity. The distinction, therefore,
EAT--.''' between the movement of the eyeballs, elicited from
Eyelid . the occipital (visual) cortex, and that of the hand,
Cidaure
Nose ' elicited from the cortex in the region of the central
Opening Sulciis cerUfaUs, sulcus (somaesthetic), is not a difference between
cords. r1a.iticaion Mi** motor and sensory, for both are sensori-motor in the
Diagram of the Topography of the Main Groups of Foci in the Motor Field nature of their reactions; the difference is only a
of Chimpanzee. difference between the kind of sense and sense-organ
brain still more increased even than the motor field are the great in the two cases, the muscular apparatus in each case being
regions of the cortex outside that field, which yield no definite an appanage of the sensual.
movements under electric excitation, and are for that reason That the lower types of vertebrate, such as fish, e.g. carp,
known as " silent." The motor field, therefore, though absolutely possess practically no cortex cerebri, and nevertheless execute
" "
larger, forms a smaller fraction of the whole cortex of the brain volitional acts involving high co-ordination and suggesting
than in the lower forms. The statement that in the anthropoid the possession by them of associative memory, shows that for
(orang-outan) brain the groups of foci in the motor fields of the the existence of these phenomena the cortex cerebri is in them
cortex are themselves separated one from another by sur- not essential. In the dog it has been proved that after removal
rounding inexcitable cortex, has been made and was one of from the animal of every vestige of its cortex cerebri, it still
great interest, but has not been confirmed by subsequent executes habitual acts of great motor complexity requiring
observation. That in man the excitable foci of the motor extraordinarily delicate adjustment of muscular contraction.
field are islanded in excitable surface similarly and even more It can walk, run and feed; such an animal, on wounding its
extensively, was a natural inference, but it had its chief basis foot, will run on three legs, as will a normal dog under similar
in the observations on the orang, now known to be erroneous. mischance. But signs of associative memory are almost, if
In the diagram there is indicated the situation of the cortical not entirely, wanting. Throughout three years such a dog
centres for movement of the vocal cords. Their situation is failed to learn that the attendant's lifting it from the cage at a
at the lower end of the motor field. That they should lie certain hour was the preliminary circumstance of the feeding-
there is interesting, because that place is close to one known hour; yet it did exhibit hunger, and would refuse further food
in man to be associated with management of the movements when a sufficiency had been taken. In man, actually gross
concerned in speech. When that area in man is injured, the sensory defects follow even limited lesions of the cortex. Thus
ability to utter words is impaired. Not that there is paralysis the rabbit and the dog are not absolutely blinded by removal
of the muscles of speech, since these muscles can be used perfectly of the entire cortex, but in man destruction of the occipital
for all acts other than speech. The area in man is known as cortex produces total blindness, even to the extent that the
the motor centre for speech; in most persons it exists only in pupil of the eye does not respond when light is flashed into
the left half of the brain and not in the right. In a similar way the eye.
damage of a certain small portion of the temporal lobe of the Examination of the cerebellum by the method of Wallerian
brain produces loss of intelligent apprehension of words spoken, degeneration has shown that a large number of spinal and
although there is no deafness and although words seen are bulbar nerve cells send branches up into it. These Cerebellum.
"
perfectly apprehended. Another region, the angular region," seem to end, for the most, part, in the grey cortex
is similarly related to intelligent apprehension of words seen, of the median lobe, some, though not the majority, of
though not of words heard. them decussating across the median line. The organ seems
When this differentiation of cortex, with its highest expres- also to receive many fibres from the parietal region of the
sion in man, is collated' with the development of the cortex cerebral hemisphere. From the organ there emerge fibres
as studied in the successive phases of its growth and ripening which cross to the opposite red nucleus, and directly or
in the human infant, a suggestive analogy is obvious. The indirectly reach the thalamic region of the crossed hemi-
nervous paths in the brain and cord, as they attain completion, sphere. The pons or middle peduncle, which was regarded,
MUSCLE AND NERVE 49
on the uncertain ground of naked-eye dissection of human essentially nervous. In deep sleep the threshold-value of the
anatomy, as commissural between the two lateral lobes of stimuli for the various senses is very greatly raised, rising
the cerebellum, is now known to constitute chiefly a cerebro- rapidly during the first hour and a half of sleep, and then declining
cerebellar decussating path. Certain cerebellar cells send with gradually decreasing decrements. The muscles become less
processes down to the cell-group in the bulb known as the tense than in their waking state: their tonus is diminished, the
nucleus of Deiters, which latter projects fibres down the upper eyelid falls, and the knee-jerk is in abeyance. The
spinal cord. Whether there is any other or direct emergent respiratory rhythm is less frequent and the breathing less deep;
path from the cerebellum into the spinal cord is a matter the heart-beat is less frequent; the secretions are less copious;
on which opinion is divided. the pupil is narrow; in the brain there exists arterial anaemia with
if large, derange the power of
Injuries of the cerebellum, venous congestion, so that the blood-flow there is less than in the
executing movements, without producing any detectable waking state.
derangement of sensation. The derangement gradually dis- It has been suggested that the gradual cumulative result
appears, unless the to the organ be very wide.
damage A of the activity of the nerve cells during the waking day is to
" "
reeling gait, oscillations of the body which impart a zigzag load the brain tissue with fatigue-substances
direction to the walk, difficulty in standing, owing to unsteadi- which clog the action of the cells, and thus periodi- s /eep .
ness of limb, are common in cerebellar disease. On the other cally produce that loss of consciousness, &c., which
hand, congenital defect amounting to absence of one cerebellar is sleep. Such a drugging of tissue by its own excreta is known
hemisphere has been found to occasion practically no symptoms in muscular fatigue, but the fact that the depth of sleep progres-
whatsoever. Not a hundredth part of the cerebellum has sively increases for an hour and more after its onset prevents
remained, and yet there has existed ability to stand, to walk, to complete explanation of sleep on similar lines. It has been
handle and lift objects in a fairly normal way, without any trace urged that the neurons retract during sleep, and that thus at the
of impairment of cutaneous or muscular sensitivity. The synapses the gap between nerve cell and nerve cell becomes
damage to the cerebellum must, it would seem, occur abruptly or wider, or..t>jat the supporting cells expand between the nerve
quickly in order to occasion marked derangement of function, cells and tend to isolate the latter one from the other. Certain it is
and then the derangement falls on the execution of movements. that in the course of the waking day a great number of stimuli
One aspect of this derangement, named by Luciani astasia, play on the sense organs, and through these produce disintegra-
is a tremor heightened by or only appearing when the muscles tion of the living molecules of the central nervous system.
"
enter upon action intention tremor." Vertigo is a frequent Hence during the day the assimilatory processes of these cells
result of cerebellar injury: animals indicate it by their actions; are overbalanced by their wear and tear, and the end-result is
patients describe it. To interpret this vertigo, appeal must that the cell attains an atomic condition less favourable to
be made to disturbances, other than cerebellar, which like- further disintegration than to reintegration. That phase of
wise occasion vertigo. These include, besides ocular squint, cell life which we are accustomed to call
" " is
active accompanied
many spatial positions and movements unwonted to the body: always by disintegration. When in the cell the assimilative
the looking from a height, the gliding over ice, sea-travel, to processes exceed dissimilative, the external manifestations of
some persons even travelling by train, or the covering of one energy are liable to cease or diminish. Sleep is not exhaustion
eye. Common to all these conditions is the synchronous rise of the neuron in the sense that prolonged activity has reduced
of perceptions of spatial relations between the self and the its excitability to zero. The nerve cell just prior to sleep is still
environment which have not, or have rarely, before arisen in well capable of response to stimuli, although perhaps the thres-
synchronous combination. The tactual organs of the soles, and hold-value of the stimulus has become rather high, whereas after
the muscular sense organs of limbs and trunk, are originating entrance upon sleep and continuance of sleep for several hours,
perceptions that indicate that the self is standing on the and more, when all spur to the dissimilation process has been
solid earth, yet the eyes are at the same time originating long withheld, the threshold-value of the sensory stimulus
perceptions that indicate that the solid earth is far away becomes enormously higher than before. The exciting cause
below the standing self. The combination is hard to harmonize of sleep is therefore no complete exhaustion of the available
at at least not given as innately harmonized.
first; it is Per- material of the cells, nor is it entirely any paralysing of them by
ceptions regarding the
"
me " are notoriously highly charged their excreta. It is more probably abeyance of external function
"
with feeling," and the conflict occasions the feeling insuffi- during a periodic internal assimilatory phase.
"
ciently described as giddiness." The cerebellum receives
not from all, of the afferent roots. With Two processes conjoin to initiate the assimilatory phase. There
paths from most, if
is close interconnexion between the two aspects of the double
certain of these stands associated most closely, namely,
it
activity that in physiological theory constitute the chemical life of
with the vestibular, representing the sense organs which furnish protoplasm, between dissimilation and assimilation. Hering has
data -for appreciation of positions and movements of the head, long insisted on a self-regulative adjustment of the cell metabolism,
and with the channels, conveying centripetal impressions from so that action involves reaction, increased catabolism necessitates
after-increase of anabolism. The long-continued incitement to
the apparatus of skeletal movement. Disorder of the cere- catabolism of the waking day thus of itself predisposes the nerve
bellum sets at variance, brings discord into, the space-percep- cells towards rebound into the opposite phase; the increased cata-
tions contributory to the movement. The body's movement bolism due to the day's stimuli induces increase of anabolism, and
becomes thus imperfectly adjusted to the spatial requirements though recuperation goes on to a large extent during the day itself,
the recuperative process is slower than, and lags behind, the dis-
of the act it would perform.
integrative. Hence there occurs a cumulative effect, progressively
In the physiological basis of sense exist many impressions increasing from the opening till the closing hours. The second
which, apart from and devoid of psychical accompaniment, factor inducing tiie assimilative change is the withdrawal of the
nervous system from sensual stimulation. The eyes are closed,
reflexly influence motor (muscular) innervation. It is with
the maintenance.of posture by active contraction is replaced by the
this sort of habitually apsychical reaction that the cerebellum
recumbent pose which can be maintained by static action and the
is, it would seem, employed. That it is apparently devoid of mere mechanical consistence of the body, the ears are screened
psychical concomitant need not imply that the impressions from noise in the quiet chamber, the skin from localized pressure
concerned in it are crude and inelaborate. The seeming want by a soft, yielding couch. The effect of thus reducing the excitant
action of the environment is to give consciousness over more to
of reaction of somuch of the cerebellar structure under artificial mere revivals by memory, and gradually consciousness lapses. A
stimulation, and the complex relay system revealed in the remarkable case is well authenticated, where, owing to disease, a
histology of the cerebellum, suggest that the impressions are young man had lost the use of all the senses save of one eye and of
elaborate. Its reaction preponderantly helps to secure co- one ear. If these last channels were sealed, in two or three minutes'
time he invariably fell asleep.
ordinate innervation of the skeletal musculature, both for
If natural sleep is the expression of a phase of decreased excit-
maintenance of attitude and for execution of movements. ability due to the setting in of a tide of anabolism in the cells of the
Sleep. The more obvious of the characters of sleep (q.v.) are nervous system, what is the action of narcotics ? They lower the
MUSCOVITE
external activities of the cells, but do they not at the same time " "
sensation. The physical touchthat initiates the psychical
lower the internal, reparative, assimilative activity of the cell that " "
in natural sleep goes vigorously forward preparing the system for
touch initiates, through the very same nerve channels, a
reflex movement responsive to the physical
"
the next day's drain on energy? In most cases they seem to touch," just as the
lower both the internal and the external activity of the " "
Narcotics. psychical touch may be considered also a response to the
nerve cells, to lessen the cell's entire metabolism, to same physical event. But in the decapitated animal we have
reduce the speed of its whole chemical movement and life. Hence
it is not surprising that often the refreshment, the recuperation, good arguments for belief that we get the reflex movement alone
obtained from and felt after sleep induced by a drug amounts to as response; the psychical touch drops out. Could we assume
nothing, or to worse than nothing. But very often refreshment that there is in the adult man reflex machinery which is of higher
is undoubtedly obtained from such narcotic sleep. It may be order than the merely spinal, which employs much more complex
supposed that in the latter case the effect of the drug has been to 1
motor mechanisms than they, and is connected with a much
ensure occurrence of that second predisposing factor mentioned
above, of that withdrawal of sense impulses from the nerve centres wider range of sense organs; and could we assume that- this
that serves to usher in the state of sleep. In certain conditions it reflex machinery, although usually associated in its action with
may be well worth while by means of narcotic drugs to close the memorial and volitional processes, may in certain circumstances
portals of the senses for the sake of thus obtaining stillness in the
chambers of the mind; their enforced quietude may induce a be sundered from these latter and unattendant on them may
in fact continue in work when the higher processes are at a
period in which natural rest and repair continue long after the
initial unnatural arrest of vitality due to the drug itself has passed standstill then we might imagine a condition resembling that
away. of the somnambulistic and cataleptic states of hypnotism.
" "
Hypnotism. The physiology of this group of states is, Such assumptions are not wholly unjustified. Actions of great
as regards the real understanding of their production, eminently complexity and delicacy of adjustment are daily executed by each
of us without what is ordinarily understood as volition, and without
vague (see also HYPNOTISM). The conditions which tend to in- more than a mere shred of memory attached thereto. To take
duce them contain generally, as one element, constrained visual one's watch from the pocket and look at it when from a familiar
attention prolonged beyond ordinary duration. Symptoms clock-tower a familiar bell strikes a familiar hour, is an instance of
attendant on the hypnotic state are closure of tht e eyelids by a habitual action initiated by a sense perception outside attentive
consciousness. We may suddenly remember dimly afterwards that
the hypnotizer without subsequent attempt to open them by
we have done so, and we quite fail to recall the difference between
the hypnotized subject; the pupils, instead of being constricted, the watch time and the clock time. In many instances hypnotism
as for near vision, dilate, and there sets in a condition superficially seems to establish quickly reactions similar to such as usually
resembling sleep. But in natural sleep the action of all parts result only from long and closely attentive practice. The sleeping
of the nervous system is subdued, whereas in the hypnotic the mother rests undisturbed by the various noises of the house and
street, but wakes at a slight murmur from her child. The ship's
reactions of the lower, and some even of the higher, parts are
engineer, engaged in conversation with some visitor to the engine-
exalted. Moreover, the reactions seem to follow the sense room, talks apparently undisturbed by all the multifold noise and
impressions with such fatality, that, as an inference, absence of rattle of the machinery, but let the noise alter in some item which,
will-power to control them or suppress them is suggested. This though unnoticeable to the visitor, betokens importance to the
" " trained ear, and his passive attention is in a moment caught. The
reflex activity with paralysis of will is characteristic of the
warders at an asylum have been hypnotized to sleep by the bedside
somnambulistic state. The threshold-value of the stimuli " "
of dangerous patients, and suggested to awake the instant the
adequate for the various senses may be extraordinarily lowered. patients attempt to get out of bed, sounds which had no import for
Print of microscopic size may be read; a watch ticking in another them being inhibited by suggestion. Warders in this way worked
all day and performed night duty also for months without showing
room can be heard. Judgment of weight and texture of surface This is akin to the " repetition " which, read by the
fatigue.
is exalted; thus a card can in a dark room be felt and then "
schoolboy last thing overnight, is on waking known by heart."
re-selected from the re-shuffled pack. Akin to this condition is Most of us can wake somewhere about a desired although unusually
that in which the power of maintaining muscular effort is in- early hour, if overnight we desire much to do so.
creased; the individual may lie stiff with merely head and feet Two theories of a physiological nature have been proposed
supported on two chairs; the limbs can be held outstretched for to account for the separation of the complex reactions of
hours at a time. This is the cataleptic state, the phase of hypno- these conditions of hypnotism from volition and from memory.
tism which the phenomena of so-called " animal hypnotism " R. P. H. Heidenhain's view is that the cortical centres of the
resemble most. A frog or fowl or guinea-pig held in some hemisphere are inhibited by peculiar conditions attaching
unnatural pose, and retained so forcibly for a time, becomes to the initiatory sense stimuli. W. T. Preyer's view is that the
" " essential condition for initiation is fatigue of the will-power
set in that pose, or rather in a posture of partial recovery of
the normal posture. In this state it remains motionless for under a prolonged effort of undivided attention.
various periods. This condition is more than usually readily Hypnotic somnambulism and hypnotic catalepsy are not {he
induced when the cerebral hemispheres have been removed. only or the most profound changes of nervous condition that
The decerebrate monkey exhibits " cataleptoid " reflexes. hypnosis can induce. The physiological derangement which
Father A. Kircher's experimentum mirabile with the fowl and is the basis of the abeyance of volition may, if hypnotism be
the chalk line succeeds best with the decerebrate hen. The profound, pass into more widespread derangement, exhibiting
^attitude may be described as due to prolonged, not very intense, itself as the hypnotic lethargy. This is associated not only with
.discharge from reflex centres that regulate posture and are paralysis of will but with profound anaesthesia. Proposals
iprobably intimately connected with the cerebellum. A sudden have been made to employ hypnotism as a method of producing
iintense sense stimulus usually suffices to end this tonic discharge. anaesthesia for surgical purposes, but there are two grave
It completes the movement that has already set in but had been objections to such employment. In order to produce a sufficient
.checked, as it were, half-way, though tonically maintained. degree of hypnotic lethargy the subject must be made extremely
Coincidently with the persistence of the tonic contraction, the susceptible, and this can only be done by repeated hypnotization.
higher and volitional centres seem to lie under a spell of It is necessary to hypnotize patients every day for several weeks
inhibition; their action, which would complete or cut short the before they can be got into a degree of stupor sufficient to allow
posture-spasm, rests in abeyance. Suspension of cerebral of the safe execution of a surgical operation. But the state
influence exists even more markedly, of course, when the itself, when reached, is at least as dangerous to life as is that
.cerebral hemispheres have been ablated. produced by inhalation of ether, and it is more difficult to
But a potent according to some, the most potent factor recover from. Moreover, by the processes the subject has gone
;in hypnotism, namely, suggestion, is unrepresented in the through he has had those physiological activities upon which
production of so-called animal hypnotism. We know that one his volitional power depends excessively deranged, and not
idea suggests another, and that volitional movements are the improbably permanently enfeebled. (C. S. S.)
outcome of ideation. If we assume that there is a material MUSCOVITE, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the mica
process at the basis of ideation, we may take the analogy of the group (see MICA). It is also known as potash-mica, being a
concomitance between a spinal reflex movement and a skin potassium, hydrogen and'aluminium orthosilicate,
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
As the common white mica obtainable in thin, transparent muscle ispartly fleshy and partly tendinous; the fleshy contractile
cleavage sheets of large size it was formerly used in Russia for part is attached at one or both ends to cords or sheets of white
"
window panes and known as Muscovy glass "; hence the name fibrous tissue, which in some cases pass round pullies and so
muscovite, proposed by J. D. Dana in 1850. It crystallizes in change the direction of the muscle's
the monoclinic system; distinctly developed crystals, however, action. The
other end of these cords
are rare and have the form of rough six-sided prisms or plates: or tendons usually attached to the
is
thin scales without definite crystal outlines are more common. periosteum of bones, with which it
The most prominent feature is the perfect cleavage parallel to blends. In some cases, when a
t^ e basal plane (c in the figure), on tendon passes round a bony pulley,
which the lustre is pearly in character. a sesamoid bone is developed in it
jit
The hardness is 2-2 1, and the spec, which diminishes the effects of fric-
"7
grav. 2-8-2-9. The plane of the optic tion. A good example of this is the
axes is perpendicular to the plane of patella in the tendon of the rectus
symmetry and the acute bisectrix nearly normal to the cleavage; femoris (fig. i, P.).
the optic axial angle is 60-70, and double refraction is strong Every muscle is supplied with blood
and negative in sign. vessels and lymphatics (fig. i, v, a, /),
Muscovite frequently occurs as fine scaly to almost compact and also with one or more nerves.
aggregates, especially when, as is often the case, it has resulted The nerve supply is very important
by the alteration of some other mineral, such as felspar, topaz, both from a medical and a morpho-
cyanite, &c.j several varieties depending on differences in logical point of view. The approxi-
structure have been distinguished. Fine scaly varieties are mate attachments are also important,
damourite, margarodite (from Gr. jia/xyapt-njj, a pearl), gilber- because unless they are realized
tite, sericite (from <njpt/cos, silky), &c. In sericite the fine scales the action of the muscle cannot be
are united in fibrous aggregates giving rise to a silky lustre: understood, but the exact attach-
this variety is a common constituent of phyllites and sericite- ments are perhaps laid too great stress
schists. Oncosine (from oyKotns, intumescence) is a compact on in the anatomical teaching of
variety forming rounded aggregates, which swell up when medical students. The study of the
heated before the blowpipe. Closely related to oncosine are several actions of muscles is, of course, a
compact minerals, included together under the name pinite, physiological one, but teaching the
which have resulted by the alteration of iolite, spodumene and subject has been handed over to the
other minerals. Other varieties depend on differences in anatomists, and the results have been
"
chemical composition. Fuchsite or chrome-mica " is a bright in some respects unfortunate. Until
green muscovite containing chromium; it has been used as a very recently the anatomist studied
decorative stone. Oellacherite is a variety containing some only the dead body, and his one idea
barium. In phengite there is more silica than usual, the com- of demonstrating the action of a
position approximating to H2 KAI3 (Si3O 8 )3. muscle was to expose and then to FIG. i. The Rectus Mus-
Muscovite is of wide distribution and is the commonest of the pull it, and whatever happened he cle of the Thigh; to
micas. In igneous rocks it is found only in granite, never in said was the action of that muscle. show the constituent
volcanic rocks; but it is abundant hi gneiss and mica-schist, It is now parts of a muscle.
generally recognized that The fleshy
R, belly.
and in phyllites and clay-slates, where it has been formed at no movement is so simple that only to, Tendon of origin.
the expense of alkali-felspar by dynamo-metamorphic processes. one muscle is concerned in it, and that ti, Tendon of insertion,
In pegmatite-veins traversing granite, gneiss or mica-schist it what a, muscle may do and what it n, Nerve of supply.
occurs as large sheets of commercial value, and is mined in India, a, Artery of supply.
really does do are not necessarily the Vein.
v.
the United States and Brazil (see MICA), and to a limited extent, same thing. As far as the deeper /, Lymphatic vessel.
together with felspar, in southern Norway and in the Urals. muscles are concerned, we still have P, The patella.
Large sheets of muscovite were formerly obtained from Solovetsk onlythe anatomical method to depend
Island, Archangel. (L. J. S.) upon, but with the superficial muscles it should be checked by
MUSCULAR SYSTEM (Anatomy 1
). The muscular tissue causing a living person to perform certain movements and then
(Lat. musculus, from a fancied resemblance of certain muscles studying which muscles take part in them.
to a little mouse) is of three kinds: (i) voluntary or striped For a modern study of muscular actions, see C. E. Beevor's,
muscle; (2) involuntary or unstriped muscle, found in the skin, Croonian Lectures for ipoj (London, 1904).
walls of hollow viscera, coats of blood and lymphatic vessels, &c. ; Muscles have various shapes: they may be fusiform, as in fig. i,.
(3) heart muscle. The microscopical differences of these different conical, riband-like, or flattened into triangular or quadrilateral'
kinds are discussed in the article on CONNECTIVE TISSUES. Here sheets. They may also be attached to skin, cartilage or fascia,
only the voluntary muscles, which are under the control of the instead of to bone, while certain muscles surround openings,
will, are to be considered. which they constrict and are called sphincters. The names of the-
The voluntary muscles form the red flesh of an animal, and muscles have gradually grown up, and no settled plan has been,
are the structures by which one part of the body is moved at used in giving them. Sometimes, as in the coraco-brachialis and:
will upon another. Each muscle is said to have an origin and thyro-hyoid, thename describes the origin and insertion of the
an insertion, the former being that attachment which is usually muscle, and, no doubt, for the student of human anatomy this,
more fixed, the latter that which is more movable. This is the most satisfactory plan, since by learning the name the
distinction, however, although convenient, is an arbitrary one, approximate attachments are also learnt. Sometimes the name
and an example may make this clear. If we take the pectoralis only indicates some peculiarity in the shape of the muscle and
major, which is attached to the front of the chest on the one gives no clue to its position in the body or its attachments;
hand and to the upper part of the arm bone on the other, the examples of this are biceps, semitendinosus and pyriformis.
effect of its contraction will obviously be to draw the arm towards Sometimes, as in the flexor carpi ulnaris and corrugator supercilii,
the chest, so that its origin under ordinary circumstances is said the use of the muscle is shown. At other times the position in,
to be from the chest while its insertion is into the arm; but if. the body is indicated, but not the attachments, as hi the tibialis:
in climbing a tree, the hand grasps a branch above, the muscular anticus and peroneus longus, while, at other times, as in the case
contraction will draw the chest towards the arm, and the latter of the pectineus, the name is only misleading. Fortunately the
will then become the origin. Generally, but not always, a names of the describers themselves are very seldom applied to,
1
For physiology, see MUSCLE AND NERVE. muscles; among the few examples are Horner's muscle and the.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
muscular band of Treitz. The German anatomists at the Basel transverse wrinkles in the forehead. The anterior, posterior and
conference lately proposed a uniform Latin and Greek nomencla- superior auricular muscles are present but are almost functionless
in man. The orbicularis palpebrarum forms a sphincter round the
ture, which, though not altogether satisfactory, is gaining ground eyelids, which it closes, though there is little doubt that parts of the
on the European continent. As there are some four hundred muscle can act separately and cause various expressions. The side of
Epicranial aponeurosis ATTRAHENS AUREM
FRONTALIS
ORBICULARIS PALPEBRARUM
PYKAMIDALIS NASI
COMPRESSOR NARIS
LEVATOR LADII SUFERIORIS ALALQUE NASI
LEVATOR LABII SUPERIORS
MINOR
DEPRESSOR ALAE NASI
Parotid
ZYGOMATICUS MAJOR
gland Stenson's duct
STEENO- ORBICULARIS ORIS
MASTOID
RISORIUS
BUCCINATOR
DEPRESSOR AXGULI ORIS
DEPRESSOR LABII INFERIORIS
MASSETER
PLATVSMA UVOIDES
From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 2. The Muscles of the Face and Scalp (muscles of expression).
muscles on. each side of the body it will be impossible here to the nose has several muscles, the actions of which are indicated by their
names they are the compressor, two dilatores and the depressor aloe
attempt more than a mere sketch of them; for the details the
;
nasi, while the levator labii superioris et alae nasi sometimes goes to
anatomical textbooks must be consulted. the nose. Raising the upper lip, in addition to the last named, are
MUSCLES OF THE HEAD AND FACE (see fig. 2). The scalp is the levator labii superioris proprius and the levator anguli oris, while
moved by a large flat muscle called the occipito-frontalis, which has the zygomaticus major draws the angle of the mouth outward. The
two muscular bellies, the occipitalis and frontalis, and an intervening lower lip is depressed by the depressor labii inferioris and depressor
epicranial aponeurosis; this muscle moves the scalp and causes the anguli oris, while the orbicularis oris acts as a sphincter to the mouth.
Epicranial aponeurosis
TEMPORAL MUSCLE
Temporal branch of
buccal nerve
/ Temporal branches of
f inferior maxillary nerve
EXTERNAL PTERYCOID
Auriculo-temporal nerve
Superficial temporal Posterior dental artery
artery
External carotid artery Posterior dental nerve
Internal literal ligament Long buccal nerve
Posterior auricular artery Pterygo-mandibular
Lingual nerve
Mylo-hyoid nerve
Mental branch of inferior
Parotid gland dental nerve
Inferior dental nerve
MASSETER (cut)
From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Booh of Anatomy.
FIG. 3. Pterygoid Region.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM 53
The buccinator muscle in the substance of the cheeks rises from the both triangles to the hyoid bone Where it passes deep to the
upper and lower jaws and runs forward to blend with the orbicularis sterno-mastoid it has a central tendon which is bound to the first
oris. All the foregoing are known as muscles of expression and all rib by a loop of cervical fascia. Rising from the styloid process are
are supplied by the seventh or facial nerve. The temporal muscle three muscles, the stylo-glossus, stylo-hyoid and stylo-pharyngeus,
at the side of the cranium (fig. 3) and the masseter (fig. 2), which the names of which indicate their attachments. Covering these
rises from the zygoma, close the mouth, since both are inserted into muscles of the anterior triangle is a thin sheet, close to the skin,
the ramus of the mandible while, rising from the pterygoid plates,
;
called the platysma, the upper fibres of which run back from the
are the external and internal pterygoid muscles (fig. 3), the former of mouth over the cheek and are named the risorius (fig. 2) this sheet ;
which pulls forward the condyle, and so the whole mandible, while is one of the few remnants in man of the ski musculature or panni-
the latter helps to close the mouth by acting on the angle of the lower culus carnosus of lower Mammals. With regard to the nerve supply
jaw. This group of muscles forms the masticatory set, all of which of the anterior triangle muscles, all those which go to the tongue
are supplied by the third division of the fifth nerve. For the are supplied by the hypoglossal or twelfth cranial nerve while the
muscles of the orbit, see EYE for those of the soft palate and pharynx,
;
muscles below the hyoid bone are apparently supplied from this
see PHARYNX; and for those of the tongue, see TONGUE. nerve but really from the upper cervical nerves (see NERVE,
STERI.O-CLEIDO-
MASTOID
lYlO-HYOID
DIGASTRIC
'HYOCLOSSUS
iTYLO-HYOID
MIDDLE CONSTRICTOR
THYEO-HYOID
INTERIOR CONSTRICTOR
;O-BYOID
INFERIOR CONSTRICTOR
iTERNO-BYOID
STERNO-THYROID
From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 4. The Triangles of the Neck (muscles).
MUSCLES OF THE NECK (fig. 4). Just below the mandible is the CRANIAL; and NERVE, SPINAL). The posterior triangle is formed
digastric, which, as its name shows, has two bellies and a central by the sterno-mastoid in front, the trapezius behind, and the clavicle
tendon; the anterior belly, supplied by the fifth nerve, is attached to below; in its floor from above downward part of the following muscles
the mandible near the symphysis, the posterior
supplied by the are seen: complexus, splenius, levator anguli scapulae, scalenus
seventh of the mastoid process, while the central tendon is bound medius and scalenus anticus. Sometimes a small piece of the
to the hyoid bone. Stretching across from one side of the lower scalenus posticus is caught sight of behind the scalenus medius. The
jaw
to the other and forming a floor to the mouth is the
mylo-hyoid muscle ; splenius rotates the head to its own side, the levator anguli scapulae
posteriorly this reaches the hyoid bone, and in the mid-line has a raises the upper angle of the scapula, while the three scalenes run
tendinous raphe separating the two halves of the muscle. from the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae and fix or
Rising
from the manubrium sterni and inner part of the clavicle is the raise the upper ribs. The trapezius (fig. 5) arises from the spines
sterno-deido-mastoid, which is inserted into the mastoid process and of the thoracic vertebrae and the ligamentum nuchae, and is inserted
superior curved lines of the occipital bone; when it contracts it into the outer third of the clavicle and the spine of the scapula; it is
makes the face look over the opposite shoulder, and it is used in shrugging the shoulders and in drawing the upper part of the
supplied
by the spinal accessory nerve as well as by branches from the scapula toward the mid-dorsal line. Its nerve supply is the spinal
cervical plexus. It is an important
surgical landmark, and forms a accessory and third and fourth cervical nerves. When the super-
diagonal across the quadrilateral outline of the side of the neck, ficial muscles and complexus are removed from the hack of the neck,
dividing it into an anterior triangle with its apex downward and a the sub-occipital triangle is seen beneath the occipital bone. Exter-
posterior with its apex upward. In the anterior triangle the relative
nally it is bounded by the superior oblique, running from the trans-
positions of the hyoid bone, thyroid cartilage and sternum should verse process of the atlas to the lateral part of the occipital bone,
be realized, and then the hyo-glossus,
thyro-hyoid, sterno-hyoid and internally by the rectus capilis poslicus major, passing
from the spine
sterno-thyroid muscles are explained by their names. The omo-hyoid of the axis to the lateral part of the occipital bone, and inferiorly by
muscle rises from the upper border of the
scapula and runs across the inferior oblique joining the spine of the axis to the transverse
54 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
process of the atlas. These muscles move the head on the atlas forming the semispinalis and multifidus spinae muscles. The
and the atlas on the axis. They are supplied by the posterior branch latissimus dorsi and
of thefirst cervical nerve.
rhomboids, are supplied by branches of the
brachial plexus of nerves, while the muscles
deeper get their nerves-
MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK. The trapezius has already been de- from the posterior primary divisions of the spinal nerves
scribed as a superficial muscle of the upper part of the back; in the (see NERVE,
SPINAL). On the anterior part of the thoracic region the pectoralis
loin region the latissimus dorsi (fig. 5) is the superficial muscle, its
major runs from the clavicle, sternum and ribs, to the humerus (fig. 6) ;
origin being from the lower thoracic spines, lower ribs and lumbar deep to this is the pectoralis minor, passing from the upper ribs to-
COMPLEXUS'
STERNO-MASTOID STERNO-MASTOID
SPLENIUS CAPITIS
SPLENTUS com
SERRATUS posncus SUPERIOR
LEVAIOR ANODU SCAPULAS TRAPEZTOS
RHOVBOIDEUS MINOR
RHOMBOIDEUS
MAJOK
TRAPEZIUS
DELTOID
RHOMBOIDEUS
MAJOR
TERES MAJOR
TERES MAJOR
LATISSIMUS
DORSI
OBIIQUOS EXTERNOS
ABDOUINIS
OBLIQUUS DJTERNUS
Gluteal fascia
Fascia over gluteus
maximus (cut)
Fascia over gluteus
maxim us GLGTEUS MAXDIUS
From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Tat Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 5. Superficial Muscles of the Back.
fascia, and it i inserted into the upper part of the arm bone or the coracoid process. The serratus magnus is a large muscle rising
humerus. When the trapezius is cut, the rhomboid muscles (major by serrations from the upper eight ribs, and running back to the
and minor) passing from the upper thoracic spines to the vertebral vertebral border of the scapula, which it draws forward as in the
border of the scapula are seen, and deep to these is the serralus fencer's lunge. Between the ribs are the external and internal inter-
ppsticus superior passing from nearly the same spines to the upper costal muscles; the former beginning at the tubercle and ending at
ribs. On reflecting the latissimus dorsi the serratus posticus inferior the junctions of the ribs with their cartilages, while the latter only
is seen running from the lower thoracic spines to the lower ribs. begin at the angle of the ribs but are prolonged on to the sternum, so
When these muscles are removed the great mass of the erector spinae that an interchondral as well as an intercostal part of each muscle
is exposed, familiar to every one as the
upper cut of the sirloin or ribs is recognized. The fibres of the external intercostals run downward
of beef it runs all the way up the dorsal side of the vertebral column
; and forward, those of the internal downward and backward (see
from the pelvis to the occiput, the complexus already mentioned RESPIRATION). The abdominal walls are formed of three sheets
being its extension to the head. It 13 longitudinally segmented of muscle, of which the most superficial or external oblique (fig. 6)
jnto many different bundles to which special names are given, and it is attached to the outer surfaces of the lower ribs; its fibres run
is attached to the various vertebrae and ribs as it downward and forward to the pelvis and mid-line of the abdomen,
goes up, thus
straightening the spinal column. Deep to the erector spinae are the middle one or internal oblique is on the same plane as the ribs,
found shorter bundles passing from one vertebra to another and and its fibres run downward and backward, while the transversalis
MUSCULAR SYSTEM 55
is attached to the deep surfaces of the ribs, and its fibres run
horizon- rotating muscles pass from the scapula to the upper end of the
tally forward. Below, all these
muscles are attached to the crest of humerus; these are the subscapularis passing in front of the shoulder
the ilium and to Poupart's ligament, which is really the lower free joint, the supraspinatus above the joint, and the infraspinatus and
edge of the external oblique, while, behind, the
two deeper ones, teres minor behind. The teres major (fig. 5) comes from near the
at all events, blend with the fascia lumborum. As they approach lower angle of the scapula, and is inserted with the latissimus dorsi
the mid-ventral line they become aponeurotic and form the sheath into the front of the surgical neck of the humerus. The coraco-
is a flat muscular band brachialis (fig. 7) passes from the coracoid process to the middle of
of the rectus. The rectus abdominis (fig. 6)
which runs up on each side of the linea alba or mid-ventral line of the the humerus in front of the shoulder joint, while the brachialis
abdomen from the pubis to the ribs and sternum. This muscle anticus passes in front of the elbow from the humerus to the coronoid
has certain tendinous intersections or lineae transversae, the positions process of the ulna. Passing in front of both shoulder and elbow is
SIERNO-IIASTOID
TRAPEZTOS
Coracoid
process
PECTORAUS
MAJOR (divided)
PECTORALIS
MINOR
sternal part
Sheath of rectus
PYRAMIDALIS ABDOIONIS
Poupart's ligament
Extemal abdominal ring
Triangular fascia
v- \
From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Tact Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 6. Anterior Muscles of the Trunk.
of which are noticed in the article ANATOMY (Superficial and A rtistic) , the biceps (fig. 7), the long head of which rises from the tap of the
and the morphology which is referred to later. In front of the short head comes from the
glenoid cavity inside the joint, while the
of
lowest
part
of the rectus is sometimes a small
triangular muscle coracoid process. The insertion is into the tubercle of the radius.
called the pyramidalis. The quadratus lumborum is a muscle at the These three muscles are ail supplied by the same (musculo-cutaneous)
back of the abdominal wall which runs between the last rib and the nerve. At the back of the arm is the triceps (fig. 8) which passes
crest of the ilium. In front of the bodies of the vertebrae is a behind both shoulder and elbow joints and is the great extensor
preyertebral or hypaxial musculature, of which the rectus capitis muscle of them; its long head rises from just below the glenoid
cavity of the scapula, while the inner and outer heads come from the
anticus major and minor muscles and longus colli in the neck and the
psoas in the loins form the chief parts, the latter being familiar as back of the humerus. It is inserted into the olecranon process of
the undercut of the sirloin of beef, while the pelvis is closed below by the u'.na and is supplied by the musculo-spinal nerve. The muscles
a muscular floor formed by the levator ani and coccygeus muscles. of the front of the forearm form superficial and deep sets (see fig. 7).
The diaphragm is explained in a separate article. Most of the superficial muscles come from the internal condyle of
MUSCLESOF THE UPPER EXTREMITY. The deltoid (seefigs.7and8) the humerus. From without inward they are the pronator radii
isthe muscle which forms the shoulder cap and is used in teres going to the radius, the flexor carpi radialis to the base of the
abducting
the arm to a right angle with the trunk; it runs from the clavicle, index metacarpa) bone, the palmaris longus to the palmar fascia,
acromial process and spine of the scapula, to the middle of the the flexor subhmis digitorum to the middle phalanges of the fingers,
humerus, and is supplied by the circumflex nerve. Several short and the flexor carpi ulnaris to the pisiform bone. The important
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
points of practical interest about these muscles are noticed in the phalanges of the fingers, the extensor minimi digiti, the extensor carpi
article ANATOMY (Superficial and Artistic). In addition to these ulnaris passing to the metatarsal bone of the minimus, and the
the brachio-radialis is a flexor of the forearm, though it arises from supinator brevis wrapping round the neck of the radius to which it
the outer supracondylar ridge of the humerus. It is supplied by the is inserted. The aconeus which runs from the external condyle to
musculo-spiral nerve, the flexor carpi ulnaris by the ulnar, the rest the olecranon process is really a part of the triceps. The deep
by the median. The deep muscles of the front of the forearm consist muscles rise from the posterior surfaces of the radius and ulna, and
of the flexor longus pollicis running from the radius to the terminal are the extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis, the name of which gives its
phalanx of the thumb, the flexor profundus digitorum from the ulna insertion, the extensor brevis pollicis to the proximal phalanx, and
to the terminal phalanges of the fingers, and the pronator quadratus the extensor longus pollicis to the distal phalanx of the thumb, while
INSERTION OF TRAPEZTUS
\
PECTORALIS MINOR
DELTOID
Axillary artery
Musculc-
cutaneous nerve
Median nerve
(outer head) DELTOID
Median nerve
INSERTION OF |
PECTORALIS (inner head)
MAJOR Ulnar nerve INFRASPIXATUS
CORACO-BRAI
SHORT HEAD op BICEPS TERES MAJOR
LONG HEAD OF BICEPS
LATISSQIUS DOESI
BRACHIALIS AOTICUS TRICEPS (inner bead)
BRACHIALIS ANTICUS
TRICEPS
Musculo-cutaneous nerve External intermuscular septum
BRACnlO-RALULIS
Musculo-spiral nerve
Ulnar nerve
Semflunar fascia of biceps EXIENSOR CARPI RADIALiS
LONCIOR
BRACHIO-RADIALIS
PRONATOR RADH TERES
Deep fascia of forearm EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS
BREVIOR
EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS
LONGIOR fascia of forearm
FLEXOR CARPI KADIALIS Deep
PALMARIS LONGUS
EXTENSOR COMMUNE DIGITORUM
Radial artery (cut) FLEXOR CARFI ULNARIS EXTENSOR CARPI CLNARIS
EXTENSOR ossis METACARPI
FLEXOR SUBLIMIS DIGITORUM
POLLICIS
EXTENSOR BREVIS POUJOS
FLEXOR LONGUS POLLICIS
PRONATOR QUADRATUS EXTENSOR MINIMI Dic.m
EXTENSOR ossis
HETACARPI POLLICIS Ulnar artery
TENDONS OF EXTENSORS OF
Radial artery (cut) CARPUS
Anterior annular Ulnar nerve
ligament. Posterior annular ligament
EXTENSOR LONGUS POLLICIS
EXTENSOR INDICIS
From A, M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Analomf. From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 7. Superficial Muscles on the Front of the Arm and Forearm. FIG. 8. The Muscles on the Back of the Arm, Forearm and Hand.
passing across from the lower third of the ulna to the same amount the extensor indicts joins the extensor communis slip to the index
of the radius. These three muscles are supplied by the anterior finger; all these posterior muscles are supplied by
the posterior
interosseous branch of the median nerve, but the flexor profundus interosseous nerve. In front and behind the wrist the tendons are
digitorum has an extra twig from the ulnar. The extensor muscles bound down by the anterior and posterior annular ligaments, while
at the back of the forearm are also divided into superficial and deep on the flexor surface of each finger is a strong fibrous sheath or theca
sets (see fig. 8). The former rise from the region of the external for the flexor tendons. The ball of the thumb is occupied by short
condyle of the humerus, and consist of the extensor carpi radialis muscles called the thenar group, while hypnthenar muscles are found
longior and brevior inserted into the index and medius metacarpal in the ball of the little finger. The four tumbrical muscles (fig. 9. )
bones, the extensor communis digitorum to the middle and distal run from the flexor profundus digitorum tendons to those of the
MUSCULAR SYSTEM 57
extensor communis between the heads of the metacarpal bones, big toe, and the peroneus tertius, a purely human muscle inserted
while, rising from the shafts of these bones, are the three palmar into the base of the fifth metatarsal bone. All these are supplied by
and four dorsal interosseous muscles (fig. 9, e) which also are inserted the anterior tibial nerve.
into the extensor tendons. The two outer lumbricals and the The external group comprises the peroneus longus and brevis,
thenar muscles are supplied by the median nerve; all the other hand rising from the outer surface of the fibula and inserted into the
muscles by the ulnar. tarsus (fig. n), the longus tendon passing across the sole to the base
MUSCLES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY. On the front of the thigh of the first metatarsal bone, the brevis to the base of the fifth
the quadriceps extensor muscles are the most important: there are metatarsal. These are supplied by the musculo-cutaneous nerve.
four of these, the rectus femoris (fig. l) with its straight and reflected
heads rising from just above the acetabulum, the crureus, deep to
this, from the front of the femur, and the vastus externus and internus
wrapping round the femur on each side from the linea aspera. All
these are inserted into the patella, or rather the patella is a sesamoid
bone developed where their common tendon passes round the lower OBTURATOR
:EKNUSAND
EMELLI
FIG. 9. Tendons attached to a Finger.
a, The extensor tendon. e. An interosseous muscle.
b, Deep flexor. /, Tendinous expansion from the lum-
c, Superficial flexor. brical and interosseous muscles
d, Alumbrical muscle. joining the extensor tendon. ADDUCTOR
end femur when the knee is bent. The distal part of this
of the
tendon, which passes from the patella to the tubercle of the tibia, SEHTTENDINOSUS
is the ligamentum patellae. The sartorius is a long riband-like
muscle running from the anterior superior spine of the ilium to the
inner surface of the tibia, obliquely across the front of the thigh.
It forms the outer boundary of Scarpa's triangle, the inner limit of
which is the adductor longus and the base Poupart's ligament.
The floor is formed by the iliacus from the iliac fossa of the pelvis, SnOMEUBRANOSU:
which joins the psoas, to be inserted with it into the lesser trochanter,
and by the pectineus running from the upper ramus of the pubis to BICEPS (short
just below the insertion of the last muscles. The adductor muscles, head)
longus, brevis and magnus, all rise from the subpubic arch, and are
inserted into the linea aspera of the femur, so that they draw the
femur toward the middle line. The gracilis (fig. 10) is part of the
adductor mass, though its insertion is into the upper part of the
tibia. The extensor muscles of the front of the thigh are supplied
by the anterior crural nerve, but the adductor group on the inner
side from the obturator. The pectineus is often supplied from both
Tibial nerve
sources. On the back of the thigh the gluteus maximus (figs. 5 and
lo) plays an important part in determining man's outline (see BICEPS TENDON
ANATOMY Superficial and Artistic). It rises from the sacral region,
: (along with
and is inserted into the upper part of the femur and the deep fascia peroneal nerve)
of the thigh, which is very thick and is known as the fascia lata ; PLANTARIS
the muscle is a great extensor of the hip and raises the body from the
stooping position. The gluteus medius rises from the ilium, above the
hip joint, and passes to the great trochanter; it abducts the hip and SARTORIUS TENDON
enables the body to be balanced on one leg, as in taking a step for-
ward. The gluteus minimus is covered by the last muscle, and passes
from the ilium to the front of the great trochanter, thus rotating the
hip joint inward. Some of its anterior fibres are sometimes separate
from the rest, and are then called the scansorius (see JOINTS). GASTROCNEJOUS
When the gluteus maximus is removed, a number of short externally
rotating muscles are seen, rising from the pelvis and inserted into
the great trochanter (fig. 10) these are, from above downward, the
;
pyriformis, gemellus superior, obturator internus, gemellus inferior
and quadratus femoris. They are all supplied by special branches of
the sacral plexus. On cutting the quadratus femoris a good deal of
the obturator externus can be seen, coming from the outer surface
of the obturator membrane and passing to the digital fossa of the
great trochanter. Unlike the rest of this group, it is supplied by the
obturator nerve. Coming from the anterior part of the crest of the
ilium is the tensor fasciae femoris, which is inserted into the fascia
lata, as is part of the gh'teus maximus, and the thickened band of From A. M. Pateison, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy.
fascia which runs down the outer side of the thigh from these to the
head of the tibia is known as the ilio tibial band. The tensor fasciae
FTG. 10. The Muscles on the Back of the Thigh.
femoris, gluteus medius and minimus, are supplied by the superior The posterior group is- divided into a superficial and a deep set.
gluteal nerve, the gluteus maximus by the inferior gluteal. At the The superficial is composed of the gastrocnemius, the two heads of
back of the thigh are the hamstrings rising from the tuberosity of the which rise from the two condyles of the femur, the soleus, which rises
ischium (fig. 10); these are the semimembranosusandsemitendinosus, from the upper parts of the back of the tibia and fibula, the plantaris,
passing to the inner part of the upper end of the tibia and forming which comes from just above the external condyle of the femur,
the internal hamstrings, and the biceps femoris or external hamstring, and the popliltus which, although on a deeper plane, really belongs
which has an extra head from the shaft of the femur and is inserted to this group and rises by a tendon from the outer condyle while its
into the head of the fibula. These muscles are supplied
by the great fleshy part is inserted into the upper part of the back of the tibia.
sciatic nerve and extend the hip joint while The gastrocnemius and soleus unite to form the tendo Achillis, which
they flex the knee. In
the leg, as distinguished from the thigh, are three groups of muscles, is attached to the posterior part of the calcaneum, while the plantaris
anterior, external and posterior. The anterior group (fig. n) all runs separately as a very thin tendon to the same place. These
come from the front of the tibia and fibula, and consist of the muscles are supplied by the internal popliteal nerve. The deep set
extensor longus digitorum, extending the middle and distal is formed by three muscles which rise from the posterior surf aces of
phalanges
of the four outer toes, the extensor proprius hallucis, the tibia and fibula, the flexor longus digitorum,'the tibialis posticus,
extending the
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
and the flexor longus hallucis from within outward. Their tendons Embryology.
all pass into the sole, that of the flexor longus digitorum being The. development of the muscular system is partly known from
inserted into the terminal phalanges of the four outer toes, the flexor the results of direct observation, and partly inferred from the
study
longus hallucis into the terminal phalanx of the big toe, while the of the part of the nervous system whence the innervation is derived.
tibialis posticus sends expansions to most of the tarsal bones. The The unstriped muscle is formed from the mesenchyme cells of the
nerve supply of this group is the posterior tibial. On the dorsum of somatic and splanchnic layers of the mesoderm (see EMBRYOLOGY),
the foot is the extensor brevis digitorum (fig. 1 1), which helps to extend but never, as far as we know, from the mesodermic somites. The
heart muscle is also developed from mesenchymal cells, though the
changes producing its feebly striped fibres are more complicated.
The skeletal or real striped muscles are derived either from the meso-
dermic somites or from the branchial arches. As the mesodermic
somites are placed on each side of the neural canal in the early
embryo, it is obvious that the greater part of the trunk musculature
spreads gradually round the body from the dorsal to the ventral
side and consists of a series of plates called myotomes (fig. 12). The
muscle fibres in these plates run in the long a*is of the embryo, and
are at first separated from those of the two neighbouring plates by
thin fibrous intervals called myocommata. In some cases these
EXTENSOR LONGUS
DicrroRuii
PERONEUS
PERONEUS B
Lower portion of
anterior anm___
ligament
TENDON OF PERONECS.
TERTIHS
INNERMOST sup OF
EXTENSOR BREVIS
mcrroRUM
From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 12. Scheme to Illustrate the Disposition of the Myotomes
in the Embryo in Relation to the Head, Trunk and Limbs.
A, B, C, First three cephalic myotomes.
N, 1,2, 3, 4, Last persisting cephalic myotomes.
C, T, L, S, Co., The myotomes of the cervical, thoracic, lumbar,
sacral and caudal regions.
From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy. I., II., III., IV., V., VI., VII., VIII., IX., X., XL, XII., Refer to
FIG. II. Muscles of the Front of the Right Leg and Dorsum the cranial nerves and the structures with which they may be
of the Foot. embryologically associated.
the four inner toes, while in the sole are four layers of short muscles, myocommata persist and even become ossified, as in the ribs, but
the most superficial of which consists of the abductor hallucis, the more usually they disappear early, and the myotomes then unite with
flexor brevis digitorum, and the abductor minimi digiti, the names of one another to form a great muscular sheet. In the whole length of the
which indicate their attachments. The second layer is formed by trunk a longitudinal cleavage at right angles to the surface occurs,
muscles which are attached to the flexor longus digitorum tendon ; splitting the musculature into a dorsal and ventral part, supplied
they are the accessorius, running forward to the tendon from the respectively by the dorsal and ventral primary divisions of the spinal
lower surface of the calcaneum, and the four lumbricales, which rise nerves.
F_rom the dorsal part the various muscles of the erector
from the tendon after jt has split for the four toes and pass spinae series are derived by further longitudinal cleavages either
between the toes to be inserted into the tendons of the extensor tangential or at right angles to the surface, while the ventral part
longus digitorum on the dorsum. The third layer comprises the is again longitudinally split into mesial and lateral portions. A
flexor brevis hallucis, adductor obliauus and adductor transversus transverse section of the trunk at this stage, therefore, would show
hallucis and the flexor brevis minimi digiti. The fourth layer contains the cut ends of three longitudinal strips of muscle: (i) a mesial
the three plantar and four dorsal interosseous murcles, rising from ventral, from which the rectus, pyramidalis sterno-hyoid, omo-
the metatarsal bones and inserted into the proximal phalanges hyoid and sterno-thyroid muscles are derived (2) a lateral ventral,
;
and extensor tendons in such a way that the plantar muscles draw forming the flat muscles of the abdomen, intercostals and part of
the toes towards the line of the second toe while the dorsal draw the sternomastoid and trapezius; and (3) the dorsal portion already
them away from that line. Of these sole muscles the flexor brevis noticed. The mesial ventral part is remarkable for the persistence
digitorum, flexor brevis hallucis, abductor hallucis and the innermost of remnants of myocommata in it, forming the lineae transversae
lumbrical are supplied by the internal plantar nerve, while all the of the rectus and the central tendon of the
omo-hyoid. The lateral
rest are supplied by the external plantar. part in the abdominal region splits tangentially into three layers,
MUSES, THE 59
the external and internal oblique and the transversalis, the fibres the panniculus carnosus or skin musculature of mammals. The
of which become differently directed. In the thoracic region the branchial musculature also becomes much more complex, and the
intercostals probably indicate a further tangential splitting of the mylo-hyoid muscle, derived from the first branchial arch and lying
middle or internal oblique layer, because the external oblique is beneath the floor of the mouth, is very noticeable and of great
continued headward superficially to the ribs and the transversalis importance in breathing.
deeply to them. The more cephalic part of the external oblique In the reptiles further differentiation of the muscles is seen, and
layer probably disappears by a process of pressure or crowding out with the acquirement of costal respiration the external and internal
owing to the encroachment of the serratus magnus, a muscle which intercostals are formed by a delamination of the internal oblique
its nerve supply indicates is derived from the lower cervical myo- stratum. In the dorsal region several of the longitudinal muscles
tomes. The deeper parts of the lateral mass of muscles spread to which together make up the erector spinae are distinct, and a very
the ventral surface of the bodies of the vertebrae, and form the definite sphincter cloacae is formed round and cloacal aperture.
hypaxial muscles such as the psoas, longus colli and recti capitis In mammals certain muscles vary in their attachments or presence
antici. The nerve supply indicates that the lowest myotomes taking and absence in different orders, sub-orders and families, so that,
part in the formation of the abdominal walls are those supplied by were it not for the large amount of technical knowledge required
the first and second lumbar nerves, and are represented by the in recognizing them, they might be useful from a classificatory point
of view. There is, however, a greater
cremaster muscle in the scrotum. In the perineum, however, the gap between the musculature
third and fourth sacral myotomes are represented, and these muscles of Man and that of the other Primates than there is between many
are differentiated largely from the primitive sphincter which sur- different orders, and this is usually traceable either directly or
rounds the cloacal orifice, though partly from vestigial tail muscles indirectly to the assumption of the erect position.
(see P. Thompson, Journ. Anal, and Phys., vol. xxxv; and R. H. The chief causes which produce changes of musculature are:
Paramore, Lancet, May 21, 1910). In the head no distinct myotomes (i) splitting, (2) fusion, (3) suppression either partial or complete,
have been demonstrated in the mammalian embryo, but as they are (4) shifting of origin, (5) shifting of insertion, (6) new formation,
present in more lowly vertebrates, it is probable that their develop- (7) transference of part of one muscle to another. In many of these
ment has been slurred over, a process often found in the embryology cases the nerve supply gives an important clue to the change which
of the higher forms. Probably nine cephalic myotomes originally has been effected. Splitting of a muscular mass is often the result
existed; of which the first gives rise to the eye muscles supplied by of one part of a muscle being used separately, and a good example
the third nerve, the second to the superior oblique muscle supplied of this is the deep flexor mass of the forearm. In the lower mammals
by the fourth nerve, and the 'third to the external rectus supplied by this mass rises from the flexor surface of the radius and ulna, and
the sixth nerve. The fourth, fifth and sixth myotomes are sup- supplies tendons to the terminal phalanges of all five digits, but in
pressed, but the seventh, eighth and ninth possibly form the muscles man the thumb is used separately, and, in response to this, that
of the tongue supplied by the twelfth cranial nerve. partf the mass which goes to the thumb is completely split off into
Turning now to the branchial arches, the first branchiomere is a separate muscle, the flexor longus pollicis. The process, however,
innervated by the fifth cranial nerve, and to it belong the masseter, is going farther, for we have acquired the habit of using our index
temporal, pterygoids, anterior belly of the digastric, mylo-hyoid, finger alone for many purposes, and the index slip of the flexor
tensor tympam and tensor palati, while from the second branchio- is in us almost as distinct a muscle as the flexor
profundus digitorum
mere, supplied by the seventh or facial nerve, all the facial muscles longus pollicis. Fusion may be either collateral or longitudinal.
of expression and the stylo-hyoid and posterior belly of the digastric The former is seen in the case of the flexor carpi ulnaris. In many
are derived, as well as the platysma, which is one of the few remnants mammals (e.g. the dog), there are two muscles inserted separately
of the panniculus carnosus or skin musculature of the lower mam- into the pisiform bone, one rising from the internal condyle of the
mals. From the third branchiomere, the nerve of which is the ninth humerus, the other from the olecranon process, but in many others
or glossopharyngeal, the stylo-pharyngeus and upper part of the (e.g. man) the two muscles have fused. Longitudinal fusion is seen
pharyngeal constrictors are formed, while the fourth and fifth gill in the digastric, where the anterior belly is part of the first (man-
arches give rise to the muscles of the larynx and the lower part of dibular) branchial arch and the posterior of the second or hyoid arch ;
the constrictors supplied by the vagus or tenth nerve. It is possible in this case, as one would expect, the anterior belly is supplied by
that parts of the sterno-mastoid and trapezius are also branchial the fifth nerve and the posterior by the seventh. Partial suppression
in their origin, since they are supplied by the spinal accessory or of a muscle is seen in the rhomboid sheet; in the lower mammals
eleventh nerve, but this is unsettled. The limb musculature is this rises from the head, neck and anterior (cephalic) thoracic spines,
usually regarded as a sleeve-like outpushing of the external oblique but in man the head and most of the neck part is completely sup-
stratum of the lateral ventral musculature of the trunk, and it is pressed. Complete suppression of a muscle is exemplified in the
believed that parts of several myotomes are in this way pushed out omo-trachelian, a muscle which runs from the cervical vertebrae
in the growth of the limb bud. This process actually occurs in the to the acromian process and fixes the scapula for the strong action
lower vertebrates, and the nerve supplies provide strong presumptive of the triceps in pronograde mammals; in man this strong action
evidence .that this is the real phylogenetic history of the higher forms, of the triceps is no longer needed for
progression, and the fixing
though direct observation shows that the limb muscles of mammals muscle has disappeared. Shifting of origin is seen in the short head
are formed from the central mesoderm of the limb and at first are of the biceps femoris. This in many lower mammals (e.g. rabbit)
quite distinct from the myotomes of the trunk. A possible explana- is a muscle running from the tail to the lower
leg; in many others
tion of the difficulty is that this is another example of the slurring (e.g. monkeys and man) the origin has slipped down to the femur,
over of stages in phytogeny, but this is one of
many obscure morpho- and in the great anteater it is evident that the agitator caudae has
logical points. The muscles of each limb are divided into a dorsal been used as a muscle slide, because the short head of the biceps
and ventral series, supplied by dorsal and ventral secondary divisions or tenuissimus has once been found rising from the surface of this
of the nerves in the limb plexuses, and these correspond to the original muscle. Shifting of an insertion is not nearly as common as shifting
position of the limbs as they grow out from the embryo, so that in of an origin; it is seen, however, in the peroneus tertius of man, in
the upper extremity the back of the arm, forearm and dorsum of the which part of the extensor longus digitorum has acquired a new
hand are dorsal, while in the lower the dorsal surface is the front of attachment to the base of the fifth metatarsal bone. The new
the thigh and leg and the dorsum of the foot. formation of a muscle is seen in the stylo-hyoideus alter, an occasional
For further details see Development of the Human Body, by J. P. human muscle; in this the stylo-hyoid ligament has been converted
McMurrich (London, 1906), and the writings of L. Bolk, Morphol. into a muscle. The transference of part of one muscle to another
Jahrb. vols. xxi-xxv. is well shown by the human adductor magnus; here the fibres which
Comparitive Anatomy. pass from the tuber ischii to the condyle of the femur have a nerve
In the acrania (e.g. amphioxus) the simple arrangement of myo- supply from the great sciatic instead of the obturator, and in most
tomes and myocommata seen in the early human embryo is perma- lower mammals are a separate part of the hamstrings known as the
nent. The myotomes or muscle plates are < shaped, with their presemimembranosus.
apices pointing towards the head end, each being supplied by its
For further details see Bronn's Classen und Ordnungen des Thicr-
"
own spinal nerve. In the fishes this arrangement is largely persis- reichs; The Muscles of Mammals," by F. G. Parsons, Jour. Anat.
tent, but each limb of the < is bent on itself, so that the myotomes
and Phys. xxxii. 428; also accounts of the musculature of mammals,
have now the shape of a , the central angle of which corresponds by Windle and Parsons, in Proc. Zool. Soc. (1894, seq.); Humphry,
to the lateral line of the fish. In the abdominal region, however, Observations in Myology (1874). (F. G. P.)
the myotomes fuse and rudiments of the recti and obhqui abdominis MUSES, THE (Gr. MoDow, the thinkers), in Greek myth-
muscles of higher types are seen. In other regions too, such as the
ology, originally nymphs of springs, then goddesses of song, and,
fins of fish and the tongue of the Cyclostomata (lamprey),
specialized later, of the different kinds of poetry and of the arts and sciences
muscular bundles are separated off and are coincident with the
acquirement of movements of these parts in different directions. generally. In Homer, who says nothing definite as to their
In the Amphibia the limb musculature becomes much more complex names or number, they are simply goddesses of song, who dwell
as the joints are formed, and many of the muscles can be homologized among the gods on Olympus, where they sing at their banquets
with those of mammals, though this is by no means always the case,
under the leadership of Apollo Musagetes. According to Hesiod
while, in the abdominal region, a superficial delaminatipn occurs,
so that in many forms a superficial and deep rectus abdominis occurs (Theog. 77), who gives the usually accepted names and
first
as well as a cutaneus abdominis .delaminated from the external number, they were the daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne, the
oblique. It is probable that this delamination is the precursor of personification of memory; others made them children of
6o MUSET MUSEUMS OF ART
Uranus and Gaea. Three older Muses (Mneme, Melete, Aoide) or system, was the feature of certain famous collections in by-
were sometimes distinguished, whose worship was said to have gone days, of which the Tradescant Museum, formed in the i7th
been introduced by the Aloidae on Mt Helicon (Pausanias ix. 29). century, was a good example. This museum was a miscellany
It is probable that three was the original number of the without didactic value; it contributed nothing to the advance-
Muses, which was increased to nine owing to their arrangement ment of art; its arrangement was unscientific, and the public
in three groups of three in the sacred choruses. Round the gained little or no advantage from its existence. The modern
altar of Zeus they sing of the origin of the world, of gods and men, museum, on the other hand, should be organized for the public
of the glorious deeds of Zeus; they also honour the great heroes; good, and should be a fruitful source of amusement and instruc-
and celebrate the marriages of Cadmus and Peleus, and the tion to the whole community. Even when Dr Waagen described
death of Achilles. As goddesses of song they protect those who the collections of England, about 1840, private individuals
recognize their superiority, but punish the arrogant such as figured chiefly among the owners of art treasures. Nowadays in
Thamyris, the Thracian bard, who for having boasted himself making a record of this nature the collections belonging to the
their equal was deprived of sight and the power of song. From public would attract most attention. This fact is becoming more
their connexion with Apollo and their original nature as inspiring obvious every year. Not only are acquisitions of great value
nymphs of springs they also possess the gift of prophecy. They constantly made, but the principles of museum administration
are closely related to Dionysus, to whose festivals dramatic and development are being more closely defined. What Sir
poetry owed its origin and development. The worship of the William Flower, an eminent authority, called the " new museum
"
Muses had two chief seats on the northern slope of Mt idea (Essays on Museums, p. 37) is pervading the treatment of
Olympus in Pieria, and on the slope of Mt Helicon near all the chief museums of the world. Briefly stated, the new
Ascra and Thespiae in Boeotia. Their favourite haunts were the principle of museum development first enunciated in 1870, but
springs of Castalia, Aganippe and Hippocrene. From Boeotia now beginning to receive general support is that the first aim of
their cult gradually spread over Greece. As the goddesses who public collections shall be education, and their second recreation.
presided over the nine principal departments of letters, their To be of teaching value, museum arrangement and classification
names and attributes were: Calliope, epic poetry (wax tablet and must be carefully studied. Acquisitions must be added to their
" "
pencil); Euterpe, lyric poetry (the double flute); Erato, rotic proper sections; random purchase of curios must be avoided.
poetry (a small lyre) Melpomene, tragedy (tragic mask and ivy
;
Attention must be given to the proper display and cataloguing
wreath); Thalia, comedy (comic mask and ivy wreath); Poly- of the exhibits, to their housing and preservation, to the lighting,
hymnia (or Polymnia), sacred hymns (veiled, and in an attitude comfort and ventilation of the galleries. Furthermore, facilities
of thought); Terpsichore, choral song and the dance (the lyre); must be allowed to those who wish to make special study of
Clio, history (a scroll); Urania, astronomy (a celestial globe). the objects on view. "A museum is like a living organism:
To these Arethusa was added as the muse of pastoral poetry. it requires continual and tender care; it must grow, or it will
"
The Roman poets identified the Greek Muses with the Italian perish (Flower, p. 13).
Camenae (or Casmenae), prophetic nymphs of springs and god- Great progress has been made in the classification of objects,
desses of birth, who possessed a grove near the Porta Capena a highly important branch of museum work. There are three
at Rome. One of the most famous of these was Egeria, the possible systems namely, by date, by material and
counsellor of King Numa. by nationality. It has been found possible to tl^f
See H. Deiters, Ueber die Verehrung der Musen bei den Griechen combine the systems to some extent; for instance,
(1868); P. Decharme, Les Muses (i8fc); J. H. Krause, Die Musen in the ivory department of the Victoria and Albert Museum,
(1871); F. Rodiger, Die Musen (1875); O. Navarre in Daremberg South Kensington, London, where the broad classification is
and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites, and O. Bie in Roscher's
Lexikon der Mythologie, the latter chiefly for representations of the by material, the objects being further subdivided according to
Muses in art.
their age, and in a minor degree according to their nationality.
But as yet there is no general preference of one system to another.
MUSET, COLIN (fl. 1200), French trouvere, was poet and Moreover, the principles of classification are not easily laid down;
musician, and made his living by wandering from castle to castle e.g. musical instruments: should they be included in art exhibits
singing his own songs. These are not confined to the praise of or in the ethnographical section to which they also pertain?
the conventional love that formed the usual topic of the trouveres, Broadly speaking, objects must be classified according to the
but contain many details of a singer's life. Colin shows naive quality (apart from their nature) for which they are most remark-
gratitude for presents in kind from his patrons, and recommends able. Thus a musket or bass viol of the i6th century, inlaid
a poet repulsed by a cruel mistress to find consolation in the with ivory and highly decorated, would be properly included in
bans morceaux qu'on mange devant un grand feu. One of his the art section, whereas a 'common flute or weapon, noteworthy
patrons was Agnes de Bar, duchess of Lorraine (d. 1226). for nothing but its interest as an instrument of music or destruc-
See'Hist. lilt, de la France, xxiii. 547-553 also a
; thesis, De Nicolas tion, would be suitably classified as ethnographic. In England,
Museto (1893), by J. Bedier. at any rate, there is no uniformity of practice in this respect,
MUSEUMS OF ART. 1
Thelater igth century was remarkable and though it is to be hoped that the ruling desire to classify
for the growth and development of museums, both in Great according to strict scientific rules may not become too preva-
Britain and abroad. This growth, as Professor Stanley Jevons lent, it would nevertheless be a distinct advantage if, in one or
predicted, synchronizes with the advancement of education. more of the British museums, some attempt were made to
Public museums are now universally required; old institutions illustrate the growth of domestic arts and crafts according to
have been greatly improved, and many new ones have been classification by date. Examples of this classification in Munich,
founded. The British parliament has passed statutes conferring Amsterdam, Basel, Zurich and elsewhere afford excellent lessons
upon local authorities the power to levy rates for library and of history and art, a series of rooms being fitted up to show
museum purposes, while on the continent of Europe the collection in chronological order the home life of our ancestors. In the
and exhibition of objects of antiquity and art has become a National Museum of Bavaria (Munich) there is a superb suite of
recognized duty of the state and municipality alike. rooms illustrating the progress of art from Merovingian times
A sketch of the history of museums in general is given below, down to the igth century. Thus classification, though studied,
under MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE. The modern museum of art differs must not check the elasticity of art museums; it should not be
essentially from its earlier prototypes. The aimless collection allowed to interfere with the mobility of the exhibits that is to
of curiosities and bric-a-brac, brought together without method say, it should always be possible to withdraw specimens for the
" " closer inspection of students, and also to send examples on loan
1
Under the term museum
(Gr. novaflov, temple of the muses)
we accept to other museums and schools of art an invaluable system long
the ordinary distinction, by which it covers a collection of
all of art objects, while an art gallery (q.v.) confines itself in vogue at the Victoria and Albert Museum, and one which
so_rts
practically to pictures. should be still more widely adopted. An axiom of museum law
MUSEUMS OF ART 61
"
isthat the exhibits shall be properly shown. The value of a smallmuseums attached to them, usually known as " Opera del
"
museum is to be tested by the treatment of its contents Duomo."
(Flower, p. 24). But in many museums the chief hindrance to United Kingdom. The influence and reputation of the British
study and enjoyment is overcrowding of exhibits. Although Museum are so great that its original purpose, as stated in the
a truism, itnecessary to state that each object should be
is preamble of the act by which it was founded (1753,
"
properly seen, cleaned and safeguarded; but all over the world c. 22), may be quoted: Whereas all arts and sciences Museum.
this rule is forgotten. The rapid acquisition of objects is one have a connexion with each other, and discoveries
cause of overcrowding, but a faulty appreciation of the didactic in natural philosophy and other branches of speculative know-
purpose of the collection is more frequently responsible. ledge, for the advancement and improvement whereof the said
In Great Britain, museum progress is satisfactory. Visitors museum or collection was intended, do, or may in many instances
are numbered by millions, access is now permitted on Sundays give help and success to the most useful experiments and under-
and week-days alike, and entrance fees are being con- takings .." . The "said museum " above mentioned referred
*sistently reduced; in this the contrast between Great to the collection of Sir Hans Sloane, to be purchased under the
Britain and some foreign countries is singular. A act just quoted. Sir Hans Sloane is therein stated, " through
generation or so ago the national collections of Italy used to be the course of many years, with great labour and expense, to
always open to the public. Pay-days, however, were gradually have gathered together whatever could be procured, either in
established, with the result that the chief collections are now our own or foreign countries, that was rare and curious." In
only visible without payment on Sundays. In Dresden payment order to buy his collections and found the museum a lottery of
is obligatory five days a week. The British Museum never 300,000 was authorized, divided into 50,000 tickets, the prizes
charges for admission. On the other hand, the increase in varying from 10 to 10,000. Provision was made for the
continental collections is more rapid than in Great Britain, where adequate housing of Sir Robert Cotton's books, already bought in
acquisitions are only made by gift, purchase or bequest. In 1700 (12 and 13 Will. III. c. 7). This act secured for the nation
other European countries enormous collections have been the famous Cottonian manuscripts, "of great use and service for
obtained by revolutions and conquest, by dynastic changes, and the knowledge and preservation of our constitution, both in
by secularizing religious foundations. Some of the chief church and state." Sir Robert's grandson had preserved the
treasures of provincial museums in France were spoils of the collection with great care, and was willing that it should not be
"
Napoleonic armies, though the great bulk of this loot was returned disposed of or embeziled," and that it should be preserved for
in 1815 to the original owners. In Italy the conversion of a public use and advantage. This act also sets forth the oath to
monastery into a museum is a simple process, the Dominican be sworn by the keeper, and deals with the appointment of
house of San Marco in Florence offering a typical example. A trustees. This is still the method of internal government at the
further stimulus to the foundation of museums on the continent British Museum, and additions to the Board of Trustees are made
is the comparative ease with which old buildings are obtained by statute, as in 1824, in acknowledgment of a bequest. The
and adapted for the collections. Thus the Germanisches Museum trustees are of three classes: (a) three principal trustees, namely
of Nuremberg is a secularized church and convent the enormous ;
the Primate, the Lord Chancellor and the Speaker; (b) general
collections belonging to the town of Ravenna are housed in an trustees, entitled ex officio to the position in virtue of ministerial
old Camaldulensian monastery. At Louvain and Florence office; (c) family, bequest and nominated trustees. A
standing
municipal palaces of great beauty are used; at Nlmes a famous committee of the trustees meets regularly at the museum for the
Roman temple; at Urbino the grand ducal palace, and so on. transaction of business. The great departments of the museum
There are, however, certain disadvantages in securing both (apart from the scientific and zoological collections, now placed
building and collection ready-made, and the special care devoted in the museum in Cromwell Road, South Kensington) are of
to museums in Great Britain can be traced to the fact that their printed MSS., Oriental books, prints and drawings,
books,
cost to the community is considerable. Immense sums have Egyptian and Assyrian antiquities, British and medieval
been spent on the buildings alone, nearly a million sterling being antiquities, coins and medals. Each of these eight departments
devoted to the new buildings for the Victoria and Albert Museum is under a keeper, with an expert staff of subordinates, the head
in London. Had it been possible to secure them without such executive officer of the whole museum being styled director and
an outlay the collections themselves would have been much chief librarian. The museum has been enriched by bequests
increased, though in this increase itself there would have been a of great importance, especially in the library. Recent legacies
danger, prevalent but not yet fully realized in other countries, have included the porcelain bequeathed by Sir Wollaston Franks,
of crowding the vacant space with specimens of inferior quality. and the valuable collection of works of art (chiefly enamels and
The result is that fine things are badly seen owing to the masses gold-smithery) known as the Waddesdon bequest a legacy of
of second-rate examples; moreover, the ample space available Baron F. de Rothschild. The most important group of acquisi-
induces the authorities to remove works of art from their original tion by purchase in the history of the museum is the series of
places, in order to add them to the museums. Thus the statue Greek sculptures known as the Elgin Marbles, bought by act of
of St George by Donatello has been taken from the church of Or parliament (56 Geo. Ill, c. 99).
San Michele at Florence (on the plea of danger from exposure), There are four national museums controlled by the Board of
and is now placed in a museum where, being dwarfed and under Education, until recently styled the Department of Science and
cover, its chief artistic value is lost. The desire to make financial Art. The chief of these is the Victoria and Albert Museums of
profit from works of art is a direct cause of the modern museum Museum at South Kensington. This museum has a theBoaraof
in Italy. One result is to displace and thus depreciate
^d"""' "-
movement dependency at Bethnal Green, the Dublin and
many works of art, beautiful in their original places, but quite Edinburgh museums having been now removed from its direct
insignificant Vhen put into a museum. Another result is that, charge. There is also a museum of practical geology in Jermyn
owing to high entrance fees, the humbler class of Italians can Street, containing valuable specimens of pottery and majolica.
rarely see the art treasures of their own country. There are The Victoria and Albert Museum owed its inception to the
other collections, akin to art museums, which would best be Exhibition of 1851, from the surplus funds of which 12 acres of
called biographical museums.
They illustrate the life and work land were bought in South Kensington. First known as the
of great artists or Of these the most notable are the
authors. Department of Practical Art, the museum rapidly established
museums commemorating Diirer at Nuremberg, Beethoven at itself on a broad basis. Acquisitions of whole collections and
Bonn, Thorwaldsen at Copenhagen, Shakespeare at Stratford unique specimens were accumulated. In 1857 the Sheepshanks
and Michelangelo at Florence. The sacristies of cathedrals often gallery of pictures was presented; in 1879 the India Office trans-
contain ecclesiastical objects of great value, and are shown ferred to the department the collection of Oriental art formerly
to the public as museums. Cologne, Aachen, Milan, Monza and belonging to the East India Company; in 1882 the Jones bequest
Reims have famous treasuries. Many Italian cathedrals have of French furniture and decorative art (1740-1810) was received;
MUSEUMS OF ART
in 1884 the PatentMuseum was handed over to the department. museums and other objects
for the reception of local antiquities
Books, prints, MSS. and drawings were bequeathed by the Rev. and allows a jd. rate, irrespective of other acts.
of interest,
A. Dyce and Mr John Forster. Meanwhile, gifts and purchases Boroughs have also the right to levy special rates under private
had combined to make the collection one of the most important municipal acts, Oldham affording a case in point. Civic museums
in Europe. The chief features may be summarized as consisting must still be considered to be in their infancy. Although
of pictures, including the Raphael cartoons lent by the king; the movement is now firmly established in municipal enterprise,
textiles, silks and tapestry; ceramics and enamels; ivory and the collections, taken as a whole, are still somewhat nondescript.
plastic art, metal, furniture and Oriental collections. The In many cases collections have been handed over by local
guiding principle of the museum is the illustration of art applied societies, particularly in geology, zoology and other scientific
to industry. Beauty and decorative attraction is perhaps the departments. There are about twelve museums in which Roman
chief characteristic of the exhibits here, whereas the British antiquities are noticeable, among them being Leicester, and the
Museum is largely archaeological. With this object in view, Civic Museum of London, at the Guildhall. British and Anglo-
the museum possesses numerous reproductions of famous Saxon relics are important features at Sheffield and Liverpool;
art treasures: casts, facsimiles and electrotypes, some of in the former case owing to the Bateman collection acquired in
them so well contrived as to be almost indistinguishable 1876; while the Mayer collection presented to the latter city
from the originals. An art library with 75,000 volumes contains a highly important series of carved ivories. At Salford,
and 25,000 prints and photographs is at the disposal of Glasgow and Manchester industrial art is the chief feature of the
students, and an art school is also attached to the museum. collections. Birmingham, with perhaps the finest provincial
The museum does considerable work among provincial schools collection of industrial art, is supported by the rates to the extent
" "
of art and museums, circulation being its function in of 4200 a year. Its collections (including here, as in the majority
this connexion. Works of art are sent on temporary loan to of great towns, an important gallery of paintings) are entirely
local museums, where they are exhibited for certain periods derived from gifts and bequests. Birmingham has made a
and on being withdrawn are replaced by fresh examples. The reputation for special exhibitions of works of art lent for a time
subordinate museum of the Beard of Education at Bethnal to the corporation. These loan exhibitions, about which
Green and that at Edinburgh call for no comment, their contents occasional lectures are given, and of which cheap illustrated
being of slender value. The Dublin Museum, though now catalogues are issued, have largely contributed to the great
controlled by the Irish Department, may be mentioned here as popularity and efficiency of the museum. Liverpool, Preston,
having been founded and worked by the Board of Education. Derby and Sheffield owe their fine museum buildings to private
Apart from the one of the most suitably housed
fact that it is generosity. Other towns have museums which are chiefly
and organized museums in the British Isles, it is remarkable for supported by subscriptions, e.g. Chester and Newcastle, where
its priceless collection of Celtic antiquities, belonging to the there is a fine collection of work by Bewick the engraver. At
Royal Irish Academy, and transferred to the Kildare Street Exeter the library, museum, and art gallery, together with
Museum in 1890. Among its most famous specimens of early schools of science and art, are combined in one building. Other
Irish art may be mentioned the shrine and bell of St Patrick, towns may be noted as having art museums: Stockport, Notting-
the Tara brooch, the cross of Cong and the Ardagh chalice. The ham (Wedgwood collection), Leeds, Bootle, Swansea, Bradford,
series of bronze and stone implements is most perfect, while Northampton and Windsor. There are
(British archaeology),
the jewels, gold ornaments, torques, fibulae, diadems, and so museums at Belfast, Larne, Kilkenny and Armagh. The cost
forth are such that, were it possible again to extend the galleries of the civic museum, being generally computed with the mainten-
(thus allowing further classification and exhibition space), the ance of the free library, is not easily obtained. In many cases
collection would surpass the Danish National Museum at the librarian is also curator of the museum; elsewhere no curator
Copenhagen, its chief rival in Europe. at all is appointed, his work being done by a caretaker. In
The famous collections of Sir Richard Wallace (d. 1890) having some museums there is no classification or cataloguing and
been bequeathed to the British nation by his widow, the public the value of existing collections is impaired both by careless
nas accl u i re<:l a magnificent gallery of pictures, treatment and by the too ready acceptance of worthless
other
National together with a quantity of works of art, so important gifts; often enough the museums are governed by committees
and Quasi- as to make it necessary to include Hertford House of the corporation whose interest and experience are not
among national museums. French art predominates, great.
and the examples of bronze, furniture, and porcelain Foreign Museums. Art museums are far more numerous
are as fine as those to be seen in the Louvre. Hertford House, on the continent of Europe than in England. In Germany
however, also contains a most remarkable collection of armour, progress has been very striking, their educational aspect being
and the examples of Italian faience, enamels, bijouterie, &c., closely studied. In Italy public collections, which are ten times
are of first-rate interest. The universities of Cambridge and more numerous than in England, are chiefly regarded as financial
Oxford have museums, the latter including the Ashmolean collec- assets. The best examples of classification are to be found
tions, a valuable bequest of majolica from D. Fortnum, and some abroad, at Vienna, Amsterdam, Ziirich, Munich and Gizeh in
important classical statuary, now in the Taylorian Gallery. Egypt. The Musee Carnavalet, the historical collection of the
Christ Church has a small museum and picture gallery. Trinity city of Paris, is the most perfect civic museum in the world.
College, Dublin, has a miniature archaeological collection, The buildings in which the objects can be most easily studied are
containing some fine examples of early Irish art. The National those of Naples, Berlin and Vienna. The value of the aggregate
Museum of Antiquities of Scotland, controlled by the Board of collections in any single country of the great powers, Russia
Manufactures, was formed by the Scottish Society of Antiquaries, excepted, probably exceeds the value of British collections. At
and has a comprehensive collection of Scottish objects, lay and the same time, it must be remembered that mas'ses of foreign
religious. The Tower
of London contains armour of historic collections represent expropriations by the city and the state,
and and the Royal College of Music has an
artistic interest, together with the inheritance of royal and semi-royal collectors.
invaluable collection of musical instruments, presented by Mr In Germany and Italy, for instance, there are at least a dozen
George Donaldson. Art museums are also to be found in several towns which at one time were capitals of principalities. In
public schools in the United Kingdom. some countries the public holds over works of art the pre-emptive
The Museums Act of 1845 enabled town councils to found and right of purchase. In Italy, under the law known as the Editto
maintain museums. This act was superseded by another passed Pacca, it is illegal to export the more famous works of art.
Munid I
'n 1
^S kv ^
r William Ewart, which in its turn has
I Speaking generally, the cost of maintaining municipal museums
Museurns. been replaced by amending statutes passed in 1855, abroad is very small, many being without expert or highly-paid
1866, 1868 and 1885. The Museums and Gymna- officials, while admission fees are often considerable. Nowhere
siums Act of 1891 sanctioned the provision and maintenance of in the United Kingdom are the collections neglected in a manner
MUSEUMS OF ART
through which certain towns in Italy and Spain have gained an with sculpture, carved wood, and pottery, nearly everything
unenviable name. being French in origin. In many towns Roman antiquities and
Berlin and Vienna have collections of untold richness, and the early Christian relics are preserved (e.g. Autun, Nlmes, Aries
public are freely admitted. Berlin, besides its picture gallery
and Luxeuil). Other collections controlled by municipalities
di-rmanv an d architectural museum, has a collection of Christian are kept at Rouen, Douai, Montpellier, Chartres (14th-century
and antiquities in the university. The old museum, a sculptures), Grenoble, Toulon, Ajaccio, Epinal (Carolingian
Austria.
royal foundation, is renowned for its classical sculp- objects), Besancon, Bourges, Le Mans (with the remarkable
ture and a remarkable collection of medieval statuary, in enamel of Geoffrey of Anjou), Nancy, Aix and in many other
which Italian art is well represented. The new museum is towns. As a rule, the public is admitted free of charge, special
also noteworthy for Greek marbles, and contains bronzes and courtesy being shown to foreigners. In many cases the collections
engravings, together with one of the most typical collections of are ill cared for and uncatalogued, and little money is provided
Egyptian art. Schliemann's discoveries are housed in the for acquisitions in the civic museums; indeed, in this respect the
Ethnographic Museum. The Museum of Art and Industry, great national institutions contrast unfavourably with British
closely similar in object and arrangement to the Victoria and establishments, to which purchase grants are regularly made.
Albert Museum in London, contains collections of the same The national, civic and papalmuseumsofltalyare sonumerous
character enamels, furniture, ceramics, &c. Vienna also has that a few only can be mentioned. The best arranged and best
one of these museums (Kunstgewerbe), in which the great value classified collection is the Museo Nazionale at Naples,
of the examples is enhanced by their judicious arrangement. containing many thousand examples of Roman
The Historical Museum of this city is interesting, and the art, chiefly obtained from the immediate neighbourhood. For
Imperial Museum (of which the structure corresponds almost historical importance it ranks as primus inter pares with the
exactly with a plan of an ideal museum designed by Sir William collections of Rome and the Vatican. It is, however, the only
Flower) is one of the most comprehensive extant, containing great Italian museum where scientific treatment is consistently
armour of world-wide fame and the choicest specimens of indus- adopted. Other museums of purely classical art are found at
trial art.Prague, Innsbruck and Budapest are respectively Syracuse, Cagliari and Palermo. Etruscan art is best displayed
the homes of the national museums of Bohemia, Tirol and at Arezzo, Perugia (in the university), Cortona, Florence (Museo
Hungary. The National Museum of Bavaria (Munich) has been Archeologico), Volterra and the Vatican. The Florentine
completed, and its exhibition rooms, 100 in number, show the museums are of great importance, consisting of the archaeological
most recent methods of classification, Nuremberg, with upwards museum of antique bronzes, Egyptian art, and a great number of
of eighty rooms, being its only rival in southern Germany. tapestries. The Museo Nazionale, housed in the Bargello (A.D.
Mainz and Trier have Roman antiquities. Hamburg, Leip/ig and 1260), the central depository of Tuscan art.
is Numerous
" "
Breslau have good Kunstgewerbe collections. In Dresden examples of Delia Robbia ware have been gathered together,
there are four great museums the Johanneum, the Albertinum, and are fixed to the walls in a manner and position which reduce
the Zwinger and the Griine Gewolbe in which opulent art can their value to a minimum. The plastic arts of Tuscany are
best be appreciated the porcelain of the Dresden galleries is
; represented by Donatello, Verrocchio, Ghiberti, and Cellini,
superb, and few branches of art are unrepresented. Gotha is while the Carrand collection of ivories, pictures, and varied
remarkable for its ceramics, Brunswick for enamels (in the medieval specimens is of much interest. This museum, like so
ducal cabinet). Museums of minor importance exist at Hanover, many others, is becoming seriously overcrowded, to the lasting
Ulm, Wurzburg, Danzig and Ltibeck. detriment of churches, market-places, and streets, whence these
The central museum of France, the Louvre, was founded works ofartarebeingruthlesslyremoved. The public is admitted
as a public institution during the Revolutionary period. It free one day a week, and the receipts are devoted to art and
contains the collections of Francois I., Louis XIV., antiquarian purposes (" tasse destinate . . . alia conver-
. . .
France.
and the Napoleons. Many works of art have been sazione dei monumenti, all' ampliamento 'degli scavi, ed' all'
added to it from royal palaces, and collections formed by dis- incremento dei instituti . . nella citta." Law of 1875,
.
5).
tinguished connoisseurs (Campana, Sauvageot, La Caze) have The museums of Rome are numerous, the Vatican alone contain-
been incorporated in it. The Greek sculpture, including the ing at least six Museo Clementino, of classical art, with the
Venus of Melos and the Nike of Samothrace, is of pre-eminent Laocoon, the Apollo Belvedere, and other masterpieces; the
fame. Other departments are well furnished, and from a Chiaramonti, also of classical sculpture; the Gallery of Inscrip-
technical point of view the manner in which the officials have tions; the Egyptian, the Etruscan and the Christian museums.
overcome structural difficulties in adapting the palace to the The last is an extensive collection corresponding with another
needs of an art museum is most instructive. The Cluny papal museum in the Lateran Palace, also known as the Christian
Museum, bought by the city in subsequently
1842, ^.nd Museum (founded 1843), an d remarkable for its sarcophagi and
transferred to the state, supplements the medieval collections relics from the catacombs. The Lateran has also a second
of the Louvre, being a storehouse of select works of art. It museum known as the Museo Profano. 'Museums belonging
suffers, however, from being overcrowded, while for purposes to the state are equally remarkable. The Kircher Museum deals
"
of study it is badly lighted. At the same time the Maison with prehistoric art, and contains the Preneste Hoard." The
Cluny is a well-furnished house, decorated with admirable Museo Nazionale (by the Baths of Diocletian), the Museo Capi-
things, and as such has a special didactic value of its own, tolino, and the Palazzo dei Conservatori contain innumerable
corresponding in this respect with Hertford House and the specimens of the finest classical art, vases, bronzes, mosaics,
Poldi-Pezzoli Gallery at Milan collections which are more than and statuary, Greek as well as Roman. Among provincial
museums, since they show in the best manner the adaptation of museums there are few which do not possess at least one or two
artistic taste to domestic
^The French provincial
life. museums objects of signal merit. Thus Brescia, besides a medieval
are numerous and important. Twenty-two were established collection, has a famous bronze Victory. Pesaro, Urbino, and
early in the igth century, and received 1000 pictures as gifts the Museo Correr at Venice have admirable examples of majolica;
from the state, numbers of which were not returned in 1815 to Milan, Pisa and Genoa have general archaeology combined with
the countries whence they were taken. The best of these a good proportion of mediocrity. The civic museum of Bologna
museiyns are at Lyons; at Dijon, where the tombs of Jean sans is comprehensive and well arranged, having Egyptian, classical,
Peur and Philip the Bold are preserved; at Amiens, where the and Etruscan collections, besides many things dating from the
" "
capital Musee de Picardie was built in 1850; at Marseilles and at Bella Epoca of Italian art. At Ravenna alone can the
" "
Bayeux, where the Tapestry is well exhibited. The collec- Byzantine art of Italy be properly understood, and it is most
tions of Lille, Bordeaux, Toulouse, and Avignon are also impor- deplorable that the superb collections in its fine galleries should
tant. The objects shown in these museums are chiefly local remain uncatalogued and neglected. Turin, Siena, Padua, and
gleanings, consisting largely of church plate, furniture, together other towns have civic museums.
MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE
The Ryks Museum at Amsterdam, containing the national establishment. Geneva has three collections. Lausanne holds
collections of Holland, is a modern building in which a series the museum of the canton, and Bern has a municipal collection.
Belgium of historical rooms are furnished to show at a glance All these institutions are well supported financially, and are
and the artistic progress of the Dutch at any given period. much appreciated by the Swiss public. The art museums of
Holland. Nine rooms are also devoted to the chronological Stockholm, Christiania and Copenhagen rank high for their
display of ecclesiastical art. Besides the famous paintings, this but still more for their scientific and didactic
intrinsic excellence,
museum (the sole drawback of which is the number of rooms value. Stockholm has three museums: that of the Royal
which have no top light) contains a library, many engravings, a Palace, a collection of costume and armour; the Northern
comprehensive exhibit of armour, costume, metal-work, and a Museum, a large collection of domestic art; the National
department of maritime craftsmanship. Arnhem and Haarlem Museum, containing the prehistoric collections, gold ornaments,
have municipal collections. At Leiden the university maintains &c., classified in a brilliant manner. The National Museum
a scholarly collection of antiquities. The Hague and Rotterdam of Denmark at Copenhagen is in this respect even more famous,
have also museums, but everything in Holland is subordinated being probably the second national collection in the world. The
to the development of the great central depository at Amsterdam, arrangement of this collection leaves little to be desired, and it
to which examples are sent from all parts of the country. In is to be regretted that some British collections, in themselves of
Belgium the chief museum, that of ancient industrial art, is at immense value, cannot be shown, as at Copenhagen, in a manner
Brussels. It contains many pieces of medieval church furniture which would display their great merits to the fullest degree.
and decoration, but in this respect differs only in size from the There is also at Copenhagen a remarkable collection of antique
civic museums of Ghent and Luxemburg and the Archbishop's busts (Gamle Glyptotek), and the Thorwaldsen Museum con-
Museum at Utrecht. In Brussels, however, there is a good show nected with the sculptor of that name. Norse antiquities are
of Prankish and Carolingian objects. The city of Antwerp at Christiania (the university) and Bergen. Athens has three
maintains the Musee Plantin, a printing establishment which has museums, all devoted to Greek art: that of the Acropolis, that
survived almost intact, and presents one of the most charming of the Archaeological Society (vases and terra-cotta) and the
and instructive museums in the world. As a whole, the National Museum of Antiquities. The state owns all discoveries
museums of Belgium are disappointing, though, per contra, the and these are accumulated at the capital, so that local museums
churches are of enhanced interest, not having been pillaged for scarcely exist. The which rapidly increase, are of
collections,
the benefit of museums. great importance, though as yet they cannot vie with the
New museums are being founded in Russia every year. aggregate in other European countries. The Museum of
Kharkoff and Odessa (the university) have already large collec- Egyptian Antiquities (Cairo), founded by Mariette Bey at Bulak,
tions, and in the most remote parts of Siberia it is afterwards removed to the Giza palace and developed by Maspero,
Russia.
curious to find carefully chosen collections. Krasno- is housed in a large building erected in
1902, well classified, and
yarsk has 12,000 specimens, a storehouse of Buriat art. Irkutsk liberally supported with money and fresh acquisitions. Minor
the capital, Tobolsk, Tomsk (university), Khabarovsk, and museums exist at Carthage and Tunis. At Constantinople the
Yakutsk have now museums. In these Russian art naturally Turkish Museum contains some good classical sculpture and a
predominates. It is only at Moscow and St Petersburg that great deal of rubbish. The Museo del Prado and the Archaeo-
Western art is found. The Hermitage Palace in the latter city logical Museum at Madrid are the chief Spanish collections,
contains a selection of medieval objects of fabulous value, there containing numerous classical objects and many specimens of
being no less than forty early ivories. But from a national point Moorish and early Spanish art. In Spain museums are badly
of view these collections are insignificant when compared with kept, and their contents are of indifferent value. The museums
the gold and silver objects illustrating the primitive arts and of the chief provinces are situated at Barcelona, Valencia,
ornament of Scythia, Crimea and Caucasia, the high standard Granada and Seville. Cadiz and Cordova have also sadly
attained proving an advanced stage of manual skill. At Moscow neglected civic collections. The National Museum of Portugal at
(historical museum) the stone and metal relics are scarcely less Lisbon requires no special comment. The progress of Japan
interesting. There is also a museum of industrial art, the speci- is noticeable in its museums as in its industrial enterprise. The
mens of which are not of unusual value, but being analogous to National Museum(Weno Park, Tokyo) is large and well arranged
the Kunstgewerbe movement in Germany, it exercises a whole- in a new building of Western architecture. Kioto and Nara
some influence upon the designers who study in its schools. have excellent museums, exclusively of Oriental art, and two or
American museums are not committed to traditional systems, three other towns have smaller establishments, including com-
and scientific treatment is allowed its fullest scope. They exist mercial museums. There are several museums in India, the
in great numbers, and though in some cases their chief one being at Calcutta, devoted to Indian antiquities.
America.
exhibits are chiefly ethnographic, a far wider range The best history *pf museums can be found in the prefaces and
introductions to their official catalogues, but the following works
of art objects is rapidly being secured. The National Museum
will be useful for reference: Annual Reports presented to Parliament
at Washington, a branch of the Smithsonian Institution (q.v.),
(official) of British Museum and Board of Education; Civil Service
while notable for its American historical and ethnological Estimates, Class IV., annually presented to Parliament; Second
exhibits, has the National Gallery of Art. The Metropolitan Report of Select Committee of House of Commons on Museums of
Science and Art Department (official; I vol., 1898); Annual Reports
Museum of Art (held by trustees for the benefit of the city of the Museum Association (London) Edward Edwards, The Fine
of New York) has in the Cesnola collection the most complete
;
Arts in England (London, 1840); Professor Stanley Jevons,
"
Use
series of Cypriot art objects.has also departments of coins,
It and Abuse of Museums," printed Methods of Social Reform
in
Greek sculpture and general examples of European and American (London, 1882); Report of Committee on Provincial Museums.
art. The Museum of Fine Arts at Boston is very comprehensive, Report of British Association (London, 1887); Thos. Greenwood,
Museums and Art Galleries (London, 1888); Professor Brown Goode,
and has a remarkable collection of ceramics, together with good Museums of the Future, Report on" the National Museum for 1889
reproductions of antique art. There are museums at St (Washington, 1891) Principles of Museum Administration; Report of
;
Louis, Chicago, Pittsburg, Brooklyn, Cincinnati, Buffalo and Museum Association (London, 1895) Mariotti, La Legislazione delle
;
belle arti. (Rome, 1892); L. B6nedite, Rapport sur r organisation
Washington, as well as Montreal in Canada; and the universities . . dans les musees de la Grande Bretagne (official; Paris, 1895);
.
of Harvard, Chicago, Pennsylvania and Yale have important Sir William Flower, Essays on Museums (London, 1898); Le Gallerie
collections. nazionali italiane (3 vols., Rome, 1894); D. Murray, Museums:
The Swiss National Museum situated at Zurich, and though
is Their History and Use, with Bibliography and List of Museums in
of medium size (50 rooms), it a model of arrangement and
is the United Kingdom (3 vols., 1904). (B.)
organization. Besides the special feature of rooms MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE. The ideal museum should
cover
illustrating the historical progress of art, its collection the whole field of human knowledge. It should teach the
Countries,
of stained glass is important. Basel also (historical truths of all the sciences, including anthropology, the science
museum) is but little inferior in contents or system to the Zurich which deals with man and all his works in every age. All the
MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE
sciences and all the arts are correlated. The wide separation raries was Conrad Gesner of Zurich (1516-1565), " the German
of collections illustrative of the arts (see MUSEUMS OF ART above) Pliny," whose writings are still resorted to by the curious.
from those illustrative of the sciences, and their treatment as Others whose names are familiar were Pierre Belon (1517-1564),
if belonging to a wholly different sphere, is arbitrary. Such professor at the College de France; Andrea Cesalpini (1510-1603),
separation, which is to-day the rule rather than the exception, whose herbarium is still preserved at Florence; Ulissi Aldrovandi
is due to the circumstances of the origin of many collections, (1522-1605), remnants of whose collections still exist at Bologna;
or in other cases to the limitations imposed by poverty or lack Ole Worm (1588-1654), a Danish physician, after whom the so-
of space. Many of the national museums of continental Europe called
"
Wormian bones " of the skull are named, and who was
had their beginnings in collections privately acquired by one of the first to cultivate what is now known as the science
monarchs, who, at a time when the modern sciences were in their of prehistoric archaeology. At a later date the collection of
infancy, entertained themselves by assembling objects which Albert Seba (1665-1736) of Amsterdam became famous, and
appealed to their love of the beautiful and the curious. The was purchased by Peter the Great in 1716, and removed to
pictures, marbles, bronzes and bric-a-brac of the palace became St Petersburg. In Great Britain among early collectors were
the nucleus of the museum of to-day, and in some notable cases the two Tradescants; Sir John Woodward (1665-1728), a portion
the palace itself was converted into a museum. In a few instances of collections, bequeathed by him to Cambridge University
whose
these museums, in which works of art had the first place, have preserved there in the Woodwardian or Geological Museum
is still ;
been enriched and supplemented by collections illustrative of Sir James Balfour (1600-1657), and Sir Andrew Balfour (1630-
the advancing sciences of a later date, but in a majority of cases 1694), whose work was continued in part by Sir Robert Sibbald
these collections have remained what they were at the outset, (1641-1722). The first person to elaborate and present to modern
mere exponents of human handicraft in one or the other, or all minds the thought of an institution which should assemble
of its various departments. Some recent great foundations within its walls the things which, men wish to see and study was
have copied the more or less defective models of the past, and Bacon, who in his New Atlantis (1627) broadly sketched the
museums devoted exclusively to the illustration of one or the outline of a great national museum of science and art.
other narrow segment of knowledge will no doubt continue to The first surviving scientific museum established upon a
be multiplied, and in spite of their limited range, will do much substantial basis was the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford,
good. A notable illustration of the influence of lack of space founded by Elias Ashmole. The original collection had been
in bringing about a separation of anthropological collections made by the Tradescants, father and son, gardeners who were
from collections illustrative of other sciences is afforded by the in the employment of the duke of Buckingham and later of King
"
national collection in London. For many years the collections Charles I. and his queen; it consisted of twelve cartloads of
of the British Museum, literary, artistic and scientific, were curiosities," principally from Virginia and Algiers, which the
assembled in ideal relationship in Bloomsbury, but at last the younger Tradescant bequeathed to Ashmole, and which, after
accumulation of treasure became so vast and the difficulties of much litigation with Tradescant's widow, he gave to Oxford
administration were so pressing that a separation was decided upon condition that a suitable building should be provided.
upon, and the natural history collections were finally removed This was done in 1682 after plans by Sir Christopher Wren.
to the separate museum in Cromwell Road, South Kensington. Ashmole in his diary makes record, on the I7th of February
"
But the student of museums can never fail to regret that the 1683, that the last load of my rareties was sent to the barge,
necessities of space and financial considerations compelled this and this afternoon I relapsed into the gout."
separation, which in a measure destroyed the ideal relationship The establishment of the German academy of Naturae
which had for so many years obtained. Curiosi in 1652, of the Royal Society of London in 1660, and of
The ancient world knew nothing of museums in the modern the Academic des Sciences of Paris in 1666, imparted a powerful
sense of the term. There were collections of paintings and impulse to scientific investigation, which was reflected not only
statuary in the temples and palaces of Greece and Rome; the in the labours of a multitude of persons who undertook the
homes of the wealthy were everywhere adorned by works of art; formation of private scientific collections, but in the initiation
curious objects of natural history were often brought from afar, by crowned heads of movements looking toward the formation
as the skins of the female gorillas, which Hanno after his voyage of national collections, many of which, having their beginnings
on the west coast of Africa hung up in the temple of Astarte at in the latter half of the i7th century and the early years of the
Carthage; Alexander the Great granted to his illustrious teacher, 1 8th century, survive to the present day.
Aristotle, a large sum of money for use in his scientific researches, The most famous of all English collectors in his time was
sent him natural history collections from conquered lands, and Sir Hans Sloane (1660-1753), whose vast collection, acquired at
put at his service thousands of men to collect specimens, upon a great outlay of money, and including the collections of Petiver,
which he based his work on natural history; the museum of Courten, Merret, Plukenet, and Buddie all of which he had
Alexandria, which included within its keeping the Alexandrian purchased was by his will bequeathed to the British nation on
library, was a great university composed of a number of associated condition that parliament should pay to his heirs the sum of
colleges; but there was nowhere in all the ancient world an 20,000, a sum far less than that which he had expended upon it,
institution which exactly corresponded in its scope and purpose and representing, it is sdld, only the value of the coins which it
to the modern museum. The term " museum," after the contained. Sloane was a man who might justly have said of
"
burning of the great institution of Alexandria, appears to have himself humani nihil a me alienum puto "; and his collection
fallen into disuse from the 4th to the i?th century, and the idea attested the catholicity of his tastes and the breadth of his
which the word represented slipped from the minds of men. scientificappetencies. The bequest of Sloane was accepted
The revival of learning in the i5th century was accompanied upon the terms of his will, and, together with the library of
by an awakening of interest in classical antiquity, and many George II., which had likewise been bequeathed to the nation,
persons laboured eagerly upon the collection of memorials of was thrown open to the public at Bloomsbury in 1759 as the
the past. Statuary, inscriptions, gems, coins, medals and manu- British Museum. As showing the great advances which have
scripts were assembled by the wealthy and the learned. The occurred in the administration of museums since that day, the
leaders in this movement were presently followed by others who following extract taken from A Guide- Book to the General
devoted themselves to the search for minerals, plants and curious Contents of the British Museum, published in 1761, is interest-
animals. Among the more famous early collectors of objects ing: ". fifteen persons are allowed to view it in one Company,
. .
of natural history may be mentioned Georg Agricola
(1490-1555), the Time allotted is two Hours; and when any Number not
who has been styled " the father of mineralogy." By his exceeding fifteen are inclined to see it, they must send a List of
labours the elector Augustus of Saxony was induced to establish their Christian and Sirnames, Additions, and Places of Abode, to
the Kunst und Naturalien Kantmer, which has since the Porter's Lodge, in order to their being entered in the Book;
expanded
into the various museums at Dresden. One of his contempo- in a few Days the respective Tickets will be made out, specifying
xrx. 3
66 MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE
the Day and Hour in which they are to come, which, on being petrography and the invertebrate paleontology of the British
sent for, are delivered. If by any Accident some of the Parties Islands. The botanical collections at Kew are classic, and are
are prevented from coming, it is proper they send their as rich in types as are the zoological collections of the British
Ticket back to the Lodge, as nobody can be admitted with it Museum. The Hunterian Museum of the Royal College of
but themselves. It is to be remarked that the fewer Names there Surgeons contains a notable assemblage of specimens illustrating
are in a List, the sooner they are likely to be admitted to see it." anatomy, both human and comparative, as well as pathology.
The establishment of the British Museum was coincident in In London also a number of private owners possess large collec-
time with the development of the systematic study of nature, tions of natural history specimens, principally ornithological,
of which Linnaeus was at that time the most distinguished entomological and conchological, in some instances destined to
exponent. The modern sciences, the wonderful triumphs of find a final resting place in the national collection. One of the
which have revolutionized the world, were just emerging from most important of these great collections is that formed by F.
their infancy. Museums were speedily found to furnish the Ducane Godman, whose work on the fauna of middle America,
best agency for preserving the records of advancing knowledge, entitled Biologia centrali-americana, is an enduring monument
so far as these consisted of the materials upon which the investi- to his learning and generosity. The Hon. Walter Rothschild
gator had laboured. In a short time it became customary for has accumulated at Tring one of the largest and most important
the student, either during his lifetime or at his death, to entrust natural history collections which has ever been assembled by a
to the permanent custody of museums the collections upon single individual. It is particularly rich in rare species which
which he had based his studies and observations. Museums were are either already extinct or verging upon extinction, and the
thenceforth rapidly multiplied, and came to be universally ornithological and entomological collections are vast in extent
regarded as proper repositories for scientific collections of all and rich in types. Lord Walsingham has at his country seat,
kinds. But the use of museums as repositories of the collec- Merton Hall, near Thetford, the largest and most perfect
tions of the learned came presently to be associated with their collection of the microlepidoptera of the world which is in
use as seats of original investigation and research. Collections existence.
of new and rare objects which had not yet received attentive The Ashmolean Museum and the University Museum at Oxford,
study came into their possession. Voyages of exploration and the Woodwardian Museum and the University Museum at
into unknown lands, undertaken at public or private expense, Cambridge, are remarkable collections. The Free Public Museum
added continually to their treasures. The comparison of newer at Liverpool is in some respects one of the finest and most
collections with older collections which had been already made successfully arranged museums in Great Britain. It contains
the subject of study, was undertaken. New truths were thus a great wealth of important scientific material, and is rich in
ascertained. Abody of students was attracted to the museums, types, particularly of birds. The Manchester Museum of Owens
who in a few years by their investigations began not only to add College and the museum in Sheffield have in recent years
to the sum of human knowledge, but by their publications to accomplished much for the cause of science and popular educa-
shed lustre upon the institutions with which they were connected. tion. The Bristol Museum has latterly achieved considerable
The spirit of inquiry was wisely fostered by private and public growth and has become a centre of much enlightened activity.
munificence, and museums as centres for the diffusion of scientific The Royal Scottish Museum, the herbarium of the Royal
truth came to hold a well-recognized position. Later still, Botanical Garden, and the collections of the Challenger Expe-
about the middle of the ipth century, when the importance of dition Office in Edinburgh, are worthy of particular mention.
popular education and the necessity of popularizing knowledge The museum of the university of Glasgow and the Glasgow
came to be more thoroughly recognized than it had heretofore Museum contain valuable collections. The museum of St
been, museums were found to be peculiarly adapted in certain Andrews University is very rich in, material illustrating marine
respects for the promotion of the culture of the masses. They zoology, and so also are the collections of University College at
became under the new impulse not merely repositories of scientific Dundee. The Science and Art Museum of Dublin and the
records and seats of original research, but powerful educational Public Museum of Belfast, in addition to the works of art which
agencies, in which by object lessons the most important truths of they contain, possess scientific collections of importance.
science were capable of being pleasantly imparted to multitudes. There are also in Great Britain and Ireland some two hundred
The old narrow restrictions were thrown down. Their doors smaller museums, in which there are collections which cannot be
were freely opened to the people, and at the beginning of the overlooked by specialists, more particularly by those interested
zoth century the movement for the establishment of museums in geology, paleontology and archaeology.
assumed a magnitude scarcely, if at all, less than the movement
on behalf of the diffusion of popular knowledge through public India. The Indian Museum, the Geological Museum of the
Geological Survey of India, and the herbarium of the Royal Botanic
libraries. While great national museums have been founded and Garden in Calcutta, are richly endowed with collections illustrating
all the large municipalities of the world through private or civic the natural history of Hindostan and adjacent countries. The
finest collection of the vertebrate fossils of the Siwalik Hills is that
gifts have established museums within their limits, a multitude
found in the Indian Museum. The Victoria and Albert Museum in
of lesser towns, and even in some cases villages, have established
Bombay and the Government Museum in Madras are institutions
museums, and museums as adjuncts of universities, colleges and of importance.
high schools have come to be recognized as almost indispensable. Australia. The Queensland Museum, and the museum of the
The movement has assumed its greatest proportions in Great Geological Survey of Queensland located in Brisbane, and the
National Museum at Melbourne, Victoria, represent important
Britain and her colonies, Germany, and the United States of
beginnings. Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, is the centre
America, although in many other lands it has already advanced of considerable scientific activity. The museums connected with
far. the university of Sydney, the museum of the Geological Survey of
There are now in existence in the world, exclusive of museums New South Wales, and the Australian Museum, all possess valuable
collections. The museum at Adelaide is noteworthy.
of art, not less than 2000 scientific museums which possess in
New Zealand. Good collections are found in the Otago Museum,
themselves elements of permanence, some of which are splendidly Dunedin, the Canterbury Museum at Christ Church, the Auckland
supported by public munificence, and a number of which have Museum at Auckland, and the Colonial Museum at Wellington.
been richly endowed by private benefactions. South Africa. The South African Museum at Capetown is a
Great Britain and Ireland. The greatest museum in London flourishing and important institution, which has done excellent
work in the field of South African zoology. A museum has been
is the British Museum. The
natural history department at established at Durban, Natal, which gives evidence of vitality.
South Kensington, with its wealth of types deposited there, Egypt. Archaeological studies overshadow all others in the land
constitutes the most important collection of the kind in the of the Nile, and the splendid collections of the
great
museum of
world. The Museum of Practical Geology in Jermyn Street antiquities at Cairo find nothing to parallel them in the domain of
contains a beautiful and well-arranged collection of minerals
the purely natural sciences. A geological museum was, however,
established in the autumn of 1903, and in view of recent remarkable
and a very complete series of specimens illustrative of the paleontological discoveries in Egypt possesses brilliant opportunities.
MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE 67
Canada. In connexion with the Universite Laval in Quebec, ethnographical and anthropological collections at Budapest. The
the McGill University in Montreal, and the university of Toronto natural history collections of the Bohemian national museum at
in Ontario, beginnings of significance have been made. The Peter Prague are well arranged, though not remarkably extensive.
Redpath Museum of McGilT College contains important collections Russia. The Rumiantsof Museum in Moscow possesses splendid
in all branches of natural history, more particularly botany. buildings, with a library of over 700,000 volumes in addition to
The provincial museum at Victoria, British Columbia, is growing m splendid artistic treasures, and is rich in natural history specimens.
importance. A movement has been begun to establish at Ottawa It is one of the most magnificent foundations of its kind in Europe.
a museum which shall in a sense be for the Dominion a national There are a number of magnificent museums in St Petersburg which
establishment. contain stores of important material. Foremost among these is
France. Paris abounds in institutions for the promotion of culture. the museum of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, rich in collec-
In possession of many of the institutions of learning, such as the Ecole tions illustrating the zoology, paleontology and ethnology, not only
Nationals Superieure des Mines, the Inslitut National Agronomique, of the Russian Empire, but also of foreign lands. There are a number
and the various learned societies, are collections of greater or less of provincial museums in the larger cities of Russia which are growing
importance which must be consulted at times by specialists in the in importance.
various sciences. The Museum d'Histoire Naturelle in the Jardin Italy. Italy is rich in museums of art, but natural history
des Plantes is the most comprehensive and important collection of collections are not as strongly represented as in other lands. Con-
its kind in the French metropolis, and while not as rich in as nected with the various universities are collections which possess
types
the British Museum, nevertheless contains a vast assemblage of more or less importance from the standpoint of the specialist.
classic specimens reflecting the labours of former generations of The Museo Civico di Storia Naturale at Genoa, and the collections
French naturalists. Unfortunately, much of the best material, preserved at the marine biological station at Naples, have most
consisting of the types of species obtained by the naturalists of interest for the zoologist.
French voyages of exploration, have been too long exposed to the Spain. There are no natural history collections of first importance
intense light which fills the great building and have become bleached in Spain, though at all the universities there are minor collections,
and faded to a great degree. The zeal to popularize knowledge by which are in some instances creditably cared for and arranged.
the display of specimens has conflicted with the purpose to preserve Portugal. The natural history museum at Lisbon contains
the records of science, a fact which French naturalists themselves important ornithological treasures.
universally admit. As in England, so also in France, there are a Eastern Asia. The awakening of the empire of Japan has resulted
number of virtuosi, who have amassed fine private collections. among other things in the cultivation of the modern sciences, and
One of the very largest and finest of all the entomological collections there are a number of scientific students, mostly trained in European
of the world is that at Rennes, belonging to the brothers Oberthiir, and American universities, who are doing excellent work in the
upon which they have expended princely sums. The Museum des biological and allied sciences. Very creditable beginnings have been
Sciences Naturelles of Lyons is in some respects an important made in connexion with the Imperial University at Tokio for the
institution. establishment of a museum of natural history. At Shanghai there
"
Belgium. Brussels has been called a city of museums." The is a collection, gathered
by the Chinese branch of the Royal Asiatic
Musee du Congo and the Musee Royal d'Histoire Naturelle du Belgique is in a decadent state, but contains much good
Society, which
are the two most important institutions from the standpoint of the material. Otherwise as yet the movement to establish museums has
naturalist. The former is rich in ethnographic and zoological material not laid strong hold upon the inhabitants of eastern Asia. At
brought from the Congo Free State, and the latter contains very Batavia in Java, and at Manila in the Philippine Islands, there are
important paleontological collections. found the nuclei of important collections.
Holland. The zoological museum of the Koninklijk Zoologisch
Genootschap, affiliated with the university at Amsterdam, is well United States. The movement to establish museums in the
known. The royal museums connected with the university of
Leiden are centres of much scientific activity.
United States is comparatively recent. One of the very earliest
Denmark. The National Museum at Copenhagen is particularly collections (1802), which, however, was soon dispersed, was
rich in Scandinavian and Danish antiquities. made by Charles Willson Peale (q.v.). The Academy of Natural
Sweden. In Stockholm, the capital, the Nordiska Museet is Sciences in Philadelphia, established in 1812, is the oldest society
devoted to Scandinavian ethnology, and the Naturhistoriska Riks-
Museum for the promotion of the natural sciences in the United States.
is rich paleontological, botanical and archaeological
in
collections. Great scientific treasures are also contained in the It possesses a very important library and some most excellent
museums connected with the university of Upsala. collections, and
is rich in ornithological, conchological and
Norway. Classic collections especially interesting to the student botanical types. The city of Philadelphia also points with pride
of marine zoology are contained in the university of Christiania.
to the free museum of archaeology connected with the university
Germany, Germany is rich in museums, some of which are of
of Pennsylvania, and to the Philadelphia museums, the latter
very great importance. The Museum fur Naturkunde, the ethno-
graphical museum, the anthropological museum, the mineralogical museums of commerce, but which incidentally do much to pro-
museum and the agricultural museum in Berlin are noble institutions, mote scientific knowledge, especially in the domain of ethnology,
the first mentioned being particularly rich in classical collections.
botany and mineralogy. The Wistar Institute of Anatomy
Hamburg boasts an excellent natural history musei-m and ethno- is well endowed and organized. The zoological museum at
graphical museum, the Museum Godeffroy and the Museum Umlauff.
There are a number of important private collections in Hamburg. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, is associated
The municipal museum in Bremen is important from the standpoint with the names of Louis and Alexander Agassiz, the former of
of the naturalist and ethnologist. The Roemer Museum at Hildes- whom by his learning and activity as a collector, and the latter
heim is one of the best provincial museums in Germany. Dresden
even more justly than Brussels may be called "a city of museums," by his munificent gifts, as well as by his important researches,
and the mineralogical, archaeological, zoological and anthropological not only created the institution, but made it a potent agency
museums are exceedingly important from the standpoint of the for the advancement of science. The Peabody Museum of
naturalist. Here also in private hands is the greatest collection
Dr American Archaeology and Ethnology, likewise connected with
of palaearctic lepidoptera in Europe, belonging to the heirs of
Otto Staudinger. The ethnographical museum at Leipzig is rich Harvard University, is one of the greatest institutions of its
in collections brought together from South and Central America. kind in the New World. The Essex Institute at Salem, Massa-
The natural history museum, the anatomical museum and the ethno- chusetts, is noteworthy. The Butterfield Museum, Dartmouth
graphical museum in Munich are important institutions, the first
mentioned being particularly rich in paleontological treasures. College, Hanover, New Hampshire, and the Fairbanks Museum
The natural history museum of Stuttgart is likewise noted for of Natural Science (1891) at St Johnsbury, Vermont, are im-
its important paleontological collections. The Senckenbergische portant modern institutions. In the museum of Amherst
Naturforsckende Gesellschaft museum at Frankfort-on-the-Main College are preserved the types of the birds described by J. J.
contains a very important collection of ethnographical, zoological
and botanical material. The museum of the university at Bonn, Audubon, the shells described by C. B. Adams, the mineralogical
and more particularly the anatomical museum, are noteworthy. collections of Charles Upham Shepard, and the paleontological
In connexion with almost all the German universities and in almost collections of President Hitchcock. In Springfield (1898)
all the larger towns and cities are to be found museums, in many of and Worcester, Massachusetts, there are excellent museums.
which there are important assemblages illustrating not only the
natural history of the immediate neighbourhood, but in a multitude
The Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University,
of cases containing important material collected in foreign lands. New Haven, Connecticut, contains much of the paleontological
One of the most interesting of the smaller museums lately established material described by Professor O. C. Marsh. The New
way for a provincial museum.
is that at Liibeck, a model in its
York State Museum at Albany is important from a geological
Austro-Hungary. The Imperial Natural HistoryMuseum inVienna and paleontological standpoint. The American Museum of
is one of the noblest institutions of its kind in
Europe, and possesses
one of the finest mineralogical collections in the world. It is rich Natural History in New York City, founded in 1869, provision
also in botanical and conchological collections. There are important for the growth and enlargement of which upon a scale of the
68 MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE
THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTE
Pittsburg, Penn.,U.S.A.
Plan of First Floor.
Reference.
A. Main Entrance to Institute
B. Entrance to Main Auditorium
Gallery of C. Main Entrance to Library
1. Administration Rooms of Institute
Reptiles 2. Public Comfort Rooms
3. Administrative Rooms of Library
Children's]
1 1 Children's Library
Gallery of Birds Library
o Open
Open Court
L.
1o It Loan Department of
3 Library*
! Court o
O
o
I
Cu
& CQ
fc-;
Open Court
T' 1 MI
3 3 3
Gallery of Useful Arts H
Ceramics, etc.
31 Greenroom of p f
*"
" Greenroom of
^_ ij
j
I Auditorium t**" ""I Auditoriui
Gallery of
Architecture
The width of the front of the building
ia400 feet; Its depth over all exceeds
600 feet
Emery Walkw K.
MUSGRAVE MUSH 69
utmost magnificence has been made, is liberally -supported are among the most important in America. The great Bayet
both by public and private munificence. The ethnographical, collection is the largest and most complete collection represent-
paleontological and archaeological material gathered within ing European paleontology in America. The Carnegie Museum
its walls is immense in extent and superbly displayed. The contains natural history collections aggregating over 1,500,000
museum of the New York botanical garden in Bronx Park is specimens, which cost approximately 125,000, and these are
a worthy rival to the museums at Kew. The Brooklyn Institute growing rapidly. The ethnological collections, particularly
of Arts and Sciences combines with collections illustrative of those illustrating the Indians of the plains, and the archaeological
the arts excellent collections of natural history, many of which collections, representing the cultures more particularly of Costa
are classic. Rica and of Colombia, are large.
The United States National Museum at Washington, under in connexion with almost all the American colleges and
the control of the Smithsonian Institution, of which it is a depart- universities there aremuseums of more or less importance.
ment, has been made the repository for many years past of the The Bernice Pauahi Bishop museum at Honolulu is an institution
scientific and artistic collections coming into the possession of established by private munificence, which is doing excellent
the government. The growth of the material entrusted to its work in the field of Polynesian ethnology and zoology.
keeping has, more particularly in recent years, been enormous, Other American Countrits. The national museum in the city of
and the collections have wholly outgrown the space provided Mexico has in recent years been receiving intelligent encouragement
and support both from the government and by private individuals,
in the original building, built for it during the incumbency
and is coming to be an institution of much importance. National
of Professor Spencer F. Baird as secretary of the Smithsonian museums have been established at the capitals of most of the Central
Institution. The congress of the United States has in recent American and South American states. Some of them represent
considerable progress, but most of them are in a somewhat languish-
years made provision for the erection of a new building upon
ing condition. Notable exceptions are the national museum in
the Mall in Washington, to which the natural history collections
Rio de Janeiro, the Museu Paraense (Museu Goeldi), at Para, the
are ultimately to be transferred, the old buildings to be retained Museu Paulista at Sao Paulo, and the national museum in Buenos
for the display of collections illustrating the progress of the arts, Aires. The latter institution is particularly rich in paleontological
until replaced by a building of better construction for the same collections. There is an excellent museum at Valparaiso in Chile,
which in recent years has been doing good work. (W. J. H.)
purpose. The United States National Museum has published
a great deal, and has become one of the most important agencies MUSGRAVE, SAMUEL (1732-1780), English classical scholar
for the diffusion of scientific knowledge in the country. It is and physician, was born at Washfield, in Devonshire, on the
zgth of September 1732. Educated at Oxford and elected
liberally supported by the government, and makes use of the
scientific men connected with all the various departments of to a Radcliffe travelling fellowship, he spent several years
abroad. In 1766 he settled at Exeter, but not meeting with
activity under government control as agents for research. The
collections of the United States Geological Survey, as well as professional success removed to Plymouth. He ruined his
many of the more important scientific collections made by the prospects, however, by the publication of a pamphlet in the
Department of Agriculture, are deposited here. form of an address to the people of Devonshire, in which he
As-the result of the great Columbian international exposition, accused certain members of the English ministry of having been
which took place in 1893, a movement originated in the city of bribed by the French government to conclude the peace of 1763,
and declared that the Chevalier d'Eon de Beaumont, French
Chicago, where the exposition was held, to form a permanent
collection of large proportions.The great building in which minister plenipotentiary to England, had in his possession
the international exposition of the fine arts was displayed documents which would prove the truth of his assertion. De
was preserved as the temporary home for the new museum. Beaumont repudiated all knowledge of any such transaction
Marshall Field contributed $1,000,000 to the furtherance of and of Musgrave himself, and the House of Commons in 1770
the enterprise, and in his honour the institution was called decided that the charge was unsubstantiated. Thus discredited,
" The Musgrave gained a precarious living in London by his pen until
The Field Columbian Museum." growth of this
institution was very rapid, and Mr. Field, at his death, in his death, in reduced circumstances, on the 5th of July 1780.
1906, bequeathed to the museum $8,000,000, half to be
He wrote several medical works, now forgotten and his edition
;
of Euripides (1778) was a considerable advance on that of Joshua
applied to the erection of a new building, the other half to consti-
tute an endowment fund, in addition to the revenues derived Barnes.
from the endowment already existing. The city of Chicago See W. Munk, Roll of the Royal College of Physicians, ii. (1878).
provides liberally for the support of the museum, the name MUSH, the chief town of a sanjak of the same name of the
"
of which, in the spring of 1906, was changed to The Field Bitlis vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, and an important military
Museum of Natural History. The city of St Louis has taken
''
station. It is situated at the mouth of a gorge in the mountains
steps, as the result of the international exposition of 1904, to on the south side of the plain, the surrounding hills being covered
emulate the example of Chicago, and the St Louis Pubb'c Museum with vineyards and some oak scrub. There are few good houses;
was founded under hopeful auspices in 1905. the streets are ill-paved and winding, while the place and its
Probably the most magnificent foundation for the advance- surroundings are extremely dirty. The castle, of which there
ment of science and art in America which has as yet been created are some remains, is said to have been built by Mushig, an
is the Carnegie Institute in the city of Pittsburg. The Carnegie Armenian king of the province Daron, who founded the town.
Institute is a complex of institutions, consisting of a museum A khan, with two stone lions (Arab or Seljuk) in bas-relief,
of art, a museum of science, and a school for the education of deserves notice, but the bazaar is poor, although pretty
youth in the elements of technology. Affiliated with the embroidered caps are produced. Good roads lead to Erzerum
museums of art and science, and under the same roof, is the and Bitlis. There are 1400 inhabitants, consisting of Kurds
Central Free Library of Pittsburg. The buildings erected and Armenians, about equally divided. The climate is healthy
for the accommodation of the institute, at the entrance to but cold in winter, with a heavy snow fall. Mush is the seat
Schenley Park, cost $8,000,000, and Mr Andrew Carnegie of the Gregorian and Roman Catholic Armenian bishops and
provided liberally for the endowment of the museums of art some American mission schools. Some miles to the west at
and science and the technical school, leaving to the city of the edge of the plain is the celebrated monastery of Surp
Pittsburg the maintenance of the general library. The natural Garabed or St John the Baptist, an important place of Armenian
history collections contained in the museum of science, although pilgrimage.
the institution was only founded in 1896, are large and Mush plain, 35 m. long by 12 broad, is very fertile, growing
important, and are particularly rich in mineralogy, geology, wheat and tobacco, and is dotted with many thriving Armenian
paleontology, botany and zoology. The entomological collections villages. The Murad or eastern Euphrates traverses the western
are among the most important in the new world. The concho- end of the plain and disappears into a narrow mountain gorge
logical collections are vast, and the paleontological collections there. Vineyards are numerous and a fair wine is produced.
MUSHROOM
Wood is scarce and the usual fuel is tezek or dried cow-dung. mushroom has numerous varieties, and it differs in different
There are several sulphur springs, and earthquakes are frequent places and under different modes of culture in much the same
and sometimes severe. It was on the plain of Mush that way as our kitchen-garden plants differ from the type they have
Xenophon first made acquaintance with Armenian houses, been derived from, and from each other. In some instances
which have little changed since his day. these differences are so marked that they have led some
MUSHROOM. 1 There are few more useful, more easily botanists to regard as distinct species many forms usually
recognized, or more delicious members of the vegetable kingdom esteemed by others as varieties only.
than the common mushroom, known
botanically as Agaricus
campestris (or Psalliota, campestris). It grows in short grass
in the temperate regions of all parts of the world. Many
edible fungi depend upon minute and often obscure botanical
characters for their determination, and may readily be con-
founded with worthless or poisonous species; but that is not the
case with the common mushroom, for, although several other
species of Agaricus somewhat closely approach it in form and
colour, yet the true mushroom, if sound and freshly gathered, may
be distinguished from all other fungi with great ease. It almost
invariably grows in rich, open, breezy pastures, in places where
the grass is kept short by the grazing of horses, herds and flocks.
"
Although this plant is popularly termed the meadow mush-
room," it never as a rule grows in meadows. It never grows in
wet boggy places, never in woods, or on or about stumps of trees.
An exceptional specimen or an uncommon variety may sometimes
be seen in the above-mentioned abnormal places, but the best,
the true, and common variety of the table is the produce of short,
upland, wind-swept pastures. A true mushroom is never large in FIG. i. Pasture Mushroom (Agaricus campestris).
size; its cap very seldom exceeds 4, at most 5 in. in diameter.
The large examples measuring from 6 to 9 or more in. across A small variety of the common mushroom
found in pastures has
the cap belong to Agaricus arvensis, called from its large size and been named A. pratensis; it differs from the type in having a pale
reddish-brown scaly top, and the flesh on being cut or broken
coarse texture the horse mushroom, which grows in meadows
changes to pale rose-colour. A variety still more marked, with a
and damp shady places, and though generally wholesome is darker brown cap and the flesh changing to a deeper rose, and
coarse and sometimes indigestible. The mushroom usually sometimes blood-red, has been described as A. rufescens. The
well-known compact variety of mushroom-growers, with its white
grown in gardens or hot-beds, in cellars, sheds, &c., is a distinct
cap and dull purplish clay-coloured gills, is A. hortensis. Two
variety known as Agaricus hortensis. On being cut or broken the sub-varieties of this have been described under the names of A.
flesh of a true mushroom remains white or nearly so, the flesh Buchanani and A. elongatus, and other distinct forms are known to
of the coarser horse mushroom changes to buff or sometimes to botanists. A variety also grows in woods named A. silvicola; this
dark brown. To summarize the characters of a true mushroom can only be distinguished from the pasture mushroom by its elongated
bulbous stem antfits externally smooth cap. There is also a fungus
it grows only in pastures; it is of small size, dry, and with
well known to botanists and cultivators which appears to be inter-
unchangeable flesh; the cap has a frill; the gills are free from the mediate between the pasture variety and the wood variety, named
stem, the spores brown-black or deep purple-black in colour, A. vaporarius. The large rank horse mushroom, now generally
and the stem solid or slightly pithy. When all these char- referred to as A. arvensis, is probably a variety of the pasture mush-
acters are taken together no other mushroom-like fungus room; it grows in rings in woody places and under trees and hedges
in meadows; it has a large scaly round cap, and the flesh quickly
and nearly a thousand species grow in Britain can be con- changes to buff or brown when cut or broken the stem too is hollow.
;
founded with it. An unusually scaly form of this has been described as A.-viUaticus
The parts of a mushroom consist chiefly of stem and cap; the stem and another as A. augustus.
has a clothy ring round its middle, and the cap is furnished under- A species, described by Berkeley and Broome as distinct from
neath with numerous radiating coloured gills. Fig. I (i) represents both the pasture mushroom and horse mushroom, has been pub-
a section through an infant mushroom, (2) a mature example, lished under the name of A. elvensis. This grows under oaks, in
and (3) a longitudinal section through a fully developed mushroom. clusters a most unusual character for the mushroom, and is said
The cap D, E is fleshy, firm and white within, never thin and watery ;
to be excellent for the table. An allied fungus peculiar to woods,
with a less fleshy cap than the true mushroom, with hollow stem,
externally pale brown, dry, often slightly silky or floccose,
it is
never viscid. The cuticle of a mushroom readily peels away from and strong odour, has been described as a close ally of the pasture
the flesh beneath, as shown at F. The cap has a narrow dependent mushroom under the name of A. silvaticus; its qualities for the table
margin or frill, as shown at G, and in section at H this dependent ;
have not been recorded.
frill originates in the rupture of a delicate continuous wrapper, Many instances are on record of symptoms of poisoning, and
which in the infancy of the mushroom entirely wraps the young even death, having followed the of plants which have
consumption
plant; it is shown in its continuous state at j, and at the moment passed as true mushrooms; these cases have probably arisen from
of rupture at K. The gills underneath the cap L, M, N are at first the examples consumed being in a state of decay, or from some mis-
white, then rose-coloured, at length brown-black. A
point of great
take as to the species eaten. It should always be specially noted
importance is to be noted in the attachment of the gills near the stem
whether the fungi to be consumed are in a fresh and wholesome
at o, P the
; gills in the true mushroom are (as shown) usually more condition, otherwise they act as a poison in precisely the same way
or less free from the stem, they never grow boldly against it or run as does any other semi-putrid vegetable. Many instances are on
down it; they may sometimes just touch the spot where the stem record where mushroom-beds have been invaded by a growth of
joins the bottom of the cap, but never more; there is usually a slight strange fungi and the true mushrooms have been ousted to the advan-
channel, as at p, all round the top of the stem. When a mushroom tage of the new-comers. When mushrooms are gathered for sale
is perfectly ripe and the gills are brown-black in colour, they throw by persons unacquainted with the different species mistakes are of
down a thick dusty deposit of fine brown-black or purple-black frequent occurrence.
_
A very common spurious mushroom in
spores it is essential to note the colour. The spores on germination
;
markets is A. velutinus, a slender, ringless, hollow-stemmed, black-
make a white felted mat, more or less dense, of mycelium; this, gilled fungus, common in gardens and about dung and stumps; it
when compacted with dry, half-decomposed dung, is the mushroom is about the size of a mushroom, but thinner in all its parts and far
spawn of gardeners. The stem is firm, slightly pithy up the middle, more brittle it has a black hairy fringe hanging round the edge of the
;
but never hollow; it bears a floccose ring near its middle, as cap when fresh. Another spurious mushroom, and equally common
in dealers' baskets, is A. lacrymabundus; this grows in the same posi-
_
illustrated at Q, Q; this ring originates by the rupture of the thin
tions as the last, and is somewhat fleshier and more like a true mush-
general wrapper x of the infant plant.
room; it has a hollow stem and a slight ring, the gills are black-brown'
Like widely spread and much-cultivated plants, the edible
all
mottled and generally studded with tear-like drops of moisture.
*The 15th-century form of the word was musseroun,
earlier In both these species the gills distinctly touch and grow on to the
muscheron, &c., and was adapted from the French mousseron, which stem. Besides these there are numerous other black-gilled species
is generally connected with moutse, moss. which find a place in baskets some species far too small to bear
MUSHROOM 7 1
any resemblance to a mushroom, others large and deliquescent, by a systematic arrangement a single proprietor wiH send to the
surface from 300 Ib to 3000 Ib of mushrooms per day. The passages
belonging to the stump- and dung-borne genus Coprinus.
he true mushroom itself is to a great extent a dung-borne species,
f:nerally sometimes extend over several miles, the beds sometimes occupying
therefore mushroom-beds are always liable to an invasion from other over 20 m., and, as there are many proprietors of cellars, the produce
of mushrooms is so large that not only is Paris fully supplied, but
dung-borne forms. The spores of all fungi are constantly floating
about in the air, and when the spores of dung-infesting species vast quantities are forwarded to the different large towns of Europe;
that the mushrooms are not allowed to reach the fully expanded condi-
alight on a mushroom-bed they find a nidus already prepared
new-comer becomes tion, but are gathered in a large button state, the whole growth of
exactly suits them; and if the spawn of the
more profuse than that of the mushroom the stranger takes up his the mushroom being removed and the hole left in the manure
There is also a fungus covered with fine earth. The beds remain in bearing for six or
position at the expense of the mushroom.
named Xylaria vaporaria, which sometimes fixes itself on mushroom- eight months, and then the spent manure is taken to the surface
beds and produces such an enormous quantity of string-like spawn again for garden and field purposes. The equable temperature of
that the entire destruction of the bed results. This spawn is some- these cellars and their freedom from draught is one cause of their
times so profuse that it is pulled out of the beds in enormous masses great success; to this must be added the natural virgin spawn,
and carted away in barrows. for by continually using spawn taken from mushroom-producing
Sometimes cases of poisoning follow the consumption of what beds the potency for reproduction is weakened. The beds produce
have really appeared to gardeners to be true bed-mushrooms, and mushrooms in about six weeks after this spawning.
to country folks as small horse mushrooms. The case is made more The common mushroom (Agaricus campestris) is propagated by
complicated by the fact that these highly poisonous forms now
and spores, the fine black dust seen to be thrown off when a mature speci-
then appear upon mushroom-beds to the exclusion of the mush- men is laid on white paper or a white dish these give rise to what
;
" "
rooms. This dangerous counterfeit is A fastibilis, or sometimes A
. . is known as the spawn or mycelium, which consists of whitish
threads permeating dried dung or similar substances, and which,
crustuliniformis, a close ally if not indeed a mere variety of
the first.
A description of one will do for both, A. fastibilis being a little the when planted in a proper medium, runs through the mass, and even-
more slender of the two. Both have fleshy caps, whitish, moist and tually develops the fructification known as the mushroom. This
clammy to the touch instead of a pleasant odour, they have a dis-
;
'spawn may be obtained from old pastures, or decayed mushroom
agreeable one; the stems are ringless, or nearly so; and the gills, beds, and is purchased from nurserymen in the form of bricks
which are palish-clay-brown, distinctly touch and grow on to the charged with the mycelium, and technically known as mushroom
solid or pithy stem. These two fungi usually grow in woods, but spawn. When once obtained, it may be indefinitely preserved.
sometimes in hedges and in shady places in meadows, or even, as has It may be produced by placing quantities of horse-dung saturated
been said, as invaders on mushroom-beds. The pale clay-coloured with the urine of horses, especially of stud horses, with alternate
or even viscid top are decisive layers of rich earth, and covering
the whole with straw, to_ exclude
gills, offensive odour, and clammy
characters. A reference to the accompanying illustration (fig. 2), rain and air; the spawn commonly appears in the heap in about
which is about one-half natural size, will give a good idea of A. two months afterwards. The droppings of stall-fed horses, or of
the nature of the attachment of the gills such as have been kept on dry food, should be made use of.
fastibilis; the difference in
near the stem is seen at R, the absence of a true ring at s, and of a The old method of growing mushrooms in ridges out of doors, or
pendent frill at x. The colour, with the exception of the gills, is
on prepared beds either level or sloping from a back wall in sheds or
not unlike that of the mushroom. In determining fungi no single cellars, may generally be adopted with success. The beds are formed
character must be relied upon as conclusive, but all the characters of horse-droppings which have been slightly fermented and frequently
must be taken together. Sometimes a beautiful, somewhat slender, turned, and may be made 2 or 3 ft. broad and of any length. A layer
of dung about 8 or 10 in. thick is first deposited, and covered with a
fungus peculiar to stumps in woods is mistaken for the mushroom in
A. cervinus; it has a tall, solid, white, ringless stem and somewhat light dryish earth to the depth of 2 in. and two similar layers with
;
thin brown cap, furnished underneath with beautiful rose-coloured similar coverings are added, the whole being made narrower as it
stem as in the mushroom, and which advances in height. When the bed is finished, it is covered with
gills, which are free from the
straw to protect it from rain, and also from parching influences.
In about ten days, when the mass is milkwarm, the bed will be
ready for spawning, which consists of inserting small pieces of spawn
bricks into the sloping sides of the bed, about 6 in. asunder. A layer
of fine earth is then placed over the whole, and well beaten down,
and the surface is covered with a thick coat of straw. When the
weather is temperate, mushrooms will appear in about a month after
the bed has been made, but at other times a much longer period may
elapse. The principal things to be attended to are to preserve a
moderate state of moisture and a proper mild degree of warmth;
and the treatment must vary according to the season.
These ordinary ridge beds furnish a good supply towards the end
of summer, and in autumn. To command a regular how-
supply,
ever, at all seasons, the use of a mushroom-house will be Found very
convenient. The material employed in all cases is the droppings of
horses, which should be collected fresh, and spread out in thin layers
in a dry place, a portion of the short litter being retained well mois-
FIG. 2. Poisonous Mushroom (Agaricus fastibilis).
tened by horse-urine. It should then be thrown together in ridges
and frequently turned, so as to be kept in an state of fer-
incipient
never turn black. It is probably a poisonous plant, belonging, as it mentation, a little dryish friable loam being mixed with it to retain
does, to a dangerous cohort. Many other species of Agaricus more the ammonia given off the dung. With this or a mixture of
by
or less resemble A. campestris, notably some of the plants found horse-dung, loam, old mushroom-bed dung, and half-decayed leaves,
under the sub-genera Lepiota, Volvaria, Pholiota and Psalliota; the beds are built up in successive layers of about 3 in. thick, each
but when the characters are noted they may all with a little care layer being beaten firm, until the bed is 9 or 10 in. thick. If the heat
be easily distinguished from each other. The better plan is to exceeds 80", holes should be made to moderate the fermentation.
discard at once all fungi which have not been gathered from open The beds are to be spawned when the heat moderates, and the surface
pastures; by this act alone more than nine-tenths of worthless and is then covered with a sprinkling of warmed loam, which after
poisonous species will be excluded. a few days is made up to a thickness of 2 in., and well beaten down.
In cases of poisoning by mushrooms immediate medical advice The beds made partly of old mushroom-bed dung often contain
should be secured. The dangerous principle is a narcotic, and the sufficient spawn to yield a crop, without the introduction of brick or
symptoms are usually great nausea, drowsiness, stupor and pains cake spawn, but it is advisable to spawn them in the regular way.
in the joints. A good palliative is sweet oil; this will allay any The spawn should be introduced an inch or two below the surface
corrosive irritation of the throat and stomach, and at the same when the heat has declined to about 75, indeed the bed ought never
time cause vomiting. to exceed 80. The surface is to be afterwards covered with hay or
Paris mushrooms are cultivated in enormous quantities in dark litter. The atmospheric temperature should range from 60 to 65
underground cellars at a depth of from 60 to 160 ft. from the surface. till the mushrooms appear, when it may
drop a few degrees, but not
The stable manure is taken into the tortuous passages of these cellars, lower than 55. If the beds require watering, water of about 80
and the spawn introduced from masses of dry dung where it occurs should be used, and it is preferable to moisten the covering of litter
naturally. In France mushroom-growers do not use the compact rather than the surface 01 the beds themselves. It is also beneficial,
blocks or bricks of spawn so familiar in England, but much smaller especially
in the case of partially exhausted beds, to water with a
" "
flakes or leaves of dry dung in which the spawn or mycelium can dilute solution of nitre. For a winter supply the beds should be
be seen to exist. Less manure is used in these cellars than we made towards the end of August, and the end of October. Slugs
generally see in the mushroom-houses of England, and the surface and woodlice are the worst enemies of mushroom crops.
of each bed is covered with about an inch of fine white stony soil. The Fairy-ring Champignon. This fungus, Marasmius Oreades,
The beds are kept artificially moist by the application of water is more
universally used in France and Italy than
in England,
brought from the surface, and the different galleries bear crops in although it is well known and frequently used both in a fresh and in
succession. As one is exhausted another is in full bearing, so that a dry state in England. It is totally different in appearance from the
MUSIC
pasture mushroom, and, like it, its characters are so distinct that generally, and even reading and writing would all fall under
there is hardly a possibility of making a mistake when its peculiari-
besides the singing
tiovaiKrj, and setting of lyric poetry. On
ties are once comprehended. It has more than one advantage
over the meadow mushroom in its extreme commonness, its profuse the educational value of music in the foimation of character
growth, the length of the season in which it may be gathered, the the philosophers laid chief stress, and this biased their aesthetic
total absence of varietal forms, its adaptability for being dried and or appoviKri (sc. Tt\vri), rather
analysis. 'Ap/iowa (harmony),
preserved for years, and its persistent delicious taste. It is by many than fiowM'ht was the name given by the Greeks to the art of
esteemed as the best of all the edible fungi found in Great Britain.
Like the mushroom, it grows in short open pastures and amongst arranging sounds for the purpose of creating a definite aesthetic
the short grass of open roadsides; sometimes it appears on lawns, impression, with which this article deals.
but it never occurs in woods or in damp shady places. Its natural
habit is to grow in rings, and the grassy fairy-rings so frequent I. GENERAL SKETCH
amongst the short grass of downs and pastures in the spring are i. Introduction.As a mature and independent art music
generally caused by the nitrogenous manure applied to the soil
is unknown except in the modern forms realized by Western
in the previous autumn by the decay of a circle of these fungi. Many
other fungi in addition to the fairy-ring champignon grow in circles, civilization; ancient music, and the non-European music of the
so that this habit must merely be taken with its other characters in present day, being (with insignificant exceptions of a character
cases of doubt.
which confirms the generalization) invariably an adjunct of poetry
A glance at the illustration (fig. 3) will show how entirely the fairy-
or dance, in so far as it is recognizable as an art at all. The
ring champignon differs from the mushroom. In the first place, it
modern art of music is in a unique position; for, while its language
has'been wholly created by art, this language is yet so perfectly
organized as to be in itself natural; so that though the music
of one age or style may be at first unintelligible to a listener
who is accustomed to another style, and though the listener
may help himself by acquiring information as to the char-
acteristics and meaning of the new style, he will best learn to
understand it by merely divesting his mind of prejudices and
allowing the music to make itself intelligible by its own self-
consistency. The understanding of music thus finally depends
neither upon t*ehnical knowledge nor upon convention, but
upon the listener's immediate and familiar experience of it;
FIG. 3. The Fairy-ring Champignon (Marasmius oreades). an experience which technical knowledge and custom can of
course aid him to acquire more rapidly, as they strengthen
is about one-half the size of a mushroom, and whitish-buff in every
his memory and enable him to fix impressions by naming
part, the gills always retaining this colour and never becoming
salmon-coloured, brown or black. The stem is ;solid and corky, them.
much more solid than the flesh of the cap, and perfectly smooth,
never being furnished with the slightest trace of a ring. The buff-
Beyond certain elementary facts of acoustics (see SOUND),
modern music shows no direct connexion with nature inde-
gills are far apart (v), and in this they greatly differ from the some-
what crowded gills of the mushroom; the junction of the gills with pendently of art; indeed, it is already art that determines the
the stem (w) also differs in character from the similar junction in the selection of these elementary acoustic facts, just as in painting
mushroom. The mushroom is a semi-deliquescent fungus which art determines the selection of those facts that come under the
rapidly into putridity in decay, whilst the champignon dries
falls 1
cognizance of optics. In music, however, the purely acoustic
up into a leathery substance in the sun, but speedily revives and takes
its original form again after the first shower. To this character the principles are incomparably fewer and simpler than the optical
fungus owes its generic name (Marasmius) as well as one of its most principles of painting, and their artistic interaction transforms
valuable qualities for the table, for examples may be gathered from them into something no less remote from the laboratory
June to November, and if carefully dried may be hung on strings
for culinary purposes and preserved without deterioration for several
experiments of acoustic science than from the unorganized
sounds of nature. The result is that while the ordinary non-
years; indeed, many persons assert that the rich flavour of these
fungi increases with years. Champignons are highly esteemed (and artistic experiences of sight afford so much material for plastic
especially is this the case abroad) for adding a most delicious flavour art that the vulgar conception of good painting is that it is
to stews, soups and gravies.
A deceptively like nature, the ordinary non-artistic experience
fungus which may carelessly be mistaken for the mushroom is
M peronatus, but this grows in woods amongst dead leaves, and has a
.
of sound has so little in common with music that musical
hairy base to the stem and a somewhat acrid taste. Another is M. realism is, with rare though popular exceptions, generally
urens this also generally grows in woods, but the gills are not nearly
;
regarded as an eccentricity.
so deep, they soon become brownish, the stem is downy, and the taste
This contrast between music and plastic art may be partly
is acrid. An Agaricus named A. dryophilus has sometimes been
gathered in mistake for the champignon, but this too grows in woods
explained by the mental work undergone, during the earliest
where the champignon never grows it has a hollow instead of a solid
; infancy both of the race and of the individual, in interpreting
stem, gills crowded together instead of far apart, and flesh very sensations of space. When a baby learns the shape of objects
tender and brittle instead of tough. A small esculent ally of the
by taking them in his hands, and gradually advances to the
champignon, named M. scovodonius, is sometimes found in pastures
in Great Britain; this is largely consumed on the Continent, where discovery that his toes belong to him, he goes through an
it is esteemed for its powerful flavour of garlic. In England, where, amount of work that is quite forgotten by the adult, and its
garlic is not used to a large extent, this fungus is not sought for. complexity and difficulty has perhaps only been fully realized
Another small and common species, M. porreus, is pervaded with a
A third species, through the experience of persons who have been born blind
garlic flavour to an equal extent with the last.
M. alliaceus, is also strongly impregnated with the scent and taste but have acquired sight at a mature age by an operation. Such
of onions or garlic. Two species, M. impudicus and M. foetidus, work gives the facts of normal adult vision an amount of organic
are in all stages of growth highly foetid. The curious little edible principle that makes them admirable raw material for art.
Agaricus esculentus, although placed under the sub-genus Collybia, The power of distinguishing sensations of sound is associated
is allied by its structure to Marasmius. It is a small bitter species
common in upland pastures and fir plantations early in the season. with no such mental skill, and is no more complex than the
Although not gathered for the table in England, it is greatly prized power of distinguishing colours. On the other hand, sound
in some parts of the Continent. is the principal medium by which most of the higher animals
MUSIC. The Greek juouffiK^ (sc. TX"?), from which this both express and excite emotion; and hence, though until
word is derived, was used very widely to embrace all those 1
Thus Chinese and Japanese art has attained high organization
arts over which the Nine Muses (Mouaai) were held to preside. without the aid of a veracious perspective; while, on the other hand,
its carefully formulated decorative principles, though not realistic,
Contrasted with 7iywcumK^ (gymnastic) it included those
branches of education concerned with the development of the certainly rest on an optical and physiological basis. Again, many
modern impressionists justify their methods by an appeal to pheno-
mind as opposed to the body. Thus such widely different arts mena of complementary colour which earlier artists possibly did not
and sciences as mathematics, astronomy, poetry and literature perceive and certainly did not select as artistic materials.
GENERAL SKETCH] MUSIC 73
" "
codified into human speech it does not give any raw material and low is probably derived from a sense of greater and less
for art, yet so powerful are its primitive effects that music vocal effort; and it has been much stimulated by our harmonic
(in the laird-song sense of sound indulged in for its own attractive- sense, which has necessitated a range of sounds incomparably
ness) is as long prior to language as the brilliant colours of greater than those employed in any non-harmonic system.
animals and flowers are prior to painting (see SONG). Again, The Greeks derived their use of the terms from the position
sound as a warning or a menace is eminently important in the of notes on their instruments; and the Greek hypate was what
history of tLe instinct of self-preservation; and, above all, its we should call the lowest note of the mode, while nete was the
production is instantaneous and instinctive. highest. Sir George Macfarren has pointed out (Ericy. Brit.,
"
AH these facts, while they tend to make musical expression 9th ed., art. Music ") that Boethius (c. A.D. 500) already fell
an early phenomenon in the history of life, are extremely into the trap and turned the Greek modes upside down. *
unfavourable to the early development of musical art. They Another radical though less grotesque misconception was
invested the first musical attempts with a mysterious power also already well exploded by Macfarren ; but it still frequently
over listener and musician, by re-awakening instincts more survives at the present day, since the study of non-harmonic
powerful, because more ancient and necessary, than any that scales is, with the best of intentions, apt rather to encourage
could ever have been appealed to by so deliberate a process than to dispel it. The more we realize the importance of
as that of drawing on a flat surface a series of lines calculated differences in position of intervals of various sizes, as producing
to remind the eye of the appearance of solid objects in space. differences of character in scales, the more irresistible is the
It is hardly surprising that music long remained as imperfect temptation to regard the ancient Greek modes as differing from
as its legendary powers were portentous, even in the hands of each other in this way. And the temptation becomes greater
so supremely artistic a race as that of classical Greece; and what- instead of less when we have succeeded in thinking away our
ever wonder this backwardness might still arouse in us vanishes modern harmonic notions. Modern harmonization enormously
when we realize the extreme difficulty of the process by which increases the differences of expression between modes of which
the principles of the modern art were established. the melodic intervals are different, but it does this in a fashion
2. Non-harmonic and Greek Music. Archaic music is of that draws the attention almost entirely away from these
two kinds the unwritten, or spontaneous, and the recorded, differences of interval; and without harmony we find it extremely
or scientific. The earliest musical art-problems were far too difficult to distinguish one mode from another, unless it be
difficult for conscious analysis, but by no means always beyond by this different arrangement of intervals. Nevertheless, all
the reach of a lucky hit from an inspired singer; and thus folk- the evidence irresistibly tends to the conclusion that while the
music often shows real beauty where the more systematic music three Greek genera diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic
of the time is merely arbitrary. Moreover, folk-music and the were scales differing in intervals, the Greek modes were a series
present music of barbarous and civilized non-European races of arrangement of interval, and differing,
scales identical in
furnish the study of musical origins with material analogous to like our modern keys, only in pitch. The three genera were
that given by the present manners and customs of different races applied to all these modes or keys, and we have no difficulty
in the study of social evolution and ancient history. We may in understanding their modifying effects. But the only clue
mention as examples the accurate comparison of the musical we have to the mental process by which in a preharmonic age
scales of non-European races undertaken by A. J. Ellis {On different characteristics can be ascribed to scales identical in
the Musical Scales of Various Nations, 1885); the parallel all but pitch, is to be found in the limited compass of Greek
researchesand acute and cautious reasoning of his friend and musical sounds, corresponding as it does to the evident sensitive-
-
collaborator, A. J. Hipkins (Ddrianand Phrygian reconsidered ness of the Greek ear to differences in vocal effort. We have
from a Non-harmonic Point of View, 1902); and, perhaps most only to observe the compass of the Greek scale to see that in
of all,the study of Japanese music, with its remarkable if the most esteemed modes it is much more the compass of speaking
uncertain signs of the beginning of a harmonic tendency, its than of singing voices. Modern singing is normally at a much
logical coherence, and its affinity to Western scales, points higher pitch than that of the speaking voice, but there is no
in which it seems to show a great advance upon the Chinese natural reason, outside the peculiar nature of modern music,
music from which most of it is derived (Music and Musical why this should be so. It is highly probable that all modern
Instruments of Japan, by J. F. Piggott, 1893). The reader will singing would strike a classical Greek ear as an outcry; and
find detailed accounts of ancient Greek music in the article in any case such variations of pitch as are inconsiderable in
on that subject in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians modern singing are extremely emphatic in the speaking voice,,
(new ed., ii. 223) and in Monro's Modes of Ancient Greek Music so that they might well make all the difference to an ear un-
(Clarendon Press, 1894), while both the Greek music itself, accustomed to organized sound beyond the speaking compass.
and the steps by which it passed through Graeco-Roman and Again, much that Aristoxenus and other ancient authorities
early Christian phases to become the foundation of the modern say of the character of the modes (or keys) tends to confirm
art, are traced as clearly as is consistent with accuracy in the view that that character depends upon the position of the
The Oxford History of Music, vol. i., by Professor Wooldridge. mese or keynote within the general compass. Thus Aristotle
Sir Hubert Parry's Evolution of the Art of Music (" International (Politics, v. (viii.) 7, 1342 b. 20) states that certain low-pitched
Scientific Series," originally published under the title of The modes suit the voices of old men, and thus we may conjecture
Art of Music) presents the main lines of the evolution of modern that even the position of tones and semitones might in the
musical ideas in the clearest and most readable form yet Dorian and Phrygian modes bring the bolder portion of the
attained. scale in all three genera into the best regions of the average
Sir Hubert Parry illustrates in this work the artificiality of young voice, while the Ionian and Lydian might lead the voice
our modern musical conceptions by the word " cadence," to dwell more upon semitones and enharmonic intervals, and
which to a modern musician belies its etymology, since it so account for the heroic character of the former and the sensual
" "
normally means for him no falling close but a pair of final character of the latter (Plato, Republic, 398 to 400).
chords rising from dominant to tonic. Moreover, in consequence Of the Greek genera, the chromatic and enharmonic (especially
of our harmonic notions we think of scales as constructed from
1
It is worth adding that in the i6th century the great contrapun-
the bottom upwards; and even in the above-mentioned article
in Grove's Dictionary all the Greek scales are, from sheer force
talcomposer Costanzo Porta had been led by doubts on the subject
to the wonderful conclusion that ancient Greek music was poly-
of habit, written upwards. But the ancient and, almost phonic, and so constructed as to be invertible in illustration of which
;
universally, the primitive idea of music is like that of speech, theory he and Vincentino composed four-part motets in each of the
in which most inflections are in fact cadences, while rising Greek genera (diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic), Porta's being
constructed like the I2th and I3th fugues in Bach's Kunst der Fuge
inflexions express less usual sentiments, such as surprise or so as to be equally euphonious when sung upside down!
" " (See
interrogation. Again, our modern musical idea of high Hawkins's History of Music, i. 112.)
74 MUSIC [GENERAL SKETCH
the latter) show very clearly the origin of so many primitive it does not imply consistent harmonies it seems to us quaint
scales in the interval of the downward fourth. That interval or strange; because, unless it is very remote from our harmonic
'(e.g. from C to G) is believed to be the earliest conceptions, it at least implies at any given moment some
melodic relation-
ship which the ear learnt to fix; and most of the primitive scales simple harmony which in the next moment it contradicts.
were formed by the accretion of auxiliary notes at the bottom Thus our inferences as to the expression intended by music
of this interval, and the addition of a similar interval, with that has not come under European influence are unsafe, and
similar accretions, below the former. In this way a pentatonic the pleasure we take in such music is capricious. The effort of
scale, like that of so many Scotch melodies, can easily be formed thinking away our harmonic preconceptions is probably the
(thus, C, A, G; F, D, C) and though some primitive scales seem
;
most violent piece of mental gymnastics in all artistic experience,
to have been on the nucleus of the rising fifth,' while the Siamese and furnishes much excuse for a sceptical attitude as to the
now use two scales of which not a single note within the octave artistic value of preharmonic music, which has at all events
can be accounted for by any known principle, still we may never become even partially independent of poetry and dance.
consider that for general historic purposes the above example Thus the rhythm of classical Greek music seems to have been
is typical. The Greeks divided their downward fourth into entirely identical with that of verse, and its beauty and ex-
four notes, called a tetrachord; and by an elaborate system of pression appreciated in virtue of that identity. From the modern
linking tetrachords together they gave their scale a compass musical point of view the rhythm of words is limited to a merely
of two octaves. The enharmonic tetrachord, being the most monotonous uniformity of flow, with minute undulations which
ancient, gathered the lower three notes very closely to the are musically chaotic (see RHYTHM). The example of Greek
bottom, leaving the second note no less than a major third tragedy, with the reports of its all-pervading music (in many
from the top, thus C,Ab, G', G; (where G' stands for a note cases, as in that of Aeschylus, composed by the dramatist
between Ab and G). The chromatic tetrachord was C, Bbb, himself) could not fail to fire the imaginations of modern pioneers
Ab, G; and the diatonic tetrachord was C, Bb, Ab, G. It is this and reformers of opera; and Monteverde, Gluck and Wagner
last that has become the foundation of modern music, and the convinced themselves and their contemporaries that their work
Greeks themselves soon preferred it to the other genera and was, amongst other things, a revival of Greek tragedy. But all
found a scientific basis for it. In the first place they noticed that is known of Greek music shows that it represents no such
that its notes (and, 'less easily, the notes of the chromatic scale) modern ideas, as far as their really musical aspect is concerned.
could be connected by a series of those intervals which they It represents, rather, an organization of the rise and fall of the
recognized as concordant. These were, the fourth; its converse, voice, no doubt as elaborate and artistic as the organization
or inversion, the fifth; and the octave. The notes of the enhar- of verse, no doubt powerful in heightening the emotional and
monic tetrachord could not be connected by any such series. dramatic effect of words and action, but in no way essential
In the articles on HARMONY and SOUND account is given of to the understanding or the organization of the works which it
the historic and scientific foundations of the modern conception adorned. The classical Greek preference for the diatonic scale
of concord; and although this harmonic conception applies indicates a latent harmonic sense and also that temperance
to simultaneous notes, while the Greeks concerned themselves which is at the foundation of the general Greek sense of beauty;
only with successive notes, it is nevertheless permissible to but, beyond this and similar generalities, all the research in the
regard the Greek sense of concord in successive notes as con- world willnot enable us to understand the Greek musician's
taining the germ of our harmonic sense. The stability of the mind. Non-harmonic music is a world of two dimensions, and
diatonic scale was assured as early as the 6th century B.C. when we must now inquire how men came to rise from this " flat kind "
Pythagoras discovered (if he did not learn from Egypt or India) to the solid world of sound in which Palestrina, Bach, Beethoven
the extremely simple mathematical proportions of its intervals. and Wagner live.
And this discovery was of unique importance, as fixing the 3. Harmonic Origins. Although the simultaneous blending
intervals by a criterion that could never be obscured by the of different sounds was never seriously contemplated by the
changes of taste and custom otherwise inevitable in music that Greeks, yet in classical times they were fond of singing with
has no conscious harmonic principles to guide it. At the same high and low voices in octaves. This was called magadizing,
time, the foundation of a music as yet immature and ancillary from the name of an instrument on which playing in octaves
to drama, on an acoustic science ancillary to a priori mathe- was rendered easy by means of a bridge that divided the strings
matics, was not without disadvantage to the art; and it is at two-thirds of their length. While the practice was esteemed
arguable that the great difficulty with which during the for the beauty of the blending of different voices, it was tolerated
medieval beginnings of modern harmony the concords of the only because of the peculiar effect of identity furnished by
third and sixth were rationalized may have been increased by the different notes of the octave, and no other interval was so
the fact that the Pythagorean system left these intervals con- used by the Greeks. In the article on HARMONY the degrees of
siderably out of tune. In preharmonic times mathematics identity-in-difference which characterize the simpler harmonic
could not direct even the most observant ear to the study of intervals are analysed, and the main steps are indicated by which
those phenomena of upper partials of which Helmholtz, in the more complicated medieval magadizing uses of the fourth
1863, was the first to explain the significance; and thus though and fifth (the symphonia, diaphonia or organum of Hucbald)
the Greeks knew the difference between a major and minor gave way (partly by their own interchange and partly through
tone, on which half the question depended, they could not experiments in the introduction of ornaments and variety)
possibly arrive at the modern reasons for adding both kinds to the modern conception of harmony as consisting of voices
of tone in order to make the major third. (See SOUND.) or parts that move independently to the exclusion of such parallel
Here we must digress in order to illustrate what is implied motion. In The Oxjord History of Music, vols. i. and ii., will
by our modern harmonic sense; for the difference that this be found abundant examples of every stage of the process,
makes to our whole musical consciousness is by no means uni- which begins with the organum or diaphony that prevailed
versally realized. Music, as we now understand it, expresses until the death of Guido of Arezzo (about 1050) and passes
itself in the interaction of three elements rhythm, melody and through the discant, or measured music, of the I3th century,
harmony. The first two are obviously as ancient as human in which rhythm is first organized on a sufficiently firm basis to
consciousness itself. Without the third a musical art of per- enable voices to sing contrasted rhythms simultaneously,
manent value and intelligibility has not been known to attain while the new harmonic criterion of the independence of parts
independent existence. With harmony music assumes the more and more displaces and shows its opposition to the old
existence of a kind of space in three dimensions, none of which criterion of parallelism.
can subsist without at least implying the others. When we The most extraordinary example of these conflicting principles
hear an unaccompanied melody we cannot help interpreting "
is the famous rota Sumer is icumen in," a 13th-century round
it in the light of its most probable harmonies. Hence, when in four parts on a canonic ground-bass in two. Recent researches
GENERAL SKETCH] MUSIC 75
have brought to light a number of works in the forms of motet, may show various phenomena of crudeness, decadence and
conductus, rondel (neither the later rondo nor the round, but a transition, but its transition-periods will always derive light
"
kind of triple counterpoint), which show that Sumer is icumen from the past, whatever the darkness of the future.
" In the best music of the i6th century we have no need of
in contains no unique technical feature; but no work within
two centuries of its date attains a style so nearly intelligible research or mental gymnastics, beyond what is necessary in
to modern ears. Its richness and firmness of harmony are all art to secure intelligent presentation and attention. Its
" "
such that the frequent use of consecutive fifths and octaves, materials show us the three dimensions of music in their
in strict accordance with 13th-century principles, has to our simplest state of perfect balance. Rhythm, emancipated from
ears the effect of a series of grammatical blunders, so sharply
all the tyranny of verse, is free to co-ordinate and contrast a multi-
does it contrast with the smooth counterpoint of the rest. In tude of melodies which by the very independence of their flow
what light this smooth counterpoint struck contemporaries, produce a mass of harmony that passes from concord to concord
or how its author (who may or may not be the writer of the through ordered varieties of transitional discord. The criterion
Reading MS., John of Fornsete) arrived at it, is not clear, of discord is no longer that of mere harshness, but is modified
"
though W. S. Rockstro's amusing article, Sumer is icumen by the conception of the simplicity or remoteness of the steps
in," in Grove's Dictionary, is very plausible. All that we know is by which the flux of independent simultaneous melodies passes
that music in England in the I3th century must have been at from one concord, or point of repose, to another. When the
a comparatively high state of development; and we may also music reaches a climax, or its final conclusion, the point of
conjecture that the tuneful character of this wonderful rota repose is, of course, greatly emphasized. It is accordingly the
" "
has something in common with the unwritten but famous cadences or full closes of 16th-century music that show
songs of the aristocratic troubadours, or trouveres, of the izth the greatest resemblance to the harmonic ideas of the present
and i3th centuries, who, while disdaining to practise the art of day; and it is also at these points that certain notes were most
accompaniment or the art of scientific and written music, frequently raised so as to modify the ecclesiastical modes which
undoubtedly set the fashion in melody, and, being themselves are derived more or less directly from the melodic diatonic
poets as well as singers, formed the current notions as to the scale of the Greeks, and misnamed, according to inevitable
relations between musical and poetic rhythm. The music medieval misconceptions, after the Greek modes. 1
of Adam de la Hale, surnamed Le Bossu d' Arras (c. 1230-1288), In other passages our modern ears, when unaccustomed to
shows the transformation of the troubadour into the learned the style, feel that the harmony is strange and lacking in definite
musician; and, nearly a century later, the more ambitious direction; and we are apt to form the hasty conclusion that the
efforts of a greater French poet (like his contemporary Petrarca, mode is an archaic survival. A more familiar acquaintance
one of Chaucer's models in poetic technique), Guillaume de with the art soon shows that its shifting and vague modulations
Machault (fl. 1350), mark a further technical advance, though they are no mere survival of a scale inadequate for any but melodic
are not appreciably more intelligible to the modern ear. purposes, but the natural result of a state of things in which only
In the next century we find an Englishman, John Dunstable, two species of chord are available as points of repose at all. If
who had as early as 1437 acquired a European reputation; no successions of such chords were given prominence, except those
while his works were so soon lost sight of that until recently that define key according to modern notions based upon a much
he was almost a legendary character, sometimes revered as the greater variety of harmony, the resulting monotony and triviality
" "
inventor of counterpoint, and once or twice even identified would be intolerable. Moreover, there is in this music just
with St Dunstan! Recently a great deal of his work has come as much and no more of formal antithesis and sequence as its
to light, and it shows us (especially when taken in connexion harmony will suffice to hold together. Lastly, we shall find,
with the fact that the early Netherlandish master, G. Dufay, on comparing the masterpieces of the period with works of
did not die until 1474, twenty-one years after Dunstable) that inferior rank, that in the masterpieces the most archaic modal
English counterpoint was fully capable of showing the composers features are expressive, varied and beautiful; while in the inferior
of the Netherlands the path by which they were to reach the works they are often avoided in favour of ordinary modern
"
art of the Golden age." In such examples of Dunstable's work ideas, and, when they occur, are always accidental and monoto-
" "
as that appended to the article Dunstable in Grove's nous, although in strict conformity with the rules of the time.
Dictionary (new ed., i. 744) we see music approaching a style The consistent limitations of harmony, form and rhythm have
more or less consistently intelligible to a modern ear; and in the further consequence that the only artistic music possible
English Carols of the z^th Century (1891) several two-part within them is purely vocal. The use of instruments is little
compositions of the period, in a style resembling Dunstable's, more than a necessary evil for the support of voices in case of
have been made accessible to modern readers and filled out into insufficient opportunity for practice; and although the origins
"
four-part music by the editor in accordance with the rules of instrumental music are already of some artistic interest in
of the time." And though it may be doubted whether Mr the 1 6th century, we must leave them out of our account if our
Rockstro's skill would not have been held in the 1 5th century to object is to present mature artistic ideas in proper proportions.
savour overmuch of the Black Art, still the success of his attempt The principles of 16th-century art-forms are discussed in
shows that the musical conceptions he is dealing with are no more detail in the article on CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS. Here we
longer radically different from those of our modern musical will treat the formal criteria on a general basis; especially as
consciousness. with art on such simple principles the distinction between one
The Golden Age. The struggle towards the realization
4. art-form and another is apt to be either too external or too
of mature musical art seems incredibly slow when we do not subtle for stability. With music there is a stronger probability
realize its difficulty, and wonderfully rapid as soon as we attempt than in any other art that merely mechanical devices will be
to imagine the effort of first forming those harmonic conceptions self-evident, and thus they may become either dangerous or
which are second nature to us. Even at the time of Dunstable effective. With the masters of the Netherlands they speedily
and Dufay the development of the contrapuntal idea of inde- became both. Two adjacent groups of illustrations in Burney's
pendence of parts had not yet so transformed the harmonic 1
The technical nature of the subject forbids us to discuss the
consciousness that the ancient parallelisms or consecutive origin and characteristics of the great Ambrosian and Gregorian
collections of melodic church music on which
fourths and fifths that were the backbone of discant could nearly all medieval
and 16th-century polyphony was based, and from which the ecclesi-
be seen in their true light as contradictory to the contrapuntal astical modes were derived. Professor Wooldridge in The Oxford
method. By the beginning of the i6th century, however, the History of Music, i. 20-44, has shown- the continuity of this early
laws of counterpoint were substantially fixed; practice was Christian music with the Graeco- Roman music, and the origin of its
for a while imperfect, and aims still uncertain, but skill was
modes in the Ptolemaic modification (c. A.D. 150) of the Greek
diatonic scale; while a recent defence of the ecclesiastical tradi-
increasingand soon became marvellous; and in 16th-century tion of a revision by St Gregory will be found in the article on
music we leave the archaic world altogether. Henceforth music " "
Gregorian music in Grove's Dictionary (new ed.), ii. 235.
76 MUSIC [GENERAL SKETCH
History of Music will show on the one hand the astonishing Palestrina. Nor must we follow the example of Baini, who,
"
way which early polyphonic composers learnt to
in dance in his detestation of what he pleased to call fiammingo squalore,
is
in fetters," and, on the other hand, tne expressive power that views with uncritical suspicion any work in which Palestrina
they attained by that discipline. Burney quotes from the does not confine himself to strictly Italian methods of expression.
venerable 15th-century master Okeghem, or Okenheim, some A notion still prevails that Josquin represents counterpoint in
canons so designed as to be singable in all modes. They are an anatomical perfection into which Palestrina was the first
by no means extreme cases of the ingenuity which Okenheim to breathe life and soul. This gives an altogether inadequate
and his pupils often employed; but though they are not very idea of 16th-century music. Palestrina brought the century to a
valuable artistically (and are not even correctly deciphered glorious close and is undoubtedly its greatest master, but he
1
by Burney) they prove that mechanical principles may be a is primus inter pares; and in every part of Europe music was
help rather than a hindrance to the attainment of a smooth represented, even before the middle of the century, by masters
and plastic style. Burney most appropriately follows them who have every claim to immortality that sincerity of aim,
with Josquin Des Pres's wonderful Deploralion de Jehan Okenheim, completeness of range, and depth and perfection of style can
in which the tenor sings the plain chant of the Requiem a degree give. It has been rightly called the golden age of music, and
below its proper pitch, while the other voices sing a pastoral our chronological table at the end of this article gives but an
dirge in French. The device of transposing the plain chant a inadequate idea of the number of its masters whom no lover
note lower, and making the tenor sing it in that position through- of music ought to neglect. It is not exclusively an age of church
out the whole piece, is obviously as mechanical as any form of music. It is also the age of madrigals, both secular and spiritual ;
acrostic: but it is happily calculated to impress our ears, even and, small as was its range of expression, there has been no
though, unlike Josquin's contemporaries, most of us are not period in musical art when the distinctions between secular and
familiar with the plain chant in its normal position; because ecclesiastical style were more accurately maintained by the great
it alters the position of all the semitones and gives the chant masters, as is abundantly shown by the test cases in which
a plaintive minor character which is no less impressive in itself masses of the best period have been based on secular themes.
than as a contrast to the orthodox form. And the harmonic (See MADRIGAL.)
superstructure is as fine an instance of the expressive possibilities 5. The Monadic Resolution and its Results. Like all golden
of the church modes at their apogee from modern tonality as ages, that of music vanished at the first appearance of a knowledge
could be found anywhere. A still nobler example, which we beyond its limitations. The first and simplest realization of
may perhaps acclaim as the earliest really sublime masterpiece mature art is widespread and nourishes a veritable army of great
in music, is Josquin's Miserere, which is accessible in a modern men; its masterpieces are innumerable, and its organization
edition. In this monumental work one of the tenor parts is is so complete that no narrowness or specialization can be felt
called Vagans, because it sings the burden Miserere mei Deus in the nature of its limitations. Yet these are exceedingly
at regular intervals, in an almost monotonous wailing figure, close, and the most modest attempt to widen them may have
wandering through each successive degree of the scale throughout disastrous results. Many experiments were tried before Pales-
the composition- The effect, aided as it is by consummate trina's death and throughout the century, notably by the
rhetorical power in every detail of the surrounding mass of elder and younger Gabrieli. Perhaps Palestrina himself is
harmony and counterpoint, is extremely expressive; and the the only great composer of the time who never violates the
device lends itself to every shade of feeling in the works of the principles of his art. Orlando di Lasso, unlike Palestrina,
greatest ofall Netherland masters, Orlando di Lasso. Palestrina wrote almost as much secular as sacred music, and in his youth
is lessfond of it. Like all more obvious formal devices it is indulged in many eccentricities in a chromatic style which he
crowded out of his Roman art by the exquisite subtlety of his afterwards learnt to detest. But if experiments are to revolu-
sense of proportion, and the exalted spirituality of his style tionize art it is necessary that their novelty shall already embody
which, while it allows him to set the letters of the Hebrew alphabet some artistic principle of coherence. No such principle will
in the Lamentations of Jeremiah in much the same spirit as avail to connect the Phrygian mode with a chord containing A$;
that in which they would be treated in an illuminated Bible, and, however proud the youthful Orlando di Lasso may be at
forbids him to stimulate a sense of form that might distract being the first to write A#, neither his early chromatic experiments
the mind from the sense of mystery and awe proper to objects nor those of Cipriano di Rore, which he admired so much, left
of devout contemplation. Yet in one of his greatest motets, a mark on musical history. They appealed to nothing deeper
Tribularer si nescirem, the burden of Josquin's Miserere appears than a desire for sensational variety of harmony; and, while
with the same treatment and purpose as in its prototype. they carried the successions of chords far beyond the limits
But with the lesser Flemish masters, and sometimes with of the modes, they brought no new elements into the chords
the greatest, such mechanical principles often became not only themselves.
inexpressive but absolutely destructive to musical effect. The By the beginning of the I7th century the true revolutionary
ingenuity necessary to make the stubborn material of music principles were vigorously at work, and the powerful genius
plastic was not so easily attainable as the ingenuity necessary of Monteverde speedily made it impossible for men of impres-
to turn music into a mathematical game; and when Palestrina was sionable artistic temper to continue to work in the old
in his prime the inferior composers so outnumbered the masters style when such vast new regions of thought lay open to
to whom music was a devout language, and so degraded the them. In the year of Palestrina's death, 1594, Monteverde pub-
art, not only by ousting genuine musical expression but by lished, in his third book of madrigals, works in which without
foisting secular tunes and words into the church services, that going irrevocably beyond the letter of 16th-century law he showed
one of the minor questions with which the Council of Trent far more zeal for emotional expression than sense of euphony.
was concerned was whether polyphonic church music should be In 1 599 he published madrigals in which his means of expression
totally abolished with other abuses, or whether it was capable involve harmonic principles altogether incompatible with 16th-
of reform. Legendary history relates that Palestrina submitted century ideas. But he soon ceased to place confidence in the
for judgment three masses of which the Missa papae Marcelli madrigal as an adequate art-form for his new ideals of expression,
proved to be so sublime that it was henceforth accepted as the and he found an unlimited field in musical drama. Dramatic
ideal church music (see PALESTRINA). This tale is difficult to music received its first stimulus from a group of Florentine
reconcile with the chronology of Palestrina's works, but there is dilettanti, who aspired amongst other things to revive the ideals of
no doubt that Palestrina was officially recognized by the Church Greek tragedy. Under their auspices the first true opera
as a bulwark against bad taste. But we must not allow ever performed in public, Jacopo Peri's Euridice, appeared in
this to mislead us as to the value of church music before 1600. Monteverde found the conditions of dramatic music
'
*
The correct version will be found in The Oxford History of Music, more favourable to his experiments than those of choral music,
ii. 215. in which both voices and ears are at their highest sensibility
GENERAL SKETCH] MUSIC 77
to discord. Instruments do not blend like voices; and players, century ears, but because the fundamental idea is that of a
producing their notes by more mechanical means, have not solo voice declaiming phrases of paramount emotional interest,
the singer's difficulty in making combinations which the ear and supported by instruments that play such chords as will
does not readily understand. heighten the poignancy of the voice. And the first advance
The one difficulty of the new art was fatal: there were no made on this chaotic monody consisted, not in the reintroduction
limitations. When Monteverde introduced his unprepared of vitality into the texture of the harmonies, but in giving formal
discords, the effect upon musical style was like that of intro- symmetry and balance to the vocal surface. This involved the
ducing modern metaphors into classical Greek. There were strengthening of the harmonic system, so that it could carry
no harmonic principles to control the new material, except the new discords as parts of an intelligible scheme, and not
those which just sufficed to hold together the pure loth-century merely as uncontrollable expressions of emotion. In other words,
style; and that style depended on an exquisite continuity of the chief energies of the successors of the monodists were devoted
flow which was incompatible with any rigidity either of har- to the establishment of the modern key-system; a system in
mony or rhythm. Accordingly there were also no rhythmic comparison with which the subtle variety of modal concord
principles to hold Monteverde's work together, except such sounded vague and ill-balanced, until the new key-system
as could be borrowed from types of secular and popular music itself was so safely established that Bach and Beethoven could
that had hitherto been beneath serious attention. If the i7th once more appreciate and use essentially modal successions of
century seems almost devoid of great musical names it is not chords in their true meaning.
for want of incessant musical activity. The task of organizing The second advance of the monodic movement was in the
new resources into a consistent language was too gigantic to cultivation of the solo voice. This developed together with
be accomplished within three generations. Its fascinating the cultivation of the violin, the most capable and expressive
dramatic suggestiveness and incalculable range disguised for of the instruments used to support it. Monteverde already
those who first undertook it the fact that the new art was as knew how to make interesting experiments with violins, such
difficult and elementary in its beginnings as the very beginning as directing them to play pizzicato, and accompanying an excited
of harmony itself in the I3th and i4th centuries. And the description of a duel by rapidly repeated strokes on a major
most beautiful compositions at the beginning of the I7th century chord, followed by sustained dying harmonies in the minor.
are rather those which show the decadence of 16th-century art By the middle of the century violin music is fairly common,
than those in which the new principles were most consistently and the distinction between Sonata da chiesa and Sonata da
adopted. Thus the madrigals of Monteverde, though often camera appears (see SONATA). But the cultivation of instru-
dull and always rough, contain more music than his operas. mental technique had also a great effect on that of the voice;
On the other hand, almost until the middle of the xyth century and Italian vocal technique soon developed into a monstrosity
great men were not wanting who still carried on the pure that so corrupted musical taste as not only to blind the contem-
polyphonic style. Their asceticism denotes a spirit less compre- poraries of Bach and Handel to the greatness of their choral
hensive than that of the great artists for whom the golden age art, but, in Handel's case, actually to swamp a great deal of
was a natural environment; but in parts of the world where the his best work. The balance between a solo voice and a group
new influences did not yet prevail even this is not the case, of instruments was, however, successfully cultivated together
and a composer like Orlando Gibbons, who died in 1625, is with the modern key-system and melodic form; with the result
well worthy to be ranked with the great Italian and Flemish that the classical aria, a highly effective art-form, took shape.
masters of the preceding century. This, while it totally destroyed the dramatic character of opera
But the main task of composers of the iyth century lay for the next hundred years, yet did good service in furnishing
elsewhere; and if the result of their steady attention to it was a reasonably effective means of musical expression which could
trivial in comparison with the glories of the past, it at least encourage composers and listeners to continue cultivating the
led to the glories of the greater world organized by Bach and art until the day of small things was past. The operatic aria,
Handel. The early monodists, Monteverde and his fellows, as matured by Alessandro Scarlatti, is at its worst a fine oppor-
directed attention to the right quarter in attempting to express tunity for a gorgeously dressed singer to display feats of vocal
emotion by means of single voices supported by instruments; gymnastics, either on a concert platform, or in scenery worthy
but the formless declamation of their dramatic writings soon of the Drury Lane pantomime. At its best it is a beautiful
proved too monotonous for permanent interest, and such method means of expression for the devout fervour of Bach and Handel.
as it showed became permanent only by being codified into At all times it paralyses dramatic action, and no more ironic
the formulas of recitative, which are, for the most part, very revenge has ever overtaken iconoclastic reformers than the
happy idealizations of speech-cadence, and which accordingly historic development by which the purely dramatic declama-
survive as dramatic elements in music at the present day, tion of the monodists settled down into a series of about thirty
though, like all rhetorical figures, they have often lost meaning successive displays of vocalization, designed on rigidly musical
from careless use. 1 It was all very well to revolutionize current conventions, and produced under spectacular conditions by
conceptions of harmony, so that chords were no longer considered, artificial sopranos as the highest ideal of music-drama.
as in the days of pure polyphony, to be the result of so many The principal new art-forms of the I7th century are then,
independent melodies. But in art, as elsewhere, new thought firstly, the aria (not the opera, which was merely a spectacular
eventually shows itself as an addition to, not a substitute for, condition under which people consented to listen to some thirty
the wisdom of ages. Moreover, it is a mistake, though one arias in succession); and, secondly, the polyphonic instrumental
endorsed by high authorities, to suppose that the 16th-century
forms, of which those of the suite or sonata da camera were
composers did not appreciate the beauty of successions of chords mainly derived from the necessity for ballet music in the opera
apart from polyphonic design. On the contrary, Palestrina (and hence greatly stimulated by the taste of the French court
and Orlando di Lasso themselves are the greatest masters the under Louis XIV.), while those of the sonata da chiesa were also
world has ever seen of a style which depends wholly on the
inspired by a renaissance of interest in polyphonic texture.
beauty of masses of harmony, entirely devoid of polyphonic The sonata da chiesa soon settled into a conventionality only
detail, and held together by a delicately balanced rhythm in less inert than that of the aria because violin technique had
which obvious symmetry is as carefully avoided as it is in the wider possibilities than vocal; but when Lulli settled in France
successions of chords themselves. Nevertheless, the monody and raised to a higher level of effect the operatic style suggested
of the 1 7th century is radically different in
principle, not only by Cambert, he brought with him justr enough of the new instru-
because chords are used which were an outrage on i6th- mental polyphony to make his typical form of French overture
"
1
The invention " of recitative is frequently ascribed to this or
^
that monodist, with as little room for dispute as when we ascribe (with its slow introduction in dotted rhythm, and its quasi-fugal
the invention of clothes to Adam and Eve. All monody was recita- allegro) worthy of the important place it occupies in Bach's and
tive, if only from inability to organize melodies. Handel's art.
MUSIC [GENERAL SKETCH
Meanwhile great though subordinate activity was also shown normal most careful modelling upon Italian forms.
style) the
in the evolution of a new choral music dependent upon an instru- Again, as isknown, Bach arranged with copious additions
well
mental accompaniment of more complex function than that of and alterations many concertos by Vivaldi (together with some
mere support. This, in the hands of the Neapolitan masters, which though passing under Vivaldi's name are really by German
was destined to lead straight to the early choral music of Mozart contemporaries); and, while thus taking every opportunity of
and Haydn, both of whom, especially Mozart, subsequently assimilating Italian influences in instrumental as well as in vocal
learnt its greater possibilities from the study of Handel. But the music, he was no less alive to the importance of the French
most striking choral art of the time came from the Germans, overture and suite forms. Moreover, he is very clear as to where
who never showed that thoughtless acquiescence in the easiest his ideas come from, and extremely careful to maintain every
means of effect which was already the bane of Italian art. art-form in its integrity. Yet his style remains his own through-
Consequently, while the German output of the iyth century fails out, and the first impression of its resemblance to that of his
to show that rapid attainment of modest maturity which gives German contemporaries diminishes the more the period is studied.
much Italian music of the period a permanent if slight artistic Bach's art thus forms one of the most perfectly systematic
value, there is, in spite of much harshness, a stream of noble and complete records a life's work has ever achieved. His
polyphonic effort in both organ and choral music in Germany art-forms might be arranged in a sort of biological scheme, and
from the time of H. Schiitz (who was born in 1585 and who was a their interaction and genealogy has a clearness which might
great friend and admirer of Monteverde) to that of Bach and almost be an object of envy to men of science even if Bach had
Handel just a century later. Nor was Germany inactive in the not demonstrated every detail of it by those wonderful re-
dramatic line, and the i yth-century Italian efforts in comic opera, writings of his own works which we have described elsewhere
which are so interesting and so unjustly neglected by historians, (see BACH).
found a parallel, before Handel's maturity, in the work of Handel's methods were as different from Bach's as his circum-
R. Keiser, and may be traced through him in Handel's first stances. He soon left Germany and, while he never betrayed
opera, Almira. his birthright as a great choral writer, he quickly absorbed the
The best proof of the insufficiency of 17th-century resources Italian style so thoroughly as to become practically an Italian.
isto be found in the almost tragic blending of genius and failure He also adopted the Italian forms, but not, like Bach, from any
shown by our English church music of the Restoration. The profound sense of their possible place in artistic system. To
works of Pelham Humfrey and Blow already show the qualities him they were effective, and that was all. He did not trouble
which with Purcell seem at almost any given moment to amount himself about the permanent idea that might underlie an art-
to those of the highest genius, while hardly a single work has form and typify its expression. He has no notion of a form as
any coherence as a whole. The patchiness of Purcell's music anything higher than a rough means of holding music together
was, no doubt, increased by the influence of French taste then and maintaining its flow; but he and Bach, alone among their
predominant at court. When Pelham Humfrey was sixteen, contemporaries, have an unfailing sense of all that is necessary
" to secure this end. They worked from opposite points of view:
King Charles as Sir Hubert Parry remarks,
II., achieved the
characteristic and subtle stroke of humour of sending him over Bach develops his art from within, until its detail, like that of
to France to study the methods of the most celebrated composer Beethoven's last works, becomes dazzling with the glory of the
of theatrical music of the time in order to learn how to compose whole design; Handel at his best is inspired by a magnificent
English church music." Yet it is impossible to see how such scheme, in the execution of which he need condescend to finish
ideas as Purcell's could have been presented in more than French of detail only so long as his inspiration does not hasten to the
continuity of flow by means of any designs less powerful than next design. Nevertheless it is to the immense sweep and
those of Bach and Handel. Purcell's ideas are, like those of breadth of Handel's choral style, and its emotional force, that all
all great artists, at least sixty years in advance of the normal subsequent composers owe their first access to the larger and
intellect of the time. But they are unfortunately equally in less mechanical resources of music. (See HANDEL.)
advance of the only technical resources then conceivable; and 7. The Symphonic Classes. After the death of Bach and
Purcell, though one of the greatest contrapuntists that ever Handel another change of view, like that Copernican revolution
lived, is probably the only instance in music of a man of really for which Kant sighed in philosophy, was necessary for the
high genius born out of due time. Musical talent was certainly further development of music. Once again it consisted in an
as common in the lyth century as at any other time; and if we inversion of the relation between form and texture. But,
ask why, unless we are justified in counting Purcell as a tragic whereas at the beginning of the lyth century the revolution
exception, the whole century shows not one name in the first consisted mainly in directing attention to chords as, so to speak,
artistic rank, the answer must be that, after all, artistic talent harmonic lumps, instead of moments in a flux of simultaneous
is far more common than the interaction of environment and melodies; in the later half of the i8th century the revolution
character necessary to direct it to perfect artistic results. concerned the larger musical outlines, and was not complicated
6. Bach and Handel. It was not until the i8th century had by the discovery of new harmonic resources. On the contrary,
begun that two men of the highest genius could find in music a it led to an extreme simplicity of harmony. The art of Bach
worthy expression of their grasp of life. Bach and Handel were and Handel had given perfect vitality to the forms developed
born within a month of each other, in 1685, and in the same part in the i8th century, but chiefly by means of the reinfusion of
of Saxony. Both inherited the tradition of polyphonic effort polyphonic life. The formal aspects (that is, those that decree
that the Germanorganists and choral writers had steadily the shapes of aria and suite-movement and the balance and
maintained throughout the lyth century; and both profited by contrasts of such choruses as are not fugues) are, after all, of
the Italian methods that were penetrating Germany. In Bach's secondary importance; the real centre of Bach's and Handel's
case it was the Italian art-forms that appealed to his sense of technical and intellectual activity is the polyphony; and the
design. Their style did not affect him, but he saw every possi- more the external shape occupies the foreground the more the
bility which the forms contained, and studied them the more work assumes the character of light music. In the article
assiduously because they were not, like polyphonic texture, his SONATA FORMS we show how this state of things was altered,
birthright. In recitative his own distinctively German style and attention is there drawn to the dramatic power of a music
attained an intensity and freedom of expression which is one of in which the form is technically prior to the texture. And it
the most moving things in art. Nevertheless, if he handled is not difficult to understand that Gluck's reform of opera would
recitative in his own way it was not for want of acquaintance have been a sheer impossibility if he had not dealt with music
with the Italian formulas, nor even because he despised them; in the sonata style, which is capable of changing its character
for in his only two extant Italian works the scraps of recitative as it unfolds its designs.
are strictly in accordance with Italian convention, and the The new period of transition was neither so long nor so inter-
arias show (when we allow for their family likeness with Bach's esting as that of the lyth century. The contrast between the
GENERAL SKETCH] MUSIC 79
squalid beginnings of the new art and the glories of Bach and within the classical limits, and from which the operas of Rossini
Handel is almost as great as that between the monodists and and his successors show a decadence so deplorable that if
Palestrina, but it appeals far less to our sympathies, because it
"
classical music
"
means " high art " we must say that classical
seems like a contrast between noble sincerity and idle elegance. opera buffa begins and ends in Mozart. But Gluck, finding his
The new art seems so easy-going and empty that it conceals dramatic ideas -encouraged by the eminent theatrical sensibilities
from us the necessity of the sympathetic historical insight for of the French, had already given French opera a stimulus
which the painful experiments of the monodists almost seem to towards the expression of tragic emotion which made the classics
cry aloud. Andboldest rhetorical experiments, such as the
its of the French operatic school well worthy to inspire Beethoven
fantasias of Philipp Emanuel Bach, show a
security of harmony to his one noble operatic effort and Weber to the greatest works
which, together with the very vividness of their realization of of his life. Cherubini, though no more a Frenchman than
modern ideas, must appear to a modern listener more like the Gluck, was Gluck's successor in the French classical school of
hollow rhetoric of a decadent than the prophetic inspiration dramatic music. His operas, like his church music, account for
of a pioneer. And, just as in the lyth century, so in the time Beethoven's touching estimation of him as the greatest composer
before Haydn and Mozart, the work that is most valuable artis- of the time. In them his melodies, elsewhere curiously cold and
tically tends to be that which is of less importance historically. prosaic, glow with the warmth of a true classic; and his tact in
The cultivation of the shape of music at the expense of its texture developing, accelerating and suspending a dramatic climax is
was destined to lead to greater things than polyphonic art had second only to Mozart's. Scarcely inferior to Cherubini in
ever dreamt of; but no living art could be achieved until the mastery and dignity, far more lovable in temperament, and
texture was brought once more into vital, if subordinate, relation weakened only by inequality of invention, Mehul deserves a far
to the shape. Thus, far more interesting artistically than the higher place in musical history than is generally accorded him.
epoch-making earlier pianoforte works of Philipp Emanuel Bach His most famous work, Joseph, is of more historical importance
are his historically less fruitful oratorios, and his symphonies, than his others, but it is by no means his best from a purely
and the rich polyphonic modifications of the new principles musical point of view, though its Biblical subject impelled
in the best works of his elder brother Friedemann. Yet the tran- Me'hul to make extremely successful experiments in " local
"
sition-period is hardly second in historic importance to that of colour which had probably considerable influence upon
the lyth century; and we may gather from it even more direct Weber, whose admiration of the work was boundless. One
hints as to the meaning of the tendencies of our own day. thing is certain, that the romantic opera of Weber owes much
As in the lyth century, so in the i8th the composers and of its inspiration to the opera comique of these masters. 1
critics of Haydn's youth, not knowing what to make of the new 8. From Beethoven to Wagner. After Beethoven comes
tendencies, and conscious rather of the difference between new what is commonly though vaguely described as the " romantic "
and old ideas than of the true nature of either, took refuge in movement. In its essentials it amounts to little more than
speculations about the emotional and external expression of this, that musicians found new and prouder titles for a very
music; and when artistic power and balance fail it is very con- ancient and universal division of parties. The one party set up
venient to go outside the limits of the art and explain failure a convenient scheme of form based upon the average procedure
away by external ideas. Fortunately the external ideas were of all the writers of sonatas except Haydn and Beethoven,
capable of serious organic function through the medium of opera, which scheme they chose to call classical; while the other party
and in that art-form music was passing out of the hands of devoted itself to the search for new materials and new means of
Italians and assuming artistic and dramatic life under Gluck. expression. The classicists, if so they may be called, did not
The metaphysical and literary speculation which overwhelmed quite approve of Beethoven; and while there is much justification
musical criticism at this time, and which produced paper warfares for the charge that has been brought against them of reducing
and musical party-feuds such as that 'between the Gluckists the sonata-form to a kind of game, they have for that very
and the Piccinists, at all events had this advantage over the reason no real claim to be considered inheritors of classical
Wagnerian and anti-Wagnerian controversies of the last genera- traditions. The true classical method is that in which matter
tion and the disputes about the legitimate function of instru- and form are so united that it is impossible to say which is
mental music at the present day that it was speculation applied prior to the other. The pseudo-classics are the artists who set
exclusively to an art-form in which literary questions were up a form conveniently like the average classical form, and fill
directly concerned, an art-form which moreover had up to that it with something conveniently like the average classical
matter,
time been the grave of all the music composers chose to put with just such difference as will seem like an advance in brilliance
into it. But as soon as music once more attained to consistent and range. The romanticists are the artists who realize such a
principles all these discussions became but a memory. If Gluck's difference between their matter and that of previous art as impels
music had not been more musical as well as more dramatic than them to find new forms for it, or at all events to alter the old
Piccini's, all itsforeshadowing of Wagnerian principles would forms considerably. But if they are successful the difference
have availed no more than it availed Monteverde.
it between their work and that of the true classics becomes merely
When the new art found symphonic expression in Haydn and external; they are classics in a new art-form. As, however,
Mozart, it became music pure and simple, and yet had no more this is as rare as true classical art is at the best of times, romanti-
difficulty than painting or poetry in dealing with external cism tends to mean little more than the difference between an
ideas, when these were naturally brought into it by the human unstable artist who cannot master his material and an artist
voice or the conditions of dramatic action. It had once more who can, whether on trje pseudo-classical or the true classical
become an art which need reject or accept nothing on artificial or plane. The term " romantic opera " has helped us to regard
extraneous grounds. Beethoven soon showed how gigantic the Weber as a romanticist in that sphere, but when we call his instru-
scale and range of the sonata style could be, and how tremendous mental works " romantic " the term ceases to have really
was its effect on the possibilities of vocal music, both dramatic valuable meaning. As applied to pieces like the Concertstiick,
and choral. No revolution was needed to accomplish this. the Invitation a la danse, and other pieces of which the external
The style was perfectly formed, and for the first and so far the subject is known either from Weber's letters or from the titles
only time in musical history a mature art of small range opened of the pieces themselves, the term means simply " programme-
out into an equally perfect one of gigantic range, without a music " such as we have seen to be characteristic of any stage
moment of decadence or destruction. The chief glory of the in which the art is imperfectly mastered. Weber's programme-
art that culminates in Beethoven is, of course, the instrumental music shows no advance on Beethoven in the illustrative
" "
music, all of which comes under the head of the sonata-forms resources of the art; and the application of the term romantic
(<?..). 1
We must remember in this connexion that the term Optra
Meanwhile Mozart raised comic opera, both Italian and
comique means simply opera with spoken dialogue, and has nothing
German, to a height which has never since been approached to do with the comic idea.
8o MUSIC [GENERAL SKETCH
to his interesting and in many places beautiful pianoforte comparable only to Mozart's, was far too easy to induce him
sonatas has no definite ground except the brilliance of his piano- as a critic to reconcile the idea of high talent with distressing
forte technique and the helplessness in matters of design (and intellectual and technical failure. This same mastery also
occasionally even of harmony) that drives him to violent and tended to discredit his own work, both as performer and composer,
operatic outbreaks. in the estimation of those whose experience encouraged them
Schubert also lends some colour to the opposition between to hope that imperfection and over-excitement were infallible
romantic and classical by his weakness in large instrumental signs of genius. And as his facility actually did co-operate with
designs, but his sense of form was too vital for his defective the tendencies of the times to deflect much of his work into
training to warp his mind from the true classical spirit; and the pseudo-classical channels, while nevertheless his independence
new elements he introduced into instrumental music, though not of form and style kept him at all times at a higher level of
ratified by concentration and unity of design, were almost always interest and variety than any mere pseudo-classic, it is not to be
the fruits of true inspiration and never mere struggles to escape wondered that his reputation became a formidable object of
from a difficulty. His talent for purely instrumental music was jealousy to those apostles of new ideas who felt that their own
incomparably higher than Weber's, while that for stage-drama, works were not likely to make way against academic opposition
as shown in the most ambitious of his numerous operas, Fierra- unless they called journalism to their aid.
bras, was almost nil. But he is the first and perhaps the greatest Nothing has more confused, hindered and embittered the
classical song writer. It was Beethoven's work on a larger careers of Wagner and Liszt and their disciples than the paper
scale that so increased the possibilities of handling remote warfare which they did everything in their power to encourage.
harmonic sequences and rich instrumental and rhythmic effects No doubt it had a useful purpose, and, as nothing affords a
as to prepare for Schubert a world in which music, no less than greater field for intrigue than the production of operas, it is at
literature, was full of suggestions for that concentrated expres- least possible that the gigantic and unprecedentedly expensive
sion of a single emotion which distinguishes true lyric art. And, works of Wagner might not even at the present day have
whatever the defects of Schubert's treatment of larger forms, obtained a hearing if Wagner himself had been a tactful and
his construction of small forms which can be compassed by a reticent man and his partisans had all been discreet lovers and
single melody or group of melodies is unsurpassable and is truly practisers of art. As to Wagner's achievement there is now no
classical in spirit and result. important difference of opinion. It has survived all attacks
Schumann had neither Schubert's native talent for larger as the most monumental result music has achieved with the aid
form nor the irresponsible spirit which allowed Schubert to of other arts. Its antecedents must be sought in many very
handle it uncritically. Nor had he the astounding lightness remote regions. The rediscovery, by Mendelssohn, of the choral
of touch and perfect balance of style with which Chopin con- works of Bach, after a century of oblivion, revealed the possi-
trolled the most wayward imagination that has ever found bilities polyphonic expression in a grandeur which even
of
expression in the pianoforte lyric. But he had a deep sense of Handel rarely suggested; and inspired Mendelssohn with impor-
melodic beauty, a mastery of polyphonic expression which tant ideas in the designing of oratorios as wholes. The complete
for all its unorthodox tendency was second only to that of the fusion of polyphonic method with external and harmonic design
greatest classics, and an epigrammatic fancy which enabled had, under the same stimulus, been carried a step further than
him to devise highly artistic forms of music never since imitated Beethoven by means of Schumann's more concentrated harmonic
with success though often unintelligently copied. In his songs and lyric expression. That wildest of all romanticists, Berlioz,
and pianoforte lyrics his romantic ideas found perfectly mature though he had less polyphonic sense than any composer who
expression. Throughout his life he was inspired by a deep ever before or since attained distinction, nevertheless revealed
reverence which, while it prevented him from attempting to important new possibilities in his unique imagination in orches-
handle classical forms with a technique which he felt to be tral colour. The breaking down of the barriers that check
inadequate, at the same time impelled him as he grew older to continuity in classical opera was already indicated by Weber,
devise forms on a large scale externally resembling them. The in whose Euryanthe the movements frequently run one into the
German lyric poetry, which he so perfectly set to music, strength- other, while at least twenty different themes are discoverable
ened him in his tendency to present his materials in an epi- in the opera, recurring, like the Wagnerian leit-motif, in apt
grammatic and antithetic manner; and, when he took to writing transformation and logical association with definite incidents
orchestral and chamber music, the extension of the principles and persons.
of this style to the designing of large spaces in rigid sequence But many things undreamed of by Weber were necessary to
furnished him with a means of attaining great dignity and weight complete the breakdown of the classical barriers; for the whole
of climax in a form which, though neither classical nor strictly pace of musical motion had to be emancipated from the influence
natural, was at all events more true
in its relationship to his of instrumental ideas. This was the most colossal reformation
matter than that of the pseudo-classics such as Hummel or even ever attempted by a man of real artistic balance; and even the
Spohr. Towards the end of his short life, before darkness undoubted, though unpolished, dramatic genius shown in Wag-
settled upon his mind, he rose perhaps to his greatest height as ner's libretti (the first in which a great composer and dramatist
regards solemnity of inspiration, though none of his later works are one) is but a small thing in comparison with the musical
can compare with his early lyrics for artistic perfection. Be this problems which Wagner overcomes with a success immeasur-
as it may, his last choral works, especially the latter parts of ably outweighing any defects his less perfect literary mastery
Faust (which, unlike the first part, was written before his powers allowed to remain in his dramatic structure and poetic diction.
failed), show that the sense of beauty and polyphonic life with Apart from the squabbles of Wagnerian and anti-Wagnerian
which he began his career was always increasing; and if he was journalism, the chief difficulty of his supporters and antagonists
led to substitute an artificial and ascetic for a natural and really lay in this question of the pace of the music and the
classical solution of the difficulties of the larger art-forms it was consequent breadth of harmony and design. The opening of
only because of his insight into artistic ideals which he felt to be the Walkiire, in which, before the curtain rises, the sound of
beyond his attainment. He shared with Mendelssohn the inevit- driving rain is reproduced by very simple sequences that take
able misunderstanding of those contemporaries who grouped sixteen long bars to move a single step, does not, as instrumental
all music under one or other of the two heads, Classical and music, compare favourably for terseness and variety with the
Romantic. first twenty bars of the thunderstorm in Beethoven's Pastoral
There is good reason to believe that Mendelssohn died before Symphony, where at least four different incidents faithfully
he had more than begun to show his power, though this may be portray not only the first drops of rain and the distant thunder,
denied by critics who have not thought of comparing Handel's but all the feelings of depression and apprehension which they
career up to the age at which Mendelssohn's ceased. And his inspire, besides carrying the listener rapidly through three
mastery, resting, like Handel's, on the experience of a boyhood different keys in chromatic sequence. But Beethoven's storm
GENERAL SKETCH] MUSIC 81
is idealized, in its whole rise and fall, within a space of five it is strictly applied to that principle by which every work of
minutes. Wagner's task is to select five real minutes near the art must differ in every part of its form from every other
end of the storm and to treat them with no greater variety than work, precisely as far as its material differs and no further.
the action of the drama demands. When we have learnt to Then, perhaps, as the conservative Bach after a hundred years
dissociate our minds from irrelevant ideas of an earlier instru- of neglect revealed himself as the most profoundly modern force
mental art, we find that Wagner's broad spaces contain all that in the music of the ipth century, while that of his gifted and
is necessary. Art on a large scale will always seem to have progressive sons became a forgotten fashion as soon as their
empty spaces, so long as we expect to find in it the kind of detail goal was attained by greater masters, so may the musical epoch
appropriate to art on a smaller scale. that seems now to have closed be remembered by posterity as
Wagner's new harmonic resources are of similar and more the age, not of Wagner and the pioneer Liszt, but the age of
complex but not less legitimate origin. In Derfliegende Hollander Wagner and Brahms.
they are, like his wider rhythmic sweep, imperfectly digested; It will also in all probability be remembered as the age in
in fact, much of his work before the Meistersinger is, in patches, which the performer ceased to be necessarily the intellectual
debased by the influence of Meyerbeer. But in his later works inferior of the composer and musical scholar. With the excep-
the more closely his harmonic language is studied the more tion ofWagner and Berlioz every great composer, since Palestrina
conclusively does it show itself to be a logical and mastered sang in the papal choir, has paid his way as a performer; but
thing. His treatment of key is, of course, adapted to a state Joseph Joachim was the first who threw the whole mind of a
of things in which the designs are far too long for the mind to great composer into the career of an interpreter; and the example
attach any importance to the works ending in the key in which set by him, Billow, Clara Schumann and Jenny Lind, though
it began. To compare Wagner's key-system with that of a followed by very few other artists, sufficed to dispel for ever
symphony is like comparing the perspective anrl-composition the old association of the musical performer with the mounte-
of a panorama with the perspective and composition of an easel bank.
picture. Indeed the differences are precisely analogous in the Joachim's influence on Brahms was incalculable. The two
two cases; and Wagner's sense of harmony and key turns out composers met at the time when new musical tendencies were
on investigation to be the classical sense truly adapted to its beginning to arouse violent controversy. At the age of twenty-
new conditions. For this very reason it is in detail quite irrele- one Joachim had produced in his Hungarian Concerto a work of
vant to symphonic art; and there was nothing anti-Wagnerian high classical mastery and great nobility, and his technique in
in the reasons why Brahms had so little to do with it in his form and texture was then considerably in advance of Brahms's.
music, although every circumstance of the personal controversies For some years Joachim and Brahms interchanged contrapuntal
and thinly disguised persecutions of Brahms's youth were enough exercises, and many of the greatest and most perfect of Brahms's
to give any upholder of classical symphonic art a rooted prejudice earlier works owe much to Joachim's criticism. Yet it is
"
to everything bearing the name of romantic." impossible to regret that Joachim did not himself carry on as
Side by side with Wagner many enthusiasts place Liszt; and a composer the work he so nobly began, when we realize the
it is indisputable that Liszt had in mind a larger and slower flow enormous influence of his playing in the history of modern music.
of musical sequence closely akin to Wagner's, and, no doubt, By it we have become familiar with a standard of truthfulness
partly independent of it; and moreover, that one of Liszt's in performance which all the generous efforts of Wagner and
aims was to apply this to instrumental music. Also his mastery Liszt could hardly have rendered independent of their own
and poetic power as a pianoforte player were faithfully reflected special propaganda. And by it the record of classical music has
in his later treatment of the orchestra, and ensured an extra- been made a matter of genuine public knowledge, with a unique
ordinary rhetorical plausibility for anything he chose to say. freedom from those popularizing tendencies which invest vulgar
But neither the princely magnanimity of his personal character, error with the authority of academic truth.
which showed itself in his generosity alike to struggling artists In this respect there is a real change in the nature of modern
and to his opponents, nor the great stimulus he gave (both by musical culture. No serious composer at the present day would
his compositions and his unceasing personal efforts and encour- dedicate a great work to an artist who, like F. Clement, for whom
agement) to new musical ideas on romantic lines, ought at this Beethoven wrote his Violin Concerto, would perform the work
time of day to blind us to the hollowness and essential vulgarity in two portions and between them play a sonata for the violin
of.his style. These unfortunate qualities did not secure for his on one string with the violin upside down. But it is hardly
compositions immediate popular acceptance; for they were true that Wagner and Liszt produced a real alteration in the
outweighed by the true novelty of his aims. But recently they standard of general culture among musicians. Their work,
have given his symphonic poems an attractiveness which, while especially Wagner's, appealed, like Gluck's, to many specific
it has galvanized a belated interest in those works, has made literary and philosophical interests, and they themselves were
many critics blind to their historical importance as the founda- brilliant talkers; but music will always remain the most self-
tion of new forms which have undergone a development of centred of the arts, and men of true culture will measure the
sensational brilliance under Richard Strauss. depth and range of the musician's mind by the spontaneity
Meanwhile the party politics of modern music did much to and truthfulness of his musical expression rather than by his
distract public attention from the works of Brahms, who volubility on other subjects. The greatest musicians have not
carried on the true classical method of the sonata-forms in his often been masters of more than one language; but they have
orchestral and chamber music, while he was no less great and always been men of true culture. Their humanity has been
original as a writer of songs and choral music of all kinds. He illuminated by the constant presence of ideals which their
also developed the pianoforte lyric and widened its range. artistic mastery keeps in touch with reality.
Without losing its characteristic unity it assumed a freedom and
largeness of expression hitherto only attained in sonatas.Hence, CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
however, Brahms's work, like Bach's, seemed, from its continuity Pythagoras, c. 582-500 B.C. Determines the ratios of the diatonic
with the classical forms, to look backward rather than forward. scale.
Indeed Brahms's reputation is in many quarters that of an Aristoxenus, /. 320 B.C. Our chief authority on classical Greek
music.
academic reactionary; just as Bach's was, even at a time when
" " Ptolemy, fl. A.D. 130. Astronomer, geographer, mathematician
the word academic was held to be rather a title of honour and writer on music. Reforms the Greek modes so as to prepare
than of reproach. When the contemporary standpoints of the way for the ecclesiastical modes.
criticism are establishedby the production of works of art in St Ambrose. Arranges the Ambrosian tones of church music,
A.D. 384.
which the new elements shall no longer be at war with one another
Hucbald, c. 840-930. Systematizer of Diaphonia or Organum
and with the whole, perhaps it will be recognized once more that (cailed by him Symphonia), and inventor of a simple and in-
the idea of progress has no value as a critical standard unless genious notation which did not survive him.
MUSIC [RECENT MUSIC
Guido of Arezzo, c. 990-1050. Theorist and systematizer of musical W. A. Mozart, 1756-1791.
notation and solmization. Beethoven, 1770-1827.
Franco of Cologne, nth century author of treatises on musical Cherubini, 1760-1842. A classic of French opera and of church
rhythm. Works under the name of Franco appear at dates music.
and places which have led to the assumption of the existence of " "
three different authors, who, however, have been partly THE LYRIC AND DRAMATIC OR ROMANTIC PERIOD
explained away again; and the nth century is sometimes called [In this the only qualifications given are those of which the
list
the Franconian period of discant. complex conditions of modern art make definition easy as well as
Discantus positio vulgaris. An anonymous treatise written before desirable; and, as throughout this table, the definitions must not
"
1 150; is said to contain the earliest rules for measured music," be taken as exclusive. The choice of names is, however, guided
i.e. for music in which different voices can sing different rhythms. by the different developments represented: thus accounting for
The Reading MS., c. 1240 (British Museum, MS. Harl.,978, fol. lib.), glaring omissions and artistic disproportions.]
contains the rota Sumer is icumen in." Weber, 1786-1826. Master of romantic opera.
Walter Odington, fl. 1280. English writer on music, and composer. Schubert, 1797-1828. The classic of song.
Adam de Hale, 1230-1288 ) Connecting-links between the trouba-
la Mendelssohn, 1809-1847.
Machault, yZ. 1350 Jdoursand the archaic contrapuntists. Chopin, 1809-1849. Composer of pianoforte lyrics.
John Dunstable, died 1453. English contrapuntal composer. Berlioz, 1803-1869. Master of impressionist orchestration.
G. Dufay, died 1474. Netherland contrapuntal composer. Schumann, 1810-1856.
(These two are the principal founders of artistic counterpoint.) Wagner, 1813-1883. Achieves absolute union of music with drama.
Josquin Des Pres, 1445-1521. The first great composer. Liszt, 181 1-1886. Pianoforte virtuoso and pioneer of the symphonic
poem.
MASTERS OF THE GOLDEN AGE The symphonist of the Wagnerian party.
Bruckner, 1824-1896.
"
[In the "following list when a name is not qualified as church Brahms, 18331897. Classical symphonic and lyric composer.
"
composer or madrigalist," the composer is equally great in both Joachim, 18311907. Violinist, composer and teacher. Brahms's
lines but the qualification must not be taken as exclusive.]
; chief fellow-worker in continuing the classical tradition.
Netherland Masters. TschaikovsL^v. 1840-1893.
J. Arcadelt, c. 1514-1560. Madrigalist. Dvorak, 1841-1904.
Clemens non Papa, died before 1558. Richard Strauss, 1864- Development of the symphonic
Orlando di Lasso, born between 1520 and 1530; died 1594. poem. (D. F. T.)
Jan P. Sweelinck, 1562-1621. Organist, theorist and church com- II. RECENT Music
poser. Under separate biographical headings, the work of the chief
French Masters. modern composers in different countries is dealt with; and here it
E. Genet, surnamed Carpentrasso, fl. 1520. Church composer. will be sufficient to indicate the general current of the art, and to
C. Goudimel. Killed in the massacre of Lyons, 1572. mention some of the more prominent among recent composers.
Italian Masters. Germany. On the death of Brahms, the great German composers
Palestrina, c. 1525-1594. seemed, at the close of the igth century, to have left no successor.
L. Marenzio, c. 1560; died 1599. Such merely epigonal figures as A. Bungert (b. 1846) and Cyrill
Anerio, Felice c. 1560-1630, and G. Francesco, c. 1567-1620, brothers. Kistler (18481907) could not be regarded as important; and E.
Church composers. Humperdinck's (b. 1854) striking success with Hansel und Gretel
Spanish Masters. (1893) was a solitary triumph in a limited genre. The outstanding
C. Morales, figure, at the opening of the 2Oth century, was Richard Strauss (g..) ;
1512-1553 ~) _, . . . , ,
but it was not so much now in composition, as in the high excel-
F. Guerrero, c. 1528-1599 I
Exclusively church com-
PO^ TS - lence of executive art, that Germany still kept up her hegemony in
T. L. de Victoria or Vittoria, fl. 1580 J
European music, by her schools, her great conductors and instru-
English Masters. mentalists, and her devotion as a nation to the production of musical
T. Tallis, c. 1515; died 1585. Church composer. works.
W. Byrd, 1542 or 1543-1623. Greatest as church composer. France. From the earliest days of their music, the French have
J. Wilbye,^. 1600. Madrigalist. had the enviable power of assimilating the great innovations which
T. Morley, fl. 1590. Theorist and madrigalist. were originated in other countries, without losing their habit of
Orlando Gibbons, 1583-1625. warmly appreciating that which their own countrymen produce.
German Masters. That which happened with the Netherlandish composers of the
I. Handl, or Callus, c. 1550-1591. l6th century, and with Lulli in the I7th, was repeated, more or
Hans Leo Hasler or Hassler, 1564-1612. Church composer. less exactly, with Rossini in the early of the igth century and
part
G. Aichinger, c. 1565-1628. Church composer. with Wagner at its close. During the last quarter of the igth
THE MONODISTS century all that is represented by the once-adored name of Gounod
was discarded in favour of a style as different as possible from his.
Cavalieri's La Rappresentazione di Anima e di Corpo, posthumously The change was mainly due to the Belgian musician, C6sar Auguste
produced in 1600. The first oratorio, one of the first works Franck (1822-1890), who established a kind of informal school of
dependent on instrumental accompaniment, and one of the
first with a
"
figured bass
"
indicating by figures what chords
symphonic and orchestral composition, as opposed to the con-
ventional methods pursued at the Paris Conservatoire. Massenet
are to be used.
was left as almost the only representative of the older school, and
Peri's Euridice, 1600. The first opera. from Edouard Lalo (1823-1892) to G. Charpentier (b. 1860), all
Monteverde, 1567-1643. Great pioneer of modern harmony. the younger composers of France adopted the newer style. With
THE RENAISSANCE OF TEXTURE these may be mentioned Alfred Bruneau (b. 1857), and Gabriel
H. Schtitz, 1585-1672. Combines monodic and polyphonic prin- Faur6 (b.. 1845). Camille Saint-Saens (b. 1835), however, remained
ciples in German church music and Italian madrigal. the chief representative of the sound school of composition, if only
G. Frescobaldi, 1583-1644. Organ composer. by reason of his greater command of resources of every kind and
Alessandro Scarlatti, 1659-1725. Founder of the aria-form of his success in all forms of music. Among the newer school of
Handelian opera, anal of the Neapolitan school of composition. composers the most original unquestionably was Debussy (}..),
J. B. Lulli, 1633-1687. The first classic of French opera. and among others may be mentioned Ernest Reyer (b. 1823), the
H. Purcell, c. 1658; died 1695. author of some ambitious and sterling operas; F. L. V. de Joncieres
A. Corelli, 1653-1713. The first classic of the violin in the forms (b. 1839), an enthusiastic follower of Wagner, and a composer of
of suite (or sonata da camera), sonata da chiesa and concerto. merit; Emanuel Chabrier (18411894), a man of extraordinary
F. Couperin, 1668-1733. French composer of suites (ordres) and much
gift, who wrote one of the finest operas comiques of modern times,
addicted to giving fanciful titles to his pieces which are some- Le Roi malgre lui (1887) Charles Marie Widor (b. 1845), an earnest
" " ;
times programme music in fact as well as name. musician of great accomplishment; and yincent d'Indy (b. 1851), a
J. P. Rameau, 1683-1764. French opera writer, harpsichordist and strongly original writer, alike in dramatic, orchestral and chamber
theorist.
compositions. In the class of lighter music, which yet lies above
D. Buxtehude, 1637-1707. the level of opera bouffe, mention must be made of Leo Delibes
J. S. Bach, 1685-1750. (1836-1891) and Andr6 Messager (b. 1855). In describing the
G. F. Handel, 1685-1759. state of music in France, it would be wrong to pass over the work
THE SONATA EPOCH done by the great conductors of various popular orchestral concerts,
Domenico 1685-1757, son of Alessandro.
Scarlatti, Harpsichord such as Jules E. Pasdeloup (1819-1887), Chas. Lamoureux (1834-
virtuoso and master of a special
early type of sonata. 1899), and Judas [Edouard] Colonne (b. 1838).
K. Philipp Emanuel Bach, 1714-1788, third son of Sebastian Bach. Italy. In Italy during the last quarter of the igth century
The principal pioneer of the sonata style. many important changes took place. The later development in
C. W. Gluck, 1714-1787. Reformer of opera, and the first classic of the style ot Verdi (q.v.) was only completed in Otello (1887) and
essentially dramatic music. Falstaf (1893), while his last composition, the four beautiful sacred
F. J. Haydn, 1732-1809. vocal works, show how very far he had advanced in reverence,
RECENT MUSIC] MUSIC
solidity of style and impressiveness, from the time when he wrote an imitation of the Scottish style, the existence of the Welsh
his earlier operas. And Arrigo Bpito's Mefistofele had an immense Eisteddfodau, were admitted facts; but England was supposed to
"
influence on modern Italian music. Among the writers of abso- have had no share in these gifts of nature or art, and the vogue of
"
lute music the most illustrious are G. Sgambati (b. 1843) and foreign music, from Italian opera to classical symphonies, was held
G. Martucci (b. 1856), the latter's symphony in D
minor being a as evidence of her poverty, instead of being partly the reason of
finework. Meanwhile a younger operatic school was growing up, the national sterility. In the successive periods during which the
of which the first production was the Flora mirabtiis of Spiro music of Handel and Mendelssohn respectively had been held as
Samara (b. 1861), given in 1886. Its culmination was in the all-sufficient for right-thinking musicians, success could only be
Cavalleria rusticana (1890) of Pietro Mascagni (b. 1863), the attained, if at all, by those English musicians who deliberately set
Pagliacci (1892) of R. Leoncavallo (b. 1858), and the operas of themselves to copy the style of these great masters; the few men
Giacomo Puccini (b. 1858), notably Le Villi (1884), Manon Lescaut who had the determination to resist the popular movement were
(1893), La Boheme (1896), Tosca (1900), and Madama Butterfly either confined, like the Wesleys, to one branch of music in which
(1904). The oratorios of Don Lorenzo Perosi (b. 1872) had an inter- some originality of thought was still allowed that of the Church,
esting influence on the church music of Italy, (see PALESTRINA). or, like Henry Hugo Pierson in the days of the Mendelssohn worship,
Russia. The new Russian school of music originated with M. A. were driven to seek abroad the recognition they could not obtain
Balakirev (b. 1836), who was instrumental in founding the Free at home. For a time it seemed as if the great vogue of Gounod
School of Music at St Petersburg, and who introduced the music would exalt him into a third artistic despot; but no native com-
of Berlioz and Liszt into Russia; he instilled the principles of poser had even the energy to imitate his Faust; and, by the date
"advanced" music into A. P. Borodin (1834-1887), C. A. Cui of The Redemption (1882) and Mors et vita (1885), a renaissance of
(b. 1835), M. P. Moussorgsky (1839-1881), and N. A. Rimsky- English music had already begun.
Korsakov (1844-1908), all of whom, as usual with Russian com- For a generation up to the 'eighties the affairs of foreign opera
posers, were, strictly speaking, amateurs in music, having some in England were rather depressing; the rival houses presided over
other profession in the absence of any possible opportunity for by the impresarios Frederick Gye (1810-1878) and Colonel J. H.
making money out of music in Russia. The most remarkable Mapleson (1828-1901) had been " going
from bad to worse; the
"
man among their contemporaries was undoubtedly Tschaikovsky traditions of what were called the palmy days had been for-
(q.v.). A. Liadov (b. 1855) excels as a writer for the pianoforte, gotten, and with the retirement of Christine Nilsson in 1881, and
and A. Glazounov (b. 1865) has composed a number of fine orchestral the death of Therese J. A. Tietjens in 1877, the race of the great
works. queens of song seemed to have come to an end. It is true that
United States. Of the older American composers, only John Mme Patti was_ in the plenitude of her fame and powers, but the
Knowles Paine (d. 1906) and Dudley Buck (d. 1909), both born in number of her impersonations, perfect as they were, was so small
1839, and Benjamin Johnson Lang (18371909), need be mentioned. that she alone could not support the weight of an opera season,
Paine, professor of music at Harvard University, and composer and her terms made it impossible for any manager to make both
of oratorios, orchestral music, &c., ranks with the advanced school ends meet unless the rest of the company were chosen on the
"
of romantic composers. Dudley Buck was one of the first American principle enunciated by the husband of Mme Catalan!, Ma femme
composers whose names were known in Europe; and if his numerous et quatre ou cinq poupees." Mme Albani (b. 1851) had made her
cantatas and church music do not reach a very high standard accord- name famous, but the most important part of her artistic career
ing to modern ideas, he did much to conquer the general apathy was yet to come. She had already brought Tannhduser and
with regard to the existence of original music in the States. Lang, Lohengrin into notice, but in Italian versions, as was then usual;
prominent as organist and conductor, also became distinguished as and the great vogue of Wagner's operas did not begin until the series
a composer. George Whitefield Chadwick (b. 1854) has produced of Wagner concerts given at the Royal Albert Hall in 1877 with
many orchestral and vocal works of original merit. Though the the object of collecting funds for the preservation of the Bayreuth
works of Clayton Johns (b. 1857) are less ambitious, they have scheme, which after the production of the Nibelungen trilogy in
won more popularity in Europe, and his songs, like those of Arthur 1876 had become involved in serious financial difficulties. The
Foote (b. 1853), Reginald De Koven(b. 1859), and Ethelbert Nevin two seasons of German opera at Drury Lane under Dr Hans Richter
(18621901), are widely known. Edward Alexander McDowell (b. 1843) in 1882 and 1884, and the production of the trijogy at
(q.v.) may be regarded as the most original modern American Her Majesty's in 1882, under Angelo Neumann's managership, first
composer.
Walter Johannes Damrosch (b. 1862), the eminent taught stay-at-home Englishmen what Wagner really was, and an
conductor of the New York Symphony Orchestra, and of various Italian opera as such {i.e. with Italian as the exclusive language
" "
operatic undertakings, has established his position as an original employed and the old star system in full swing) ceased to exist
and poetic composer, not only by his opera, The Scarlet Letter, but as a regular institution a few years after that. The revival of
"
by such song^s as the intensely dramatic Danny Deever." Dr public interest in the opera only took place after Mr (afterwards
Horatio William Parker's (b. 1863) oratorio settings of the hymn Sir) Augustus Harris (1852-1896) had started his series of operas
Hora novissima and of "The Wanderer's Psalm " are deservedly
" "
at Drury Lane in 1887. In the following season Harris took
popular. Their masterly workmanship and his power of expression Covent Garden, and since that time the opera has been restored
in sacred music mark him as a distinct personality. Numerous to greater public favour than it ever enjoyed, at all events since the
orchestral as well as vocal works have not been heard out of America, days of Jenny Lind. The clever manager saw that the public
but a group of songs, newly set to the words of familiar old English was tired of operas arranged to suit the views of the prima donna
ditties, have obtained great success. Mrs H. H. A. Beach, the and no one else, and he cast the works he produced, among which
youngest of the prominent composers of the United States and an were Un Ballo in maschera and Les Huguenots, with due attention
accomplished pia'nist, has attained a high reputation as a writer to every part. The brothers Jean and Edouard de Reszke, both
in all the more ambitious forms of music. Many of her songs and of whom had appeared in London before the former as a baritone
anthems have obtained wide popularity. The achievements of the and the latter during the seasons 1880-1884 were even stronger
United States are, however, less marked in the production of new attractions to the musical public of the time than the various
composers than in the attention which has been paid to musical leading sopranos, among whom were Mme Albani, Miss M. Mac-
education and appreciation generally. Henry E. Krehbiel (b. 1854), intyre, Mme Melba, Frau Sucher and Mme Nordica, during the
the well-known critic, was especially prominent in drawing American earlier seasons, and Mme Eames, Mile Ravogli, MM. Lassalle and
attention to Wagner and Brahms. The New York Opera has been P. H. Plancon, and many other Parisian favourites later. As
made a centre for the finest artists of the day, and the symphony time went on, the excellent custom obtained of giving each work
concerts at Boston and Chicago have been unrivalled for excellence. in the language in which it was written, and among the distinguished
It is worthy of note that no country has produced a greater number German artists who were added to the company were Frau M.
of the most eminent of recent singers. Mesdames E. Eames, Ternina, Frau E. Schumann-Heink, Frau Lilli Lehmann and many
Nordica, Minnie Hauck, Susan Strong, Suzanne Adams, Sybil more. Since Harris's death in 1896 the traditions started by him
Sanderson, Esther Palliser, Evangeline Florence, and very many were on the whole well maintained, and as a sign of the difference
more among leading sopranos, with Messrs E. E. Oudin, D. Bispham between the present and the former position of English composers,
and Denis O'Sullivan, to name but three out of the host of excellent it may be mentioned that two operas by F. H. Cowen, Signa and
male artists, proved the natural ability of the Americans in vocal Harold, and two by Stanford, The Veiled Prophet and Much Ado
music; and it might also be said that the more notable English- about Nothing, were produced. To Signer Lago, a manager of
speaking pupils of the various excellent French schools of voice- more enterprise than good fortune, belongs the credit of reviving
production are American with hardly an exception. Gluck's Orfeo (with the masterly impersonation of the principal
United Kingdom. English music requires more detailed notice, character by Mile Giulia Ravogli), and of bringing out Cavalleria
if only because of the striking change in the national
feeling with rusticana, Tschaikovsky's Eugen Onegin and other works.
regard to it. The nation had been accustomed for so long to If it be just to name one institution and one man as the creator
consider music as an exotic, that, notwithstanding the glories of of such an atmosphere as allowed the genius of English composers
the older schools of English music, the amount of attention paid to to flourish, then that honour must be paid to the Crystal Palace
everything that came from abroad, and the rich treasures of tradi- and August Manns, the conductor of its Saturday concerts. At
tional ancTdistinctively English music scattered through the country, first engaged as sub-conductor, under a certain Schallehn, at the
the majority of educated people adhered to the common belief that building which was the lasting result of the Great Exhibition of
England was not a musical country. The beauty and the enormous 1851, he became director of the music in 1855; so for the better
quantity of traditional Irish music, the enthusiasm created in of half a century his influence was exerted on behalf of the
part
Scotland by trumpery songs written in what was supposed to be best music of all schools, and especially in lavour of anything of
MUSIC I RECENT MUSIC
English growth. Through evil report and good report he supported works, such as the oratorios, show some tendency to fall back into
his convictions, and for many years he introduced one English the conventionalities from which the renaissance movement was an
composer after another to a fame which they would have found it effort to escape: but in The Cottar's Saturday Night; The Story of
hard to gain without his help and that of Sir George Grove, his Sayid; Veni, Creator Spiritus, and "many other" things, not except-
loyal supporter. In 1862, when Arthur Sullivan had lust returned ing the opera Colomba or the witty Britannia overture, he shows
from his studies in Leipzig, his Tempest music was produced at the no lack of spontaneity or power. As principal of the Royal Academy
Crystal Palace, and it is beyond question that it was this success of Music (he succeeded Macfarren in 1888) he revived the former
and that of the succeeding works from the same hand which first glories of the school, and the excellent plan by which it and the Royal
showed Englishmen that music worth listening to might be pro- College unite their forces in the examinations of the Associated
duced by an English hand. Sullivan reached the highest point of Board is largely due to his initiative. The opera just mentioned
his achievement in The Golden Legend (1886), his most important was the first of the modern series of English operas brought out
contribution to the music of the renaissance. An important part from 1883 onwards by the Carl Rosa company during its tenure
of the Crystal Palace music was that the concerts did not follow, of Drury Lane Theatre: at the time it seemed as though English
but led, popular taste; the works of Schubert, Schumann and opera had a chance of getting permanently established, but the
many other great masters were given constantly, and the whole enterprise, being a purely private and individual one, failed to have
repertory of classical music was gone through, so that a constant a lasting effect upon the art of the country, and after the production
attendant at these concerts would have become acquainted with of two operas by Mackenzie, two by Arthur Goring Thomas, one
the whole range of the best class of music. From 1859 onwards by F. Corder, two by Cowen and one by Stanford, the artistic
the classical chamber-music could be heard at the Popujar Concerts work of the company grew gradually less and less important. In
started by Arthur Chappell, and for many years their repertory spite of the strong influence of French ideals and methods, the music
was not less catholic than that of the Crystal Palace undertaking; of Arthur Goring Thomas was remarkable for individuality and
that in later times the habit increased to a lamentable extent of charm in any other country his beautiful opera Esmeralda would
;
" "
choosing only the favourite (i.e. hackneyed) works of the great have formed part of the regular repertory; and his orchestral
masters does not lessen the educational value of the older concerts. suites, cantatas and a multitude of graceful and original songs,
The lovers of the newer developments of music were always more remain as evidence that if his career had been prolonged, the art
fully satisfied at the concerts of the Musical Union, a body founded of England might have been enriched by some masterpiece it would
by John Ella in 1844, which lasted until 1880. From 1879 onwards not willingly have let die. After a youth of extraordinary pre
the visits of Hans Richter, the conductor, were a feature of the cocity, and a number of variously successful attempts in the more
musical season, and the importance of his work, not only in spread- ambitious and more serious branches of the art, Cowen found his
ing a love of Wagner's music, but in regard to every other branch chief success in the treatment of fanciful or fairy subjects, whether
of the best orchestral music, cannot be exaggerated. Like the in cantatas or orchestral works; here he is without a rival, and his
popular concerts, the Richter concerts somewhat fell away in ideas are uniformly graceful, excellently treated and wonderfully
later years from their original purpose, and their managers were effective. His second tenure of the post of conductor of the Phil-
led by the popularity of certain pieces to give too little variety. harmonic Society showed him to be a highly accomplished conductor.
The importance of Richter's work was in bringing forward the finest In regard to English opera two more undertakings deserve to be
English music in the years when the masters of the renaissance recorded. In 1891 the Royal English Opera House was opened
were young and untried. Here were to be heard the orchestral with Sullivan's Ivanhoe, a work written especially for the occasion,
works of Sir Hubert Parry, Sir Charles Villiers Stanford, Sir A. the absence of anything like a repertory, and the retention of this
Campbell Mackenzie and Dr F. H. Cowen; and the names of these one work in the bills for a period far longer than its attractions
composers were thus brought into notice much more effectually could warrant, brought the inevitable result, and shortly after the
than could have been the case in other surroundings. Meanwhile production of a charming French comic opera the theatre was
outside London the work of the renaissance was being carried on, turned into the Palace Music Hall. The charming and thoroughly
notably at Cambridge, where by the amalgamation of various characteristic Shamus O'Brien of Stanford was successfully pro-
smaller societies with the University Musical Society, Stanford duced in 1896 at the Opera Comique theatre. This work brought
created in 1875 a splendid institution which did much to foster a into public prominence the conductor Mr Henry J. Wood (b. 1870),
love of the best music for many years; and at Oxford, where private who exercised a powerful influence on the art of the country by
meetings in the rooms of Hubert Parry brought about the institu- means of his orchestra, which was constantly to be heard at the
tion of the Musical Club, which has borne fruit in many ways, Queen's Hall, and which attained, by continual performance
though only in the direction of chamber-music. The Bach Choir, together, a degree of perfection before unknown in England. It
founded by Mr Arthur Duke Coleridge in 1875, and conducted for achieved an important work in bringing music within the reach of
the first ten years of its existence by Mr Otto Goldschmidt and all classes at the Promenade Concerts given through each summer,
subsequently by Professor Stanford, worked on purely uncommercial as well as by means of the Symphony Concerts at other seasons.
lines ever since its foundation, and besides many important works The movement thus by Mr Wood increased and spread
started
of Bach, it brought forward most important compositions by remarkably in later years. His training of the Queen's Hall
Englishmen, and had a prominent share in the work of the renais- Orchestra was characterized by a thoroughness and severity pre-
sance. Parry's earlier compositions had a certain austerity in viously unknown in English orchestras. This was partly made
them which, while it commanded the homage of the cultivated few, possible by the admirable business organization which fostered
prevented their obtaining wide popularity; and it was not until the movement in its earlier years; so many concerts were guaranteed
the date of his choral setting of Milton's Ode at a Solemn Mustek that it was possible to give the players engagements which included
that he found his true vein. In this and its many successors, a large amount of rehearsing. The result was soon apparent, not
produced at the autumn festivals, though very rarely given in only in the raising of the standard of orchestral playing, but also
London, there was a nobility of utterance, a sublimity of concep- in the higher and more intelligent standard of criticism to which
tion, a mastery of resource, that far surpass anything accomplished
" performances were subjected both by experts and by the general
in England since the days of Purcell; while his Symphonic Varia- public. The public taste in London for symphonic music grew so
"
tions for orchestra, and at least two of his symphonies, exhibit rapidly as to encourage the establishment of other bodies of players,
his command of the modern modifications of classical forms in until in 1910 there were five first-class professional orchestras
great perfection. Like Parry, Stanford first caught the ear of the giving concerts regularly in London the Philharmonic Society,
public at large with a choral work, the stirring ballad-setting of the Queen's Hall Orchestra, the London Symphony Orchestra
"
Tennyson's Revenge; and in all his earlier and later works alike, (described by Dr Hans Richter as the finest orchestra in the
which include compositions in every form, he shows himself a world "), the New Symphony Orchestra under Mr Landon Ronald
supreme master of effect in dramatic or lyrical handling of voices,
; (b. 1873), a composer and conductor of striking ability, and Mr
in orchestral and chamber-music, his sense of beauty is
unfailing,
Thomas Beecham s Orchestra. Mr Beecham, who had come rapidly
and while his ideas have real distinction, his treatment of them is to the front as a musical enthusiast and conductor, paid special
nearly always the chief interest of his works. The work of the attention to the work of British
composers. Manchester, Birming-
musical renaissance has been more beneficially fostered by these ham, Liverpool and Edinburgh, had their own orchestras; and it
two masters than by any other individuals, through the medium might be said that the whole of the United Kingdom was now
. of the Royal College of Music. In 1876 the National Training permeated with a taste for and a knowledge of orchestral music.
School of Music was opened with Sullivan as principal; he was The effect of this development has influenced the whole of the musical
succeeded by Sir John Stainer in 1881, and the circumstance that life of England. The symphony and the symphonic poem have
such artists as Mr Eugen d' Albert and Mr Frederic Cliff e received taken the place so long held by the oratorio in popular taste; and
there the foundation of their musical education is the only important English composers of any merit or ability find it possible to get
fact connected with the institution, which in 1882 was succeeded a hearing for orchestral work which at the end of the igth century-
by the Royal College of Music, under the directorship of Sir George would have had to remain unperformed and unheard. The result
Grove, and with Parry and Stanford as professors of composition. has been the r?pid development of a school of English orchestral
succeeded to the directorship, and before and after comppsers-^-a school of considerable achievement and still greater
In 1894
Parry
this date work of the best educational kind was done in all branches promise.
of the art, but most of all in the important branch of composition. The new school of English writers contains many names of
Mackenzie's place among the masters of the renaissance is assured skilled composers. Sir Edward Elgar established his reputation
by his romantic compositions for orchestra such as La Belle dame by his vigorous Caractacus and the grandiose imaginings of his
"
sans merci and the two Scottish Rhapsodies "; some of his choral Dream of Gerontius, as by orchestral and chamber compositions of
RECENT MUSIC] MUSIC
decided merit and individuality, and by being the composer of a Metaphysik der Musik (Leipzig, 1895); L. Lacombe, Philosophie et
symphony which attained greater and wider fame than any similar musique (Paris, 1896); Sir C. H. H. Parry, The Evolution of the Art
work since the symphonies of Tschaikovsky. Mr Edward German of Music (London, 1897); H. Riemann, Prdludien untf Studien
(b. 1862) won great success as a writer of incidental music for plays, (Frankfort, 1896); Geschic hie der Musiktheorie im IX. -XIX. Jahr-
and in various lighter forms of music, for which his great skill in hundert (Leipzig, 1898); Systemalische Modulationslehre (Hamburg,
orchestration and his knowledge of effect stand him in good stead. 1887) J. C. Lobe, Lehrbuch der musikalischen Komposition (Leipzig,
;
The quality of Mr Frederic Cliffe's orchestral works is extremely 1884); A. B. Marx, Die Lehre von der musikalischen Komposition
high. Dr Arthur Somervell (b. 1863), who succeeded Stainer as (Leipzig, 1887, 1890); M. L. C. Cherubini, Theorie des Kontra-
musical adviser to the Board of Education, first came into promi- punktes und der Fuge (Cologne, 1896); Sir J. F. Bridge and F. J.
nence as a composer of a number of charming songs, notably a Sawyer, A Course of Harmony (London, 1899) E. Prout, Counter-
;
fine song-cycle from Tennyson's Maud, but his Mass and various point (London, 1890); Double Counterpoint and Canon (London,
orchestral works and cantatas and pianoforte pieces show his 1893); Musical Form (London, 1893); Applied Forms (London,
conspicuous ability in other forms. Various compositions written 1895); B. Widmann, Die strengen Fornten der Musik (Leipzig,
by Mr Hamish MacCunn (b. 1868), while still a student at the 1882); S. Jadassohn, Die Formen in den Werken der Tonkunst
Royal College of Music, were received with acclamation; but his (Leipzig, 1885); M. Steinitzer, Psychologische Wirkungen der musik-
later work was not of equal value, though his operas Jeanie alischen Formen (Munich, 1885); J. Combarieu, Theorie du rhythme
Deans and Diarmid were successful. Mr Granville Bantock dans la composition moderne d'apres la doctrine antique (Paris,
(b. 1868), an ardent supporter of the most advanced music, has 1897); P. Goetschius, Homophonic Forms of Musical Composition
written many fine things for orchestra, and Mr William Wallace (New York, 1898) William Wallace, The Threshold of Music (1007).
;
(b. 1861), in various orchestral pieces played at the Crystal Palace
" " English Music. W. Nagel, Geschichte der Musik in England
and elsewhere, and in such things as his Freebooter songs, has (Strassburg, 1894); H. Davey, History of English Music (London,
shown strong individuality and imagination. Mr Arthur Hinton 1895); F. J. Crcwest, The Story of British Music (London, 1896);
(b. 1869) has produced things of fanciful beauty and quaint origi- S. Vautyn, L'Evolution de la musique en Angleterre (Brussels, 1900);
nality. Miss Ethel M. Smyth, whose Mass was given at the Royal Ernest Walker, English Music (1907).
Albert Hall in most favourable conditions, had her opera Fantasia America. W. S. B. Mathews, A Hundred Years of Music in
produced at Weimar and Carlsruhe, and Der Wald at Covent America (Chicago, 1889); L. C. Elson, The National Music of
Garden. Miss Maud Valerie White's graceful and expressive songs America and its Sources (Boston, 1900) T. Baker, Uber die Musik
;
brought her compositions into wide popularity; and Mme Liza der nord-amerikanischen Wilden (Leipzig, 1882).
Lehmann made a new reputation by her cycles of songs after France. H. Laroix, La Musique fran^aise (Paris, 1891); N. M.
her retirement from the profession of a singer. The first part of Schletterer, Studien zur Geschichte der franzosischen Musik (Berlin,
Mr S. Coleridge-Taylor's (b. 1875) Hiawatha scenes was performed 1884-1885) T. Galino, La Musique fran^aise au moyen dge (Leipzig,
;
while he was still a student at the Royal College, and so great was 1890); A. Ccgnard, De la Musique en France depuis Rameau (Paris,
its popularity that the third part of the trilogy was commissioned 1891); G. Servieres, La Musique franfaise moderne (Paris, 1897).
for performance by the Royal Choral Society. Mr Cyril Scott is Germany. W. Baeumker, Geschichte der Tonkunst in Deutschland
a composer who aims high, though with a somewhat strained bis zur Reformation (Freiburg, 1881); O. Ebben, Der volksthumliche
originality. Dr H. VValford Davies (b. 1869) and W. Y. Hurlstone deutsche Mannergesang (Tubingen, 1887); L. Meinardus, Die deutsche
(1876-1906) excel in the serious kind of chamber-music and use the Tonkunst; A. Soubies, Histoire de la musique allemande (Paris, 1896).
classic forms with notable skill; and Mr R. Vaughan Williams, in Italy. O. Chilesotti, / nostri maestri del passato (Milan, 1882);
his songs and other works, has shown perhaps the most conspicuous V. Lee, 77 Settecento in Italia (Milan, 1881); G. Masutto, / Maestri
talent among all of the younger school. di musica italiani del secolo XIX. (Venice, 1882).
English executive musicians have never suffered from foreign Russia. A. Soubies, Histoire de la musique en Russie (Paris,
competition in the same degree as English composers, and the 1898).
success of such singers as Miss Anna Williams, Miss Macintyre, Scandinavia. A. Gronvoed, Norske Musikere (Christiania,
Miss Marie Brema, Miss Clara Butt, Miss Agnes Nicholls, Messrs 1883); C. Valentin, Studien uber die schwedischen Volksmelodien
Santley, Edward Lloyd, Ben Davies, Plunket Greene and Ffrangcon (Leipzig, 1885).
Davies; or of such pianists as Miss Fanny Davies and Mr Leonard Spain.]. F. Riafio, Notes on Early Spanish "
Music (London,
"
Borwick, is but a continuance of the tradition of British excellence. 1887); J. Tort y Daniel, Noticia musical del Lied 6 CanQO cata-
The scientific study of the music of the past has more and more lana (Barcelona, 1892); A. Soubies, Hist, de la mus. en Espagne
decidedly taken its place as a branch of musical education; the (1899).
learned writings of VV. S. Rockstro (1823-1895), many of them Switzerland. A. Niggli, La Musique dans la Suisse allemande
made public first in the Encyclopaedia Britannica and Grove's (1900); F. Held, La Musique dans la Suisse romande (1900); A.
Dictionary of Music, made the subject clear to many who had been Soubies, Hist, de la mus. dans la Suisse (1899).
groping in the dark before; and the actual performance of old Church Music. F. L. Humphreys, The Evolution of Church
music has been undertaken not only by the Bach Choir, but by the Music (New York, 1898); E. L. Taunton, History of Church Music
Magpie Madrigal Society under Mr Lionel Benson's able direction. (London, 1887); A. Morsch, Der italienische Kirchengesang bis
In vocal and instrumental music alike the musical side of the Inter- Palestrina (Berlin, 1887); G. Masutto, Delia Musica sacra in Italia,
national Exhibition of 1885 did excellent work in its historical (Venice, 1889) G. Felix, Palestrina et la musique sacree (Bruges,
;
concerts; and in that branch of archaeology which is concerned 1895); R. v. Liliencron, Liturgisch-musikalische Geschichte der
with the structure and restoration of olcf musical instruments, evangelischen Gottesdienste (Schleswig, 1893).
important work has been done by Mr A. J. Hipkins (1826-1903; Instruments (see also the separate articles on each). L. Arrigoni,
so long connected with the firm of Broad wood), the Rev. F. W. Organografia ossia descrizione degli instrumenti musicali antichi
Galpin. Arnold Dolmetsch and others. The formation of the .(Milan, 1881) F. Boudoin, La Musique hislorique (Paris, 1886);
;
Folk-Song Society in 1899 drew attention to the importance and A. Jacquot, Etude de I'art instrumental. Dictionnaire des instru-
extent of English traditional music, and did much to popularize ments de musique (Paris, 1886) H. Boddington, Catalogue of Musical
;
it with singers of the present day. Instruments illustrative of the History of the Pianoforte (Manchester
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Among encyclopaedic dictionaries of music 1888); M. E. Brown, Musical Instruments and their Homes (New
Sir George Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians (1878- York, 1888); A. J. Hipkins, Musical Instruments: Historic, Rare
1889; new ed. by J. A. Fuller Maitland, 1904-1908), takes the first and Unique (Edinburgh, 1888); W. Lynd, Account of Ancient
place among publications in English^ while Robert Eitner's (d. 1905) Musical Instruments and their Development (London, 1897); J.
monumental Quellenlexikon (1900-1904), in German, is an authority Weiss, Die musikalischen Instrumente in den heiligen Schriften des
of the first rank. Among other modern works of value on various Alien Testaments (Graz, 1895) ; E. Travers, Les Instruments de
accounts may be mentioned F. J. Fetis's Biographic universelle des musique au xiv. siecle (Paris, 1882); E. A. v. Hasselt, L' Anatomic
musiciens (2nd ed., 1860-1865; supplement by A. Pougin, 1878); des instruments de musique (Brussels, 1899); E. W. Verney, Siamese
G. Schilling's Encyklopddie der gesammten musikalischen Wissen- Musical Instruments (London, 1888); C. R. Day, Music and Musical
schaft (1835-1838); Mendel and Reissmann's Musikalisches Con- Instruments of Southern India (London, 1891); D. G. Brinton,
versations-lexikon (2nd ed., 1883); H. Riemann's Musik-lexikon Native American Stringed Musical Instruments (1897); I. Ruehl-
(5th ed., 1900; also an Eng. trans., with additions, by J. S. Shed- mann, Die Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente (Brunswick, 1882);
lock); the American Cyclopaedia of Music and Musicians (1889 F. di Caffarelli, Gli Strumenti ad area e la musica da camera (Milan,
1891) and the Oxford History of Music (1901-1905). The literature
;
1894); Kathleen Schlesinger, Instruments of the Orchestra (1910).
of music generally is enormous, but the following selected list of Conducting. W. R. Wagner, On Conducting (London, 1887);
works on various aspects may be useful : M. Kufferath, L' Art de diriger Vorchestre (Paris, 1891); F. Wein-
Aesthetics, Theory, &c. H. Ehrlich, Die Musik-Aesthetik in ihrer gartner, Uber das Dirigiren (Berlin, 1896).
Entwickelung von Kant bis auf die Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1882); E. Biography. IP. Hueffer, The Great Musicians (London, 1881
Hanslick, The Beautiful in Music (London, 1891); R. Wallaschek, 1884) F. Clement, Les Grands musiciens (Paris, 1882) C. E. Bourne,
; ;
Aesthetik der Tonkunst (Stuttgart, 1886); R. Pohl, Die Hohenzilge The Great Composers (London, 1887); G. T. Ferris, Great Musical
der musikalischen Entwickelung (Leipzig, 1888); A. Schnez, Die
Composers; Sir C. H. H. Parry, Studies of Great Composers (London,
Geheimnisse der Tonkunst (Stuttgart, 1891); I. A. Zahm, Sound and 1887); A. A. Ernouf, Compositeurs celebres (Paris, 1888); F. T.
Music (Chicago, 1892); C. Bellaique, Psychologie musicale( Paris, Bennassi-Desplantes, Les Musiciens celebres (Limoges, 1889);
1893); W. Pole, Philosophy of Music (vol. xi. of the English and A. Haunedruche, Les Musiciens et compositeurs franfais (Paris,,
Foreign Philosophical Library, 1895); M. Seybel, Schopenhauers 1890); N. H. Dole, A Score of Famous Composers (New York,
86 MUSICAL-BOXMUSICAL NOTATION
1891); L. T. Morris, Famous Musical Composers (London, 1891); and as the web or long sheet of paper passes over the instrument
H. de Bremont, The World of Music (London, 1892); J. K. Paine, the perforated holes are brought in proper position and sequence
Famous Composers and their Works (Boston, 1892-1893); E. Polko, under the influence of the suction or pressure cf air from a bellows,
Meister der Tonkunst (Wiesbaden, 1897); R. F. Sharp, Makers of and thereby the notes are either directly acted on, as in the case of
Music (London, 1898); L. Nohl, Mosaik Denksteine aus dem Leben reed instruments, or the opening and closing of valves set in motion
beriihmter Tonkunstler (Leipzig, 1899); T. Baker, A Biographical levers or liberate springs which govern special notes. The United
Dictionary of Musicians (New York, 1900); M.Charles, Zeitgenos- States are the original home of the instruments controlled by
sische Tondichter (Leipzig, 1888); A. Jullien, Musiciens d'aujourd'hui perforated paper known as orguinettes, organinas, melodeons, &c.
(Paris, 1892). All these instruments are being gradually replaced in popular
favour by the piano-players and the gramophone. (K. S.)
MUSICAL-BOX, an instrument for producing by mechanical
means tunes or pieces of music. The modern musical-box is MUSICAL NOTATION, a pictorial method of representing
an elaboration of the elegant toy musical snuff-box in vogue sounds to the ear through the medium of the eye. It is probable
that the earliest attempts at notation were made by the Hindus
during the i8th century. The notes or musical sounds are pro-
duced by the vibration of steel teeth or springs cut in a comb or and Chinese, from whom the legacy was transferred to Greece.
flat plate of steel, reinforced by the harmonics generated in the The exact nature of the Greek notation is a subject of dispute,
solid steel back of the comb. The teeth are graduated in length different explanations assigning 1680, 1620, 990, or 138 signals
from end to end of the comb or plate, the longer teeth giving the to their alphabetical method of delineation. To Boethius we
deeper notes; and the individual teeth are accurately attuned,
owe the certainty that the Greek notation was not adopted by
where necessary, by filing or loading with lead. Each tone and the Latins, although it is not certain whether he was the first
semitone in the scale is represented by three or four separate to apply the fifteen letters of the Roman alphabet to the scale
teeth in the comb, to permit of successive repetitions of the same of sounds included within the two octaves, or whether he was
note when required by the music. The teeth are acted upon and only the first to make record of that application. The reduction
musical vibrations produced by the revolution of a brass cylinder of the scale to the octave is ascribed to St Gregory, as also the
studded with projecting pins, which, as they move round, raise naming of the seven notes, but it is not safe to assume that such
and release the proper teeth at due intervals according to the an ascription is accurate or final. Indications of a scheme of
nature of the music. A single revolution of the cylinder com- notation based, not on the alphabet, but on the use of dashes,
pletes the performance of each of the several pieces of music for hooks, curves, dots and strokes are found to exist as early as
which the apparatus is set, but upon the same cylinder there may the 6th century, while specimens in illustration of this different
be inserted pins for performing as many as thirty-six separate method do not appear until the 8th. The origin of these signs,
airs. This is accomplished by making both the points of the known as neumes (vtvuara, or nods), is the full stop (punctus),
teeth and the projecting pins which raise them very fine, so that the comma (virga), and the mound or undulating line (dims),
a very small change in the position of the cylinder is sufficient the first indicating a short sound, the second a long sound, and
to bring an entirely distinct set of pins in contact with the teeth. the third a group of two notes. The musical intervals were
In the more elaborate musical-boxes the cylinders are removable, suggested by the distance of these signals from the words of the
and may be replaced by others containing distinct sets of music. text. The variety of neumes employed at different times, and
In these also there are combinations of bell, drum, cymbal and the fluctuations due to handwriting, have made them extremely
The revolving motion of the cylinder is difficult to decipher. In the loth century a marked advance
triangle effects, &c.
is shown by the use of a red line traced horizontally above the
effected by a spring and clock-work which on some modern instru-
ments will work continuously for an hour and a half without text to give the singer a fixed note (F = fa), thus helping him to
winding, and the rate of revolution is regulated by a fly regulator. approximate the intervals. To this was added a second line in
The headquarters of the musical-box trade is Geneva, where the yellow (for C = ut), and finally a staff arose from the further
manufacture gives employment to thousands of persons. addition of two black lines over these. The difficulty of the
The musical-box is a type of numerous instruments for producing subject is complicated for the student by the fact that an
musical effects by mechanical means, in all of which a revolving incredible variety of notations coexisted at one period, all more
cylinder or barrel studded with pins is the governing feature. The or less representing attempts in the direction of the modern
position of the pins on the barrel is determined by two considera- system. A variety of experiments resulted in the assignment
tions: those of pitch and of time or rhythm. The degrees of of the four-lined staff to sacred music and of the five-lined staff
pitch or semitones of the scales are in the direction of the length
of the cylinder, while those of time, or the beats in the bars, are in to secular music. The yellow and red colours were replaced
the path of the revolution of the cylinder. The action of the pins by the use of the letters F and C (fa and ut) on the lines. This
is practically the same for all barrel instruments; each pin serves to use of letters to indicate clef is forestalled in a manuscript of
raise some part of the mechanism for one note at the exact moment Guido of Arezzo's Micrologus, dating from the i2th century, in
and for the exact duration of time required by the music to be
the which is the famous hymn to St John, printed with neumes on
played, after which, passing along with the revolution of
cylinder, it ceases to act. The principle of the barrel operating a staff of three lines (see Guroo OF AREZZO). The use of letters
by friction, by percussion or by wind on reeds, pipes or strings for indicating clefs has survived to the present day, our clef
governs carillons or musical bells, barrel organs, mechanical flutes, signatures being modified forms of the letters C, F and G, which
celestial voices, harmoniphones, violin-pianos and the orchestrions
and polyphons in which a combination of all orchestral effects is have passed through a multitude of shapes. Before the lath
attempted. In the case of wind instruments, such as flutes, century there is no trace of a measured notation (i.e. of a
trumpets, oboes, clarinets, imitated in the more complex orches- numerical time division separating the component parts of a
trions, the pins raise levers which open the valves admitting air, It is at the time of Franco of Cologne
2
that
piece of music).
compressed by mechanical bellows, to various kinds of flue-pipes, measured music takes its rise, together with the black notation
and to others fitted with beating and free reeds. The sticks used
for striking bells, drums, cymbals and triangles are set in motion in place of neumes, which disappeared altogether by the end of
in a similar manner. A fine set of full-page drawings, the i4th century. Writing four hundred years after St Gregory,
published at
Frankfort in i6is, 1 makes the whole working of the pinned barrel Cottonius complains bitterly of the defects in the system of
quite clear, and establishes the exact relation of the pins to the "
music produced by the barrel so unmistakably that some bars of
neumes: The same marks which Master Trudo sang as
the piece of music set on the cylinder can be made out. The thirds, were sung as fourths by Master Albinus; while Master
prototype of the 19th-century musical-box is to be found in the Salomo asserts that fifths are the notes meant, so at last there
Netherlands where during the ijth century the dukes of Burgundy were as many methods of singing as teachers of the art." Pos-
encouraged the invention of ingenious mechanical musical
curiosities such as
" sibly the reckless multiplication of lines in the staff may have
organs which played of themselves," musical
snuff-boxes, singing birds, curious clocks, &c. A principle of more contributed to the obscurity of which Cottonius complains.
recent introduction than the studded cylinder consists of sheets In the black notation, which led to the modern system, the
of perforated paper or card, somewhat similar to the Jacquard
square note with a tail fl) is the long sound; the square note
apparatus for weaving. The perforations correspond in position
and length to the pitch and duration of the note they represent,
1
The principles of Franco are found in the treatises of Walter
Odington, a monk of Evesham who became archbishop of Canterbury
1
See S. de Caus, Les forces mouvantes; and article BARREL ORGAN. in 1228.
MUSIC HALLS
without a () is the breve; and the lozenge shape (4) is the
tail Eitner, Bibliographic der musik. Sammelwerke des 16. und 17. Jahr-
"
hunderts (Berlin, 1877) Friedrich Chrysander, Abriss einer
semibreve. In a later development there were added the double ;
Geschichte des Musikdrucks vom I5--I9. Jahrh.," Allgemeine musik-
long ^and the minum (fl). The breve, according to Franco of alische Zeitung (Leipzig, 1879, Nos. n-i6); W. H. James Weale,
A Descriptive Catalogue of Rare Manuscripts and Printed Works,
Cologne, was the unit of measure. The development of a fixed
time division was further continued by Philippe de Vitry. It chiefly Liturgical (Historical Music Loan Exhibition, Albert Hall,
London," January-October, 1885); (London, 1886); W. Barclay
has been noted with well-founded astonishment that at this time Notes on Early Music Printing," in the Zeitschrift biblio-
Squire,
the double time (i.e. two to the bar) was unknown, in spite of graphica, p. IX. S. 99-122 (London, 1896); Grove's Diet, of Music.
this being the time used in marching and also illustrated in the MUSIC HALLS. The "variety theatre" or "music-hall"
" "
process of breathing. Triple time (i.e. three to the bar) was of to-day developed out of the saloon theatres which existed
regarded as the most perfect because it was indivisible. It was in London about 1830-1840; they owed their form and existence
" "
as if there lay some mysterious enchantment in a number that to the restrictive action of the patent theatres at that time.
could not be divided into equal portions without the fraction. These theatres had the exclusive right of representing what was
" " "
Triple time, says Jean de Muris, is called perfect, according broadly called the "legitimate drama," which ranged from
to Franco, a man of much skill in his art, because it hath its name Shakespeare to Monk Lewis, and from Sheridan and Goldsmith
from the Blessed Trinity which is pure and true perfection." to Kotzebue and Alderman Birch of Cornhill, citizen and poet,
Vitry championed the rights of imperfect time and invented and the founder of the turtle-soup trade. The patent houses
signs to distinguish the two. The perfect circle O
represented defended their rights when they were attacked by the
"
"
minor
"
the perfect or triple time; the half circle C the imperfect or and " saloon theatres, but they often acted in the spirit of
double-time. This C has survived in modern notation to the dog in the manger. While they pursued up to fine and
indicate four-time, which is twice double-time; when crossed ([ even imprisonment the poachers on their dramatic preserves,
The method of dividing into perfect " "
it means double-time. they too often neglected the legitimate drama for the
and imperfect was described as prolation. The addition of a supposed meretricious attractions offered by their illegitimate
point to the circle or semi-circle (0 ( ) indicated major pro- competitors. The British theatre gravitated naturally to the
lation; absence, minor prolation. The substitution of
its inn or tavern. The tavern was the source of life and heat, and
white for black notation began with the first year of the I4th warmed all social gatherings. The inn galleries offered rather
century and was fully established in the I5th century. rough stages, before the Shakespeare and Alleyn playhouses
It has already been shown how the earlier form of alphabetical were built. The inn yards were often made as comfortable as
" "
notation was gradually superseded by one based on the attempt possible for the groundlings by layers of straw, but the tavern
to represent the relative height and depth of sounds pictorially. character of the auditorium was never concealed. Excisable
The alphabetical nomenclature, however, became inextricably liquor was always obtainable, and the superior members of the
associated with the pictorial system. The two conceptions audience, who chose to pay for seats at the side of the stage or
" "
reinforced each other; and from the hexachordal scale, endowed platform (like the avant-scene boxes at a Parisian theatre),
with the solmization of ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la which was a were allowed to smoke Raleigh's Virginian weed, then a novel
"
device for identifying notes by their names when talked of, luxury. This was, of course, the first germ of a smoking-
rather than by their positions when seen on a page of music theatre."
arose the use of what are now known as accidentals. Of these While the drama progressed as a recognized public entertain-
it may here be said that the flat originated from the necessity ment in England, and was provided with its own buildings in the
of sinking the B of the scale in order to form a hexachord on town, or certain booths at the fairs, the Crown exercised its
the note F in such a way as to cause the semitone to fall in the patronage in favour of certain individuals, giving them power
right place which in the case of all hexachords was between to set up playhouses at any time in any parts of London and
the third and fourth notes. This softened B was written in a Westminster. The first and most important grant was made by
" "
rounded form thus: b (rotundum), while the original B remained Charles II. to his trusty and well-beloved Thomas Killigrew
"
square thus: (quadrum). The original conception of the sharp
[3 and Sir William Davenant." This was a personal grant, not
was to cross or lattice the square B, by which it was shown that connected with any particular sites or buildings, and is known
"
it was neither to be softened nor to remain unchanged. The in theatrical history as the Killigrew and Davenant patent."
flat, which originated in the loth century, appears to have been Killigrew was the author of several unsuccessful plays, and Sir
of far earlier date than the sharp, the invention of which has William Davenant, said to be an illegitimate chUd of William
been ascribed to Josquin Des Pres (1450-1521). The B-sharp Shakespeare, was a stage manager of great daring and genius.
was called B cancellatum, the cross being formed thus %. The Charles II. had strong theatrical leanings, and had helped to
use of key signatures constructed out of these signs of sharp and arrange the court ballets at Versailles for Louis XIV. The
flat was of comparatively late introduction. The key signature Killigrew and Davenant patent in course of time descended,
states at the beginning of a piece of music the sharps and flats after a fashion, to the Theatres Royal, Covent Garden and Drury
which it contains within the scale in which it is written. It is a Lane, and was and still is the chief legal authority governing
device to avoid repeating the sign of sharp and flat with every these theatres. The
"
minor " and outlying playhouses were
fresh occasion of their occurring. The exact distinction between carried on under the Music and Dancing Act of George II., and
what were accidental sharps or flats, and what were sharps or the annual licences were granted by the local magistrates.
flats in the key, was still undetermined in the time of Handel, The theatre proper having emancipated itself from the inn or
who wrote the Suite in E containing the " Harmonious Black- tavern, it was now the turn of the inn or tavern to develop into
" an independent place of amusement, and to lay the foundation
smith with three sharps instead of four. The double bb (some-
of that enormous middle-class and lower middle-class institution
times written \> or /3) and the double sharp X (sometimes
of interest which we agree to term the music hall. It rose from
written ^,
^
or :$ )
called into existence by
are Conventions of a much later date,
the demands of modern music, while the most modest, humble and obscure beginning from the
"
the sign of natural (t|) is the outcome of the original B quadra- public-house bar-parlour, and its weekly sing-songs," chiefly
tion or square B (3. supported by voluntary talent from the "harmonic meetings"
" "
The systems known as Tonic Sol Fa and the Galin-Paris-
of the long-room upstairs, generally used as a Foresters' or
Cheve methods do not belong to the subject of notation, as they Masonic club-room, where one or two professional singers were
"
are ingenious mechanical substitutes for the experimentally devel- engaged and a regular chairman was appointed, to the assem-
"
bly-room entertainments at certain hotels, where private balls
oped systems analysed above. The basis of these substitutes
is the reference of notes to key relationship and not to pitch.
all
and school festivals formed part of an irregular series. The
"
AUTHORITIES. E. David and M. Lussy, Hisioire de la notation district tea-garden," which was then an agreeable feature of
musicale (Paris, 1882); H. Riemann, Notenschrift und Notendruck suburban life the suburbs being next door to the city and the
(1896) C. F. Abdy Williams, The Story of Notation (1903) Robert
; ; country next door to the suburbs was the first to show dramatic
88 MUSIC HALLS
ambition, and to erect in some portion of its limited but leafy into custody and marched off to Worship Street police station,
grounds a lath-and-plaster stage large enough for about eight confined for the remainder of the night, and fined and warned
people to move upon without incurring the danger of falling in the morning. The same and only law still exists for those
off into the adjoining fish pond and fountain. A few classical who are helping to keep a " disorderly house," but there are no
statues in plaster, always slightly mutilated, gave an educational holders of exclusive dramatic patent rights to set it in motion.
tone to the place, and with a few coloured oil-lamps hung amongst The abolition of this privileged monopoly was effected about this
"
the bushes the proprietor felt he had gone as near the Royal time by a combination of distinguished literary men and drama-
tists, who were convinced, from observation and experience, that
''
Vauxhall Gardens as possible for the small charge of a sixpenny
refreshment ticket. There were degrees of quality, of course, the patent theatres had failed to nurse the higher drama, while
amongst these places, which answered to the German beer- interfering with the beneficial freedom of public amusements.
gardens, though with inferior music. The Beulah Spa at The effect of Covent Garden and Drury Lane on the art of
Norwood, the White Conduit House at Pentonville, the York- acting had resulted chiefly in limiting the market for theatrical
shire Stingo in the Marylebone Road, the Monster at Pimlico, employment, with a consequent all-round reduction of salaries.
the St Helena at Rotherhithe, the Globe at Mile End, the Red They kept the Lyceum Theatre (or English Opera House) for
Cow at Dalston, the Highbury Barn at Highbury, the Manor years in the position of a music hall, giving sometimes two
" "
House at Mare Street, Hackney, the Rosemary Branch at performances a night, like a gaff in the New Cut or White-
" "
Hoxton, and other rus-in-urbe retreats, were up to the level of chapel. They had not destroyed the star system, and
their time, if rarely beyond it. Edmund Kean and the boy Betty the " Infant Roscius "
The suspended animation of the law the one Georgian act, were able to command sensational rewards. In the end Charles
which was mainly passed to check the singing of Jacobite songs Dickens, Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton, Sir Thomas Noon Talfourd
in the tap-rooms and tea-gardens of the little London of 1730, and others got the patents abolished, and the first step towards
when the whole population of the United Kingdom was only free trade in the drama was secured.
about six millions encouraged the growth eventually of a The effect of this change was to draw attention to the " saloon
" "
number of saloon theatres in various London districts, theatres," where during the performances smoking, drinking,
which were allowed under the head of "Music and Dancing" and even eating were allowed hi the auditorium. An act was
to go as far on the light dramatic road as the patent theatres soon passed, known as the Theatres Act (1843), appointing a
thought proper to permit. The 25 Geo. II. c. 36, which in later censor of stage-plays, and placing the London theatres under
days was still the only act under which the music halls of forty the control of a Crown officer, changing with ministries. This
millions and more of people were licensed, was always liberally was the lord chamberlain for the time being. The lord chamber-
interpreted, as long as it kept clear of politics. lain of this period drew a hard-and-fast line between theatres
The " saloon theatres," always being taverns or attached to under his control, where no smoking and drinking were allowed
"
taverns, created a public who liked to mix its dramatic amuse- in front," and theatres or halls where the old habits and customs
ments with smoking and light refreshments. The principal of the audience were not to be interfered with. These latter
" "
saloons were the Emngham in the Whitechapel Road, the were to go under the jurisdiction of the local magistrates,
Bower in the Lower Marsh, Lambeth, the Albert at Islington, or other licensing authorities, under the 25 Geo. II. c. 36 the
the Britannia at Hoxton, the Grecian in the City Road, the Music and Dancing Act and so far a divorce was decreed
Union in Shoreditch, the Stingo at Paddington and several between the taverns and the playhouses. The lord chamberlain
others of less importance. All these places had good com- eventually made certain concessions. Refreshment bars were
panies, especially in the winter, and many of' them nourished allowed at the lord chamberlain's theatres in unobstrusive
leading actors of exceptional merit. The dramas were chiefly positions, victualled under a special act of William IV., and
rough adaptations from the contemporary French stage, private smoking-rooms were allowed at most theatres on appli-
occasionally flying as high as Alexandre Dumas the elder and cation. All this implied that stage plays were to be kept free
Victor Hugo. Actors of real tragic power lived, worked and from open smoking and drinking, and miscellaneous entertain-
died in this confined area. Some went to America, and acquired ments were to enjoy their old social freedom. The position was
" "
fame and fortune; and among others, Frederick Robson, who accepted by those saloon theatres which were not tempted
was trained at the Grecian, first when it was the leading to become lord chamberlain houses, and the others, with many
saloon theatre and afterwards when it became the leading music additions, started the first music halls.
hall (a distinction with little difference), fought his way to the Amongst the first of these halls, and certainly the very first
" "
front after the abolition of the patent rights and was accepted as far as intelligent management was concerned, was the Can-
as the greatest tragi-comic actor of his time. The Grecian terbury in the Lower Marsh, Lambeth, which was next door
"
saloon theatre, better known perhaps, with its pleasure garden to the old Bower Saloon, then transformed into a minor
or yard, as the Eagle Tavern, City Road, which formed the theatre." The Canterbury sprang from the usual tavern
material of one of Charles Dickens's Sketches by Boz, was a place germ, its creator being Mr Charles Morton, who honourably
managed with much taste, enterprise and discretion by its pro- earned the name of the " doyen of the music halls." It justified
" "
prietor, Mr Rouse. It was the saloon where the one and only by cultivating the best class of music, and exposed the
its title
attempt, with limited means, was ever made to import almost prejudice and unfairness of Planche's sarcasm in a Haymarket
"
all the original repertory of the Opera Comique in Paris, with the burlesque most music hall most melancholy." Mr Charles
result that many musical works were presented to a sixpenny Morton added pictorial art to his other attractions, and obtained
audience that had never been heard before nor since in England. the support of Punch, which stamped the Canterbury as the
"
Auber, Herold, Adolphe Adam, Boieldieu, Gretry, Donizetti, Royal Academy over the water." At this time by a mere
Bellini, Rossini and a host of others gave some sort of advanced accident Gounod's great opera of Faust, through defective inter-
musical education, through the Grecian, to a rather depressing national registration,fell into the public domain in England and
part of London, long before board schools were established. became common property. The Canterbury, not daring
The saloon theatres rarely offended the patent houses, and when to present it with scenery, costumes and action, for fear of the
"
they did the law was soon put in motion to show that Shake- Stage-play Act, gave what was called An Operatic Selection,"
speare could not be represented with impunity. The Union the singers standing in plain dresses in a row, like pupils at a
Saloon in Shoreditch, then under the direction of Mr Samuel school examination or a chorus in an oratorio at Exeter Hall.
Lane, who afterwards, with his wife, Mrs Sara Lane, at the The music was well rendered by a thoroughly competent com-
Britannia Saloon, became the leading local theatrical manager pany, night after night, for a long period, so that by the time
of his day, was tempted in 1834 to give a performance of Othello. the opera attracted the tardy attention of the two principal
" " "
It was raided by the then rather new police," and all the opera managers at Her Majesty's Theatre in the Haymarket
actors, servants, audience, directors and musicians were taken and Covent Garden Theatre, the tunes most popular were being'
MUSIC HALLS 89
" " "
whistled by the man in the street," the boy in the gutter cellor Halsbury), and the conviction was confirmed. Being
and the tradesman waiting at the door for orders. heard at quarter sessions, there is no record in the law reports.
With the Canterbury Hall, and its brother the Oxford These and other prosecutions suggested the institution of
in Oxford Street a converted inn and coaching yard built a parliamentary inquiry, and a House of Commons select
and managed on the same lines by Mr Charles Morton, the committee was appointed in 1866, at the instigation of the
music halls were well started. They had imitators in every music halls and variety theatres. The committee devoted
direction some large, some small, and some with architectural much time to the inquiry, and examined many witnesses
pretensions, but all anxious to attract the public by cheap amongst the rest Lord Sydney, the lord chamberlain, who
prices and physical comforts not attainable at any of the had no personal objection to undertake the control of these
regular theatres. comparatively young places of amusement and recreation.
With the growth and improvement of these " Halls," the few Much of the evidence was directed against the Stage-play Act,
" "
Evans's as the difficulty appeared to be to define what was not a stage
old cellar singing-rooms gradually disappeared.
in Covent Garden was the last to go. Rhodes's, or the play. Lord Denman, Mr Justice Byles, and other eminent
Cyder Cellars in Maiden Lane, at the back of the Adelphi judges seemed to think that any song, action or recitation
Theatre; the Coal Hole, in the Strand, which now forms that excited the emotions might be pinned as a stage-play,
the site of Terry's Theatre; the Doctor Johnson, in Fleet and that the old definition " the representation of any action
"
Street (oddly enough, within the precincts of the City of London) by a person (or persons) acting, and not in the form of narration
disappeared one by one, and with them the compound material could be supported in the then state of the law in any of
"
for Thackeray's picture of The Cave of Harmony." This the higher courts. The variety theatres on this occasion were
" "
Cave," like Dickens's Old Curiosity Shop," was drawn encouraged by what had just occurred at the time in France.
" "
from the features of many places. To do the cellars a little Napoleon III., acting under the advice of M. Miche! Chevalier,
justice, they represented the manners of a past time heavy passed a decree known as La LibertS des IheStres, which
suppers and heavy drinks, and the freedom of their songs and fixed the status of the Parisian and other music halls. Operettas,
recitations was partly due to the fact that the audience and ballets of action, ballets, vaudevilles, pantomimes and all light
the actors were always composed of men. Thackeray clung pieces were allowed, and the managers were no longer legally
"
to Evans's to the last. It was his nightly chapel of confined to songs and acrobatic performances. The report
" of the select committee of 1866, signed by the chairman, Mr
ease to the adjoining Garrick Club. In its old age it became
decent, and ladies were admitted to a private gallery, behind (afterwards Viscount) Goschen, was in favour of granting the
screens and a convent grille. Before its death, and its revival variety theatres and music halls the privileges they asked for,
in another form as a sporting club, it admitted ladies both on which were those enjoyed in France and other countries.
and off the stage, and became an ordinary music hall. Parliamentary interference and the introduction of several
The rise and progress of the London music halls naturally private bills in the House of Commons, which came to nothing,
excited a good deal of attention and jealousy on the part of checked, if they did not altogether stop, the prosecutions. The
the regular theatres, and this was increased when the first variety theatres advanced in every direction in number and im-
Great Variety Theatre was opened in Leicester Square. portance. Ballets grew in splendour and coherency. The lighting
The building was the finest example of Moorish architec- and ventilation, the comfort and decoration of the various
" "
ture on a large scale ever erected in England. It was burnt palaces (as many of them were now called) improved,
down in the 'eighties, and the present theatre was built in and the public, as usual, were the gainers. Population in-
"
its place. Originally it was The Panopticon," a palace of creased, and the six millions of 1730 became forty millions
" and more. The same and only act (25 Geo. II. c. 36), adequate
recreative science," started under the most distinguished
direction on the old polytechnic institution lines, and with or inadequate, still remained. London is defined as' the
"
ample capital. It was a commercial failure, and after being administrative county of London," and its area the
" American zo-miles radius is mapped out. The Metropolitan Board
tried as an Circus," it was turned into a great
variety theatre, the greatest of its kind in Europe, under the of Works retired or was discharged, and the London County
name of the Alhambra Palace. Its founder was Mr E.T. Smith, Council was created and has taken its place. The London
the energetic theatrical manager, and its developer was Mr County Council, with extended power over structures and
Frederick Strange, who came full of spirit and money from structural alterations, acquired the licensing of variety theatres
the Crystal Palace. He produced in 1865 an ambitious ballet and music halls from the local magistrates (the Middlesex,
the Dagger Ballet from Auber's Enfant prodigue, which had Surrey, Tower Hamlets and other magistrates) within
"
been seen at Drury Lane Theatre in 1851, translated as Azae'l." the administrative county of London. The L. C. C. examine
The Alhambra was prosecuted in the superior courts for and enforce their powers. They have been advised that
infringing the Stage-play Act the 6 & 7 Viet. c. 68. The they can separate a music from a dancing licence if they like,
case is in the law reports Wigan v. Strange; the ostensible and that when they grant the united licence the dancing
plaintiffs being the well-known actors and managers Horace means the dancing of paid performers on a stage, and not the
Wigan and Benjamin Webster, supported by J. B. Buckstone, dancing of the audience on a platform or floor, as at the short-
and many other theatrical managers. A long trial before lived but elegant Cremorne Gardens, or an old-time
" Casino."
eminent judges, with eminent counsel on both sides, produced They are also advised that they can withhold licences, unless
a decision which was not very satisfactory, and far from final. the applicants agree not to apply for a drink licence to the local
It held that, as far as the entertainment went, according to magistrates sitting in brewster sessions, who still retain their
the evidence tendered, it was not a ballet representing any control over the liquor trade. Theatre licences are often with-
distinct story or coherent action, but it might have been a held unless a similar promise is made the drink authority in
" "
divertissement a term suggested in the course of the this case being the Excise, empowered by the Act of William IV.
trial. A short time after this a pantomime scene was pro- (5 &6 Will. IV. c. 39, s. 7).
duced at the same theatre, called Where's the Police? The spread of so-called " sketches " a kind of condensed
which had a clown, a pantaloon, a columbine and a harlequin, drama or farce in the variety theatres, and the action of the
with other familiar characters, a mob, a street and even the London County Council in trying to check the extension of
traditional red-hot poker. This inspired proceedings by the refreshment licences to these establishments, with other grounds
same plaintiffs before a police magistrate at Marlborough Street, of discontent on the part of managers (individuals or
"
limited
who inflicted the full penalties 20 a performance for 12 companies "), led to the appointment of a second select com-
performances, and costs. An appeal was made to the West- mittee of the House of Commons in 1892 and the production
minster quarter sessions, supported by Serjeant Ballantine of another blue-book. The same ground was gone over, and
and opposed by Mr Hardinge Giffard (afterwards Lord Chan- the same objections were raised against a licensing authority
9o MUSK MUSKEGON
which is elected by public votes, only exists for three years (see DEER). Both sexes are devoid of antler appendage;
before another election is due, and can give no guarantee for but in this the musk-deer agrees with one genus of true deer
the continuity of its judgments. The consensus of opinion (Hydrelaphus), and as in the latter, the upper canine teeth of
(as in 1866) was in favour of a state official, responsible to the males are long and sabre-like, projecting below the chin,
parliament like the Home Office or the Board of Trade the with the ends turned somewhat backwards. In size the musk-
preference being given to the lord chamberlain and his staff, deer is rather less than the European roe-deer, being about
who know much about theatres and theatrical business. The 20 in. high at the shoulder. Its limbs, especially the hinder
chairman of the committee was the Hon. David Plunkett (after- pair, are long; and the feet remarkable for the great develop-
wards Lord Rathmore), and the report in spirit was the same ment of the lateral pair of hoofs and for the freedom of motion
as the one of 1866. Three forms of licence were suggested:
one for theatres proper, one for music halls, and one for concert
rooms.
Though the rise and progress of the music hall and variety
theatre interest is one of the most extraordinary facts of the
last half of the igth century, the business has little or no
corporate organization, and there is nothing like a complete
registration of the various properties throughout the United
"
Kingdom. In London the London Entertainments Pro-
tection Association," which has the command of a weekly
paper called the Music Hall and Theatre Review, looks after
its interests. In London alone over five millions sterling of
capital is said to be invested in these enterprises, employing
80,000 persons of all grades, and entertaining during the year
about 25,000,000 people. The annual applications for music
licences in London alone are over 300. (J. HD.)
HUSK (Med. Lat. muscus, late Gr. tiba\<K, possibly Pers.
mushk, from Sansk. mushka, the scrotum), the name originally
given to a perfume obtained from the strong-smelling substance
secreted in a gland by the musk-deer (q.v.), and hence applied
to other animals, and also to plants, possessing a similar odour.
The variety which appears in commerce is a secretion of the The Musk-deer (Moschus moschiferus).
musk-deer; but the odour is also emitted by the musk-ox and
musk-rat of India and Europe, by the musk-duck (Biziura they all present, which must be of assistance to the animal
lobala) of West Australia, the musk-shrew, the musk-beetle in steadying it in its agile bounds among the crags of its native
(Calickroma moschala), the alligator of Central America, and by haunts. The ears are large, and the tail rudimentary. The
several other animals. In the vegetable kingdom it is present hair covering the body is long, coarse, and of a peculiarly
in the common musk (Mimulus moschatus), the musk- wood brittle and pith-like character, breaking easily; it is generally
of the Guianas and West Indies (Guarea, spp.), and in the seeds of a greyish-brown colour, sometimes inclined to yellowish-red,
of Hibiscus Abelmoschus (musk-seeds). To obtain the perfume and often variegated with lighter patches. The musk-deer
from the musk-deer the animal is killed and the gland com- inhabits the forest districts in the Himalaya as far west as
pletely removed, and dried, either in the sun, on a hot stone, Gilgit, however, at great elevations being rarely
always,
"
or by immersion in hot oil. It appears in commerce as musk found in summer below 8000 ft. above the sea-level, and ranging
"
in pod," the glands are entire, or as
i.e. musk in grain," in as high as the limits of the thickets of birch, rhododendron
which the perfume has been extracted from its receptacle. and juniper, among which it mostly conceals itself in the day-
Three kinds are recognized: (i) Tong-king, Chinese or Tibetan, time. The range extends into Tibet, Siberia and north-
imported from China, the most valued; (2) Assam or Nepal, western China; but the musk-deer of Kansu has been separated
and (3) Karbardin or Russian (Siberian), imported
less valuable; as a distinct species, under the name of M. sifanicus. Musk-
from Central Asia by way of Russia, the least valuable and deer are hardy, solitary and retiring animals, chiefly nocturnal
hardly admitting of adulteration. The Tong-king musk is in habits, and almost always found alone, rarely in pairs and
exported in small, gaudily decorated caddies with tin or lead never in herds. They are exceedingly active and surefooted,
linings, wherein the perfume is sealed down; it is now usually having perhaps no equal in traversing rocks and precipitous
transmitted direct by parcel post to the merchant. giound; and they feed on moss, grass, and leaves of the plants
Good musk is of a dark purplish colour, dry, smooth and which grow on the mountains.
unctuous to the touch, and bitter in taste. It dissolves in boiling Most mammals have certain portions of the skin specially
water to the extent of about one-half; alcohol takes up one-third modified and provided with glands secreting odorous and fatty
of the substance, and ether and chloroform dissolve still less. substances characteristic of the particular species. The special
A grain of musk will distinctly scent millions of cubic feet of gland of the musk-deer, which has made the animal so well
air without any appreciable loss of weight, and its scent is not known, and has proved the cause of unremitting persecution
only more penetrating but more persistent than that of any to its possessor, is found in the male only, and is a sac about
other known substance. In addition to its odoriferous principle, the size of a small orange, situated beneath the skin of the
it contains ammonia, cholesterin, fatty matter, a bitter resinous abdomen, the orifice being immediately in front of the preputial
substance, and other animal principles. As a material in aperture. The secretion with which the sac is filled is dark
perfumery it is of the first importance, its powerful and enduring brown or chocolate in colour, and when fresh of the consistence
odour giving strength and permanency to the vegetable essences, "
of moist gingerbread," but becoming dry and granular after
so that it is an ingredient in many compounded perfumes. keeping (see MUSK). The Kansu (M. sifanicus) differs from
Artificial musk is a synthetic product, haying a similar odour to the typical species in having longer ears, which are black on
natural musk. It was obtained by Baur in 1888
by condensing the outer surface.
toluene with isobutyl bromide in the presence of aluminium chloride,
and nitrating the product. It is a symtrinitrp-^-butyl toluene. MUSKEGON, a city and the county-seat of Muskegon
Many similar preparations have been made, and it appears that the county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Muskegon lake, an expansion
odour depends upon the symmetry of the three nitro groups. of Muskegon river near its mouth, about 4 m. from Lake
MUSK-DEER (Moschus moschiferus) ,
an aberrant member Michigan and 38 m. N.W. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890),
of the deer family constituting the sub-family Ceruidae Moschinae 22,702; (1900), 20,818, of whom 6236 were foreign-born;
MUSKET MUSK-OX 91
(igio census) 24,062. It is served by the Grand Trunk, the Muskogee. It includes the Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws,
the Pere Marquette, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, and the Seminoles and other tribes. Its territory was almost the
Grand Rapids, Grand Haven & Muskegon (electric) railways, whole state of Mississippi, western Tennessee, eastern Kentucky,
and by steamboat lines to Chicago, Milwaukee and other lake Alabama, most of Georgia, and later nearly all Florida. Musk-
ports. There are several summer resorts in the vicinity. As hogean traditions assign the west and north-west as the original
the gifts of Charles H. Hackley (1837-1905), a rich lumberman, home of the stock.. Its history begins in 1527, on the first
the city has an endowment fund to the public schools of about landing of the Spaniards on the Gulf Coast. The Muskhogean
$2,000,000; a manual training school, which has an endowment peoples were then settled agriculturists with an elaborate social
of $600,000, and is one of the few endowed public schools in organization, and living in villages, many of which were fortified
the United States; a public library, with an endowment of (see INDIANS: North American).
$275,000; a public hospital with a $600,000 endowment; and MUSKOGEE, a city and the county-seat of Muskogee county,
a poor fund endowment of $300,000. In Hackley Park there Oklahoma, U.S.A., about 3 m. W. by S. of the confluence of the
are statues of Lincoln and Farragut, and at the' Hackley School Verdigris, Neosho (or Grand) and Arkansas rivers, and about
there is a statue of McKinley; all three are by C. H. Niehaus. 130 m. E.N.E. of Oklahoma City. Pop. (1900), 4154; (1907),
The municipality owns and operates its water-works. Muskegon 14,418, of whom 4298 were negroes and 332 Indians; (1910), 25, 278.
lake is 5 m. long and 15 m. wide, with a depth of 30 to 40 ft., It is served by the St Louis & San Francisco, the Midland
and is ice-free throughout the year. The channel from Muskegon Valley, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Missouri,
lake to Lake Michigan has been improved to a depth of 20 ft. Oklahoma & Gulf railways. Fort Gibson (pop. in 1910, 1344),
and a width of 300 ft. by the Federal government since 1867. about 5 m. N.E. on the Neosho, near its confluence with the
From Muskegon are shipped large quantities of lumber and Arkansas, is the head of steam-boat navigation of the
market-garden produce, besides the numerous manufactures Arkansas; if is the site of a former government fort and of a
of the city. The total value of all factory products in 1904 national cemetery. Muskogee is the seat of Spaulding Institute
was $6,319,441 (39-6% more than in 1900), of which more (M.E. Church, South) and Nazareth Institute (Roman Catholic),
than one-sixth was the value of lumber. A trading post was and at Bacone, about 2 m. north-east, is Indian University
established here in 1812, but a permanent settlement was (Baptist, opened 1884). Muskogee is the commercial centre of
not established until 1834. Muskegon was laid out as a town an agricultural and stock-raising region, is surrounded by
in 1849, incorporated as a village in 1861, and chartered as a an oil and natural gas field of considerable extent producing
city in 1869. The name is probably derived from a Chippewa a high grade of petroleum, and has a large oil refinery, railway
"
word, maskeg or muskeg, meaning grassy bog," still used in shops (of the Midland Valley and the Missouri, Oklahoma &
that sense in north-western America. Gulf railways), cotton gins, cotton compresses, and cotton-seed
MUSKET (Fr. mousquet, Ger. Muskete, &c.), the term generally oil and flour mills. The municipality owns and operates the
applied to the firearm of the infantry soldier from about 1550 water-works, the water supply being drawn from the Neosho
up to and even beyond the universal adoption of rifled small river. Muskogee was founded about 1870, and became the
arms about 1850-1860. The word originally signified a male chief town of the Creek Nation (Muskogee) and the metropolis
sparrowhawk (Italian moschetto, derived perhaps ultimately and administrative centre of the former Indian Territory,
from Latin musca, a fly) and its application to the weapon may being the headquarters of the Union Indian Agency to the
be explained by the practice of naming firearms after birds Five Civilized Tribes, of the United States (Dawes) Commission
and beasts (cf. falcon, basilisk). Strictly speaking, the word to the Five Civilized Tribes, and of a Federal land office for
is inapplicable both to the early hand-guns and to the arquebuses the allotment of lands to the Creeks and Cherokees, and the
and calivers that superseded the hand-guns. The " musket " seat of a Federal Court. The city was chartered in 1898; its
proper, introduced into the Spanish army by the duke of Alva, area was enlarged in 1908, increasing its population.
was much heavier and more powerful than the arquebus. Its MUSK-OX, also known as musk-buffalo and musk-sheep,
bullet retained sufficient striking energy to stop a horse at 500 an Arctic American ruminant of the family Bovidae (q.v.),
and 600 yards from the muzzle. A writer in 1598 (quoted now representing a genus and sub-family by itself. Apparently
s.v. in the New English Dictionary) goes so far as to say the musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) has little or no near relation-
"
that One good musket may be accounted for two caUivers." ship to either the oxen or the sheep; and it is not improbable
Unlike the arquebus, it was fired from a rest, which the that its affinities are with the Asiatic takin (Budorcas) and the
" "
musketeer stuck into the ground in front of him. But extinct European Criotherium of the Pliocene of Samos. The
during the ryth century the musket in use was so far improved musky odour from which the animal takes its name does not
that the rest could be dispensed with (see GUN). The musket appear to be due to the secretion of any gland.
was a matchlock, weapons with other forms of lock being In height a bull musk-ox stands about 5 ft. at the shoulder.
distinguished as wheel-locks, firelocks, snaphances, &c., and The head is large and broad. The horns in old males have
soldiers were similarly distinguished as musketeers and fusiliers. extremely broad bases, meeting in the middle line, and covering
On the disuse, about 1690-1695, of this form of firing mechanism, the brow and crown of the head. They are directed at first
musket " was, in France at least, for a time discon-
"
the term downwards by the side of the face, and then turn upwards
"
tinued in favour of fusil," or flint-lock, which thenceforward and forwards, ending in the same plane as the eye. The basal
reigned supreme up to the introduction of a practicable per- half is dull white, oval in section and coarsely fibrous, the middle
cussion lock about 1830-1840. But the term " musket " part smooth, shining and round, and the tip black. In females
survived the thing it originally represented, and was currently and young males the horns are smaller, and their bases separated
used for the firelock (and afterwards for the percussion weapon). by a space in the middle of the forehead. The ears are small,
To-day it is generically used for military firearms anterior to erect, pointed, and nearly concealed in the hair. The space
the modern rifle. The original meaning of the word musketry between the nostrils and the upper lip is covered with short
has remained almost unaltered since 1600; it signifies the fire of close hair, as in sheep and goats, without any trace of the bare
" "
infantry small-arms (though for this rifle fire is now a far muzzle of oxen. The greater part of the animal is covered with
more usual term), and in particular the art of using them long brown hair, thick, matted and curly on the shoulders,
(see INFANTRY and RIFLE). Of the derivatives, the only one so as to give the appearance of a hump, but elsewhere straight
that is not self-explanatory is musketoon. This was a short, and hanging down that of the sides, back and haunches
large-bore musket somewhat of the blunderbuss type, originally reaching as far as the middle of the legs and entirely concealing
designed for the use of cavalry, but afterwards, in the i8th the very short tail. There is also a thick woolly under-fur,
century, chiefly a domestic or coachman's weapon. shed in summer, when the whole coat conies off in blanket-like
MUSKHOGEAN STOCK, a North American Indian stock. The masses. The hair on the lower jaw, throat and chest is long
name is from that of the chief tribe of the Creek confederacy, and straight, and hangs down like a beard or dewlap, though
MUSK-RAT
there is no loose fold of skin in this situation. The limbs are its describer refers the Klondike skull to a new jjenus, with the
stout and short, terminating in unsymmetrical hoofs, the external
title Symbos tyrrelli, the specific name being given in honour of its
discoverer. This, however, is not all, for Mr Osgood points out
being rounded, the internal pointed, and the sole partially that a skull discovered many years ago in the vicinity of Fort
covered with hair. Gibson, Oklahoma, and then named Ovwos or Bootherium cavifrons,
Musk-oxen at the present day are confined to the most evidently belongs to the same genus. That skull indicates a bull,
northern parts of North America, where they range over the
and the author suggests that it may possibly be the male of Symbos
tyrrelli, although the wide separation of the localities made him
rocky Barren Grounds between lat. 64 and the shores of the hesitate to accept this view. Perhaps it would have been better
Arctic Sea. Its southern range is gradually contracting, and had he done so, and taken the name Symbos cavifrons for the species.
it appears that it is no longer met with west of the Mackenzie A third type of musk-ox skull is, however, known from North
America, namely one from the celebrated Big-Bone Lick, Kentucky,
river, though formerly abundant as far as Eschscholtz Bay. on which the genus and species Bootherium bombifrons was estab-
lished, which differs from all the others by its small size, convex
forehead and rounded horn-cores, the latter being very widely
separated, and arising from the sides of the skull. This specimen
has been regarded as the female of Symbos cavifrons; but this
view, as pointed out by Mr Osgood, is almost certainly incorrect,
and it represents an entirely distinct form.
This, however, is not the whole of the past history of the musk-
ox group and in this connexion it may be mentioned that palaeonto-
;
logical discoveries are gradually making it evident that the poverty
of America in species of horned ruminants is to a great extent a
feature of the present day, and that in past times it possessed a
considerable number of representatives of this group. One of the
latest additions to the list is a large sheep-like animal from a cave
in California, apparently representing a new generic type, which
has been described by E. L. Furlong in the publications of the
University of California, under the name of Preptoceras sinclairi.
It is represented by a nearly complete skeleton, and has doubly-
curved horns and sheep-like teeth. In common with an allied
ruminant from the same district, previously described as Eucera-
therium, it seems probable that Preptoceras is related on the one
hand to the musk-ox, and on the other to the Asiatic takin, while
it is also supposed to have affinities with the sheep. If these
extinct forms really serve to connect the takin with the musk-ox,
The Musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus). their systematic importance will be very great. From a geographical
point of view nothing is more likely, for the takin forms a type
Northwards and eastwards it extends through the Parry confined to Eastern Asia (Tibet and Szechuen), and it would be
Islands and Grinnell Land to north Greenland, reaching on reasonable to expect that, like so many other peculiar forms from
the west coast as far south as Melville Bay; and it also occurs the same region, they should have representatives on the American
side of the Pacific. (R. L.*)
at Sabine Island on the east coast. The Greenland animal is
a distinct race (0. m. wardi), distinguished by white hair on MUSK-RAT, or MUSQUASH, the name of a large North Ameri-
the forehand; and it is suggested that the one from Grinnell can rat-like rodent mammal, technically known as Fiber zibe-
Land forms a third race. As proved by the discovery of fossil thicus, and belonging to the mouse-tribe (Muridae). Aquatic
in habits, this animal is related to the English water-rat and
remains, musk-oxen ranged during the Pleistocene period over
northern Siberia and the plains of Germany and France, their therefore included in the sub-family Microtinae (see VOLE). It
bones occurring in river-deposits along with those of the rein- is, however, of larger size, the head and body being about 1 2 in.
deer, mammoth, and woolly rhinoceros. They have also been
found in Pleistocene gravels in several parts of England, as
Maidenhead, Bromley, Freshfield near Bath, Barnwood near
Gloucester, and in the brick-earth of the Thames valley at Cray-
ford, Kent; while their remains also occur in Arctic America.
Musk-oxen are gregarious in habit, assembling in herds of
twenty or thirty head, or sometimes eighty or a hundred, in
which there are seldom more than two or three full-grown
males. They run with considerable speed, notwithstanding
the shortness of their legs. They feed chiefly on grass, but
also on moss, lichens and tender shoots of the willow and pine.
The female brings forth one young in the end of May or begin-
ning of June, after a gestation of nine months. The Swedish
expedition to Greenland in 1899 found musk-oxen in herds
of varying size some contained only a few individuals, and
in one case there were sixty-seven. The peculiar musky odour
was perceived from a distance of a hundred yards; but accord-
ing to Professor Nathoist there was no musky taste or smell in
the flesh if the carcase were cleaned immediately the animals
were killed.
Of late years musk-oxen have been exhibited alive in Europe; The Musk-rat (Fiber zibelhicus).
and two examples, one of which lived from 1899 till 1903, have
been brought to England. The somewhat imperfect skull of an in length and the tail but little less. It is rather a heavily-
extinct species of musk-ox from the gravels of the Klondike has built animal, with a broad head, no distinct neck, and short
enabled Mr W. H. Osgood to make an important addition to our limbs, the eyes are small, and the ears project very little beyond
knowledge of this remarkable type of ruminant. The skull, which the fur. The fore-limbs have four toes and a rudimentary
is probably that of a female, differs from the ordinary musk-ox by
the much smaller and shorter horn-cores, which are widely separ- thumb, all with claws; the hind limbs are larger, with five distinct
ated in the middle line of the skull, where there is a groove-like toes, united by short webs at their bases. The tail is laterally
depression running the whole length of the forehead. The sockets compressed, nearly naked, and scaly. The hair much resembles
of the eyes are also much less prominent, and the whole
fore-part of that of a beaver, but is shorter; it consists of a thick soft under-
the skull is proportionately longer. On account of these and other
differences (for which the reader may refer to the original paper, fur, interspersed with longer stiff, glistening hairs, which oveilie
published in vol. xlviii. of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections) and conceal the former, on the upper surface and sides of the
MUSK-SHREW MUSPRATT, J. 93
body. The general colour is dark umber-brown, almost black of the 1 7th century. Some of these Indian muslins were very
on the back and grey below. The tail and naked parts of the fine and costly. Among the specialties are Ami muslin, made
feet are black. The musky odour from which it derives its in the Madras presidency, and Dacca muslin, made at Dacca
name due to the secretion of a large gland situated in the
is in Bengal. Muslins of many kinds are now made in Europe
inguinal region, and present in both sexes. and America, and the name is applied to both plain and fancy
The ordinary musk-rat is one of several species of a genus cloths, and to printed calicoes of light texture. Swiss muslin
is a light variety, woven in stripes or figures, originally made
peculiar to America, where it is distributed in suitable localities
in the northern part of the continent, extending from the in Switzerland. Book muslin is made in Scotland from very
Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Rio Grande to the barren fine yarns. Mulls, jaconets, lenos, and other cloths exported
grounds bordering the Arctic seas. It lives on the shores of to the East and elsewhere are sometimes described as muslins.
lakes and rivers, swimming and diving with facility, feeding on Muslin used for dresses, blinds, curtains, &c.
is
the roots, stems and leaves of water-plants, or on fruits and HUSONIUS RUFUS, a Roman philosopher of the ist century
vegetables which grow near the margin of the streams it inhabits. A.D., was born in Etruria about A.D. 20-30. He fell under
Musk-rats are most active at night, spending the greater part the ban of Nero owing to his ethical teachings, and was exiled
of the day concealed in their burrows in the bank, which consist to the island of Gyarus on a trumped-up charge of participation
of a chamber with numerous passages, all of which open under in Piso's conspiracy. He returned under Galba, and was the
the surface of the water. For winter quarters they build more friend of Vitellius and Vespasian. It was he who dared to bring
elaborate houses of conical or dome-like form, composed of an accusation against P. Egnatius Celer (the Stoic philosopher
sedges, grasses and similar materials plastered together with whose evidence had condemned his patron and disciple Soranus)
mud. As their fur is an important article of commerce, large and who endeavoured to preach a doctrine of peace and good-
numbers are annually killed, being either trapped or speared will among the soldiers of Vespasian when they were advancing
at the mouths of their holes. (See also RODENTIA.) upon Rome. So highly was he esteemed in Rome that Vespasian
MUSK-SHREW, a name for any species of the genus Crocidura made an exception in his case when all other philosophers were
of the family Soricidae (see INSECTIVORA). The term is generally expelled from the city. As to his death, we know only that
used of the common grey musk-shrew (C. coerulea) of India. he was not living in the reign of Trajan. His philosophy,
Dr Dobson believed this to be a semi-domesticated variety of the which is in most respects identical with that of his pupil,
brown musk-shrew (C. murina), which he considered the original Epictetus, is marked by its strong practical tendency. Though
wild type. The head and body of a full-grown specimen measure he did not altogether neglect .logic and physics, he maintained
about 6 in.; the tail is rather more than half that length; and that virtue is the only real aim of men. This virtue is not a
bluish-grey is the usual colour of the fur, which is paler on the thing of precept and theory but a practical, living reality. It
under surface. Dr Blanford states that the story of wine or beer is identical with philosophy in the true sense of the word, and
becoming impregnated with a musky taint in consequence of the truly good man is also the true philosopher.
this shrew passing over the bottles, is less credited in India Suidas attributes numerous works to him, amongst others a
than formerly owing to the discovery that liquors bottled in number of letters to Apollonius of Tyana. The jetters are certainly
unauthentic; about the others there is no evidence. His views
Europe and exported to India are not liable to be thus tainted. were collected by Claudius (or Valerius) Pollio, who wrote 'Aro-
MUSLIM IBN AL-HAJJAJ, the Imam, the author of one of HvrjuovfbuaTa ^Aovtruviov TOV 4tXoff6<ov, from which Stobaeus
"
the two books of Mahommedan tradition called Sahih, sound," obtained his information. See Ritter and Preller 477, 488, 489;
was born at Nishapur at some uncertain date after A.D. 815 and Tacitus, Annals, xv. 71 and Histories, iii. 81 ; and compare articles
died there in 875. Like al-Bukhari (?..), of whom he was a
STOICS and EPICTETUS.
close and faithful friend, he gave himself to the collecting, sifting MUSPRATT, JAMES (1793-1886), British chemical manu-
and arranging of traditions, travelling for the purpose as far as facturer, was born in Dublin on the izth of August 1793. At
Egypt. It is plain that his sympathies were with the traditionalist the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to a wholesale druggist,
school or opposed to that which sought to build up the system but his was terminated in 1810 by a quarrel
apprenticeship
of canon law on a speculative basis (see MAHOMMEDAN LAW). with his master, and in 1812 he went to Spain to take part in
But though he was a student and friend of Ahmad ibn Hanbal the Peninsular War. Lack of influence prevented him from
(q.v.) he did not go in traditionalism to the length of some, and getting a commission in the cavalry, but he followed the British
he defended al-Bukhari when the latter was driven from Nishapur army on foot far into the interior, was laid up with fever at
for icfusing to admit that the utterance (lafz) of the Koran by Madrid, and, narrowly escaping capture by the French, succeeded
man was as uncreated as the Koran itself (see MAHOMMEDAN in making his way to Lisbon. There he joined the navy, but
RELIGION; and Patton's Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 32 sqq.). His great after taking part in the blockade of Brest he was led to desert,
collection of traditions is second in popularity only to that of through the harshness of the discipline on the second of the two
al-Bukhari, and is commonly regarded as more accurate and ships in which he served. Returning to Dublin about 1814,
reliable in details, especially names. His object was more to he began the manufacture of chemical products, such as hydro-
weed out illegitimate accretions than to furnish a traditional chloric and and turpentine, adding prussiate of
acetic acids
basis for a system of law. Therefore, though he arranged his potash a few years He also had in view the manufacture
later.
material according to such a system, he did not add guiding of alkali from common salt by the Leblanc process, but on the
rubrics, and he regularly brought together in one place the one hand he could not command the capital for the plant, and
different parallel versions of the same tradition. His book is on the other saw that Dublin was not well situated for the experi-
thus historically more useful, but legally less suggestive. His ment. In 1822 he went to Liverpool, which was at once a good
biographers give almost no details as to his life, and its early port and within easy reach of salt and coal, and took a lease of
part was probably very obscure. One gives a list of as many an abandoned glass-works on the bank of the canal in Vauxhall
as twenty works, but only his Sahih seems to have reached us. Road. At first he confined himself to prussiate of potash, until
See further, de Slane's transl. of ibn Khallikan, iii. 348 sqq, and of in 1823, when the tax on salt was reduced from 153. to 2s. a
Ibn Khaldun's Prolegomenes, ii. 470, 475; Goldziher, Muhammedan-
ische Studien, ii. 245 sqq., 255 sqq.; Brockelmann, Geschichle der bushel, his profits enabled him to erect lead-chambers for making
arab. Litt., \. 760 seq.; Macdonald, Development of Muslim Theology, the sulphuric acid necessary for the Leblanc process. In 1828
80, 147 seq.; Dhahabi Tadhkira (edit, of Hyderabad), ii. 165 sqq. he built works at St Helen's and in 1830 at Newton; at the latter
(D. B. MA.) place he was long harassed by litigation on account of the
MUSLIN (through Fr. mousseline from It. mussolino, diminu- damage done by the hydrochloric acid emitted from his factory,
tive of Mussolo, i.e. the town Mosul in Kurdistan) a light cotton and finally in 1850 he left it and started new works at Widnes
cloth said to have been first made at Mosul, a city of Mesopo- and Flint. In 1834-1835, in conjunction with Charles Tennant,
tamia. Muslins have been largely made in various parts of he purchased sulphur mines in Sicily, to provide the raw material
India, whence they were imported to England towards the end for his sulphuric acid; but on the imposition of the Neapolitan
94 MUSSCHENBROEK MUSSEL
government of a prohibitive duty on sulphur Muspratt found horny threads by which the sea mussel (like many other Lamelli-
a substitute in iron pyrites, which was thus introduced as the branch or bivalve molluscs) fixes itself to stones, rocks or
raw material for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. He was submerged wood, but is not a permanent means of attachment,
always anxious to employ the best scientific advice available since it can be discarded by the animal, which, after a certain
and to try every novelty that promised advantage. He was amount of locomotion, again fixes itself by new secretion of
a close friend of Liebig, whose mineral manures were compounded byssus from the foot. Such movement is more frequent in
at his works. He died at Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool, on the young mussels than in the full-grown. Mytilus possesses no
4th of May 1886. After his retirement in 1857 his business was siphonal tube-like productions of the margin of the mantle-skirt,
continued in the hands of four of his ten children. nor any notching of the same, representative of the siphons
His eldest son, JAMES SHERIDAN MUSPRATT (1821-1871), which are found in its fresh-water ally, the Dreissensia poly-
studied chemistry under Thomas Graham at Glasgow and morpha.
London and under Liebig at Giessen, and in 1848 founded the Mytilus edulis is an exceedingly abundant and widely distri-
Liverpool College of Chemistry, an institution for training buted form. It occurs on both sides of the northern Atlantic
chemists, of which he also acted as director. From 1854 to and in the Mediterranean basin. It presents varieties of form
1860 he was occupied in preparing a dictionary of Chemistry . . . and colour according to the depth of water and other circum-
as applied and relating to the Arts and Manufactures, which stances of its habitat. Usually it is found on the British coast
was translated into German and Russian, and he published a encrusting rocks exposed at low tides, or on the flat surfaces
translation of Plattner's treatise on the blow-pipe in 1845, and formed by sandbanks overlying clay, the latter kind of colonies
"
Outlines of Analysis in 1849. His original work included a being known locally as scalps." Under these conditions it
research on the sulphites (1845), and the preparation of toluidine forms continuous masses of individuals closely packed together,
and nitro-aniline in 1845-1846 with A. W. Hofmann. sometimes extending over many acres of surface and numbering
MUSSCHENBROEK, PIETER VAN (1692-1761), Dutch millions. The readiness with which the young Mytilus attaches
natural philosopher, was born on the i4th of March 1692 at itself to wicker-work is made the means of artificially cultivating
Leiden, where his father Johann Joosten van Musschenbroek and securing these molluscs for the market both in the Bay of
(1660-1707) was a maker of physical apparatus. He studied Kiel in North Germany and at the mouth of the Somme and other
at the university of his native city, where he was a pupil and spots on the coast of France.
friend of W. J. s'G. Gravesande. Graduating in 1715 with a Natural scalps are subject to extreme vicissitudes: an area
dissertation, De aeris praesenlia in humoribus animdlium, Mus- of many acres may be destroyed by a local change of current
schenbroek was appointed professor at Duisburg in 1719. In producing a deposit of sand or shingle over the scalp, or by
1723 he was promoted to the chair of natural philosophy and exposure to frost at low tide in winter, or by accumulation of
mathematics at Utrecht. In 1731 he declined an invitation decomposing vegetable matter. The chief localities of natural
to Copenhagen, and was promoted in consequence to the chair scalps on the British coast are Morecambe Bay in Lancashire
of astronomy at Utrecht in 1732. The attempt of George II. and the flat eastern shores, especially that of the Wash of Lincoln,
of England in 1737 to attract him to the newly-established and similar shallow bays. These scalps are in some cases in
university of Gottingen was also unsuccessful. At length, the hands of private owners, and the Fisheries Department has
however, the claims of his native city overcame his resolution made arrangements by which some local authorities, e.g. the
to remain at Utrecht, and he accepted the mathematical chair corporation of Boston, can lease layings to individuals for the
at Leiden in 1739, where, declining all offers from abroad, he purpose of artificial cultivation.
remained till his death on the 9th of September 1761. The sea mussel is scarcely inferior in commercial value to the
His first important production was Epitome elementorum physico- oyster. In 1873 the value of mussels exported from Antwerp
malhematicorum (i2mo, Leiden, 1726) a work which was after- alone to Paris to be used as human food was 280,000. In Britain
wards gradually altered as it passed through several editions, and their chief consumption is in the deep-sea line fishery, where they
which appeared at length (posthumously, ed. by Johann Lulofs, are held to be the most effective of all baits. Twenty-eight boats
one of his colleagues as Leiden) in 1762, under the title of Introductio engaged in haddock-fishing at Eyemouth used between October
ad philosophiam naturalem. The Physicae experimentales et geo- 1882 and May 1883 920 tons of mussels (about 47,000,000 in-
metricae dissertaliones (1729) threw new light on magnetism, capillary dividuals), costing nearly 1800 to the fishermen, about one-half of
attraction, and the cohesion of bodies. A Latin edition with notes
which sum was expended on the carriage of the mussels. The
(1731) of the Italian work Saggi di naturali esperienze fatte nell- quantity of mussels landed on Scottish coasts has decreased in
I'Accademia del Cimento contained among many other investigations recent years owing to the decline in the line fisheries. In 1896
a description of a new instrument, the pyrometer, which Musschen- the quantity was over 243,000 cwts., valued at 14,950; in 1902 it
broek had invented, and of several experiments which he had made was only 95,663 cwts., valued at 5976. In the statistics for England
on the expansion of bodies by heat. Musschenbroek was also the and Wales mussels are not separately distinguished. Many thou-
author of Elementa physica (8vo, 1729), and his name is associated sand tons of mussels are wastefully employed as manure by the
with the invention of the Leyden jar (q.v.). farmers on lands adjoining scalp-producing coasts, as in Lancashire
and Norfolk, three half-pence a bushel being the price quoted in
MUSSEL (O. Eng. muscle, Lat. musculus, diminutive of mus, such cases. It is a curious fact, illustrative of the ignorant pro-
mouse, applied to small sea fish and mussels), a term applied cedure and arbitrary fashions of fisher-folk, that on the Atlantic
seaboard of the United States the sea mussel, Mytilus edulis, though
in England to two families of Lamellibranch Molluscs the
common,, is not used as bait nor as food. Instead, the soft clam,
marine Mytilacea, of which. the edible mussel, Mytilus edulis, Mya arenaria, a Lamellibranch not used by English or Norwegian
is the representative; and the fresh- water Unionidae, of which fishermen, though abundant on their shores, is employed as bait
the river mussel, Unio pictorum, and the swan mussel, Anodonta by the fishermen to the extent of ij million bushels per annum,
valued at 120,000. At the mouth of the river Conway in North
cygnea, are the common British examples. It is not obvious Wales the sea mussel is crushed in large quantities in order to
why these fresh-water forms have been associated popularly extract pearls of an inferior quality which are occasionally found
with the Mytilacea under the name mussel, unless it be on in these as in other Lamellibranch molluscs (Gwyn Jeffreys).
account of the frequently very dark colour of their shells. They Mytilus edulis is considered of fair size for eating when it is
2 in. in length, which size is attained in three years after the spat
are somewhat remote from the sea mussels in structure, and have
or young mussel has fixed itself. Under favourable circumstances
not even a common economic importance. it will grow much
jarger than this, specimens being
recorded of
The sea mussel (Mylilus edulis) belongs to the second order 9 in. in length. It is very tolerant of fresh water, fattening best,
of the class Lamellibranchia (<?..), namely the Filibranchia, as does the oyster, in water of density 1014 (the density of the water
distinguished by the comparatively free condition of the gill-
of the North Sea being 1026). Experiments made by removing
mussels from salt water to brackish, and finally to quite fresh
filaments, which, whilst adhering to one another to form gill- water show that it is even more tolerant of fresh water than the
plates, are yet not fused to one another by concrescence. It is oyster; of thirty mussels so transferred all were alive after fifteen
also remarkable' for the small size of its foot and the large days. Mytilus edulis is occasionally poisonous, owing to conditions
not satisfactorily determined.
development of two glands in the foot the byssus-forming and
the byssus-cementing glands. The byssus is a collection of The fresh-water Mussels, Anodonta cygnea, Unio pictorum,
MUSSELBURGH MUSSET, ALFRED DE 95
and Unio margaritiferus belong to the order Eulamellibranchia works. The fishery is confined to Fisherrow, where there is
of Lamellibranch Molluscs, in which the anterior and posterior a good harbour. The Links are the scene every year of the
adductor muscles are equally developed. An account of the Edinburgh race meetings and of those of the Royal Caledonian
anatomy of Anodon is given in the article LAMELLIBRANCHIA. Hunt which are held every third year. Archery contests also
Unio differs in no important point from Anodonta in internal take place at intervals under the auspices of the Royal Company
structure. The family Unionidae, to which these genera belong, of Archers. Most of the charitable institutions for instance,
is of world-wide distribution, and its species occur only in ponds the convalescent home, fever hospital, home for girls and Red
and rivers. A vast number of species arranged in several genera House home are situated at Inveresk, about ij m. up the Esk.
and sub-genera have been distinguished, but in the British About i m. south-east is the site of the battle of Pinkie,
Islands the three species above named are the only claimants to and 25 m. south-east, on the verge of Haddingtonshire, is
the title of "fresh- water mussel." Carberry Hill, where Mary surrendered to the lords of the
Anodonta cygnea, the Pond Mussel or Swan Mussel, appears to be Congregation in 1567, the spot being still known as Queen
entirely without economic importance. Unio pictorum, the common Mary's Mount. Musselburgh joins with Leith and Portobello
river mussel (Thames), appears to owe its name to the fact that the
(the Leith Burghs) in returning one member to parliament.
shells were used at one time for holding water-colour paints as now
shells of this species and of the sea mussel are used for holding MUSSET, LOUIS CHARLES ALFRED DE (1810-1857), French
gold and silver paint sold by artists' colourmen, but it has no other poet, play- writer and novelist, was born on the nth of December
economic value. Unio margaritiferus, the pearl mussel, was at 1810 in a house in the middle of old Paris, near the H&tel Cluny.
one time of considerable importance as a source of pearls, and the His father, Victor de Musset, who traced his descent back as far
pearl mussel fishery is to this day carried on under peculiar state as 1 140, held several ministerial posts of importance. He brought
regulations in Sweden and Saxony, and other parts of the continent.
In Scotland and Ireland the pearl mussel fishery was also of im- out an edition of J. J. Rousseau's works in 1821, and followed
portance, but has altogether dwindled into insignificance since the it soon after with a volume on the Genevan's life and writing.
opening up of commercial intercourse with the East and with the In Alfred de Mussel's childhood there were various things
islands of the Pacific Ocean, whence finer and more abundant
which fostered his imaginative power. He and his brother
pearls than those of Unio margaritiferus are derived.
In the last forty years of the 1 8th century pearls were exported Paul (born 1804, died 1880), who afterwards wrote a biography
from the Scotch fisheries to Paris to the value of 100,000; round of Alfred, delighted in reading old romances together, and in
pearls, the size of a pea, perfect in every respect, were worth 3 assuming the characters of the heroes in those romances. But
or 4. The pearl mussel was formerly used as bait in the Aberdeen
it was not until about 1826 that Musset gave any definite sign of
cod fishery.
LITERATURE. For an account of the anatomy of Mytilus edulis the mental force which afterwards distinguished him. In the
the reader is referred to the treatise by Sabatier on that subject summer of 1827 he won the second prize (at the College Henri
(Paris, 1875). The essay by Charles Harding on Molluscs used IV.) by an essay on "The Origin of our Feelings." In 1828,
for Food or Bait, published by the committee of the London Inter- when Eugene Scribe, Joseph Duveyrier, who under the name of
national Fisheries Exhibition (1883), may be consulted as to the
economic questions connected with the sea mussel. The develop- Melesville, was a prolific playwriter and sometimes collaborator
ment of this species is described by Wilson in Fifth Ann. Rep. with Scribe, and others of note were in the habit of coming
Scot. Fish. Board (1887). (E. R. L.; J. T. C.) to Mme de Mussel's house at Auteuil, where drawing-room
MUSSELBURGH, a municipal and police burgh of Midlothian, plays and charades were constantly given, Musset, excited
Scotland, 55 m. E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. by this companionship, wrote his first poem. This, to judge
Pop. (1901), 11,711. The burgh, which stretches for a mile from the exlracts preserved, was neither betler nor worse lhan
along the south shore of the Firth of Forth, is intersected by the much olher work of clever boys who may or may nol aflerwards
Esk and embraces the village of Fisherrow on the left bank of turn out lo be possessed of genius. He took up the study of
the river. Its original name is said to have been Eskmouth, its law, threw it over for that of medicine, which he could not
present one being derived from a bed of mussels at the mouth of endure, and ended by adopting no set profession. Shortly
the river. While preserving most of the ancient features of its altempt in verse he was taken by Paul Foucher
afler his firsl
High Street, the town has tended to become a suburb of the lo Viclor Hugo's house, where he mel such men as Alfred de
capital, its fine beach and golf course hastening this development. Vigny, Prosper Merimee, Charles Nodier and Sainle-Beuve. It
The public buildings include the town-hall (dating"from 1762 and was under Hugo's influence, no doubl, lhal he composed a
altered in 1876), the tolbooth (1590), and the grammar school. play. The scene was laid in Spain, and some lines, showing
Loretto School, one of the foremost public schools in Scotland, a marked advance upon his first effort, are preserved. In
occupies the site of the chapel of Our Lady of Loretto, which 1828, when the war between Ihe classical and Ihe romanlic
was founded in 1534 by Thomas Duthie, a hermit from Mt school of lileralure was growing daily more serious and exciling,
Sinai. This was the favourite shrine of Mary of Guise, who Mussel had published some verses in a counlry newspaper,
betook herself hither at momentous crises in her history. The and boldly reciled some of his work lo Sainle-Beuve, who
"
ist earl of Hertford destroyed it in 1544, and after it was rebuilt wrole of il to a friend, There is amongst us a boy full of genius."
the Reformers demolished it again, some of its stones being At eighteen years old Mussel produced a Iranslation, with
"
used in erecting the tolbooth. In the west end of the town is addilions of his own, of De Quincey's Opium-Ealer." This
Pinkie House, formerly a seat of the abbot of Dunfermline, was published by Mame, allracled no allenlion, and has been
but transformed in 1613 by Lord Seton. It is a fine example long oul of prinl. His firsl original volume was published in
of a Jacobean mansion, with a beautiful fountain in the 1829 under Ihe name of Contes d'Espagne et d'ltalie, had an
middle of the court-yard. The painted gallery, with an elabor- immediale and slriking success, provoked biller opposition,
ate ceiling, too ft. long, was utilized as a hospital after the and produced many unworthy imilalions. This volume con-
battle of Pinkie in 1547. Prince Charles Edward slept in it lained, along wilh far belter and more importanl Ihings, a
the night following the fight at Prestonpans (1745). Near fanlaslic parody in verse on cerlain produclions of Ihe romanlic
the tolbooth stands the market cross, a stone column with school, which made a deal of noise al Ihe time. This was the
" "
a unicorn on the top supporting the burgh arms. At the famous Ballade a la lune with its recurring comparison of
west end of High Street is a statue of David Macbeth the moon shining above a steeple to the dot over an i. It
Moir (" Delta," 1798-1851), Musselburgh's most famous son. was, lo Mussel's delight, taken quite seriously by many worthy
The antiquity of the town is placed beyond doubt by the folk.
Roman bridge across the Esk and the Roman remains found In December 1830 Musset was jusl Iwenly years old, and was
in its vicinity. The which carries the high road
chief bridge, already conscious of lhat curious double exislence wilhin him
from Edinburgh to Berwick, was built by John Rennie in so frequenlly symbolized in his plays in Oclave and Clio
1807. The principal industries include paper-making, brewing, for inslance (in Les Caprices de Marianne), who also sland for
the making of nets and twine, bricks, tilesand pottery, Ihe two camps, Ihe men of mailer and the men of feeling
tanning and oil-refining, besides saltworks and seed-crushing which he has elsewhere described as characlerislic of his
96 MUSSET, ALFRED DE
generation. At this date his piece the Nuit vinilienne was pro- scenes for the swift destruction of the end is very marked.
duced by Harel, manager of the Odeon. The exact causes of its But Les Caprices de Marianne is perhaps for this particular
failure might now be far to seek; unlucky stage accidents had purpose of illuslralion Ihe mosl compacl and most typical of
something to do with it, but there seems reason to believe that all.
there was a strongly organized opposition. However this may The appearance of Les Caprices de Marianne in the Revue
"
be, the result was disastrous to the French stage; for it put a (1833) was followed by thai of Rolla," a symplom of Ihe
complete damper on the one poet who, as he afterwards showed maladie du siecle. Rolla, for all Ihe smack which is nol lo
both in theoretical and in practical writings, had the fine insight be denied of Werlherism, has yel a decided individually.
which took in at a glance the merits and defects both of the The poem was wrilten at Ihe beginning of Mussel's liaison with
classical and of the romantic schools. Thus he was strong and George Sand, and in December 1833 Mussel slarled on Ihe un-
keen to weld together the merits of both schools in a new method forlunale journey lo Ilaly. Il was well known lhal Ihe ruplure
which, but for the fact that there has been no successor to grasp of what was for a lime a mosl passionale altachment had a
the wand which its originator wielded, might well be called the disastrous effect upon Musset, and brought out Ihe weakest
school of Mussel. The serious effect produced upon Musset side of his moral character. He was at first absolulely and
by the failure of his Nuit vSnitienne is curiously illustrative of complelely slruck down by Ihe blow. But it was not so well
his character. A man of greater strength and with equal belief known unlil Paul de Musset pointed it out lhal Ihe passion
in his own genius might have gone on appealing to the public expressed in the Nuit de decembre, written aboul Iwelve
until he compelled them to hear him. Musset gave up the monlhs afler the journey to Italy, referred nol lo George
attempt in disgust, and waited until the public were eager to Sand bul lo anolher and quile a differenl woman. The story
hear him without any invitation on his part. In the case of of the Italian journey and its results are told under the guise
his finest plays this did not happen until after his death; but of fiction from two points of view in the two volumes called
long before that he was fully recognized as a poet of the first respectively Elle et lui by George Sand, and Lui et elle by
rank and as an extraordinary master of character and language Paul de Mussel. As to the permanenl effecl on Alfred de
in prose writing. In his complete disgust with the stage after Mussel, whose irresponsible gaiely was killed by Ihe breaking
the failure above referred to there was no doubt something of off of Ihe connexion, there can be no doubl.
a not ignoble pride, but there was something also of weakness During Mussel's absence in Italy Fantasia was published in Ihe
of a kind of weakness out of which it must be said sprang some Revue, Lorenzaccio is said lo have been written al Venice, and
of his most exquisite work, some of the poems which could only nol long afler his relurn On ne badine pas avec I'amour was written
have been written by a man who imagined himself the crushed and published in the Revue. In 1835 he produced Lucie, La Nuit
victim of difficulties which were old enough in the experience of de mai, La Ouenouille de Barberine, Le Chandelier, La Loi sur la
mankind, though for the moment new and strange to him. presse, La Nuit de decembre, and La Confession d'un enfant du
Musset now belonged, in a not very whole-hearted fashion, siecle, wherein is conlained what is probably a Irue accounl of
"
to the Cenacle," but the connexion came to an end in 1832. Mussel's relations with George Sand. The Confession is excep-
In 1833 he published the volume called Un Spectacle dans un tionally inleresling as exhibiling Ihe poel's frame of mind al
fauteuil. One of the most striking pieces in this " Namouna " Ihe lime, and Ihe approach to a revulsion from the Bonaparlisl
was written at the publisher's request to fill up some empty ideas amid which he had been brought up in his childhood. To
space; and this fact is noteworthy when taken in conjunction Ihe supreme power of Napoleon he in Ihis work allribuled lhal
"
with the horror which Musset afterwards so often expressed moral sickness of Ihe lime which he described. One man,"
" " "
of doing anything like writing to order of writing, indeed, he wrole, absorbed the whole life of Europe; the resl of the
in any way or at any moment except when the inspiration human race slruggled lo fill Iheir lungs wilh Ihe air lhat he had
"
or the fancy happened to seize him. The success of the breathed." When the emperor fell, a ruined world was a
volume seemed to be small in comparison with that of his Conies resting-place for a generation weighled with care." The Con-
d'Espagne, but it led indirectly to Mussel's being engaged as a fession is further importanl, aparl from ils high literary merit,
contributor to the Revue des deux mondes. In this he published, as exhibiting in many passages the poet's lendency lo shun or
in April 1833, Andre del Sarto, and he followed this six weeks wildly prolest against all lhal is disagreeable or difficull in human
later with Les Caprices de Marianne. This play afterwards took life a lendency lo which, however, much of his finesl work was
and holds rank as one of the classical pieces in the repertory due. To 1836 belong the Nuit d'aout, the Lettre a Lamartine,
of the Theatre Franc,ais. Afler Ihe retirement in 1887 from the Stances a la Malibran, the comedy // ne faut jurer de rien,
the stage of the brilliant actor Delaunay the piece dropped and the beginning of the brillianl letters of Dupuis and Colonel
out of the Francais repertory until it was replaced on the on romanticism. II ne faut jurer de rien is as lypical of Mussel's
stage by M. Jules Claretie, administrator-general of the Comedie comedy work as is Les Caprices de Marianne of Ihe work in which
Franqaise, on the igth of January 1906. Les Caprices de a lerrible falalily underlies Ihe brillianl dialogue and keen
Marianne affords a fine illuslration of the method referred to polished characterization. In 1837 was published Un
Caprice,
above, a method of which Musset gave somelhing like a definite which afterwards found its way to the Paris stage by a curious
explanation five years later. This explanation was also pub- road. Mme AUan-Despreaux, the aclress, heard of il in
lished in the Revue des deux mondes, and il sel forth thai Ihe Si Pelersburg as a Russian piece. On asking for a French
war belween Ihe classical and Ihe romantic schools could never Iranslation of the play she received the volume Comedies et
end in a definite victory for either school, nor was it desirable proverbes reprinted from the Revue des deux mondes. In 1837
" "
that it should so end. It was time," Musset said, for a third appeared also some of the Nouvelks. In 1839 Mussel began a
school which should unite the merits of each." And in Les romance called Le Poete dechu, of which the existing fragments
Caprices de Marianne these merits are most curiously and happily are full of passion and insighl. In 1840 he passed through a
combined. It has perhaps more of the Shakespearian qualily period of feeling lhat the public did not recognize his genius
Ihe quality of artfully mingling Ihe terrible, the grotesque, and as, indeed, they did nol and wrole a very short but very
the high comedy lones which exisls more or less in all Mussel's striking series of reflections headed wilh Ihe words "A Irente
long and more serious plays, than is found in any other of these. ans," which Paul de Musset published in his Life. In 1841
The piece is called a comedy, and il owes Ihis litle to its extra- there came out in Ihe Revue de Paris Mussel's " Le Rhin alle-
ordinary brilliance of dialogue, truth of characterization, and mand," an answer to Becker's poem which appeared in the
swiftness in action, under which there is ever lalenl a sense of Revue des deux mondes. This fine war-song made a great deal
impending fale. Many of the qualilies indicated are found in of noise, and broughl lo the poet quanlilies of challenges from
others of Mussel's dramalic works and nolably in On ne badine German officers. Belween Ihis dale and 1845 he wrole compara-
" "
pas avec I'amour, where the skill in insensibly preparing his lively little. In the lasl named year Ihe charming proverbe
hearers or readers through a succession of dazzling comedy // faut qu'une porte soil ouverte ou fermee appeared. In 1847
MUSSOORIE MUSTARD 97
Un Caprice was produced at the Theatre Francais, and the
" "
entered the public service at an early age and rose rapidly,
employment in it of such a word as rebonsoir shocked some becoming ambassador at Paris in 1834 and in London 1836,
of the old school. But the success of the piece was immediate minister for foreign affairs 1837, again ambassador in London
and marked. It increased Mussel's reputation with the public 1838, and in Paris 1841. Appointed vali of Adrianople in
in a degree out of proportion to its intrinsic importance; 1843, he returned as ambassador to Paris in the same year.
and indeed freed him from the burden of depression caused by Between 1845 and 1857 he was six times grand vizier. One of
want of appreciation. In 1848 // ne faut jurer de rien was the greatest and most brilliant statesmen of his time, thoroughly
played at the Theatre Francais and the Chandelier at the Theatre acquainted with European politics, and well versed in affairs,
Historique. Between this date and 1851 Bettine was pro-
. he was a convinced if somewhat too ardent partisan of reform
duced on the stage and Carmosine written; and between this and the principal author of the legislative remodelling of Turkish
time and the date of his death, from an affection of the heart, administrative methods known as the Tanzimat. His ability
on the 2nd of May 1857, the poet produced no large work of was recognized alike by friend and by foe. In the settlement
importance. of the Egyptian question in 1840, and during the Crimean War
Alfred de Musset now holds the place which Sainte-Beuve and the ensuing peace negotiations, he rendered valuable services
first accorded, then denied, and then again accorded to him to the state.
as a poet of the first rank. He had genius, though not genius MUSTANG, the wild or semi-wild horse of the prairies of
of that strongest kind which its possessor can always keep in America, the descendant of the horses imported by the Spaniards
check. His own character worked both for and against his after the conquest in the i6th century (see HORSE). The word
success as a writer. He inspired a strong personal affection in appears to be due to two Spanish words, meslrenco, or mostrenco,
" "
his contemporaries. His very weakness and his own conscious- defined by Minsheu (1599) as a strayer. Mestrenco (now
"
ness of it produced such beautiful work as, to take one instance, mesteno) means wild, having no master," and appears to be
the Nuit d'oclobre. His Nouvellesaxe extraordinarily brilliant; derived from mesta, a grazier-association, which among other
hispoems are charged with passion, fancy and fine satiric power; functions appropriated any wild cattle found with the herds.
in his plays he hit upon a method of his own, in which no one MUSTARD. The varieties of mustard-seed of commerce are
has dared or availed to follow him with any closeness. He produced from several species of the genus Brassica (a member
was one of the first, most original, and in the end most successful of the natural order Cruciferae). Of these the principal are the
"
of the first-rate writers included in the phrase the 1830 period." black or brown mustard, Brassica nigra (Sinapis nigra), the
The wilder side of his life has probably been exaggerated; and white mustard, Brassica alba, and the Sarepta mustard, B.
his brother Paul de Musset has given in his Biographic a striking juncea. Both the white and black mustards are cultivated
testimony to the finer side of his character. In the later years to some extent in various parts of England. The white is to
of his life Musset was elected, not without opposition, a member be found in every garden as a salad plant; but it has come into
of the French Academy. Besides the works above referred to, increasing favour as a forage crop for sheep, and as a green
the Nouvelles et conies and the (Euvres posthumes, in which manure, for which purpose it is ploughed down when about to
there is much of interest concerning the great tragic actress come into flower. The black mustard is grown solely for its
Rachel, should be specially mentioned. seeds, which yield the well-known condiment. The name of the
The biography of Alfred de Musset by his brother Paul, partial condiment was in French mouslarde, mod. moutarde, as being made
as it naturally is, is of great value. Alfred de Musset has afforded of the seeds of the plant pounded and mixed with must (Lat.
matter for many appreciations, and among these in English may be
mentioned the sketch (1890) of C. F. Oliphant and the essay (1855) mustum, i.e. unf ermented wine) .
l
The word was thus transferred
of F. T. Palgrave. See also the monograph by Arvfede Barme to the plant itself. When white mustard is cultivated for its
" "
(Madame Vincens) in the Grands ecrivains francais series. herbage it is sown usually in July or August, after some early
Musset 's correspondence with George Sand was published intact for crop has been removed. The land being brought into a fine
the first time in 1904.
A monument to Alfred de Musset by Antonin Merci6, presented tilth, the seed, at the rate of 12 Ib per acre, is sown broadcast,
by M. Osiris, and erected on the Place du Theatre Francais, was
and covered in the way recommended for clover seeds. In
" "
duly inaugurated on the 24th of February 1906. The ceremony about six weeks it is ready either for feeding off by sheep or for
took place in the vestibule of the theatre, where speeches were
ploughing down as a preparative for wheat or barley. White
delivered by Jules Claretie, Frangois Coppe'e and others, and mustard is not fastidious in regard to soil. When grown for
Mounet-Sully recited a poem, written for the occasion by Maurice
(W. H. P.) a seed crop it is treated in the way about to be described for the
Magre.
other variety. For this purpose either kind requires a fertile
MUSSOORIE, or MASTJRI, a town and sanitarium of British
soil, as it is an exhausting crop. The seed is sown in April,
India, in the Dehra Dun district of the United Provinces, about
is once hoed in May, and requires no further culture. As soon as
6600 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901), 6461, rising to 15,000 in the
the pods have assumed a brown colour the crop is reaped and
hot season. It stands on a ridge of one of the lower Himalayan
laid down in handfuls, which lie until dry enough for thrashing
ranges, amid beautiful mountain scenery, and forms with
or stacking. In removing it from the ground it must be handled
Naini Tal the chief summer resort for European residents in the
The view from Mussoorie with great care, and carried to the thrashing-floor or stack on
plains of the United Provinces.
over the valley of the Dun and across the Siwalik hills to the cloths, to avoid the loss of seed. The price depends much on
its being saved in dry weather, as the quality suffers much
plains is very beautiful, as also is the view towards the north,
which is bounded by the peaks of the snowy range. Mussoorie from wet. This great evil attends its growth, that the seeds
which are unavoidably shed in harvesting the crop remain in the
practically forms one station with Landaur, the convalescent
soil, and stock it permanently with what proves a pestilent weed
depot for European troops, 7362 ft. above the sea. Some
distance off, on the road to Simla, is the cantonment of Chakrata, amongst future crops.
White mustard is used as a small salad generally accompanied
7300 ft. It was formerly approached by road from Saharanpur
in the plains, 58 m. distant, but in 1900 the railway was opened by garden cress while still in the seed leaf. To keep up a
to Dehra, 21 m. by road. There are numerous schools for supply the seed should be sown every week or ten days. The
Europeans, including St George's college, the Philander-Smith sowings in the open ground may be made from March till October,
earlier or later according to the season. The ground should
institute, the Oak Grove school of the East Indian railway, and
several Church of England and Roman Catholic institutions, be light and rich, and the situation warm and sheltered. Sow
together with a cathedral of the latter faith. The first brewery thickly in rows 6 in. apart, and slightly cover the seed, pressing
in India was established here in 1850. The town has botanical the surface smooth with the back of the spade. When gathering
the crop, cut the young plants off even with the ground, or pull
gardens, and is the summer headquarters of the Trigonometrical 1
There were two kinds of mustum, one the best for keeping,
Survey.
produced after the first treading of the grapes, and called mustum
MUSTAFA RESHID PASHA (1800-1858), Turkish statesman lixivum; the other, mustum tortivum, obtained from the mass of
and diplomatist, was born at Constantinople in 1800. He trodden grapes by the wine-press, was used for inferior purposes.
xix. 4
98 MUSTARD OILS MUSURUS
them up and cut the roots, beginning at one end of a row.
off The uses of mustard leaves in the treatment of local pains are
well known. When a marked counter-irritant action is needed,
From October to March
the seeds should be sown thickly in
mustard is often preferable to cantharides in being more manageable
shallow boxes and placed in a warm house or frame, with a and in causing a less degree of vesication but the cutaneous damage
;
temperature not below 65. done by mustard usually takes longer to heal. A mustard sitz
Brassica nigra occurs as a weed in waste and cultivated ground bath will often hasten and alleviate the initial stage of menstruation,
and is sometimes used to expedite the appearance of the eruption
throughout England and the south of Scotland, but is a doubtful in measles and scarlatina. The domestic remedy of hot water and
native. It is a large branching annual 2 to 3 ft. high with stiff, mustard for children's feet in cases of cold or threatened cold may
rather rough, stem and branches, dark green leaves ranging from be of some use in drawing the blood to the surface and thus tending
to prevent an excessive vascular dilatation in the nose or bronchi.
Jyrate below to lanceolate above, short racemes of small bright
The proportion of an ounce of mustard to a gallon of water is a fair
yellow flowers one-third of an inch in diameter and narrow one and easily remembered. But by far the most important
smooth pods. B. alba is more restricted to cultivated ground and
therapeutic application of mustard is as a unique emetic.
has claim to be considered a native of Great Britain;
still less
MUSTARD OILS, organic chemical compounds of general
it isdistinguished from black mustard by its smaller size, larger
formula R-NCS. They may be prepared by the action of
flowers and seeds, and spreading rough hairy pods with a long
carbon bisulphide on primary amines in alcoholic or ethereal
curved beak.
The peculiar pungency and odour to which mustard owes much of solution, the alkyl dithio-carbamic compounds formed being
its value are due to an essential oil developed by the action of water then precipitated with mercuric chloride, and the mercuric
on two peculiar chemical substances contained in the black seed. salts heated in aqueous solution,
These bodies are a glucoside termed by its discoverers myronate of
potassium, but since called sinigrin, CioHisKNSjOio, and an albumi-
noid body, myrosin. The latter substance in presence of water
acts as a ferment on sinigrin, splitting it up into the essential oil of or the isocyanic esters may be heated with phosphorus penta-
mustard, a potassium salt, and sugar. It is worthy of remark that sulphide (A. Michael and G. Palmer, Amer. Chem. Jour., 1884,
this reaction does not take place in presence of boiling water, and
6, 257). are colourless liquids with a very pungent irritating
They
therefore it is not proper to use very hot water (above 120 F.) in
the preparation of mustard. The explanation is that myrosin is odour. are readily oxidized, with production of the corre-
They
decomposed by water above this temperature. Essential oil of sponding amine. Nascent hydrogen converts them into the
mustard is in chemical constitution an isothiocyanate of allyl
amine, with simultaneous formation of thio-formaldehyde,
CaHjNCS. It is prepared artificially by a process, discovered by RNCS+4H = R-NH +HCSH. When
2 heated with acids to
Zinzin, which consists in treating bromide of ally! with thiocyanate
of ammonium and distilling the resultant thiocyanate of allyl. The 100 C, they decompose with formation of the amine and libera-
seed of white mustard contains in place of sinigrin a peculiar gluco- tion of carbon bisulphide and sulphuretted hydrogen. They
side called sinalbin, Cail^Nsi^Oij, in several aspects analogous to combine directly with alcohols, mercaptans, ammonia, amines
sinigrin. In presence of water it is acted upon by myrosin,
and with aldehyde ammonia.
present also in white mustard, splitting it up into acrinyl isothio-
cyanate, sulphate of sinapin and glucose. The first of these is a Methyl mustard oil,CH S NCS, melts at 35 C.and boils at nqC.
powerful rubefacient, whence white mustard, although yielding Allyl mustard oil, CjHsNCS, is the principal constituent of the
no volatile oil, forms a valuable material for plasters. The seeds ordinary mustard oil obtained on distilling black mustard seeds.
of Brassica juncea have the same constitution and properties as black These seeds contain potassium myronate (CioHiaNSjOioK) which in
mustard, as a substitute for which they are extensively cultivated presence of water is hydrolysed by the myrosin present in the seed,
in southern Russia; the plant is also cultivated abundantly in India.
Both as a table condiment and as a medicinal substance, mustard It may also be prepared
by heating allyl sulphide with potassium
has been known from a very remote period. Under the name of sulphpcyanide. a colourless liquid boiling at 150-7
It is C. It
rawv it was used by Hippocrates in medicine. The form in which combines directly with potassium bisulphite. Phenyl mustard oil,
table mustard is now sold in the United Kingdom dates from 1720, CeHsNCS, is obtained by boiling sulphocarbanilide with concentrated
about which time Mrs Clements of Durham hit on the idea of grinding hydrochloric acid, some triohenylguanidine being formed at the same
the seed in a mill and sifting the flour from the husk. The bright time. It is a colourless liquid boiling at 222 C. When heated
"
yellow farina
" thereby produced under the name of Durham with copper powder it yields benzonitrile.
mustard pleased the taste of George I., and rapidly attained wide
popularity. As it is now prepared mustard consists essentially of
MUSTER (Mid. Eng. moslre, moustre, adapted from the similar
a mixture of black and white farina in certain proportions. Several O. Fr. forms; Lat. monstrare), originally an exhibition, show,
grades of pure mustard are made containing nothing but the farina review, an exhibition of strength, prowess or power. One of
of mustard-seed, the lower qualities having larger amounts of the
the meanings of this common Romanic word, viz. pattern,
white cheaper mustard; and corresponding grades of a mixed
preparation of equal price, but containing certain proportions of sample, is only used in commercial usage in English (e.g. in
"
wheaten or starch flour, are also prepared and sold as mustard the cutlery trade), but it has passed into Teutonic languages,
condiment." The mixture is free from the unmitigated bitterness Ger. Muster, Du. mouster. The most general meaning is for the
and sharpness of flavour of pure mustard, and it keeps much better.
The volatile oil distilled from black mustard seeds after maceration assembling of soldiers and sailors for inspection and review, and
with water is official in the British Pharmacopeia under the title more particularly for the ascertainment and verification of the
Oleum sinapis volatile. It is a yellowish or colourless pungent numbers on the roll. This use is seen in the Med. Lat. monstrum
liquid, soluble only in about fifty parts of water, but readily so in and monstratio, "recensio milUum" (Du Cange, Gloss, s.v.). In
ether and in alcohol. From it is prepared, with camphor, castor
the "enlistment" system of army organization during the
oil and alcohol, the linimentum sinapis. The official sinapis consists
of black and white mustard seeds powdered and mixed. The advan- 1 6th and lyth centuries, and later in certain special survivals,
" "
tage of mixture depends upon the fact that the white mustard seeds each regiment was enlisted by its colonel and reviewed
have an excess of the ferment myrosin, and the black, whilst some- "
by special officers, muster-masters," who vouched for the
what deficient in myrosin, yield a volatile body as compared with the
fixed product of the white mustard seeds. From this mixture is members on the pay roll of the regiment representing its
actual strength. This was a necessary precaution in the days
prepared the charts, sinapis, which consists of cartridge paper covered
with a mixture of the powder and the liquor caoutchouc, the fixed when it was in the power of the commander of a unit to fill
oil having first been removed by benzol, thus rendering the glucoside the muster roll with the names of fictitious men, known in the
capable of being more easily decomposed by the ferment. as passe-volants and
Used internally as a condiment, mustard stimulates the salivary military slang of France and England
but not the gastric secretions. It increases the peristaltic move- "faggots" respectively. The chief officer at headquarters
ments of the stomach very markedly. One drachm to half an ounce was the muster-master-general, later commissary general of
of mustard in a tumblerful of warm water is an efficient emetic, musters. In the United States the term is still commonly
acting directly upon the gastric sensory nerves, long before any of " "
used, and a soldier is mustered out when he is officially
the drug could be absorbed so as to reach the emetic centre in the
medulla oblongata. The heart and respiration are reflexly stimu- discharged from military service.
lated, mustard being thus the only stimulant emetic. Some few other MUSURUS, MARCUS (c. 1470-1517), Greek scholar, was
emetics act without any appreciable depression, but in cases of born at Rhithymna (Retimo) in Crete. At an early age he
with respiratory or cardiac failure mustard should never
poisoning
be forgotten. In contrast to this may be mentioned, amongst the
became a pupil of John Lascaris at Venice. In 1505 he was
external therapeutic applications of mustard, its frequent power of made professor of Greek at Padua, but when the university
relieving vomiting when locally applied to the epigastrium. was closed in 1509 during the war of the league of Cambrai he
MUTE MUTILATION 99
returned to Venice, where he filled a similar post. In 1516 he beings vanity, religion, affection, prudence has acted
in
was summoned to Rome by Leo X., who appointed him arch- giving rise to what has been proved to be a custom of great
bishop of Monemvasia (Malvasia) in the Peloponnese, but he died antiquity. Some forms, such as tattooing and depilation,
before he left Italy. Since 1493 Musurus had been associated have stayed on as practices even after civilization has banished
with the famous printer Aldus Manutius, and belonged to the more brutal types; and a curious fact is that analogous
the "Neacademia," a society founded by Manutius and other mutilations are found observed by races separated by vast
learned men for the promotion of Greek studies. Many of the distances, and proved to have had no relations with one another,
Aldine classics were brought out under Musurus's supervision, at any rate in historic times. Ethnical mutilations have in
and he is credited with the first editions of the scholia of Aristo- certain races a great sociological value. It is only after sub-
phanes (1498), Athenaeus (1514), Hesychius (1514), Pausanias mission to some such operation that the youth is admitted to
(1516). full tribalrights (see INITIATION). Tattooing, too, has a semi-
See R. Menge's De M. Musuri vita studiis ingenio, in vol. 5 of religious importance, as when an individual bears a representa-
M. Schmidt's edition of Hesychius (1868). tion of his totem on his body; and many mutilations are tribe
MUTE dumb), silent or incapable of speech. For
(Lat. mutus, marks, or brands used to know slaves.
the human physical incapacity see DEAF AND DUMB. In Mutilations may be divided into: (i) those of the skin; (2) of the
face and head; (3) of the body and limbs; (4) of the teeth; (5) of the
phonetics (q.ii.) a "mute" letter is one which (like p or g) repre-
sexual organs.
sents no individual sound. The name of "mutes" is given, for
1. The principal form of skin-mutilation is tattooing (<?..), the
obvious reasons, to the undertaker's assistants at a funeral. In ethnical importance of which is very great. A
practice almost as
music a "mute" (Ital. sordino, from Lat. surdus, deaf) is a device common is depilation, or removal of hair. This is either by means
of the razor, e.g. in Japan, by depilatories, or by tearing out the hairs
for deadening the sound in an instrument by checking its vibra-
separately, as among most savage peoples. The parts thus mutilated
tions. Its use is marked by the sign (con sordino), and its
c.s.
are usually the eyebrows, the face, the scalp and the pubic regions.
cessation by s.s. (senza sordino). In the case of the violin and
Many African natives tear out all the body hair, some among them
other stringed instruments this object is attained by the use of a (e.g. the Bongos) using special pincers. Depilation is common, too,
in the South Sea Islands. The Andaman islanders and the Boto-
piece of brass, wood or ivory, so shaped as to fit on the bridge
cudos of Brazil shave the body, using shell-edges and other primitive
without touching the strings and hold it so tightly as to deaden
instruments.
or muffle the vibrations. In the case of brass wind instruments 2. Mutilations of the face and head are the
usuajly restricted to
a leather, wooden or papier mache pad in the shape of a pear lips, ears, nose and cheeks. The lips are simply perforated or
with a hole through it is placed in the bell of the instrument, distended to an extraordinary degree. The Botocudos insert disks
of wood into the lower lip. Lip-mutilations are common in North
by which the passage of the sound is impeded. The interference
America, too, on the Mackenzie river and among the Aleutians.
with the pitch of the instruments has led to the invention of In Africa they are frequently practised. The Manganja women
elaborately constructed mutes. Players on the horn and pierce the upper lips and introduce small metal shields or rings.
trumpet frequently use the left hand as a mute. Drums are The Mittu women bore the lower lip and thrust a wooden peg through.
In other tribes little sticks of rock crystal are pushed through,
muted or "muffled" either by the pressure of the hand on the
which jingle together as the wearer -talks. The women of Senegal
head, or by covering with cloth. In the side drum this is effected increase the natural thickness of the upper lip
by pricking it repeat-
by the insertion of pieces of cloth between the membrane and the edly until it is permanently inflamed and swollen. The ear, and
"snares," or by loosening the "snares." The muting of a particularly the lobe, is almost universally mutilated, from the ear-
rings of the civilizedWest to the wooden disks of the Botocudos.
pianoforte is obtained by the use of the soft-pedal. The only who
are said not to wear any form of ear ornament
peoples
MUTIAN, KONRAD (1471-1526), German humanist, was are the Andaman islanders, the Neddahs, the Bushmen, the Fuegians
born in Homberg on the isth of October 1471 of well-to-do and certain tribes of Sumatra. Ear mutilation in its most exag-
parents named Mut, and was subsequently known as Konrad gerated form is practised in Indo-China by the Mois of Annam and
Mutianus Rufus, from his red hair. At Deventer under Alex- the Penangs of Cambodia, and in Borneo by the Dyaks. They
extend the lobe by the insertion of wooden disks, and
ander Hegius he had Erasmus as schoolfellow proceeding( 1486) to by metal
rings and weights, until it sometimes reaches the shoulder. In
;
the university of Erfurt, he took the master's degree in 1492. Africa and Asia earrings sometimes weigh nearly half a pound.
From 1495 he travelled in Italy, taking the doctor's degree Livingstone said that the natives of the Zambesi distend the per-
in canon law at Bologna. foration in the lobe to such a degree that the hand closed could be
Returning in 1502, the landgraf of
Hesse promoted him to high office. The post was not congenial passed through. The Monbuttus thrust through a perforation in
;
the body of the ear rolls of leaves, or of leather, or cigarettes. The
he resigned it (1503) for a small salary as canonicus in Gotha. Papuans, the inhabitants of the New Hebrides, and most Melanesian
Mutian was a man of great influence in a select circle especially peoples carry all sorts of things in their ears, the New Caledonians
connected with the university of Erfurt, and known as the using them as pipe-racks. Many races disfigure the nose with
Mutianiscker Bund, which included Eoban Hess, Crotus perforations. The young dandies of New Guinea bore holes through
the septum and thrust through pieces of bone or flowers, a mutilation
Rubeanus, Justus Jonas and other leaders of independent found, too, among New Zealanders, Australians, New Caledonians
thought. He had nopublic ambition; except in correspondence, and other Polynesian races. In Africa the Bagas and Bongos hang
and as an epigrammatist, he was no writer, but he furnished metal rings and buckles on their noses; the Aleutians cords, bits
of metal or amber. In women it is the side of the nose which is
ideas to those who wrote. He may deserve the title which has
usually perforated; rings and jewelled pendants (as among Indian
been given him as "precursor of the Reformation," in so far as he and Arabic women, the ancient Egyptians and Jews), or feathers,
desired the reform of the Church, but not the establishment flowers, coral, &c. (as in Polynesia), being hung there. Only one
of a rival. Like Erasmus, he was with Luther in his early side of the nose is usually perforated, and this is not always merely
decorative. It may denote social position, as among the Ababdes
stage, but deserted him in his later development. Though he
in Africa, whose unmarried girls wear no rings in their noses. The
had personally no hand in it, the Epistolae obscurorum virorum male Kulus of the Himalaya wear a large ring in the left nos'ril.
(due especially to Crotus Rubeanus) was the outcome of the Malays and Polynesians sometimes deform the nose by enlarging
Reuchlinists in his Bund. He died at Gotha on the 3<5th of its base, effecting this by compression of the nasal bones of the
March (Good Friday) 1526. newly born.
The cheeks are not so frequently mutilated. The people of the
See F. W. Kampschulte, Die Universitdt Erfurt (1858-1860); C. Aleutian and Kurile Islands bore holes through their cheeks and
Krause, Eobanus Hessus (1879); L. Geiger, in Allgemeine Deutsche place in them the long hairs from the muzzles of seals. The Guaranis
Biog. (1886) C. Krause, Der Briefwechsel des Mutianus Rufus (1885)
; ;
of South America wear feathers in the same manner. In some
another collection by K. Gillert (1890). (A. Go.*) countries the top of the head or the skin behind the ears of children
is burnt to preserve them from sickness, traces of which mutilation
MUTILATION (from Lat. mutilus, maimed). The wounding, are said to be discoverable on some neolithic skulls; while some
maiming and disfiguring of the body is a practice common African tribes cut and prick the neck close to the ear. By
many
among savages and systematically pursued by many entire races. peoples the deformation of the skull was anciently practised.
The varieties of mutilation are as numerous as the Herodotus, Hippocrates and Strabo mention such a custom among
instances of
peoples of the Caspian and Crimea. Later similar practices were
itare widespread. Nearly every part of the body is the object found existing among Chinese mendicant sects, some tribes of
of mutilation, and nearly every motive common to human Turkestan, the Japanese priesthood, in Malaysia, Sumatra, Java and
100 MUTINY MUTSU HITO
the south seas. In Europe it was not unknown. But the discovery to some authorities it is hatred of the white man and dread of slavery
of America brought to our knowledge those races which made a fine which are the reasons of this racial suicide. Among the Dyaks and
art of skull-deformities. At the present day the custom is still in many of the Melanesian islands curious modes of ornamentation
observed by the Haidas and Chinooks, and by certain tribes of Peru of the organs (such as the kalang) prevail, which are in the nature of
and on the Amazon, by the Kurds of Armenia, by certain Malay mutilations.
peoples, in the Solomon Islands and the New Hebrides. The Penal Use. Mutilation as a method of punishment was common
reasons for this type of mutilation are uncertain. Probably the idea in the criminal law of
many ancient nations. In the earliest laws of
of distinguishing themselves from lower races was predominant in England" mutilation, maiming and dismemberment had a prominent
most cases, as for example in that of the Chinook Indians, who place. Men branded on the forehead, without hands, feet, or
deformed the skull to distinguish themselves from their slaves. tongues, lived as examples of the danger which attended "the com-
Or it may have been through a desire to give a ferocious appearance mission of petty crimes and as a warning to all churls (Pike's
to their warriors. The deformation was always done at infancy, History of Crime in England, 1873). The Danes were more severe
and often in the case of both sexes. It was, however, more usually than the Saxons. Under their rules eyes were plucked out; noses,
reserved for boys, and sometimes for a single caste, as at Tahiti. ears and upper lips cut off; scalps town away; and sometimes the
Different methods prevailed: by bands, bandages, boards, com- whole body flayed alive. The earliest forest-laws of which there
presses of clay and sandbags, a continued pressure was applied to is record are those of Canute (1016). Under these, if a freedman
the half-formed cranial bones to give them the desired shape. offered violence to a keeper of the king's deer he was liable to lose
Hand-kneading may also possibly have been employed. freedom and property if a serf, he lost his right hand, and on a second
;
3. Mutilations of the body or limbs by maiming, lopping off or offence was to die. One who killed a deer was either to have his
deforming, are far from rare. Certain races (Bushmen, Kaffirs eyes put out or lose his life. Under the first two Norman kings
and Hottentots) cut off the finger joints as a sign of mourning, mutilation was the punishment for poaching. It was, however, not
especially for parents. The Tongans do the same, in the belief that reserved for that, as during the reign of Henry I. some coiners were
the evil spirits which bring diseases into the body would escape by taken to Winchester, where their right hands were Ijpped off and
the wound. Diseased children are thus mutilated by them. Con- they were castrated. Under the kings of the West Saxon dynasty
tempt for female timidity has caused a curious custom among the the loss of hands had been a common penalty for coining (The
Gallas (Africa). They amputate the mammae of boys soon after Obsolete Punishments of Shropshire, by S. Meeson Morris). Morris
birth, believing no warrior can possibly be brave who possesses quotes a case in John's reign at the Salop Assizes in 1203, where one
them. The fashion of distorting the feet of Chinese ladies of high Alice Crithecreche and others were accused of murdering an old
rank has been of long continuance and only recently prohibited. woman at Lilleshall. Convicted of being accessory, Crithecreche
4. Mutilations of the teeth are among the most common and the was sentenced to death, but the penalty was altered to that of
most varied. They are by breaking, extracting, filing, inlaying or having her eyes plucked out. During the Tudor and Stuart periods
cutting away the crown of the teeth. Nearly every variety of dental mutilations were a common form of punishment extra-judicially
mutilation is met with in Africa. In a tribe north-east of the Albert inflicted by order of the privy council and the Star Chamber. There
Nyanza it is usual to pry out with a piece of metal the four lower are said to be preserved at Playford Hall, Ipswich, instruments of
incisors in children of both sexes. The women of certain tribes on Henry VIII. 's time for cutting off ears. This penalty appears to
the Senegal force the growth of the upper incisors outwards so as have been inflicted for not attending church. By an act of Henry
to make them project beyond the lower lips. Many of the aboriginal VIII. (33 Hen. VIII. c. 12) the punishment for "striking in the
"
tribes of Australia extract teeth, and at puberty the Australian boys king's court or house was the loss of the right hand. For writing a
have a tooth knocked out. The Eskimos of the Mackenzie River tract on The Monstrous Regimen of Women a Nonconformist divine
cut down the crown of the upper incisors so as not to resemble dogs. (Dr W. Stubbs) had his right hand lopped off. Among many cases
Some Malay races, too, are said to blacken their teeth because dogs of severe mutilations during Stuart times may be mentioned those
have white teeth. This desire to be unlike animals seems to be at of Prynne, Burton, Bastwick and Titus Gates.
the bottom of many dental mutilations. Another reason is the wish
"
to distinguish tribe from tribe. Thus some Papuans break their MUTINY (from an old verb mutine," O. Fr. mutin, meutin,
teeth in order to be unlike other Papuan tribes which they despise. a sedition; cf. mod. Fr. entente; the original is the Late Lat.
In this way such practices become traditional. Finally, like many
mota, commotion, from movere, to move), a resistance by force
mutilations, those of the teeth are trials of endurance of physical
to recognized authority, an insurrection, especially applied to
pain, and take place at ceremonies of initiation and at puberty.
The Mois (Stiengs) of Cochin-China break the two upper middle a sedition in any military or naval forces of the state. Such
incisors with a flint. This is always ceremoniously done at puberty offences are dealt with by courts-martial. (See MILITARY LAW
to the accompaniment of feasting and prayers for those mutilated,
and COURT MARTIAL.)
who will thus, it is thought, be preserved from sickness. Among
Malay races the filing of teeth takes place with similar ceremony at MUTSU, MUNEMITSU, COUNT (1842-1896), Japanese states-
puberty. In Java, Sumatra and Borneo the incisors are thinned man, was born in 1842 in Wakayama. A vehement opponent
down and shortened. Deep transverse grooves are also made with a " "
of clan government that is, usurpation of administrative
file, a stone, bamboo or sand, and the teeth filed to a point. The
posts by men of two or three fiefs, an abuse which threatened
Dyaks of Borneo make a small hole in the transverse groove and to follow the overthrow of the Tokugawa shogunate he con-
insert a pin of brass, which is hammered to a nail-head shape in the
hollow, or they inlay the teeth with gold and other metals. The spired to assist Saigo's rebellion and was imprisoned from 1878
ancient Mexicans also inlaid the teeth with precious stones. until 1883. While in prison he translated Bentham's Utilitarian-
5. Mutilations of the sexual organs are more ethnically important ism. In 1886, after a visit to Europe, he received a diplomatic
than any. They have played a great part in human history, and
still have much significance in many countries. Their antiquity appointment, and held the portfolio of foreign affairs during
is undoubtedly great, and nearly all originate with the idea of the China-Japan War (1894-95), being associated with Prince
initiation into full sexual life. The most important, circumcisjon (then Count) Ito as peace plenipotentiary. He negotiated
(o.v.)t has been transformed into a religious rite. Infibulation the first of the revised treaties (that with Great Britain), and
(Lat. fibula, a clasp), or the attaching a ring, clasp, or buckle to the
sexual organs, in females through the labia majora, in males through for these various services he received the title of count. He
the prepuce, was an operation to preserve chastity very commonly died in Tokyo in 1896. His statue in bronze stands before the
practised in antiquity. At Rome it was in use; Strabo says it was foreign office in Tokyo.
prevalent in Arabia and in Egypt, and it is still native to those
" regions MUTSU HITO, MIKADO, or EMPEROR, OF JAPAN (1852- ),
(Lane, Modern Egyptians, i. 73; Arabic Lexicon, s.v. hafada ").
Niebuhr heard that it was practised on both shores of the Persian was born on the 3rd of November 1852, succeeded his father,
Gulf and at Bagdad (Description de V Arabic, p. 70). It is common in Osahito, the former emperor, in January 1867, and was crowned
Africa (see Sir H. H. Johnston. Kilimanjaro Expedition, 1886), but at Osaka on the 3ist of October 1868. The country was then
is there often replaced by an
operation which consists in stitching in a ferment owing to the concessions which had been granted
the labia majora together when the girl is four or five years old.
Castration is practised in the East to supply guards for harems, and to foreigners by the preceding shogun lyemochi, who in 1854
was employed in Italy until the time of Pope Leo XIII. to provide concluded a treaty with Commodore Perry by which it was
" '
soprani for the papal choir it has also been voluntarily submitted
;
agreed that certain ports should be open to foreign trade.
to from religious motives (see EUNUCH). The operation has, This convention gave great offence to the more conservative
however, been resorted to for other purposes. Thus in Africa it is
said to have been used as a means of annihilating conquered tribes. daimios, and on their initiative the mikado suddenly decided
The Hottentots and Bushmen, too, have the curious custom of to abolish the shogunate. This resolution was not carried out
removing one testicle when a boy is eight or nine years old, in the without strong opposition. The reigning shogun, Keiki, yielded
belief that this partial emasculation renders the victim fleeter of
to the decree, but many of his followers were not so complaisant,
foot for the chase. The most dreadful of these mutilations is that
and it was only by force of arms that the new order of things
practised by certain Australian tribes on their boys. It consists
of cutting and leaving exposed the whole length of the urethral was imposed on the country. The main object of those who
open
canal and thus rendering sexual intercourse impossible. According had advocated the change was to lead to a reversion to the
MUTTRA 101
primitive condition of affairs, when the will of the mikado was the Japanese victories. In his wise patriotism, as in all matters,
absolute and when the presence in Japan of the hated foreigner Mutsu Hito always placed himself in the van of his countrymen.
was unknown. But the reactionary party was not to be allowed He led them out of the trammels of feudalism by his progressive
;
to monopolize revolutions. To their surprise and discomfiture, rule he lived to see his country advanced to the
first rank of
the powerful daimios of Satsuma and Choshu suddenly declared nations; and he was the first Oriental sovereign to form an
themselves to be in favour of opening the country to foreign offensive and defensive alliance with a first-rate European
intercourse, and of adopting many far-reaching reforms. With power. In 1869 Mutsu Hito married Princess Haru, daughter
this movement Mutsu Hito was cordially in agreement, and of of Ichijo Tadaka, a noble of the first rank. He has one son
his own motion he invited the foreign representatives to an and several daughters, his heir-apparent being Yoshi Hito, who
audience on the 23rd of March 1868. As SirHarry Parkes, was born on the 3ist of August 1879, and married in 1900
the British minister, was on his way to this assembly, he was Princess Sada, daughter of Prince KujS, by whom he had three
attacked by a number of two-sworded samurai, who, but for sons before 1909. Mutsu Hito adopted the epithet of Meiji, or
"
his guard, would doubtless have succeeded in assassinating Enlightened Peace," as the nengo or title of his reign. Thus
him. The outrage was regarded by the emperor and his minis- the year 1901, according to the Japanese calendar, was the
ters as a reflection on their honour, and they readily made all 34th year of Meiji.
reparation within their power. While these agitations were MUTTRA, or MATHURA, a city and district of British India
afoot, the emperor, with his advisers, was maturing a political in the Agra division of the United Provinces. The city is on the
constitution which was to pave the way to the assumption by right bank of the Jumna, 30 m. above Agra; it is an important
the emperor of direct personal rule. As a step in this direction, railway junction. Pop. (1901), 60,042. It is an ancient town,
Mutsu Hito transferred his capital from Kioto to Yedo, the mentioned by Fa Hien as a centre of Buddhism about A.D. 400;
former seat of the shoguns' government, and marked the event his successor Hstian Tsang, about 650, states that it then con-
by renaming the city Tokyo, or Eastern Capital. In 1869 the tained twenty Buddhist monasteries and five Brahmanical
emperor paid a visit to his old capital, and there took as his temples. Muttra has suffered more from Mahommedan plunder
imperial consort a princess of the house of Ichijo. In the same than most towns of northern India. It was sacked by Mah-
year Mutsu Hito bound himself by oath to institute certain mud of Ghazni in 1017-18; about 1500 Sultan Sikandar Lodi
reforms, the first of which was the establishment of a deliberative utterly destroyed all the Hindu shrines, temples and images;
assembly. In this onward movement he was supported by the and in 1636 Shah Jahan appointed a governor expressly to
"
majority of the daimios, who in a supreme moment of patriotism stamp out idolatry." In 1669-70 Aurangzeb visited the city
surrendered their estates and privileges to their sovereign. This and continued the work of destruction. Muttra was again
was the death-knell of the feudalism which had existed for so captured and plundered by Ahmad Shah with 25,000 Afghan
many centuries in Japan, and gave Mutsu Hito the free hand cavalry in 1756. The town still forms a great centre of Hindu
which he desired. A centralized bureaucracy took the place of devotion, and large numbers of pilgrims flock annually to the
the old system, and the nation moved rapidly along the road of festivals. The special cult of Krishna with which the neighbour-
progress. Everything European was eagerly adopted, even hood is associated seems to be of comparatively late date.
down to frock-coats and patent-leather boots for the officials. Much of the prosperity of the town is due to the residence of a
Torture was abolished (1873), and a judicial code, adapted from great family of seths or native bankers, who were conspicuously
the Code Napoleon, was authorized. The first railway that loyal during the Mutiny. Temples and bathing-stairs line the
from Yokohama to Tokyo was opened in 1872; the European river bank. The majority are modern, but the mosque of
calendar was adopted, and English was introduced into the Aurangzeb, on a lofty site, dates from 1669. Most of the public
curriculum of the common schools. In all these reforms Mutsu buildings are of white stone, handsomely carved. There are
Hito took a leading part. But it was not to be expected that an American mission, a Roman Catholic church, a museum of
such sweeping changes could be effected without opposition, antiquities, and a cantonment for a .British cavalry regiment.
and thrice during the period between 1876 and 1884 the emperor Cotton, paper and pilgrims' charms are the chief articles of
had to face serious rebellious movements in the provinces. manufacture.
These he succeeded in suppressing; and even amid these pre- The DISTRICT OF MUTTRA has an area of 1445 sq. m. It consists
occupations he managed to inflict a check on his huge neighbour, of an irregular strip of territory lying on both sides of the
the empire of China. As the government of this state declared Jumna. The general level is only broken at the south-western
that it was incapable of punishing certain Formosan pirates for angle by low ranges of limestone hills. The eastern half con-
outrages committed on Japanese ships (1874), Mutsu Hito sists for the most part of a rich upland plain, abundantly irrigated
landed a force on the island, and, having inflicted chastisement by wells, rivers and canals, while the western portion, though
on the bandits, remained in possession of certain districts until rich in mythological association and antiquarian remains, is
the compensation demanded from Peking was paid. The un- comparatively unfavoured by nature. For eight months of the
paralleled advances which had been made by the government year the Jumna shrinks to the dimensions of a mere rivulet,
were now held by the emperor and his advisers to justify a meandering through a waste of sand. During the rains, how-
demand for the revision of the foreign treaties, and negotiations ever, it swells to a mighty stream, a mile or more in breadth.
were opened with this object. They failed, however, and the Formerly nearly the whole of Muttra consisted of pasture and
consequent disappointment gave rise to a strong reaction against woodland, but the roads constructed as relief works in 1837-1838
everything foreign throughout the country. Foreigners were have thrown open many large tracts of country, and the task
assaulted on the roads, and even the Russian cesarevich, after- of reclamation has since proceeded rapidly. The population
wards the tsar Nicholas II., was attacked by would-be assassins in 1901 was 763,099, showing an increase of 7 %
in the
in the streets of Tokyo. A renewed attempt to revise the decade. The principal crops are millets, pulse, cotton, wheat,
treaties in 1894 was more successful, and in that year Great barley and sugar cane. The famine of 1878 was severely felt.
Britain led the way by concluding a revised treaty with Japan. The eastern half of the district is watered by the Agra canal,
Other nations followed, and by 1901 all those obnoxious clauses which is navigable, and the western half by branches of the
suggestive of political inferiority had finally disappeared from the Ganges canal. A branch of the Rajputana railway, from
treaties. In the same year (1894) war broke out with China, and Achnera to Hathras, crosses the district; the chord line of the
Mutsu Hito, in common with his subjects, showed the greatest East India, from Agra to Delhi, traverses it from north to south ;
zeal for the campaign. He reviewed the troops as they left and a new line, connecting with the Great Indian Peninsula,
the shores of Japan for Korea and Manchuria, and personally was opened in 1905.
distributed rewards to those who had won distinction. In The central portion of Muttra district forms one of the most
the war with Russia, 1904-5, the same was the case, and it was sacred spots in Hindu mythology. Acircuit of 84 kos around
to the virtues of their emperor that his generals loyally ascribed Gokul and Brindaban bears the name of the Braj-Mandal, and
102 MUTULE MUZAFFARNAGAR
carries with it many associations of earliest Aryan times. he stopped at St Petersburg, and at a banquet given in his
Here Krishna and his brother Balarama fed their cattle upon the honour by the tsar toasts were exchanged of unmistakable
plain; and numerous relics of antiquity in the towns of Muttra, significance. None the less, during his visit to King Edward VII.
Gobardhan, Gokul, Mahaban and Brindaban still attest the the shah had been profuse in his expressions of friendship for
sanctity with which this holy tract was invested. During the Great Britain, and in the spring of 1903 a special mission was
Buddhist period Muttra became a centre of the new faith. sent to Teheran to invest him with the Order of the Garter.
After the invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni the city fell into The shah's misguided policy had created widespread dis-
insignificance till the reign of Akbar; and thenceforward its affection in the country, and the brunt of popular disfavour
history merges in that of the Jats of Bharatpur, until it again fell on the atabeg (the title by which the Amin-es-Sultan was
acquired separate individuality under Suraj Mai in the middle now known), who was once more disgraced in September 1903.
of the 1 8th century. The Bharatpur chiefs took an active part The war with Japan now relaxed the Russian pressure on
in the disturbances consequent on the declining power of the Teheran, and at the same time dried up the source of supplies;
Mogul emperors, sometimes on the imperial side, and at others and the clergy, giving voice to the general misery and discontent,
with the Mahrattas. The whole of Muttra passed under British grew more and more outspoken in their denunciations of the
rule in 1804. shah's misrule. Nevertheless Muzaffar-ed-Dm defied public
See F. S. Growse, Malhura (Allahabad, 1883). opinion by making another journey to Europe in 1905; but,
MUTULE (Lat. mutulus, a stay or bracket), in architecture though received with the customary distinction at St Petersburg,
the rectangular block under the soffit of the cornice of the Greek he failed to obtain further supplies. In the summer of 1906
Doric temple, which is studded with guttae. It is supposed to popular discontent culminated in extraordinary demonstrations
represent the piece of timber through which the wooden pegs at Teheran, which practically amounted to a general strike.
were driven in order to hold the rafter in position, and it follows The shah was forced to yield, and proclaimed a liberal con-
the rake of the roof. In the Roman Doric order the mutule stitution, the first parliament being opened by him on the I2th
was horizontal, with sometimes a crowning fillet, so that it of October 1906. Muzaffar-ed-Din died on the 8th of January
virtually fulfilled the purpose of the modillion in the Corinthian 1907, being succeeded his son Mahommed Ali Mirza.
by
cornice. MUZAFFARGARH, a town and district of British India,
MUZAFFAR-ED-DlN, shah of Persia (1853-1907), the second in the Multan division of the Punjab. The town is near the
son of Shah Nasr-ed-Dm, was born on the 25th of March 1853. right bank of the river Chenab, and has a railway station.
He was in due course declared vali ahd, or heir-apparent, and Pop. (1901), 4018. Its fort and a mosque were built by Nawab
invested with the governorship of Azerbaijan, but on the Muzaffar Khan in 1794-1796.
assassination of his father in 1896 it was feared that his elder The DISTRICT or MUZAFFARGARH occupies the lower end of
brother, Zill-es-Sultan, the governor of Isfahan, might prove the Sind-Sagar Doab. Area, 3635 sq. m. In the northern
a dangerous rival, especially when it was remembered that half of the district is the wild thai or central desert, an arid
Muzaffar-ed-Dln had been recalled to Teheran by his father upon elevated tract with a width of 40 m. in the extreme north,
his failure to suppress a Kurd rising in his province. The which gradually contracts until it disappears about 10 m.
British and Russian governments, in order to avoid wide- south of Muzaffargarh town. Although apparently a table-land,
spread disturbances, agreed however to give him their support. it is really composed of separate sandhills, with intermediate
All opposition was thus obviated, and Muzaffar-ed-Din was valleys lying at a lower level than that of the Indus, and at
duly enthroned on the 8th of June 1896, the Russian general times flooded. The towns stand on high sites or are protected
Kosakowsky, commander of the Persian Cossacks, presiding over by embankments; but the villages scattered over the lowlands
the ceremony with drawn sword. On this occasion the new are exposed to annual inundations, during which the people
shah announced the suppression of all purchase of civil and abandon their grass-built huts, and take refuge on wooden
military posts, and then proceeded to remit in perpetuity all platforms attached to each house. Throughout the cold weather
taxes on bread and meat, thus lightening the taxation on food, large herds of camels, belonging chiefly to the Povindah
which had caused the only disturbances in the last reign. But merchants of Afghanistan, graze upon the sandy waste.
whatever hopes may have been aroused by this auspicious The district possesses hardly any distinct annals of its own,
beginning of the reign were soon dashed owing to the extrava- having always formed part of Multan (?..). The population
gance and profligacy of the court, which kept the treasury in in 1901 was 405,656, showing an increase of 6-4% in the decade,
a chronic state of depletion. Towards the end of 1896 the due to the extension of irrigation. The principal crops are
Amin-es-Sultan, who had been grand vizier during the last wheat, pulse, rice and indigo. The most important domestic
years of Nasr-ed-Dln's reign, was disgraced, and Muzaffar-ed- animal is the camel. The district is crossed by the North-
Dm announced his intention of being in future his own grand Western railway, and the boundary rivers are navigable, besides
vizier. The Amin-ad-Dowla, a less masterful servant, took furnishing numerous irrigation channels, originally constructed
office with the lower title of prime minister. During his short under native rule.
administration an elaborate scheme of reforms was drawn up MUZAFFARNAGAR, a town and district of British India,
on paper, and remained on paper. The treasury continued in the Meerut division of the United Provinces. The town is
empty, and in the spring of 1898 Amin-es-Sultan was recalled 790 ft. above the sea, and has a station on the North-Western
with the special object of filling it. The delay of the British railway. Pop. (1901), 23,444. It is an important trading centre
government in sanctioning a loan in London gave Russia her and has a manufacture of blankets. It was founded about 1633
opportunity. A Russian loan was followed by the establishment by the son of Muzaffar Khan, Khan-i-Jahan, one of the famous
of a Russian bank at Teheran, and the vast expansion of Sayid family who rose to power under the emperor Shah Jahan.
Russian influence generally. At the beginning of 1900 a The DISTRICT OF MUZAFFARNAGAR has an area of 1666 sq. m.
fresh gold loan negotiated with Russia, and a few
was It lies near the northern extremity of the Doab or great alluvial
months later Muzaffar-ed-Din started on a tour in Europe plain between the Ganges and the Jumna, and shares to a large
by way of St Petersburg, where he was received with great extent in the general monotony of that level region. great A
state. He subsequently went to Paris to visit the Exhibition portion is sandy and unfertile; but under irrigation the soil is
of 1900, and while there an attempt on his life was made rapidly improving, and in many places the villagers have
by a madman named Francois Salson. In spite of this succeeded in introducing a high state of cultivation. Before
experience the shah so enjoyed his European tour that he the opening of the canals Muzaffarnagar was liable to famines
determined to repeat it as soon as possible. By the end of caused by drought; but the danger from this has been mini-
1901 his treasury was again empty; but a fresh Russian loan mized by the spread of irrigation. It is traversed by four main
replenished it and in 1902 he again came to Europe, paying canals, the Ganges, Anupshahr, Deoband and Eastern Jumna.
on this occasion a state visit to England. On his way back Its trade is confined to the raw materials it produces. The
MUZAFFARPUR MYCENAE 103
climate of the district is comparatively cool, owing to the superintendent at the Vatican; and it became under his hands
proximity of the hills; and the average annual rainfall is 33 in. a perfect imitation of painting. His ability and industry soon
The population in 1901 was- 877,188, showing an increase of gained for him a handsome fortune. Part of this he expended
13-5 % in the decade, which was a period of unexampled in assisting to found the Academy of St Luke in Rome. He
prosperity. The principal crops are wheat, pulse, cotton and died in 1592, and was buried in the church of Santa Maria
sugar-cane. The district is crossed by the North-Western Maggiore.
railway from Delhi to Saharanpur. Many of Muziano's works are in the churches and palaces of
Hindu tradition represents Muzaffarnagar as having formed a Rome; he worked in Oryieto and Loreto. In Santa Maria
also
"
portion of the Pandava kingdom of the Mahdbharala; authentic degli Angeli, Rome, is one"
of his chief works,
" "
St Jerome preaching
to Monks in the Desert his Circumcision is in the church of the
history, however, dates from the time of the Moslem conquests
;
" " "
Gesu, his Ascension in the Araceli, and his St Francis receiv-
in the i3th century, from which time it remained a dependency "
ing the Stigmata in the church of the Conception. A picture by
of the various Mahommedan dynasties which ruled at Delhi him, representing Christ washing the feet of His disciples, is in the
until the practical downfall of the Mogul Empire in the middle cathedral of Reims.
of the i8th century. In 1788 the district fell into the hands MUZZIOLI, GIOVANNI (1854-1894), Italian painter, was
of the Mahrattas. After the fall of Aligarh, the whole Doab born in Modena, whither his family had removed from Castel-
as far north as the Siwalik hills passed into the hands of the vetro, on the loth of February 1854. From the time that he
British without a blow, and Muzaffarnagar became part of began to attend the local academy at the age of thirteen he was
Saharanpur. It was created a separate jurisdiction in 1824. recognized as a prodigy, and four years later, by the unanimous
During the Mutiny there was some disorder, chiefly occasioned vote of the judges, he gained the Poletti scholarship entitling
by official weakness, but no severe fighting. him to four years' residence in Rome and Florence. After his
See Muzaffarnagar District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1903). return to Modena, Muzzioli visited the Paris Exhibition, and
there came under the influence of Sir L. Alma Tadema. His
MUZAFFARPUR, a town and district of British India, in the " "
first important picture was In the Temple of Bacchus (1881);
Patna division of Bengal. The town is on the right bank of "
the Little Gandak river, and has a railway station. Pop. (1901),
and his masterpiece, The Funeral of Britannicus," was one of
the chief successes of the Bologna Exhibition of 1888. From
45,617. The town is well laid out, and is an important centre
of trade, being on the direct route from Patna to Nepal. It is 1878 to his death (August 5, 1894) Muzzioli lived in Florence,
the headquarters of the Behar Light Horse volunteer corps and
where he painted the altar-piece for the church of Castelvetro.
See History of Modern Italian Art, by A. R. Willard (London,
has a college established in 1899.
1898).
The DISTRICT OF MUZAFFARPUR has an area of 3035 sq. m. It
was formed in January 1875 out of the great district of Tirhoot, MWERU, a large lake of Eastern Central Africa, traversed
by the Luapula or upper Congo. It lies 3000 ft. above the sea;
which up to that time was the largest and most populous district
of Lower Bengal. The district is an alluvial plain between the
measures about 76 m. in length by some 25 in breadth, and is
Ganges and the Great Gandak, the Baghmat and Little Gandak roughly rectangular, the axis running from S.S.W. to N.N.E.
It is cut a little south of its centre by 9 S. and through its
being the principal rivers within it. South of the Little Gandak
the land is somewhat elevated, with depressions containing
N.E. corner passes 29 E. At the south end a shallow bay
extends to 9 31' S. East of this, and some miles further north,
lakes toward the south-east. North of the Baghmat the land
is lower and marshy, but is traversed by elevated dry ridges.
the Luapula enters from a Vast marsh inundated at high water;
it leaves the lake at the north-west corner, making a sharp bend
The tract between the two rivers is lowest of all and liable to
to the west before assuming a northerly direction. Besides
floods. Pop. (1901), 2,754,790, showing an increase of 1-5 % the Luapula, the principal influent is the Kalungwizi, from the
in the decade. Average density, 914 per sq. m., being exceeded
in all India only by the neighbouring district of Saran. Indigo
east. Near the south end of the lake lies the island of Kilwa,
about 8 m. in length, rising into plateaus 600 ft. above the
(superseded to some extent, owing to the fall in price, by sugar)
and opium are largely grown. Rice is the chief grain crop, lake. Here the air is cool and balmy, the soil dry, with short
turf and clumps of shady trees, affording every requirement for
and cloth, carpets and pottery are manufactured. The district
is traversed in several directions by the Tirhoot system of the
a sanatorium. Mweru was reached by David Livingstone in
1867, but its western shore was first explored in 1890 by Sir
Bengal and North-Western railway. It suffered from drought
Alfred Sharpe, who two years later effected its circumnavigation.
in 1873-1874, and again in 1897-1898.
The eastern shores from the Luapula entrance to its exit,
See Muzaffarpur District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1907).
together with Kilwa Island, belong to British Central Africa;
MUZIANO, GIROLAMO (1528-1592), Italian painter, was the western to the Belgian Congo.
born at Acquafredda, near Brescia, in 1528. Under Romanino, MYAUNGMYA, a district in the Irrawaddy division of lower
an imitator of Titian, he studied his art, designing and colouring Burma, formed in 1893 out of a portion of Bassein district, and
according to the principles of the Venetian school. But it was reconstituted in 1903. It has an area of 2663 sq. m., and a
not until he had left his native place, still in early youth, and population (1901) of 278,119, showing an increase of 49% in
had repaired to Rome about 1550, that he came into notice. the decade and a density of 104 inhabitants to the square mile.
There his pictures soon gained for him the surname of II Giovane Among the population were about 12,800 Christians, mostly
de' paesi (the young man of the landscapes); chestnut-trees Karens. The district is a deltaic tract, bordering south on the
are predominant in these works. He next tried the more sea and traversed by many tidal creeks. Rice cultivation and
elevated style of historical painting. He imitated Michelangelo fishing occupy practically all the inhabitants of the district.
in giving great prominence to the anatomy of his figures, and The town of Myaungmya had 4711 inhabitants in 1901.
became fond of painting persons emaciated by abstinence or MYCENAE, one of the most ancient cities of Greece, was
even disease. His great picture of the " Resurrection of situated on a hill above the northern extremity of the fertile
"
Lazarus at once established his fame. Michelangelo praised Argive plain nvxy "Apytos i7nro/36roto. Its situation is ex-
it, and pronounced its author one of the first artists of that age. ceedingly strong, and it commands all the roads leading from
It was placed in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, but was Corinth and Achaea into the Argive plain. The walls of Mycenae
afterwards transferred to the Quirinal Palace. Muziano, with are the greatest monument that remains of the Heroic age
dogged perseverance (at one time he shaved his head, so as not in Greece; part of them is similar in style and doubtless con-
to be tempted to go out of doors), continued to proceed in the
temporary in date with the walls of the neighbouring town
path on which he had entered. He grew excellent in depicting Tiryns. There can therefore be little doubt that the two
foreign and military costumes, and in introducing landscapes towns were the strongholds of a single race, Tiryns commanding
into his historical pieces after the manner of Titian. Mosaic the sea-coast and Mycenae the inner country. Legend tells
working also occupied his attention while he was employed as of the rivalry between the dynasties of the Pelopidae at Mycenae
104 MYCENAE
and of the Proetidae at Argos. In early historic times Argos of thin slabs of stone setup on end, with others laid across the
had obtained the predominance. The Mycenaeans, who had top of them; at the part of this enclosure nearest to the Lion
temporarily regained their independence with the help of Gate is an entrance. Some have" supposed the circle of slabs
Sparta, fought on the Greek side at Plataea in 479 B.C. The to be the retaining wall of a tumulus; but its structure is not
long warfare between the two cities lasted till 468 B.C., when solid enough for such a purpose, and it can hardly be anything
Mycenae was dismantled and its inhabitants dispersed. The but a sacred enclosure. It was within this circle that Dr H.
city never revived; Strabo asserts that no trace of it remained Schliemann found the five graves that contained a marvellous
in his time, but Pausanias describes the ruins. For the character wealth of gold ornaments and other objects; a sixth was sub-
of Mycenaean art and of the antiquities found at Mycenae sequently found. Above one of the graves was a small circular
see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION. altar, and there were
also several sculptured slabs set up above
The extant remains of the town of Mycenae are spread over them. The graves themselves were mere shafts sunk in the
the hill between the village of Charvati and the Acropolis. rock. Dr Schliemann identified them with the graves of
They consist of some traces of town walls and of houses, and Agamemnon, Cassandra, and their companions, which were
of an early bridge over the stream to the east, on the road shown to Pausanias within the walls; and there can be little
leading to the Heraeum. The walls of the Acropolis are in doubt that they are the graves that gave rise to the tradition,
Based on a plan in Schuchhardt's Scldicmann' s Excavations.
FIG. i. Plan of the Citadel of Mycenae.
the shape of an irregular triangle, and occupy a position of though the historical identity of the persons actually buried in
great natural strength between two valleys. They are preserved them a more difficult question. Outside the circle, especially
is
to a considerable height on all sides, except where the ravine to the south of it, numerous remains of houses of the Mycenaean
is precipitous and they have been carried away by a landslip; age have been found, and others, terraced up at various levels,
they are for the most part built of irregular blocks of great occupy almost the whole of the Acropolis. On the summit,
" "
size in the so-called Cyclopian style; but certain portions, approached by a well-preserved flight of steps, are the remains
notably that near the chief gate, are built in almost regular of a palace of the Mycenaean age, similar to that found at
courses of squared stones; there are also some later repairs in Tiryns, though not so complicated or extensive. Above them
polygonal masonry. The main entrance is called the Lion Gate, are the foundations of a Doric temple, probably dating from the
from the famous triangular relief which fills the space above last days of Mycenaean independence in the 5th century.
its massive lintel. This represents two lions confronted, resting Numerous graves have been found in the slopes of the hills
their front legs on a low altar-like structure on which is a adjoining the town of Mycenae. Most of these consist merely of
pillar which stands between them. The device is a translation a chamber, usually square, excavated in the rock, and approached
"
into stone of a type not uncommon in gem-cutter's and by a dromos " or horizontal approach in the side of a hill.
" "
goldsmith's work of the Mycenaean age. The gate is They are sometimes provided with doorways faced with stucco,
approached by a road commanded on one side by the city wall, and these have painted ornamentation. Many of these tombs
on the other by a projecting tower. There is also a postern have been opened, and their contents are in the Athens museum.
gate on the north side of the wall, and at its eastern extremity Another and much more conspicuous kind of tomb is that
are two apertures in the thickness of the wall. One of these known as the beehive tomb. There are eight of them at Mycenae
leads out on to the rocks above the southern ravine, the other itself, and others in the neighbourhood. Some of them were
leads to a long staircase, completely concealed in the wall and visible in the time of Pausanias, who calls them the places
the rocks, leading down to a subterranean well or spring. Just where Atreus and his sons kept their treasures. There can,
within the Lion Gate is a projection of the wall surrounding a however, be no doubt that they were the tombs of princely
curious circular enclosure, consisting of two concentric circles families. The largest and best preserved of them, now
MYCETOZOA 105
commonly called the Treasury of Atreus, is just outside the Lion film-like, expanded condition of the plasmodium, varying in
Gate. It consists of a circular domed chamber, nearly 50 ft. colour in different species and traversed by a network of vein-
in diameter and in height; a smaller square chamber opens out like channels (fig. 5), has long been known. The plasmodial
of it. It is approached by a horizontal avenue 20 ft. wide and stage was at one time regarded as representing a distinct group
US ft- long, with side walls of squared stone sloping up to a of fungi, to which the generic name Mesenterica was applied.
height of 45 ft. The doorway was flanked with columns of The species of Mycetozoa are widely distributed over the world in
alabaster, with rich spiral ornament, now in the British Museum; temperate and tropical latitudes where there is sufficient
and the rest of the facade was very richly decorated, as may moisture for them to grow, and they must be regarded as not
be seen from Chipiez's fine restoration. The inside of the inconsiderable agents in the disintegrating processes of nature,
vault was ornamented with attached bronze ornaments, but by which complex organic substances are decomposed into
not, as is sometimes stated, entirely lined with bronze. It is simpler and more stable chemical groups.
generally supposed that these tombs, as well as those excavated Classification. The Mycetozoa, as here understood, fall into
in the rock, belong to a later date than the shaft-tombs on the three main divisions. The Endosporeae, in which the spores are
Acropolis. contained within sporangia, form together with the Exosporeae,
See H. Schliemann, Mycenae (1879) C. Schuchhardt, SMiemann's
I
which bear their spores on the surface of sporophores, a natural
Excavations (Eng. trans., 1891)Chr. Tsountas, Mw^vai ai Miwiji'euKAj
;
group characterized by forming true plasmodia. They con-
ToXtTK7AiAi(i893); Tsountas and Manatt, The Mycenaean Age (1897);
Perrot and Chipiez, Histoire de I'art dans I'antiquite, vol. vi., L'art
stitute the Euplasmodida. Standing apart from them is the
small group of the mould-like Sorophora, in which the amoeboid
Myceneenne. Various reports in OpaxTutd TJJS Apx- iroipios and in
'E$7)iutpis ip\tuoKoyi.K.ii. (E. GR.) individuals only come together immediately prior to spore-
MYCETOZOA (Myxomycetes, Schleimpilze) in zoology, a formation and do not completely fuse with one another.
,
group of organisms reproducing themselves by spores. These
A number of other organisms living on vegetable and animal
are produced in or on sporangia which are formed in the air bodies, alive or dead, and leading an entirely aquatic life, are
"
and the spores are distributed by the currents of air. They included by Zopf (31) under the Mycetozoa, as the Monadina,"
"
thus differ from other spore-bearing members of the animal in distinction from the Eumycetozoa," consisting of the three
kingdom (which produce their spores while immersed in water groups above mentioned. The alliance of some of these (e.g.
or, in the case of parasites, within the fluids of their hosts), Protomonas) with the Mycetozoa is probable, and was accepted
and resemble the Fungi and many of the lower green plants. by de Bary, but the relations of other Monadina are obscure,
In relation with this condition of their fructification the structures and appear to be at least as close with the Heliozoa (with which
formed at the spore-bearing stage to contain or support the many have in fact been^assed). The limits here adopted,
spores present a remarkable resemblance to the sporangia of following de Bary, include a group of organisms which, as
certain groups of Fungi, from which, however, the Mycetozoa shown by their life-history, belong to the animal stock, and yet
are essentially different. alone among animals 1 they have acquired the habit, widely
found in the vegetable kingdom, of developing and distributing
Although the sporangial and some other phases have long been (
their spores in air.
known, and Fries had enumerated 192 species in 1829, the
main features of their life-history were first worked out in 1859-
Class MYCETOZOA.
He showed that in the Mycetozoa Sub-class I. EUPLASMODIDA.*
1860 by de Bary (i and 2).
Division I.
Endosporeae.
the spore hatches out as a mass of naked protoplasm which
Cohort
i. Amaurosporales.
almost immediately assumes a free-swimming flagellate form Sub-cohort i. Calcarineae.
(zoospore), that after multiplying by division this passes into an Order i. Physaraceae. Genera: Badhamia, Physarum, Physarella,
amoeboid phase, and that from such amoebae the plasmodia Trichamphora, Erionema, Cienkowskia, Fuligo, Craterium,
Leocarpus, Chondrioderma, Diachaea.
arise, though the mode of their origin was not ascertained by him. Order 2. Didymiaceae. Genera: Didymtum, Spumaria, Lepido-
The plasmodium of the Mycetozoa is a mass of simple proto- derma.
plasm, without a differentiated envelope and endowed with Sub-cohort 2. Araaurochaetineae.
the power of active locomotion. It penetrates the interstices Order i. Stemonitaceae. Genera: Stemonitis, Comatricha, Ener-
of decaying vegetable matter, or, in the case of the species thenema, Echinostelium, Lamproderma, Clastoderma.
Order 2. Amaurochaetaceae. Genera: Amaurochaete, Brefeldia.
Badhamia utricularis, spreads as a film on the surface of living
Cohort 2.
fungi; it may grow almost indefinitely in size, attaining under
Lamprospprales.
Sub-cohort i. Anemineae.
favourable conditions several feet in extent. It constitutes Order i. Heterodermaceae. Genera: Lindbladia, Cribraria,
the dominant phase of the life-history. From the plasmodium Dictydium.
the sporangia take their origin. It was Cienkowski who (in Order 2. Licaeceae. Genera Licea, Orcadella.
:
Order 3. Tubulinaceae. Genera: Tubulina, Siphoptychium, A Iwisia.
1863) contributed the important fact that the plasmodia arise Order 4. Reticulariaceae. Genera: Dictydiaethalium, Enteridium,
by the fusion with one another of numbers of individuals in Reticularia.
the amoeboid phase a mode of origin which is now generally Order 5. Lycogalaceae. Genus Lycogala. :
recognized as an essential feature in the conception of a Sub-cohort 2. Calonemineae.
Order i. Trichiaceae. Genera: Trichia, Oligonema, Hemilrichia,
plasmodium, whether as occurring among the Mycetozoa or Cornuvia.
in other groups (7). De Bary clearly expressed the view that Order 2. Arcyriaceae. Genera: A rcyria, Lac hnobolus, Perichaena.
the life-history of the Mycetozoa shows them to belong not Order 3. Margaritaceae. Genera Margarita, Dianema, Proto-
:
to the vegetable but to the animal kingdom. trichia, Listerella.
The individual sporangia of the Mycetozoa are, for the most Division 2. Exosporeae.
Order i. Genus: Ceratiomyxa.
part, minute structures, rarely attaining the size of a mustard- Ceratiomyxaceae.
seed, though, in the composite form of aethalia, they may
Sub-class 2. SOROPHORA.
form cake-like masses an inch or more across (fig. 21). They are Order i. Guttulinaceae.. Genera: Copromyxa, Gutlulina, Guttu-
linopsis.
found, stalked or sessile, in small clusters or distributed by the Orders. Dictyosteliaceae. Genera: Dictyostelium, Acrasis, Poly-
thousand over a wide area many feet in diameter, on the bark
sphondylium.
of decaying trees, on dead leaves or sticks, in woods and shrub-
1
Bursulla, a member of Zopf's Monadina, likewise forms its spores
beries, among the stems of plants on wet moors, and, generally, in air.
at the surface in localities where there is a substratum of decaying 4
The classification of the that of A.
Euplasmodida here given is
vegetable matter sufficiently moist to allow the plasmodium and G. Lister (22), the outcome of a careful study of the group
to live. Tan-heaps have long been known as a favourite habitat extending over more than twenty-five years. The writer of this
of Fuligo septica, the plasmodia of which, emerging in bright article desires to express his indebtedness to the opportunities he
has had of becoming familiar with the work of his father, Mr A. Lister,
yellow masses at the surface prior to the sporangial (in this F.R.S., whose views on the affinities and life-history of the Mycetozoa
case aethalial) phase, are known as " flowers of tan." The he has endeavoured herein to summarize.
io6 MYCETOZOA
LIFE-HISTORY OF THE MYCETOZOA mainly in the state of isolated amoebae. Pinoy finds that the
EUPLASMODIDA amoebae of this group live on particular species of bacteria, and that
Endosporeae. the presence of the latter is a necessary condition for the develop-
We may ment of the Sorophora, and even (as has been recognized by other
begin our survey of the life-history at the point where
the spores, borne on currents of air, have settled among wet decaying workers) for the hatching of their spores. Pinoy's results indicate,
vegetable matter. Shrunken when dry, they rapidly absorb water
though not so conclusively, that bacteria are likewise the essential
and resume the spherical food of the Euplasmodida in the early phases of their life-history.
shape which is found in The zoospores do, however, ingest other solid bodies, e.g. carmine
nearly all species. Each granules (Saville Kent, 15).
is surrounded by a spore The zoospores multiply by binary fission, the flagellum being
wall, sheltered by which
withdrawn and the nucleus undergoing mitotic division, with the
the protoplasm, though formation of a well-marked achromatic spindle (fig. 3).
It is probable that fission occurs more than once in the zoospore
losing moisture by drying,
may remain alive for as stage; but there is not satisfactory evidence to show how often
2
it may be repeated.
many as four years. In At this, as at other phases of the life-history, a resting stage
several cases it has been
found to give the chemical may be assumed as the result of drying, but also from other and
reaction of cellulose. It unknown causes. The flagel-
is smooth or variously ium withdrawn and the
is
sculptured according to protoplasm, becoming spheri-
d the species. Within the cal, secretes a cyst wall. The
protoplasm may be seen organism thus passes into the
the nucleus, and one or condition of a micrpcyst, from
more contractile vacuoles which when dry it may be
After A. Lister.
make their appearance. awakened to renewed activity
FIG. in the Hatching of the After the spore has lain by wetting.
l.^Stages
of At the end of the zoospore
Spores Dtdymium difforme. in water for a pe riod
a, The unruptured spore. stage the organism
varying from a few hours finally
b. The protoplasmic contents of the spore to a withdraws its flagellum and
day or two the wall
emerging It contains a nucleus with bursts and the contained assumes the amoeboid shape.
the (light) nucleolus, and a contractile It is now known as an amoe-
protoplasm slips out and The amoebulae become
vacuole (shaded). lies free in the water as a
bula.
c The same, free from the spore wall. minute colourless mass, endowed, as was first recog-
with nucleus at the base of nized by Cienkowski, with
d, Zoospore
presenting amoeboid mutual attraction, and on
the flageilum, and contractile vacuole. movements It After A. Lister,
(fig I c)
e, A zoospore with pseudopodial processes soon assumes an meeting fuse with one another.
elongated FlG 4- Amoebulae of Dtdymium
at the posterior end, to one of which m Fig. 4 represents a group of
-
r ifor shape, and a
a bacillus adheres. Two digestive pi fl age llum is developed at
such amoebulae. Several difforme uniting to form a Plas-
vacuoles in the interior contain in- the narrow end, have already united to form medium. The common mass
attaining
gested bacilli. a length equal to the rest a common mass, to which contains digestive vacuoles ().
/, Amoeboid phase with retracted o f tne body. The minute others, still are con- The
free,
clear spherical bodies are
nagellum. verging. The
protoplasmic microcysts
and an empty spore-
zoospore, thus equipped, she11 seen to the left
swims away with a characteristic dancing motion. The proto- mass thus arising is the plas- ls -
plasm is granular within but hyaline externally (fig. I, d). The medium. The
fusion between
the protoplasmic bodies of the amoebulae which unite to form it is
nucleus, lying at the end of the body where it tapers into the
flagellum, is limited by a definite wall and contains a nuclear complete. Their nuclei may be traced for some time in the young
network and a nucleolus. It often plasmodium and no fusion between them has been observed at this
presents the appearance of being stage (20). As the plasmodium increases in size by the addition of
drawn out into a point towards the amoebulae the task of following the fate of the individual nuclei by
direct observation becomes impossible.
flagellum, and a bell-like structure
The appearance of an active plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis,
[first described by Plenge (27)],
which, as we have seen, lives and feeds on certain fungi, is shown in
staining more darkly than the rest
of the protoplasm, extends from the fig. 5. It consists of a film of protoplasm, of a bright yellow colour,
base of the flagellum and invests varying in size up to a foot or more in diameter. It is traversed
the nucleus (fig. 2, a and c). The by a network of branching and anastomosing channels, which divide
other end of the zoospore may be up and are gradually lost as they approach the margin where the
evenly rounded (fig. I, d) or it may protoplasm forms a uniform and lobate border. Elsewhere the
be produced into short pseudo-
podia (fig. I e). By means of these
,
the zoospore captures bacteria
which are drawn into the body and
FIG. 2 ZoospotesolBodhamw enc i osed in digestive vacuoles. A
pamcea stained (X.650). contractile vacuole is also present
In a and c the bell-like struc- near the hind end. Considerable
ture investing the nucleus is movement be observed among
may
clearly seen. tne granules of the interior, and
in the large zoospores of Amaurochaete atra this may amount to an
actual streaming, though without the rhythm characteristic of the
plasmodial stage.
Other shapes may be temporarily assumed by the zoospore.
Attaching itself to an object it
may become amoeboid, either with
(fig. I, /) or without (fig. 2, c) the
temporary retraction of the flagel-
lum; or it may take an elongated
a,
slug-like shape and creep with the
After A. Lister. flagellum extended in front, with
FIG. 3. Three stages in the tactile and apparently exploratory
division of the Zoospore of movements. FIG. 5. Part of the Plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis (X 8).
Reticularia Lycoperdon (X That the zoospores of many main trunks of the network may lie free with little or no connecting
1000). species of the Endosporeae feed on film between them and their neighbours. The plasmodia of other
bacteria has been shown by A.
species, which live in the interstices of decaying vegetable matter,
Lister (18). New light has recently been thrown on the matter are less easily observed, but on emerging on the surface prior to
by Pinoy (26), who has worked chiefly with Sorophora, in which,
as shown below, the active phase of the life-history is passed 2
Pinoy states (26) that the spores of Spumaria alba, cultivated
Figures i, 4, and 11-22 are from the British Museum Guide to
1
with bacteria on solid media, hatch out into amoebae, which under
the British Mycetozoa. The other figures are from Lankester's these conditions do not assume the flagellate stage. The amoeba
Treatise on Zoology, part I. Introduction and Protozoa. Fascicle I. from a spore was observed to give rise by three successive divisions
Article Mycetozoa. to eight amoebulae.
MYCETOZOA 107
spore formation they present
an essentially similar appearance. Prowazek (28) has recently referred to nuclear stages, similar to
There is, however, great variety in the degree of concentration or those here regarded as of amitotic division, but has interpreted
expansion presented by plasmodia, in relation with food supply, them as nuclear fusions. He does not, however, discuss the mode
moisture and other circumstances. The plasmodia move slowly of multiplication of nuclei in the plasmodium.
about over or in the substratum, concentrating in regions where food In the
group of
the Calcareae, granules of carbonate of lime are
supply is abundant, and leaving those where it is exhausted. abundant in the plasmodia, and in all Mycetozoa other granules of
On examining under the microscope a film which has spread over undetermined nature are present. The colour of plasmodia varies
a cover-slip, the channels are seen to be streams of rapidly moving in different species, and may be yellow, white, pink, purple or green.
granular protoplasm. This movement is rhythmic in character, The colouring matter is in the form of minute drops, and in the
being directed alternately towards the margin of an advancing Calcareae these invest the lime granules.
region of the plasmodium, and away from it. As a channel is Nutrition. The plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis, advancing
watched the stream of granules is seen to become slower, and after over the pilei of suitable fungi, feeds on the superficial layer dissolving
a momentary pause to begin in the opposite direction. In an active the walls of the hyphae (!<[) The protoplasm may be seen to
plasmodium the duration of the flow in either direction varies from contain abundant foreign bodies such as spores of fungi or sclerotium
a minute and a half to two minutes, though it is always longer when cysts (vide infra) which have been taken in and are undergoing
in the direction of the general advance over the substratum. When digestion. It has been found experimentally (n) that pieces of
the flow of the protoplasm is in this latter direction the border be- coagulated proteids are likewise taken in and digested in vacuoles.
comes turgid, and lobes of hyaline protoplasm are seen (under a high On the other hand it has been found that plasmodia will live,
1
magnification) to start forward, and soon to become filled with granu- ultimately producing sporangia, in nutrient solutions (o). It would
lar contents. When the flow is reversed, the margin becomes thin appear therefore that the nutrition of plasmodia is effected in part
from the drainage away of its contents. A delicate hyaline layer by the ingestion of solid foodstuffs, and in part by the absorption
invests the plasmodium, and is apparently less fluid than the material of material in solution, and that there is great variety in the com-
flowing in the channels. The phenomena of the rhythmic movement plexity of the substances which serve as their food.
of the protoplasm are not inconsistent with the view that they result Sclerotium. As the result of drought, the plasmodium, having
from alternating contraction and relaxation of the outer layer in become much denser by loss of water, passes into the sclerotial
different regions of the plasmodium, but any dogmatic statement as condition. Drawing together into a
to their causation appears at present inadvisable. thickish layer, the protoplasm divides
up into a number of distinct masses,
each containing some 10 to 20 nuclei,
and a cyst wall is excreted round each
mass (fig. 7). The whole has now a
hard brittle consistency. In this state
the protoplasm will remain alive for
two or three years. On the addition
of water the cyst walls are ruptured FIG. 7.
..
Section
and in part absorbed, their contents Plasmodium of Badhamia
join together, and the active streaming utnculans when passing into
i
condition of the plasmodium is re- tne condition of sclerotium.
sumed. It is to be noted, however, . The nuclei contained in
that the sclerotial condition may be * he young sclerotial cysts,
assumed under other conditions than dryness, and sclerotia may
even be formed in water.
The existence of the sclerotial stage affords a ready means of
obtaining the plasmodium for experimental purposes. If a cultiva-
tion of the plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis on suitable fungi
(Stereum, Auricularia) is allowed to become partially dry the plas-
modium draws together and would, if drying were continued, pass
into the sclerotial stage on the fungus. If now strips of wet blotting-
paper are placed so as to touch the plasmodium, the latter, attracted
by the moisture, crawls on the blotting-paper. If this is now removed
,
and allowed to dry rapidly, the plasmodium passes into sclerotium
.u*. ;*-'-:
* /\ on it. 2 By this means the plasmodium is removed from the partially
disintegrated and decayed fungus on which it has been feeding, and
a clean sclerotium is obtained, which, as above stated, remains alive
for years (21, p. 7). An easy method for obtaining small plasmodia
for microscopic examination is to scatter small fragments,
FIG. 6. scraped
from a piece of the hard sclerotium, over cover-slips wetted with
a. Part of a stained Plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis.
rain-water and
n, Nuclei (X no). kept in a moist atmosphere. In twelve to twenty-
four hours small plasmodia will be seen spreading on the cover-slips
b. Nuclei, some in process of simple (amitotic) division (X 500). and these may be mounted for observation.
c. Part of a Plasmodium in which the nuclei are in simultaneous
The plasmodial stage ends by the formation of the sporangia.
mitotic division.
The plasmodium withdraws from the interstices of the material
d-f, Other stages in this process (X 650). among which it has fed, and emerges on the surface in a diffuse or
Minute vacuoks be seen in great numbers in the concentrated mass. In the case of Badhamia utricularis it may with-
contractile may draw from the fungus on which it has been feeding, or change into
thin parts of the plasmodium between the channels. In stained
sporangia on it. The mode of formation of the sporangia will be
preparations nuclei, varying (in Badhamia utricularis) from 2-5 to described in the case of Badhamia, some of the chief differences in
5 micrornillimeters in diameter, are found abundantly in the granular
the process and in the structure of the sporangia in other forms
protoplasm (fig. 6, b). They contain a nuclear reticulum and one
or more well-marked nucleoli. In any stained being subsequently noticed.
plasmodium some When the change to sporangia begins the protoplasm of the
nuclei may be found, as shown in the figure b, which appear to be
in some stage of and this is, presumably, plasmodium becomes gradually massed in discrete rounded lobes,
simple (amitotic) division, about a half to one millimeter in diameter and scattered in clusters
the chief mode in which the number of the nuclei keeps pace with
the rapidly growing There over the area occupied by the plasmodium. The reticulum of
plasmodium. is, however, another mode
channels of the
of nuclear division in the plasmodium which has hitherto been plasmodium becomes meanwhile less and less
marked. When the whole of the
observed in one recorded instance (19, p. 541), the mitotic (fig. 6, c-f), is drawn in to the
protoplasm
and this appears to befall all the nuclei of a plasmodium simul- lobes, the circulation ceases. The lobes are the young sporangia.
Meanwhile foreign bodies, taken in with the food, are ejected, and
taneously. What the relation of these two modes of nuclear division
may be to the life-history is obscure. the protoplasm secretes on its outer surface a pellicle of mucoid,
That the amitotic is the usual mode of nuclear division is indicated transparent substance which dries as the sporangia ripen. This
invests the young sporangia, and as they rise above the substratum
by the very frequent occurrence of these apparently dividing nuclei
and also by the following experiment. A plasmodium of Badhamia falls together at their bases forming the stalks; extended over the
substratum it forms the hypothallus, and in contact with the
utricularis
spreading over pieces of the fungus Auricularia' was rounded surface of the sporangium it forms the sporangium-wall.
observed to increase in size about fourfold in fourteen hours, and
While the sporangium-wall is formed externally a secretion of
during this time a small sample was removed and stained every
quarter of an hour. The later stainings showed no diminution in 1
A solution which has thus been found favourable contains
the number of nuclei in proportion to the
protoplasm, and yet none
of the sample showed any sign of mitotic division
the following mineral salts: KH
2 PO, K
8 HPO 4 ,MgSO <> KNOj,
(20, p. 9).
would appear therefore that the mode of increase of the nuclei
It CA (NOs)j, a free acid, and 5% of dextrine.
*
during If the plasmodium is slowly dried it is to
this period was amitotic. very apt pass into
sporangia.
io8 MYCETOZOA
similar material occurs along branching and anastomosing tracts spores. A spore-wall is soon secreted and the sporangium has now
through the protoplasm of the sporangium, giving rise to the resolved itself into a mass of spores, traversed by the strands of
capilhtium. The greater part of the lime granules pass out of the the capillitium and enclosed in a sporangium-wall, connected with
protoplasm and are deposited in the capilhtium, which in the ripe the substratum by a stalk. As ripening proceeds, the wall becomes
sporangia of Badhamia is white and brittle with the contained lime membranous and readily ruptures, and the dry spores may be carried
(cf. fig. 8). In this genus some granules are found also in the abroad on the currents of air or washed out by rain.
sporangium-wall. Strasburger concludes that the sporangium-wall
of Trichia is a modification of cellulose (29).
FIG. 13. Chondrioderma testa- FIG. 14. Cralerium peduncula-
ceum. turn.
a, GroupofthreeSporangia(X9). a, Two Sporangia, in one the lid
b, Capillitium, fragment of spor- has fallen away (X 10).
angium-wall and spores (X b, Capillitium with lime knots
170). and spores (X no).
We may now review some of the main differences in structure
presented by the sporangia. They may be stalked or sessile (fig.
13). If the former, the stalk is usually, as in Badhamia utricularis,
FIG. 8. Sporangia of Badhamia panicea, some intact, others (to
left) ruptured, exposing the black masses of spores and the
capillitium. The latter is white with deposited lime granules.
An empty sporangium is seen above (X 30).
It has been stated (16), but the observation requires confirmation,
that a fusion of the nuclei in pairs occurs early in the development FIG. 15. Didymium effusum.
of the sporangium. a. Two Sporangia, one showing FIG. 16. Lepidoderma tigrinum.
the columella and capillitium
c, Sporangium ( X 6) the crystal-
;
(X 12). line disks of lime are seen
b, Capillitium, fragment of spor- attached to the sporangium-
angium-wall with carbonate
wall.
1
"^ b, Capillitium and spores (X 140).
(x'isop)!
the continuation of the sporangium-walls (figs, 12), in n and but
Stemonitis and its allies (figs. 17 and 18) it is an axial structure.
A central columella may project into the interior of the sporangium,
either in stalked (fig. 15) or sessile (fig. 13) forms.
FIG. 9. Part of a section
through a young Sporangium FIG. 10. Part of a section
of Trichivaria, showing the through a Sporangium of Trichia
mitotic division of the nuclei (n) varia after the spores are formed
prior to spore formation. (X 650).
c, Capillitium thread (X 650). FIG. 17. Lamproderma irlaeum. FIG. 18. Stemonitis splendens.
At a later stage, after the capillitium is formed, the nuclei undergo a a, Sporangia (X 2%). a, Group of Sporangia (nat. size).
mitotic division which affects all the nuclei of a sporangium simul- 6, A Sporangium deprived of b, Portion of columella and capil-
taneously. This was first described by Strasburger (29). While it spores, showing the capillitium litium, the latter branching to
and remains of the sporangium- form a superficial network
wall (X 25). (X 42)-
The sporangium-wall may be most delicate and evanescent (fig. 1 7) ,
or consist of a superficial network of threads (fig. 18), which in
Dictydium (fig. 19) present a beautifully regular arrangement.
FIG. 12. Physarum nutans.
FIG. n. Badhamia utricularis.
a. Sporangia (X 9).
a, Sporangia (X 3i). b, Capillitium threads, with frag-
b, Capillitium and cluster of ment of the sporangium-wall
spores (X 140). attached, lime knots at the
junctions and spores (X no). FIG. 19. Dictydium umblicatum. FIG. 20. Arcyria punicca.
is inprogress the protoplasm of the sporangium divides., into succes- a. Group of Sporangia, nat. size, a, Group of Sporangia (X 2).
sively smaller masses, until each daughter nucleus is the centre of a b, A Sporangium after dispersion b, Capillitium (X 560).
single mass of protoplasm.
1
These nucleated masses are the young of the spores (X 20). c, Spore (X 560).
1
In some genera such as Arcyria and Trichia (illustrated in figs. 9 In Chondrioderma (fig. 13) the wall is double, the inner layer being
membranous, the outer thickly encrusted with lime granules. In
and 10) the division of the protoplasm does not occur until the nuclei
have undergone this division. The protoplasm then divides up Cralerium the upper part of the sporangium-wall is lid-like and falls
about the daughter nuclei to form the spores. away, leaving the spores in an open cup (fig. 14).
MYCETOZOA 109
The condition In the Calcari-
of the capiliitium is very various. (fig. 23, b). Each of these masses now grows out perpendicularly
neae the lime may be generally distributed through it (fig. n), or
"
to the surface of the sporophore. As it does so an envelope is
"
aggregated at the nodes of the network in lime-knots (figs. 12 and secreted, which, closing in about the base forms a slender stalk.
14) or it may be absent from the capiliitium altogether. The The minute mass, borne on the stalk, becomes the ellipsoid spore,
capiliitium attains its highest development in the Calonemineae surrounded by the spore-wall. In this manner the whole of the
in which the threads, distinct (in which case they are known as protoplasmic substance of the plasmodium is converted into spores,
elaters, figs. 9 and 10) or united into a network (fig. 20), present borne on supporting structures (stalks and sporophores) which are ,
regular thickenings in the form of spiral bands or transverse bars. formed by secretion of the protoplasm.
These threads, altering their shape with varying states of moisture, In the course of the development of which the external features
are efficient agents in distributing the spores. In another group, have now been traced nuclear changes occur of which accounts have
the Anemineae, the capiliitium is absent altogether. been given by Jahn (14) and by Olive (24 and 25). Jahn has shown
The Didymiaceae are characterized by the fact that the lime, that prior to the cleavage of the protoplasm a mitotic division of
though present in a granular form in the plasmodium, is deposited the nuclei takes place, the daughter nuclei of which are those
on the sporangium-wall in the form of crystals, either in radiating occupying the protoplasmic masses seen in fig. 23 b.
1
After the
groups (fig. 15) or in disks (fig. 16). spore has risen on its stalk two further mitotic divisions occur in
In most Endosporeae the sporangia are separate symmetrical rapid succession, and the four-nucleated condition characteristic
bodies, but in many genera a form of fructification occurs in which of the spore of Ceratiomyxa, is thus attained. The spores, on being
brought into water, soon hatch (fig. 23, d), and the four nuclei
contained in them undergo a mitotic division. Meanwhile the
protoplasm divides, at first into four, then into eight masses, and
the latter acquire flagella, although for some time remaining con-
nected with their fellows (fig. 23, e-h). On separating each is a free
zoospore.
From observation of cultivations of zoospores the impression is
that here, as in the Endosporeae, they multiply by binary division,
though no exact observations of the process have been recorded.
The zoospores lose their flagella and become amoebulae, but the
fusion of the latter to form plasmodia has not been directly observed
FIG. 21. Fuligo septica. FIG. 22" Licea flexuosa. in Ceratiomyxa, although from analogy with the Endosporeae it
a, Aethalium ( X 1). a, Groupof Plasmodiocarps (X2). can hardly be doubted that such fusions occur.
b, Capiliitium threads (with b, A continuous Plasmodiocarp Sorophora.
lime-knots) and two spores (X 6).
(X The Sorophoraof Zopf (Acrasiae of Van Tieghem) are a group of
120). c, Spores (X 200).
the spores are produced in masses of more or less irregular outline, microscopic organisms inhabit-
ing the dung of herbivorous
retaining in extreme cases much of the diffuse character of the plas-
modium. With the spores they contain capiliitium, but there are animals and other decaying
no traces of sporangial walls to be found in their interior. They are vegetable matter. As Pinoy
known as plasmodiocarps (fig. 22). They are characteristic of certain (26) has shown, the presence of
a particular species of bacteria
species, but in others they may be formed side by side with separate
with the spores is necessary
sporangia from the same plasmodium. There is indeed no sharp for their hatching and as the
line to be drawn between sporangia and plasmodiocarps. On the essential food of the amoebulae
other hand, the crowded condition of the sporangia of some species
forms a transition to the large compound fructifications known which emerge from them. There
is no flagellate stage, and it
as aethalia (fig. 21). These, either in their young stages or up to
is in the form of amoebulae,
maturity, retain some evidence of their formation by a coalescence
of sporangia, and in addition to the capiliitium they are generally multiplying by fission, that the
penetrated by the remains of the walls of the sporangia which have vegetative stage of the life-
thus united. history is passed. At the end
of this stage numbers of amoe-
Exosporeae. bulae draw together to form
It will be convenient to begin our survey of the "
life-history a This
of Ceratiomyxa, the single pseudo-plasmodium."
appears to be merely an aggre-
representative of the Exo-
gation of amoebulae prior to
sporeae, at the stage at
which the plasmodium spore formation. The outlines
of the individual amoebulae are
emerges from the rotten
wood in which it has fed. maintained, and there is no fu-
sion between them, as in the
At this stage it has been
formation of the plasmodium
observed to spread as a film
of the Euplasmodida.
over a slide, and to exhibit
In some genera certain of the
the network of channels and
amoebulae constituting the
rhythmic flow of the proto-
in a manner precisely pseudo-plasmodium are modi-
plasm fied into a stalk (simple in
similar to that seen in the
Guttulina and Dictyostelium,
Endosporeae (20, p. 10). It
branched in Polysphondylium,
soon, draws to-
however,
fig. 24, d), along which the From Lankester's Treatise on
gether into compact masses, other units to encyst, a and b after Fayod ; c and d after
From the surface of which creep from Zopf.
and become spores at the end
or
In"other FlG 2 4-
finger-like antler-like a and
or ends of the" stalk. -
6, Copromyxa pro-
lobes grow upwards. Here ,
tea > slightly magnified.
too the secretion of a trans-
cases (Copromyxa, fig. 24, a
and 6) the pseudo-plasmodium c and d, Polysphondylium via-
parent mucoid substance
is transformed into a mass of laceum.
occurs, which
at first
is
c A
encysted spores without the 1
< young sorus, seen in optical
From Lankcster's Treatise on Zoology; figs, o penetrated by the anasto- differentiation of section. A mass of elongated
and c-h after A. Lister; 6g. b after Fatnintzin Strands of the supporting
mosing structures. amoebulae are grouped round
and Woronin.
protoplasm, but gradually It is not impossible that the the stalk, and others are ex-
FIG. 23.Ceratiomyxa mucida. the latter tends more and tended about the base (X 165).
more to form a reticular and Myxobacteriaceae of Thaxter
a, Ripe sporophore (X 40). A sorus approaching maturity
may, as that author suggests, be
6, Maturing sporophore showing the ultimately a nearly continu- allied to the (X 30).
ous superficial investment, Sorophora (30).
development of the spores. Review of the Life-Histories of the Mycetozoa. The data for a
c, Ripe spore. covering the mucoid ma-
Instead of the single
nucleus here indicated there shouldterial. The latter even- comparison of the life-history of the Mycetozoa with those of other
Protozoa in respect of nuclear changes are at present incomplete.
be four nuclei, as in d. tually dries and forms the
d, Hatching spore. exceedingly delicate support '
'Jahn (14) described two mitotic divisions at this stage, but in
e-h. Stages in the development of the of the spores or sporophore Myxomycetenstudien 7 Ceratiomyxa," Ber. deut. hot. Gesellsch.
xxvi. a (1908) he shows that
only one mitotic division occurs in the
zoospores. (fig. 23, a).
The investing proto- maturing sporophore prior to cleavage. Olive gives a preliminary
plasm, with its nuclei, having become
arranged in an even account of a fusion of nuclei prior to cleavage, but as he has not
layer, undergoes cleavage and thus forms a pavement-like seen the mitotic division which certainly occurs at this
stage hia
layer of protoplasmic masses, each occupied by a single nucleus results cannot be accepted as secure.
I IO MYCONIUS, F. MYDDELTON
At some stage or other we are led by analogy to expect that a rise to proud uses of the word as it appears in various places
division of nuclei would occur in which the number of chromosomes in the Vulgate, whereas Myconius, from the island Myconus,
would be reduced by one half, that this would be followed by the
formation of gametes, and that the nuclei of the latter would subse- was a proverb for meanness. His schooling was in Lichtenfels
quently fuse in karyogamy. and at Annaberg, where he had a memorable encounter with
It is clear that both in the Endosporeae and Exosporeae a mitotic the. Dominican, Tetzel, his point being that indulgences should
division of nuclei immediately precedes spore-formation. This is His teacher,
be given pauperibus gratis. Staffelstein, persuaded
regarded by Jahn as a reduction division. If this is the case, the him to enter (July 14, 1510) the Franciscan cloister. That same
zoospores or the amoebulae must in some way represent the gametes.
The fusion of the latter to form plasmodia appears to offer a pro- night a pictorial dream turned his thoughts towards the
cess comparable with the conjugation of gametes, but though the religious standpoint which he subsequently reached as a
fusion of the protoplasm of the amoebulae has been often observed no Lutheran. From Annaberg he passed to Franciscan commu-
fusion of their nuclei (karyogamy) has been found to accompany it.
nities at Leipzig and Weimar, where he was ordained priest
A fusion of nuclei has indeed been described as occurring in the
plasmodium, or at stages in the development of the sporangia or (1516); he had endeavoured to satisfy his mind with scholastic
" "
sporophores, but in no case can the evidence be regarded as satis- divinity, but next year his eyes and ears were opened by
factory.
1
Until we have clear evidence on this point the nuclear the theses of Luther, whom he met when Luther touched at
history of the mycetozoa must remain incomplete. Weimar on his way to Augsburg. For six years he preached
Jahn's observation of the mitotic division of nuclei preceding
spore-formation in Ceratiomyxa gives a fixed point for comparison his new under difficulties, in various seats of his order,
gospel,
of the Exosporeae with the Endosporeae. Starting from this divi- lastly atZwickau, whence he was called to Gotha (Aug. 1524)
sion it seems clear that the spore of Ceratiomyxa is comparable
with the spore of the Endosporeae except that the nucleus of the
by Duke John at the general desire. Here he married Margaret
former has undergone two mitotic divisions. Jacken, a lady of good family. He was intimately connected
LITERATURE. (i) A. de Bary, " Die Mycetozoen," Zeitschr.f. wiss. with the general progress of the reforming movement, and
"
Zool., x. 88 (1860). (2) Die Mycetozoen," (2nd ed., Leipzig, was especially in the confidence of Luther. Twice he was
1864). (3) Comparative Morphology and Biology of the Fungi, entrusted (1528 and 1533) with the ordering of the churches and
Mycetozoa and Bacteria, " translation (Oxford, Clarendon Press, schools in Thuringia. In all the religious disputations and
1887). (4) O. Butschli, Protozoa, "Abth. g, Sarcodina," Bronn's
Thierreich, Bd. i. (5) L. Cienkowski, Die Pseudogonidien," Pring- conferences of the time he took a leading part. At the Con-
"
sheim's Jahrbiicher, i. 371. (6) Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der vention of Smalkald (1537) he signed the articles on his own
Myxomyceten," Pringsheim's Jahrbiicher, iii. 325 (pub. 1862). behalf and that of his friend Justus Menius. In 1538 he was in
(7)" Das Plasmodium, ibid. p. 400(1863). (8)" Beitrage zur Kennt-
niss der Monaden," Arch. f. mikr. Anal. i. 203 (1865). (9) J. C. England, as theologian to the embassy which hoped to induce
Constantineanu,
"
Ueber die Entwicklungsbedingungen der Myxo- Henry VIII. on the basis of the Augsburg Confession, to make
myceten," Annales mycologiti, "
Vierter Jahrg. (Dec. 1906). (io) A. common cause with the Lutheran reformation; a project which
Famintzin and M. Woronin, Ueber zwei neue Formen von Schleim- Myconius caustically observed might have prospered on con-
pilzen Ceratium hydnoides, A. und Sch., and C. porioides, A. und dition that Henry was allowed to be pope. Next year he was
Sch.," Mem. de Vacad. imp. d. sciences de St Petersburg, series 7, T. 20,
"
No. 3 (1873). (11) M. Greenwood and E. R. Saunders, On the R61e employed in the cause of the Reformation in Leipzig. Not
of Acid in Protozoan Jour, xvi. 441 (1894). the least important part of his permanent work in Gotha was
"Digestion," of Physiology,
(12) R. A. Harper, Cell and Nuclear Division in Fuligo varians," the founding and endowment of its gymnasium. In 1541 his
"
Botanical Gazette, vol. 30, No. 4, p. 217 (1900). (13) E. Jahn, Myxo- health was failing, but he lived till the 7th of April 1546. He
mycetenstudien 3. Kernteilung u. Geisselbildung bei den Schwarmern
von Stemonitis flaccida, Lister," Bericht d. deutschen botanischen had nine children, four of whom were living in 1542.
" Though he published a good many tracts and pamphlets, Myconius
Gesellschaft, Bd. 22 p. 84 (1904). (14) Myxomycetenstudien 6.
und ibid. Bd. 25, was not distinguished as a writer. His Historia reformationis
Kernverschmelzungen Reduktionsteilungen,' ,
p. 23 (1907). (15) W. Saville Kent,
"
The Myxomycetes or Myceto- referring especially to Gotha, was not printed till 1715. See Mel-
chior Adam, Vitae theologorum (1706); J. G. Bosseck, F. Myconii
zoa; Animals or Plants?" Popular Science Review, n.s., v. 97
(1881). (16) H. Kranzlin,
"
Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Spor- Memoriam .
(1739) C. K. G. Lommatzsch, Narratio de F. Myconio
. .
;
angien bei den Trichien und Arcyrien," Arch. f. Protistenkunde,
(1825); K. F. Ledderhose, F. Myconius (1854); also in Allgemeine
" deutsche Biog. (1886); O. Schmidt and G. Kawerau in Hauck's
Bd. ix. Heft. I, p. 170 (1907). (17) A. Lister, Notes on the Plasmo-
dium of Badhamia utricularis and Brefeldia maxima," Ann. of Realencyklopadie (1903). (A. Go.*)
"
Botany, vol. ii. No. 5 (1888). (18) On the Ingestion of Food Material MYCONIUS, OSWALD (1488-1552), Zwinglian divine, was
by the Swarm-Cells of "
the Mycetozoa," Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot) born at Lucerne in 1488. His family name was Geisshiisler;
xxv. 435 (1889). (19) On the Division of Nuclei in the Mycetozoa,"
Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.) vol. xxix. (1893). (2 )
"
A Monograph of his father was a miller; hence he was also called MOLITORIS.
the Mycetozoa," British Museum Catalogue (London, 1894). (21) The name Myconius seems to have been given him by Erasmus.
"
Presidential Address to the British Mycological Society," Trans.
"
From the school at Rottweil, on the Neckar, he went (1510)
Brit. Mycological Soc. (1906). (22) A. and G. Lister, Synopsis of to the university of Basel, and became a good classic. From
the Orders, Genera and Species of Mycetozoa," Journal ofBotany,
vol. xlv. (May 1907). (23) E. W. Olive,
"
Monograph of the 1514 he obtained schoolmaster posts at Basel, where he married,
Acrasiae," Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. History, vol. xxx. No. 6 (1902). and made the acquaintance of Erasmus and of Holbein, the
"
(24) Evidences of Sexual Reproduction in the Slime Moulds," painter. In 1516 he was called, as schoolmaster, to Zurich,
"
Science, n.s., xxv. 266 (Feb. 1907). (25) Cytological Studies in where (1518) he attached himself to the reforming party of
Ceratiomyxa, Trans. Wisconsin Acad. of Sciences, Arts and Letters,
"
Role desbacteries Zwingli. This led to his being transferred to Lucerne, and
vol. xv.,
pt.
ii. p. 753 (Dec. 1907). (26) E. Pinoy,
dans le developpement de certains Myxomycetes," Ann. de I'institut again (1523) reinstated at Zurich. On the death of Zwingli
"
Pasteur, T. xxi. pp. 622 and 686 (1907). (27) H. Plenge, Ueber (1531) he migrated to Basel, and there held the office of town's
die Verbindungen zwischen Geissef u. Kern bei den Schwarmer- and (till 1541) the chair of New Testament exegesis.
preacher,
zellen d. Mycetozoen," Verh. d. nvturhist.-med. Vereins zu Heidelberg,
N.F. Bd. vi. Heft 3 (1899). (28) S. von Prowazek " Kernverander- His spirit was comprehensive; in confessional matters he was for
ungen in Oesterreich. botan. Zeitschr. a union of all Protestants; though a Zwinglian, his readiness
Myxomycetenplasmodien," "
Bd. 278 (1904). (29) E. Strasburger,
liv. p. Zur Entwickelungs- to compromise with the advocates of consubstantiation gave
geschichte d. Sporangien " von Trifhia fallax," Botanische Zeitung him trouble with the Zwinglian stalwarts. He had, however,
(1884). (30) R. Thaxter, On the Myxobacteriaceae, a new order of a distinguished follower in Theodore Bibliander. He died on
Schizomycetes," Botanical Gazette, xvii. 389 (1892). (31) W. Zopf,
" the I4th of October 1552.
Die Pilzthiere oder Schleimpilze," Schenk's Handbuch der Botanik
(1887). O.J-LR-) Among his several tractates, the most important is De H. Zimnglii
vita et obitu (1536), translated into English by Henry Bcnnet
MYCONIUS, FRIEDRICH (1400-1546), Lutheran divine, was See Melchior Adam, Vita theologorum (1620); M. Kirch-
(1561).
born on the 26th of December 1490, at Lichtenfels on the Main,
hofer, O. Myconius (1813); K. R. Hagenbach, J. Oekolampad und
of worthy and pious parents, whose family name, Mecum, gave O. Myconius (1859); F. M. Ledderhose, in Allgemeine deutsche Biog.
1
In the work cited in the last footnote Jahn described a fusion (1886) ; B. Riggenbach and Egli, in Hauck's Realencyklopadie (1903).
of nuclei as occurring in Ceratiomyxa at the stage at which the (A. Go.*)
plasmodium is emerging to form sporophores. Jahn was at first MYDDELTON (or MIDDLETON), SIR HUGH, BART. (c. 1560-
inclined to regard this fusion as the sexual karyogamy of the life-
cycle, but the writer learns by correspondence (July 1910) that he
1631), contractor of the New
River scheme for supplying London
is inclined to regard this fusion as pathological, ana to look for the with water, was a younger son of Sir Richard Myddelton,
essential karyogamy elsewhere. governor of Denbigh Castle. Hugh became a successful London
MYELAT MYERS in
goldsmith, occupying a shop in Bassihaw, or Basinghall Street; nerve-substance being replaced by connective tissue. Myelitis
he made money by commercial ventures on the Spanish main, may affect any portion of the spinal cord, and its symptoms and
being associated in these with Sir Walter Raleigh; and he was progress will vary accordingly. Its most frequent site is in
also interested in cloth-making. He was an alderman, and then the lower part, and its existence there is marked by the sudden
recorder of Denbigh, and was member of parliament for this or gradual occurrence of weakness of motor power in the legs
borough from 1603 to 1628. In 1609 Myddelton took over from (which tends to pass into complete paralysis), impairment or
the corporation of London the projected scheme for supplying loss of sensibility in the parts implicated, nutritive changes
the city with water obtained from springs near Ware, in Hert- affecting the skin and giving rise to bed-sores, together with
fordshire. For this purpose he made a canal about 10 ft. wide bladder and bowel derangements. In the acute form, in which
and 4 ft. deep and over 38 m. in length, which discharged its there is at first pain in the region of the spine and much con-
waters into a reservoir at Islington called the New River Head. stitutional disturbance, death may take place rapidly from
The completion of this great undertaking put a severe strain extension of the disease to those portions of the cord connected
upon Myddelton 's financial resources, and in 1612 he was with the muscles of respiration and the heart, from an acute
monetary assistance from James I. The
successful in securing bed-sore, which is very apt to form, or from some intercurrent
work was completed in 1613 and Myddelton was made the first disease. Recovery to a certain extent may, however, take
governor of the company, which, however, was not a financial place; or, again, the disease may pass into the chronic form.
success until after his death. In recognition of his services he In the latter the progress is usually slow, the general health
was made a baronet in 1622. Myddelton was also engaged in remaining tolerably good for a time, but gradually the strength
working some lead and silver mines in Cardiganshire and in fails,the patient becomes more helpless, and ultimately sinks
reclaiming a piece of the Isle of Wight from the sea. He died exhausted or is cut off by some complication. The chief
on the loth of December 1631, and was buried in the church of causes of myelitis are injuries or diseases affecting the spinal
St Matthew, Friday Street, London. He had a family of ten column, extension of inflammation from the membranes of the
sons and six daughters. cord to its substance (see MENINGITIS), exposure to cold and
One of Sir Hugh's brothers was Sir Thomas Myddelton damp, and occasionally some pre-existing constitutional morbid
(c. 1550-1631), lord mayor of London, and another was William condition, such as syphilis or a fever. Any debilitating cause or
Myddelton (c. 1556-1621), poet and seaman, whc died at Antwerp excess in mode of life will act powerfully in predisposing to this
on the 27th of March 1621. malady. The disease is most common in adults. The treatment
Sir Thomas was a member of parliament under Queen Eliza- for myelitis in its acute stage is similar to that for spinal
beth and was chosen lord mayor on the 2oth of September 1613, meningitis. When the disease is chronic the most that can be
the day fixed for the opening of the New River. Under James I. hoped for is the relief of symptoms by careful nursing and
and Charles I. he represented the city of London in parliament, attention to the condition of the body and its functions. Good
and he helped Rowland Heylyn to publish the first popular is sometimes derived from massage and the use of baths and
edition of the Bible in Welsh. He died on the i2th of August douches to the spine.
1631. Sir Thomas's son and heir, Sir Thomas Myddelton MYERS, FREDERIC WILLIAM HENRY (1843-1901), English
(1586-1666), was a member of the Long Parliament, being an poet and essayist, son of Frederic Myers of Keswick author of
adherent of the popular party. After the outbreak of the Civil Lectures on Great Men (1856) andCatholic Thoughts (first collected
War he served in Shropshire and in north Wales, gaining a 1873), a book marked by a most admirable prose style was born
signal success over the royalists at Oswestry in July 1644, and at Keswick, Cumberland, pn the 6th of February 1843, and edu-
another at Montgomery in the following September. In 1659, cated at Cheltenham and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he
however, he joined the rising of the royalists under Sir George won a long list of honours and in 1865 was appointed classical
Booth, and in August of this year he was forced to surrender lecturer. He had no love for teaching, which he soon discon-
his residence, Chirk Castle. His eldest son, Thomas (d. 1663), tinued, but he took up his permanent abode at Cambridge in
was made a baronet in 1660, a dignity which became extinct 1872, when he became a school inspector under the Education
when William the 4th baronet died in 1718. Department. Meanwhile he published, in 1867, an unsuccessful
MYELAT, a division of the southern Shan States of Burma, essay for the Seatonian prize, a poem entitled St Paul, which met
including sixteen states, none of any great size, with a total at the hands of the general public with a success that would be
area of 3723 sq. m., and a population in 1901 of 119,415. difficult to explain, for it lacks sincerity and represents views
The name properly means " the unoccupied country," but it which the writer rapidly outgrew. It was followed by small
has been occupied for many centuries. All central Myelat and volumes of collected verses in 1870 and 1882: both are marked
great parts of the northern and southern portions consist of by a flow of rhetorical ardour which culminates in a poem of
"
rolling grassy downs quite denuded of jungle. It has a great real beauty, The Renewal of Youth," in the 1882 collection.
variey of different races, Taungthus and Danus being perhaps His best verse is in heroic couplets. Myers is more likely to
the most numerous. They are all more or less hybrid races. The be remembered by his two volumes of Essays, Classical and
chiefs of the Myelat are known by the Burmese title of gwegunh- Modern (1883). The essay on Virgil, by far the best thing he
mu, i.e. chiefs paying the revenue in silver. The amount ever wrote, represents the matured enthusiasm of a student and
paid by the chiefs to the British government is Rs. 99,567. a disciple to whom the exquisite artificiality and refined culture
The largest state, Loi L6ng, has an area of 1600 sq. m., a great of Virgil's method were profoundly congenial. Next to this in
part of which is barren hills. The smallest, Nam Hkon, had no value is the carefully wrought essay on Ancient Greek Oracles
more than 4 sq. m., and has been recently absorbed in a neigh- (this had first appeared in Hellenica). Scarcely less delicate
bouring state. The majority of the states cover less than in phrasing and perception, if less penetrating in insight, is the
"
loo sq. m. Under British administration the chiefs have powers monograph on Wordsworth (1881) for the English Men of
The chief cultivation "
of a magistrate of the second class. Letters In 1882, after several years of inquiry and
series.
besides rice is sugar-cane, and considerable quantities of crude discussion, Myers took the lead among a small band of explorers
sugar are exported. There is a considerable potato cultivation, (including Henry Sidgwick and Richard Hodgson, Edmund
which can be indefinitely extended when cheaper means of Gurney and F. Podmore), who founded the society for Psychical
export are provided. Wheat also grows very well. Research. He continued for many years to be the mouthpiece
MYELITIS (from Gr. juueXos, marrow) a disease which by of the society, a position for which his perfermdum ingenium,
inflammation induces destructive changes in the tissues com- still more abnormal fluency and alertness, admirably fitted
his
posing the spinal cord. In the acute variety the nerve elements him. Hecontributed greatly to the coherence of the society
in the affected part become disintegrated and softened, but by steering a mid-course between extremes (the extreme sceptics
repair may take place; in the chronic form the change is slower, on the one hand, and the enthusiastic spiritualists on the
and the diseased area tends to become denser (sclerosed), the other), and by helping to sift and revise the cumbrous mass of
112 MYINGYAN MYLODON
Proceedings, the chief concrete results being the two volumes of rhinoceros in bulk, differ in the shape of their cheek-teeth these ;
Phantasms of the Living (1886), to which he contributed the in- (five above and four below) being much smaller, with an ovate
troduction. Like many theorists, he had a faculty for ignoring section, and a cupped instead of a ridged crown-surface, thus
hard facts, and in his anxiety to generalize plausibly upon the resembling those of the.true sloths. In certain species of mylodon
alleged data, and to hammer out striking formulae,
his insight the front pair of teeth in each jaw is placed some distance in front
into the real character of the evidence may have left something of the rest and has the crown surface obliquely bevelled by
to be desired. His long series of papers on subliminal conscious-
ness, the results of which were embodied in a posthumous work
called Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death (2 vols.
1903), constitute his own chief contribution
to psychical theory.
This, as he himself would have been the first to admit, was little
more than provisional; but Professor William James has pointed
"
out that the series of papers on subliminal consciousness is the
first attempt to consider the phenomena of hallucination,
hypnotism, automatism, double personality and mediumship, as
connected parts of one whole subject." The last work published
in his lifetime was a small collection of essays, Science and a
Future Life (1893). He died at Rome on the i7th of January
1901, but was buried in his native soil at Keswick.
MYINGYAN, a district in the Meiktila division of Upper
Burma. It lies in the valley of the Irrawaddy, to the south of
Mandalay, on the east bank of the river. Area, 3137 sq. m.
Pop. (1901), 356,052, showing an increase of i% in the decade
and a density of 1 14 inhabitants to the square mile. The greater
part of the district is flat, especially to the north and along
the
From Owen.
banks of the Irrawaddy. Inland the country rises in gently Skeleton of Mylodon robustus (Pleistocene, South America).
undulating slopes. The most
noticeable feature is Popa hill,
an extinct volcano, in the south-eastern corner of the district. wearing against the corresponding teeth in the opposite jaw. On
The highest peak is 4962 ft. above sea-level. The climate is dry this account such species have been referred to a second genus,
and healthy, with high south winds from March till September. under the name of Leslodon, but the distinction scarcely seems
The annual averages about 35 in. The temperature
rainfall necessary. The skull is shorter and lower than in Megatherium,
varies between 106 The ordinary crops are millet,
and 70 F. without any vertical expansion of the middle of the lower jaw,
sesamum, cotton, maize, rice, gram, and a great variety of peas and the teeth also extend nearly to the front of the jaws; both
and beans. The district as a whole is not well watered, and most these features being sloth-like. In the fore feet the three inner
of the old irrigation tanks had fallen into disrepair before the toes have large claws, while the two outer ones are rudimentary
annexation. There are no forests, but a great deal of low scrub. and clawless; in the hind-limbs the first toe is wanting, as in
The lacquer ware of Nyaung-u and other villages near Pagan is Megatherium, but the second and third are clawed. The skin
noted throughout Burma. A considerable number of Chinese was strengthened by a number of small deeply-embedded bony
inhabit Myingyan and the larger villages. The headquarters nodules.
town, MYINGYAN, stands on the Irrawaddy, and had a population Although the typical M. harlani is North American, the
in 1901 of 16,139. It i the terminus of the branch railway
fi
mylodons are essentially a South American group, a few of the
through Meiktila to the main line from Mandalay to Rangoon. representatives of which effected an entrance into North America
The steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company also call here. when that continent became finally connected with South
A cotton-pressing machine was erected here in the time of America. Special interest attaches to the recent discovery in
independent Burma, and still exists. the cavern of Ultima Esperanza, South Patagonia, of remains of
MYITKYINA, the most northerly of the districts of Upper the genus Glossotherium, or Grypolherium, a near relative of
Burma in the Mandalay division, separated from Bhamo district Mylodon, but differing from it in having a bony arch connecting
in 1895. It is cut up into strips by comparatively low parallel the nasal bones of the skull with the premaxillae; these include
ranges of hills running in a general way north and south. The a considerable portion of the skin with the hair attached.
chief plain is that of Myitkyina, covering 600 sq. m. To the Ossicles somewhat resembling large coffee-berries had been
east of the Irrawaddy, which bisects the district, it is low-lying previously found in association with the bones of Mylodon, and in
and marshy. To the west it rises to a higher level, and is mostly Glossotherium nearly similar ossicles occur embedded on the
dry. Except in the hills inhabited by the Kachin tribes there inner side of the thick hide. The coarse and shaggy hair is
are practically no villages off the line of the Irrawaddy. The somewhat like that of the sloths. The remains, which include
Indawgyi lake, a fine stretch of water measuring 16 m. by 6, not only the skeleton and skin, but likewise the droppings, were
lies inthe south-west of the district. A very small amount of found buried in grass which appears to have been chopped
cultivation is carried on, mostly without irrigation. Area, up by man, and it thus seems not only evident that these
10,640 sq. m.; estimated population (1901) 67,399, showing a ground-sloths dwelt in the cave, but that there is a considerable
density of six persons to the square mile. More than half the total probability of their having been kept there in a semi-domesti-
are Kachins,who inhabit the hills on both sides of the Irrawaddy. cated state by the early human inhabitants of Patagonia. The
The headquarters town, MYITKYINA, had in 1901 a population of extremely fresh condition of the remains has given rise to the
3618. It is the limit of navigation on the Irrawaddy, and the idea that Glossotherium may still be living in the wilds of
terminus of the railway from Rangoon and Sagaing. Patagonia.
MYLODON (Gr. for " mill-tooth " from io>Ma> and 65ous), a Scelidotherium is another genus of large South American Pleisto-
cene ground-sloths, characterized, among other features, by the
genus of extinct American edentate mammals, typified by a
elongation and slenderness of the skull, which thus makes a decided
species (M harlani) from the Pleistocene of Kentucky and other
approximation to the anteater type, although retaining the full
.
parts of the United States, but more abundantly represented in series of cheek-teeth, which were, of course, essential to an herbi-
the corresponding formations of South America, especially vorous animal. The feet resemble those of Megatherium. \ much
smaller South American species represents the genus Nothrotherium.
Argentina and Brazil. The mylodons belong to the group of In North America Mylodon was accompanied by another gigantic
ground-sloths, and are generally included in the family Megath- the genus Megalonyx, in which the fore part of the
species typifying
eriidae, although sometimes made the type of a separate family. skull was usually wide, and the third and fourth front toes carried
From Megatherium these animals, which rivalled the Indian claws. Another genus has been described from the Pleistocene
MYLONITE MYRA
of Nebraska, as Paramylodon; it has only four pairs of teeth, and an gneisses contain pink garnet (often with kyanite or sillimanite)
elongate skull with an inflated muzzle. All the above genera differ they pass into normal granulites; limestones, if fossiliferous, become
from Megatherium in having a foramen on the inner side of the lower changed into finely crystalline masses, often fissile, sometimes with
end of the humerus. A presumed large ground-sloth from Mada- lenticular or augen structure. An interesting variety of mylonite,
gascar has been described, on the evidence of a limb-bone, as Brady- developed in granite-porphyry and gneiss, is fine, dark and almost
therium, but it is suggested by Dr F. Ameghino that the specimen vitreous in appearance, consisting mainly of very minute grains of
really belongs to a lemuroid. Be this as it may, the North American quartz and felspar and resembling flint in appearance. These
mammals described as Moropm and Morotherium, in the belief that form threads and vein-like streaks ramifying through the normal
they were ground-sloths, are really referable to the ungulate group rocks. Examples are furnished by the flinty-crushes of west Scot-
" "
Ancylopoda. land and the trap-shotten gneisses of south India. (J. S. F.)
Although a few of the Pleistocene ground-sloths, such as Nothro-
pus and Nothrotherium ( = Coelodon), were of comparatively small MYMENSINGH, or MAIMANSINGH, a district of British India,
size, in the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia few of the representatives in the Dacca
division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It occupies
of the
family much exceeded a modern sloth in size.
The best-
a portion of the alluvial valley of the Brahmaputra east of the
known generic types are Eucholoeops, Hapalops and Pseudahapalops,
of which considerable portions of the skeleton have been disinterred. main channel (called the Jamuna) and north of Dacca. The
In these diminutive ground-sloths the crowns of the cheek-teeth administrative headquarters are at Nasirabad, sometimes called
approached the prismatic form characteristic of Mega[lo]therium, Mymensingh town. Area, 6332 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 3,915,068,
as distinct from the subcylindrical type occurring in Mylodon,
Glossotherium, &c.
showing an increase of 12-8% in the decade. The district is
for the most part level and open, covered with well-cultivated
By many palaeontologists a group of 'North American Lower
Tertiary mammals, known as Ganodonta, has been regarded as fields, and intersected by numerous rivers. The Madhupur
representing the ancestral stock of the ground-sloths and those of jungle isa slightly elevated tract, extending from the north of
other South American edentates; but according to Professor W. B.
Dacca district into the heart of Mymensingh; its average height
Scott this view is incorrect and there is no affinity between the two
is about 60 ft. above the level of the surrounding country, and it
groups. If this be so, we are still in complete darkness as to the
stock from which the South American edentates are derived. nowhere exceeds 100 ft. The jungle contains abundance of sal,
See W. B. Scott, Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds, Edentata, valuable both as timber and for charcoal. The only other elevated
Rep., Princeton Exped. to Patagonia, vol. v. (1903-1904) B. Brown
;
tract in the district is on the southern border, where the Susang
A New Genus of Ground-Sloth from the Pleistocene of Nebraska,
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., xix, 569 (1903). (R. L.*)
hills rise. They are for the most part covered with thick thorny
jungle, but in parts are barren and rocky. The Jamuna forms
MYLONITE (Gr. juuXoiJ', a mill), in petrology, a rock which has the western boundary of Mymensingh for a course of 94 m. It is
been crushed and ground down by earth movement and at the
navigable for large boats throughout the year; and during the
same time rendered compact by pressure. Mylonites are fine-
rainy season it expands in many places to 5 or 6 m. in breadth.
grained, sometimes even flinty, in appearance, and often banded The Brahmaputra enters Mymensingh at its north-western
in parallel fashion with stripes of varying composition. The corner near Karaibari, and flows south-east and south till it
great majority are quartzose rocks, such as quartzite and quartz- The gradual
joins the Meghna a little below Bhairab Bazar.
schist; but in almost any type of rock mylonitic structure may formation of chars and bars of sand in the upper part of its course
be developed. Gneisses of various kinds, hornblende-schists,
has diverted the main volume of water into the present channel
chlorite-schists and limestones are not infrequently found in
of the Jamuna, which has in consequence become of much more
belts of mylonitic rock. The process of crushing by which
" " importance than the Brahmaputra proper. The Meghna only
mylonites are formed is known also as granulitization and flows for a short distance through the south-east portion of
"
cataclasis," and mylonites are often described as granuh'tes, the district, the eastern and south-eastern parts of which
though the two terms are not strictly equivalent in all their abound in marshes. The staple crops of the country are rice,
applications. Mylonites occur in regions where there has A branch line of the Eastern Bengal railway
jute and oil-seeds.
been considerable metamorphism. Thrust planes and great
runs north from Dacca through Nasirabad, &c., to the Jamuna.
reversed faults are often bounded by rocks which have all been
The district was severely affected by the earthquake of the
crushed to fine slabby mylonites, that split readily along planes
i2th of June 1897.
parallel to the direction in which movement has taken place.
" " MYNGS, SIR CHRISTOPHER (1625-1666), British admiral,
These crush-belts may be only a few feet or several hundred
came of a Norfolk family. Pepys' story of his humble birth is
yards broad. The movements have probably taken place slowly
said to be erroneous. It is probable that he saw a good deal of
without great rise of temperature, and hence the rocks have not
sea-service before 1648. He first appears prominently as the
recrystallized to any extent. captain of the
"
Elisabeth," which after a sharp action brought
Crushing and movement on so extensive a scale are to be expected in a Dutch convoy with two men-of-war as prizes. From 1653
principally in regions consisting of rocks greatly folded and to 1655 he continued to command the
"
Elisabeth," high in
compressed. Hence mylonites are commonest in Archean regions,
but may be found also in Carboniferous and later rocks where the favour with the council of state and recommended for promotion
necessary conditions have prevailed. Within a short space it is by the flag officers under whom he served. In 1655 he was
often possible to trace rocks from a normal to a highly mylonized "
appointed to the Marston Moor," the crew of which was on the
condition, and to follow by means of the microscope all the stages
of the process. A sandstone, grit, or fine quartzose conglomerate, verge of mutiny. His firm measures quelled the insubordinate
for example, when it approaches a mylonitic zone begins to lose spirit, and he took the vessel out to the West Indies, where he
its clastic or pebbly structure. The rounded grains of quartz remained for some years. The Restoration government retained
become cracked, especially near their edges, and are then surrounded him in his command, and in 1664 he was made vice-admiral in
by narrow borders, consisting of detached granules: this is due to the Prince Rupert's squadron. As vice-admiral of the White he flew
pebbles being pressed together and forced to pass one another as the
rock yields to the pressures which overcome its rigidity. Then each his flag at Lowestoft in 1665, and for his share in that action
quartz grain breaks up into a mosaic of little angular fragments; received the honour of knighthood. In the following year he
the rounded pebbles are flattened out and become lenticular or cake- served under the new lord high admiral, Sandwich, as vice-
shaped. Finally only a small oval patch of fine interlocking quartz admiral of the Blue. He was on detachment with Prince Rupert
grains is left to indicate the position of the pebble, and if the matrix
is quartzose this gradually blends with it and a uniform fine-grained when the great Four Days' Battle began, but returned to the
quartzose rock results. If felspar is present it may become crushed main fleet in time to take part, and in this action he received a
like quartz, but often tends to as quartz and muscovite, wound of which he died.
recrystallize
the minute scales of white mica being parallel to the foliation or
MYONEMES, in Infusoria and some Flagellates, the differ-
banding of the rock, and a finely granulitic or mylonitic quartz-
schist is the product. In hornblendic rocks, such as entiated threads of ectosarc, which are contractile and doubly
epidiorite,
amphibolite and hornblende-schist, the mineral composition may refractive, performing the function of muscular fibres in the
remain unchanged, but very often chlorite, carbonates and biotite Metazoa.
develop, epidote and sphene being also frequent. Biotite- and mus- MYRA (mod. Dembre), an ancient town of Lycia situated a
covite-gneisses yield very perfect mylonites, in which the micas
have parallel orientation, giving the rock a flat banding and marked short distance inland between the rivers Myrus and Andracus.
schistosity (see PETROLOGY, PI. iv., fig. 6). When these mylonitic In common with that of most other Lycian towns its early history
MYRIAPODA MYRRH
is not known, and it does not play any part of importance in ancestor, son of Zeus and Eurymedusa, who was wooed by the
either Greek or Roman annals. Its fame begins with Chris- god in the form of an ant (Gr. /ivp/w;); or from the repeopling
tianity. There St Paul touched on his last journey westward of Aegina (when all its inhabitants had died of the plague) with
"
(A.D. 62), and changed into a ship of Alexandria sailing into ants changed into men by Zeus at the prayer of Aeacus, king of
Italy." In the 3rd century the great St Nicholas, born at the island. The word " myrmidon " has passed into the
Patara, was its bishop, and he died and was buried at Myra. His English language to denote a subordinate who carries out the
tomb is still shown, but his relics are supposed to have been trans- orders of his superior without mercy or consideration for others.
lated to Bari in Italy in the nth century. Theodosius II. made See Strabo viii. 375, ix. 433; Homer, Iliad, ii. 681 schol. on Pindar
;
Myra the Byzantine capital of Lycia, and as such it was besieged Nem. iii. 21 Clem. Alex., Protrepticon, p. 34, ed. Potter.
;
and taken by Harun al-Rashid in 808. The town seems shortly MYROBALANS, the name given to the astringent fruits of
afterwards to have decayed. A small Turkish village occupied several species of Terminalia, largely used in India for dyeing
the plain at the foot of the acropolis, and a little Greek monastery and tanning and exported for the same purpose. They are
lay about a mile westward by the church of St Nicholas. The large deciduous trees and belong to the family Combretaceae.
latter has formed the nucleus of modern Dembre, which has The chief kinds are the chebulic or black myrobalan, from
been increased by settlers from the Greek island of Castelorizo. Terminalia Chebula, which are smooth, and the beleric, from
Myra has three notable sights, its carved cliff-cemetery, its T. belerica, which are five-angled and covered with a greyish
theatre, and its church of St Nicholas. The first is the most down.
remarkable of the Lycian rock-tomb groups. The western scarp MYRON, a Greek sculptor of the middle of the 5th century B.C.
of the acropolis has been sculptured into a number of sepulchres He was born at Eleutherae on the borders of Boeotia and Attica.
imitating wooden houses with pillared facades, some of which He worked almost exclusively in bronze: and though he made
have pediment reliefs and inscriptions in Lycian. The theatre some statues of gods and heroes, his fame rested principally upon
lies at the foot of this cliff and
partly excavated out of it,
is his representations of athletes, in which he made a revolution, by
partly built. It is remarkable for the preservation of its corri- introducing greater boldness of pose and a more perfect rhythm.
dors. The auditorium is perfect in the lower part, and the His most famous works according to Pliny (Nat. Hist., 34, 57)
scena still retains some of its decoration both columns and were a cow, Ladas the runner, who fell dead at the moment of
carved entablature. The church of St Nicholas lies out in victory, and a discus-thrower. The cow seems to have earned
the plain, at the western end of Dembre, near a small monastery its fame mainly by serving as a peg on which to hang epigrams,
and new church recently built with Russian money. Its floor which tell us nothing about the pose of the animal. Of the
is far below the present level of the plain, and until recently the Ladas there is no known copy. But we are fortunate in pos-
church was half filled with earth. The excavation of it was sessing several copies of the discobolus, of which the best is in
undertaken by Russians about 1894 and it cost Dembre dear; the Massimi palace at Rome (see GREEK ART, PI. iv. fig. 68).
for the Ottoman government, suspicious of foreign designs on The example in the British Museum has the head put on wrongly.
the neighbouring harbour of Kekova, proceeded to inhibit all The athlete is represented at the moment when he has swung
sale of property in the plain and to place Dembre under a minor back the discus with the full stretch of his arm, and is about to
state of siege. The ancient church is of the domed basilica hurl it with the full weight of his body. The head should be
form with throne and seats still existent in the tribunal. In turned back toward the discus.
the south aisle as a tomb with marble balustrade which is pointed A marble figure in the Lateran Museum (see GREEK ART,
out as that wherein St Nicholas was laid. The locality of the PI. iii. fig. 64), which is now restored as a dancing satyr, is
tomb is very probably genuine, but its present ornament, as almost certainly a copy of a work of Myron, a Marsyas desirous
well as the greater part of the church, seems of later date (end of picking up the flutes which Athena had thrown away (Pausa-
of 7th century ?). None the less this is among the most interest- nias, i. 24, i). The full group is copied on coins of Athens, on
ing early Christian churches in Asia Minor. There are also a vase and in a relief which represent Marsyas as oscillating
extensive ruins of Andriaca, the port of Myra, about 3 m. west, between curiosity and the fear of the displeasure of Athena.
containing churches, baths, and a great grain store, inscribed The ancient critics say of Myron that, while he succeeded
with Hadrian's name. They lie along the course of the Andraki admirably in giving life and motion to his figures, he did not
river, whose navigable estuary is still fringed with ruinous succeed in rendering the emotions of the mind. This agrees
quays. with the extant evidence, in a certain degree, though not per-
See E. Petersen and F. Luschan, Reisen in Lykien, &c. (1889).
v. fectly. The bodies of his men are of far greater excellence than
(D. G. H.) the heads. The face of the Marsyas is almost a mask but from ;
MYRIAPODA (Gr. for " many-legged "), arthropod animals the attitude we gain a vivid impression of the passions which
of which centipedes and millipedes are familiar examples. sway him. The face of the discus-thrower is calm and unruffled;
Linnaeus included them in his Insecta Aptera together with but all the muscles of his body are concentrated in an effort.
Crustacea and Arachnida; in 1796 P. A. Latreille designated A considerable number of other extant works are ascribed to
them as Myriopoda, making of them, along with the Crustacean the school or the influence of Myron by A. Furtwangler in his
Oniscus, one of the seven orders into which he divided the suggestive Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture (pp. 168-219). These
Aptera of Linnaeus. Later on J. C. Savigny, by study of the attributions, however, are anything but certain, nor do the
mouth-parts, clearly distinguished them from Insects and Crus- arguments by which Furtwangler supports his attributions bear
tacea. In 1814 W. E. Leach defined them and divided them into abridgment.
Centipedes and Millipedes. In 1825 Latreille carried further A recently discovered papyrus from Egypt informs us that
the observations of Leach, and suggested that the two groups Myron made statues of the athlete Timanthes, victorious at
were very distinct, the millipedes being nearer Crustacea and Olympia in 456 B.C., and of Lycinus, victorious in 448 and 444.
the centipedes approaching Arachnida and Insecta. Although This helps us to fix his date. He was a contemporary, but a
Latreille's suggestion has not been adopted, it is recognized that somewhat older contemporary, of Pheidias and Polyclitus.
centipedes and millipedes are too far apart to be united as (P.G.)
Myriapoda, and they are now treated as separate classes of MYRRH (from the Latinized form myrrha of Gr. /*u/5pa the ;
the Arthropoda. See CENTIPEDE (Chilopoda) and MILLIPEDE Arabic murr, bitter, was applied to the substance from its
(Diplopoda). bitterness), a gum-resin highly esteemed by the ancients as an
MYRMIDONES, in Greek legend, an Achaean race, in Homeric unguent and perfume, used for incense in temples and also in
times inhabiting Phthiotis in Thessaly. According to the ancient embalming. It was one of the gifts offered by the Magi, and a
tradition, their original home was Aegina, whence they crossed royal oblation of gold, frankincense and myrrh is still annu-
over to Thessaly with Peleus, but the converse view is now ally presented by the sovereign on the feast of Epiphany
more generally accepted. Their name is derived from a supposed in the Chapel Royal in London, this custom having been in
MYRTLE MYSIA 1 1
existence certainly as early as the reign of Edward I.
1
True holes owing to the translucency of these oil-cysts. The fragrance
myrrh is the product of Balsamodendron (Commiphora) Myrrha, of the plant depends upon the presence of this oil. Another
a small tree of the natural order Amyridaceae that grows in peculiarity of the myrtle is the existence of a prominent vein
eabtern Africa and Arabia, but the name is also applied to gum running round the leaf within the margin. The flowers are
resins obtained from other species of Balsamodendi on. borne on short stalks in the axils of the leaves. The flower-stalk
Baisa Bol, Bhesa Bol or Bissa Bol, from Balsamodendron
I. is dilated at its upper end into a globose or ovoid receptacle
Kataf, resembles true myrrh in appearance, but has a disagreeable enclosing the 2- to 4-partitioned ovary. From its margin pro-
taste and is scarcely bitter. It is used in China, mixed with food,
ceed the five sepals, and within them the five rounded, spoon-
to give to milch cows to improve the quality and increase the
quantity of milk, and when mixed with lime as a size to impart a shaped, spreading, white petals. The stamens spring from the
gloss to walls. (2) Opaque bdellium produced by B. Playfairii, receptacle within the petals and are very numerous, each consist-
when shaken with water forms a slight but permanent lather, and on
ing of a slender white filament and a small yellow two-lobed
this account is used
by the Somali women for cleansing their hair, anther. The style surmounting the ovary is slender, terminating
and by the men to whiten their shields; it is known as meena hdrma
in Bombay, and was formerly used there for the expulsion of the in a small button-like stigma. The fruit is a purplish berry,
guinea-worm. (3) African bdellium is from B. africanum. and like consisting of the receptacle and the ovary blended into one
opaque bdellium lacks the white streaks which are
characteristic succulent investment enclosing very numerous minute seeds.
of myrrh and bissa bol, both are acrid, but have scarcely any bitter-
The embryo-plant within the seed is usually curved. In cultiva-
ness or aroma. (4) Indian bdellium, probably identical with the
Indian drug googul obtained in Sind and Baluchistan from B. Mukul tion many varieties are known, dependent on variations in the
and B. pubesccns. Hook, is of a dark reddish colour, has an acrid size and shape of the leaves, the presence of so-called double
taste and an odour resembling cedar-wood, and softens in the hand.
flowers, &c. The typical species is quite hardy in the south of
As met with in commerce true myrrh occurs in pieces of England. The Chilean species, M. Ugni, a shrub with ovate,
irregular size and shape, from $ in. to 2 or 3 in. in diameter, dark green leaves and white flowers succeeded by globular red or
and of a reddish-brown colour. The transverse fracture has a black glossy truit with a pleasant smell and taste, is a greenhouse
resinous appearance with white streaks; the flavour is bitter shrub, hardy in south-west Britain. The common myrtle is
and aromatic, and the odour characteristic. It consists of a the sole representative in Europe of a large genus which has its
mixture of resin, gum and essential oil, the resin being present to headquarters in extra-tropical South America, whilst other
the extent of 25 to 40%, with 2 to 8%
of the oil, myrrhol, to members are found in Australia and New Zealand. The genus
which the odour is due. Myrtus also gives its name to a very large natural order,
Myrrh has the properties of other substances which, like it, Myrtaceae, the general floral structure of which is like that of
contain a volatile oil. Its only important application in medi- the myrtle above described, but there are great differences in
cine is as a carminative to lessen the griping caused by some the nature of the fruit or seed-vessel according as it is dry or
purgatives such as aloes. The volatile oils have for centuries capsular, dehiscent, indehiscent or pulpy; minor differences exist
been regarded as of value in disorders of the reproductive according to the way in which the stamens are arranged. The
organs, and the reputation of myrrh in this connexion is simply aromatic oil to which the myrtle owes its fragrance, and its use in
a survival of this ancient but ill-founded belief. medicine and the arts, is a very general attribute of the order, as
MYRTLE. The /iupros of the Greeks, the myrtus of the may be inferred from the fact that the order includes, amongst
Romans, and the myrtle, Myrtus communis (see fig.), of botanists, other genera, Eucalyptus (q.v.), Pimenta and Eugenia (cloves).
as now found growing
wild in many parts of the Mediterranean Myrlol, a constituent of myrtle oil, has been given in doses of
region, doubtless all belong to one and the same species. It is a 5-15 minims on sugar or in capsules for pulmonary tuberculosis,
low-growing, evergreen shrub, with opposite leaves, varying in fetid bronchitis, bronchiectasis, and similar conditions. It
appears to lessen expectoration in such cases. The leaves of
Myrtus chekan are aromatic and expectorant, and have been used
in chronic bronchitis.
MYSIA, the district of N.W. Asia Minor in ancient times
inhabited by the Mysi. It was bounded by Lydia and Phrygia
on the S., by Bithynia on the N.E., and by the Propontis and
Aegean Sea on the N. and W. But its precise limits are difficult
to assign, the Phrygian frontier being vague and fluctuating,
while in the north-west the Troad was sometimes included in
Mysia, sometimes not. Generally speaking, the northern portion
was known as Mysia Minor or Hellespontica and the southern as
Major or Pergamene.
The chief physical features of Mysia (considered apart from
that of the Troad) are the two mountain-chains, Olympus
(7600 ft.) in the north and Temnus in the south, which for some
distance separates Mysia from Lydia, and is afterwards prolonged
through Mysia to the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Adramyttium.
The only considerable rivers are the Macestus and its tributary
the Rhyndacus in the northern part of the province, both of
which rise in Phrygia, and, after diverging widely through
Mysia, unite their waters below the lake of Apollonia about 15 m.
from the Propontis. The Calcus in the south rises in Temnus,
I and from thence flows westward to the Aegean Sea, passing
Myrtle (Myrtus communis), \ nat. size. within a few miles of Pergamum. In the northern portion of
1. Vertical section of flower, 3. Berry, enlarged. the province are two considerable lakes, Artynia or Apolloniatis
enlarged. 4. Seed with contained embryo, (Abulliont Geul), and Aphnitis (Maniyas Geul), which discharge
2. Plan of flower in horizontal e, much enlarged. their waters into the Macestus from the east and west
plane.
respectively.
dimensions, but always small, simple, da[k-green, thick in tex- The most important cities were Pergamum (q.v.) in the valley
ture, and studded with numerous receptacles for oil. When the of the Calcus, and Cyzicus on the Propontis. But the whole
(q.v.)
leaf is held up to the light it appears as if perforated with pin- sea-coast was studded with Greek towns, several of which were
1
Liber quotidianus contra-rotulaloris garderobae Edw. I. (London, places of considerable importance; thus the northern portion
PP, xxxii. and 27. included Parium, Lampsacus and Abydos, and the southern
n6 MYSLOWITZ MYSORE
Assus, Adramyttium, and farther south, on the Elaitic Gulf, at short intervals. These tanks, varying in size from small
Elaea, Myrina and Cyme. ponds to extensive throughout the country
lakes, are dispersed
Ancient writers agree in describing the Mysians as a distinct to the number of 20,000; the largest is the Sulekere lake, 40 m.
people, like the Lydians and Phrygians, though they never in circumference.
appear in history as an independent nation. It appears from Mysore is perhaps the most prosperous native state in India.
Herodotus and Strabo that they were kindred with the Lydians Situated on a healthy plateau, it receives the benefit of both
and Carians, a fact attested by their common participation in the south-west and north-east monsoons, a natural advantage
the sacred rites at the great temple of Zeus at Labranda, as well which, in conjunction with its irrigation system, has brought to
as by the statement of the historian Xanthus of Lydia that their Mysore a larger degree of immunity from famine than almost
language was a mixture of Lydian and Phrygian. Strabo was any other internal tract of India (always excepting the great
of opinion that they came originally from Thrace (cf. BITHYNIA), calamity of 1876-1877, when one-fourth of the population are
and were a branch of the same people as the Mysians or Moesians believed to have perished). Coffee, sandal-wood, silk, gold
(see MOESIA) who dwelt on the Danube a view not inconsistent and ivory are among the chief products. The famous Kolar
with the preceding, as he considered the Phrygians and Lydians gold-fields are worked by electric power, which is conveyed
also as having migrated from Europe into Asia. According for a distance of 92 m. from the Cauvery Falls. This was the
to a Carian tradition reported by Herodotus (i. 171) Lydus and first electric power scheme of magnitude in Asia. A long
Mysus were brothers of Car an idea which also points to the period of administration by British officers led to the introduction
belief in a common origin of the three nations. The Mysians of a system based on British models, which has been maintained
appear in the list of the Trojan allies in Homer and are repre- under a series of exceptionally able native ministers, and the
sented as settled in the Cai'cus valley at the coming of Telephus state can boast of public works, hospitals, research laboratories,
to Pergamum; but nothing else is known of their early history. &c., unsurpassed in India.
The story told by Herodotus (vii. 20) of their having invaded The total area of the state is 29,433 sq. m., subdivided into
Europe in conjunction with the Teucrians before the Trojan 8 districts, namely: Bangalore, Kolar, Tumkur, Mysore, Hassan,
War is probably a fiction; and the first historical fact we learn Kadur, Shimoga and Chitaldrug. Pop. (1901), 5,539,399,
is their subjugation, together with all the surrounding nations, showing an increase of 18% between 1881 and 1891, and
by Lydian Croesus. After the fall of the Lydian monarchy they of 12% between 1891 and 1901. The proportion of Hindus
remained under the Persian Empire until its overthrow by (92-1%) is larger than in any province of India, showing
Alexander. After his death they were annexed to the Syrian how ineffectual was the persecution of Hyder and Tippoo.
monarchy, of which they continued to form a part until the defeat The Christians (apart from native converts, who are chiefly
of Antiochus the Great (too B.C.), after which they were trans- Roman Catholics) largely consist of the garrison at Bangalore,
ferred by the Romans to the dominion of Eumenesof Pergamum. the families of military pensioners at the same town, coffee-
After the extinction of the Pergamenian dynasty (130 B.C.) planters and gold-miners. The finances of the state have
Mysia became a part of the Roman province of Asia, and from been very successfully managed under native rule, assisted by
this time disappears from history. The inhabitants probably large profits from railways and gold-mines. The revenue
became gradually Hellenized, but none of the towns of the amounts to about 1,400,000, of which nearly half is derived
"
interior, except Pergamum, ever attained to any importance. from land. In accordance with the instrument of transfer,"
See C. Texier, Asie mineure (Paris, 1839); W. J. Hamilton, Mysore pays to the British government a tribute of 234,000,
Researches (London, 1842); J. A. R. Munro in Geogr. Journal (1897, as contribution to military defence; but the full amount was not
Hellespontica) W. von Diest, Petermanns Mitth. (Erganzungsheft
;
exacted until 1896. The state maintains a military force,
94; Gotha, 1889; Pergamene). (F. W. HA.)
consisting of two regiments of silladar cavalry and three bat-
MYSLOWITZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province talions of infantry total, about 2800 men; and also a regiment
of Silesia.Pop. (1905), 15,845. It lies on the navigable Przemsa, of imperial service lancers, with a transport corps. An interest-
across which an iron bridge leads to the Polish town of Modr-
ing political experiment has been made, in the constitution of
zejow, 120 m. S.E. from Breslau by rail, and an important a representative assembly, composed of 350 representatives of
junction of lines to Oswiecim-Lemberg and Vienna. It contains all classes of the community, who meet annually to hear an
a Protestant and three Roman Catholic churches, a palace and account of the state administration for the previous year. The
a gymnasium, and other schools. Extensive coal-mines are
assembly has no power to enact laws, to vote supplies, or to pass
worked, and among its other industries are flax-spinning and any resolution binding upon the executive. But it gives to the
brick-making. It became a town in 1857. leading men of the districts a pleasant opportunity of visiting
See Lustig, Geschichte von Myslowitz (Myslowitz, 1867). the capital, and to a limited extent brings the force of public
MYSORE, a native state of southern India, almost surrounded opinion to bear upon the minister. Since 1891 this representa-
by the Madras presidency, but in political relations with the tive assembly has been elected by local boards and other public
governor-general. It is naturally divided into two regions of bodies.
distinct character the hill country called the Malnad, on the In the earliest historical times the northern part of Mysore was
west, and the more open country known as the Maidan, compris- held by the Kadamba dynasty, whose capital, Banawasi, is
ing the greater part of the state, where the wide-spreading mentioned by Ptolemy; they reigned with more or less splendour
valleys and plains are covered with villages and populous towns. during fourteen centuries, though latterly they became feuda-
The drainage of the country, with a slight exception, finds its tories of the Chalukyas. The Cheras were contemporary with
way into the Bay of Bengal, and is divisible into three great the Kadambas, and governed the southern part of Mysore till
river systems that of the Kistna on the north, the Cauvery on they were subverted by the Cholas in the 8th century. Another
the south, and the Northern and Southern Pennar and Palar ancient race, the Pallavas, held a small portion of the eastern side
on the east. Owing to either rocky or shallow beds none of of Mysore, but were overcome by the Chalukyas in the 7th cen-
the Mysore rivers is navigable, but some are utilized for floating tury. These were overthrown in the 1 2th century by the Ballalas
down timber at certain seasons. The main streams, especially (Hoysalas), an enterprising and warlike race professing the Jain '
the Cauvery and its tributaries, support an extensive system faith. They ruled over the greater part of Mysore, and portions
of irrigation by means of channels drawn from immense dams of the modern districts of Coimbatore, Salem and Dharwar, with
(anicuts), which retain the water at a high level and permit only their capital at Dwarasamudra (the modern Halebid); but in
the overflow to pass down stream. The streams which gather 1310 the Ballala king, was captured by Malik Kafur, the general
from the hill-sides and fertilize the valleys are embanked at of Ala-ud-din; and seventeen years later the town was entirely
every favourable point in such a manner as to form a series of destroyed by another force sent by Mahommed Tughlak. After
reservoirs or tanks, the outflow from one at a higher level supply- the subversion of the Ballala dynasty, a new and powerful
ing the next lower, and so on, all down the course of the stream Hindu sovereignty arose at Vijayanagar on the Tungabhadra.
MYSORE MYSTERY 117
In 1565 a confederation of the Mahommedan kingdoms de- until in 1902 the maharaja was formally invested with full
feated the Vijayanagar sovereign at the battle of Talikota; and powers by the viceroy in person.
his descendants ultimately became extinct as a ruling house. See B. L. Rice, Mysore (2nd ed., Bangalore, 1897); Mysore and
During the feeble reign of the last king, the petty local chiefs Coorg Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1908).
(palegars) asserted their independence. The most important of MYSORE, capital of the state of Mysore, India, 10 m. S.W. of
these was the wcdeyar of Mysore, who in 1610 seized the fort of Seringapatam on the Mysore State railway. Pop. (1901), 68,111.
Seringapatam, and so laid the foundation of the present state. The city, which is spread over an area of about 7! sq. m., has its
His fourth successor, Chikka Deva Raja, during a reign of nucleus at the foot of the Chamundi hill, in a valley formed by
34 years, made his kingdom one of the most powerful in two parallel ridges running north and south. The fort stands
southern India. In the middle of the i8th century the famous in the south of the town, forming a quarter by itself; the ground-
Mahommedan adventurer Hyder AH usurped the throne, and plan is quadrangular, each of the sides being about 450 yds. long.
by his military prowess made himself one of the most powerful The old palace of the maharaja within the fort, built in an
princes of India. His dynasty, however, was as brief as it extravagant style of Hindu architecture, was partly destroyed
was brilliant, and ended with the defeat and death of his son by fire in 1897, whereupon a new palace was built on the same
Tippoo at Seringapatam in 1799. A representative of. the site. The principal object of interest in the old palace was the
ancient Hindu line was then replaced on the throne. This throne, which is said to have been presented to Chikka Deva Raj
prince, Krishnaraja Wodeyar, was only five years old, and until by the emperor Aurangzeb. The houses of the European residents
he came of age in 1811 the state was under the administration are for the most part to the east of the town. The residency or
of Purnaiya, the Brahman minister of Hyder and Tippoo. government house was built in 1805. The building afterwards
When Krishnaraja took over the management of his state he used for the district offices was originally built by Colonel
received an orderly and contented principality with a surplus Wellesley (duke of Wellington) for his own occupation. The
of two crores of rupees. Within twenty years he had driven domed building for the public offices in Gordon Park, the
his subjects into rebellion and involved himself and his state Maharaja's College, the Victoria Jubilee Institute, and the law
in heavy debt. The British government therefore assumed courts are conspicuous. Mysore, though the dynastic capital
the administration in 1831, and placed it in the hands of com- of the state, was superseded by Seringapatam as the seat of the
missioners. In 1862 no less than 88 lakhs of state debts and of court from 1610 to 1799, and in 1831, on the British occupation,
the maharaja's own liabilities had been liquidated; the entire the seat of administration was removed to Bangalore.
administration had been reformed, a revised system of land MYSTERY (Gr. nwn-ripiov, from juwmjs, an initiate, tiiitiv,
revenue introduced, and many public works executed. The to shut the mouth), a general English term for what is secret
maharaja therefore pressed his claims to a restoration of his and excites wonder, derived from the religious sense (see below).
"
powers, but the British government refused the application as It is not to be confounded with the other old word mystery,"
"
incompatible with the true interests of the people of Mysore, or more properly mistery," meaning a trade or handicraft
and as not justified by any treaty obligation. In the same year (Lat. ministerium, Fr. metier). For the medieval plays, called
Chamarajendra Wodeyar, afterwards maharaja, was born of mysteries, see DRAMA; they were so called (Skeat) because acted
the Bettada Kote branch of the ruling house; and in June 1865 by craftsmen.
Maharaja Krishnaraja adopted him as his son and successor, Greek Mysteries. It is important to obtain a clear conception
although he had been informed that no adoption could be of the exact significance of the Greek term fivvrliptov, which is
recognized except to his own private property, already once often associated and at times appears synonymous with the words
more heavily weighted with private debts. In 1867 the policy Tf\trri, opyia. We may interpret " mystery " in its original
Greek meaning as a " secret
"
of government underwent a change; it was determined to secure worship, to which only certain
the continuance of native rule in Mysore, by acknowledging specially prepared people oi /iV7)0ejr were admitted after a
the adoption upon certain conditions which would secure to the special period of purification or other preliminary probation, and
people the continued benefits of good administration enjoyed of which the ritual was so important and perilous that the
" "
by them under British control. The old maharaja died on the catechumen needed a hierophant or expounder to guide him
27th of March and Chamarajendra Wodeyar was publicly
1868, aright. In the ordinary public worship of the state or the private
Mysore on the 23rd of September
installed as the future ruler of worship of the household the sacrifice with the prayer was the
" "
1868. His education was taken in hand, abuses which had grown chief act of the ceremony; in the mysterion something other
up in the palace establishment were reformed, the late maharaja's than a sacrifice was of the essence of the rite; something was
debts were again paid off, and the whole internal administration shown to the eyes of the initiated, the mystery was a 5pS.ua
perfected in every branch during the minority. On the 2$th of fj.vffri.K6v, and 8pav and dprjo-fioffuvr] are verbal terms expressive
March 1881 Maharaja Chamarajendra, having attained the age of the mystic act. We have an interesting account given us by
of 1 8 years, was publicly entrusted with the administration of . Theo Smyrnaeus 1 of the various elements and moments of the
the state. He made over to the British government, with full normal mystic ceremony: first is the KaBapfjibs or preliminary
jurisdiction, a small tract of land at Bangalore, forming the purification; secondly, the TeXerijs irapadoffK, the mystic com-
"
civil and military station," and received in return the island of munication which probably included some kind of X&yos, a
Seringapatam. But the most important incident of the change sacred exegesis or exhortation; thirdly, the tTroirreta or the
was the signing of the " instrument of transfer," by which revelation to sight of certain holy things, which is the central
the young maharaja, for himself and his successors, undertook point of the whole; fourthly, the crowning with the garland,
to perform the conditions imposed upon him. To that agree- which is henceforth the badge of the privileged; and finally,
ment the maharaja steadfastly adhered during his reign, and that which is the end and object of all this, the happiness that
the instrument is a landmark in the history of British relations arises from the friendship or communion with the deity. This
with the protected states of India. The maharaja's first exposition is probably applicable to the Greek mysteries in
minister was Ranga Charlu, who had been trained in the general, though it may well have been derived from his know-
British administration of Mysore. He signalized the restoration ledge of the Eleusinian. We may supplement it by a statement
"
of native rule by creating the representative assembly. In of Lucian's that no mystery was ever celebrated without
"
1883 Sheshadri Aiyar succeeded Ranga Charlu, and to him dancing (De saltat. 15), which means that it was in some sense
Mysore is indebted for the extension of railways and schemes of a religious drama, ancient Greek dancing being generally
irrigation, the development of the Kolar goldfields, and the mimetic, and represented some Up6s Xo^os or sacred story as
maintenance of the high standard of its administration. The the theme of a mystery-play.
maharaja died at Calcutta on the 28th of December 1894. His Before we approach the problem as to the content of the
eldest son, Krishnaraja Wodeyar, born in 1884, succeeded him, mysteries, we may naturally raise the question why certain
and his widow, Maharani Vanivilas, was appointed regent, 1
De ulil. math., Herscher, p. 15.
u8 MYSTERY
ancient cults in Greece were mystic, others open and public. of condemnation Orphic, Phrygian-Sabazian and Attis-Mysteries
An explanation often offered is that the mystic cults are the with the Eleusinian; and we ought not too lightly to infer that
Pelasgic or pre-Hellenic and that the conquered populations these were actually confused and blended at Eleusis. We must
desired to shroud their religious ceremonies from the profane also be on our guard against supposing that when Pagan or
"
eyes of the invaders. But we should then expect to find them Christian writers refer vaguely to mysteria," they always have
administered chiefly by slaves and the lower population; on the the Eleusinian in their mind.
contrary they are generally in the hands of the noblest families, The questions that the critical analysis of all the evidence
and the evidence that slaves possessed in any of them the right may hope to solve are mainly these: (a) What do we know or
of initiation is only slight. Nor does the explanation in other what can we infer concerning the personality of the deities to
respects fit the facts at all. The deities who are worshipped whom the Eleusinian mysteries were originally consecrated,
with mystic rites have in most cases Hellenic names and do not and were new figures admitted at a later period ? (b) When was
all belong to the earliest stratum of Hellenic religion. Besides the mystery taken over by Athens and opened to all Hellas, and
those of Demeter, by far the most numerous in the Hellenic what was the state-organization provided ? (c) What was the
world, we have record of the mysteries of Ge at Phlye in Attica, inner significance, essential content or purport of the Eleusinia,
of Aglauros and the Charities at Athens, of Hecate at Aegina; and what was the source of their great influence on Hellas?
a shrine of Artemis Mucn'a on the road between Sparta and (d) Can we attribute any ethical value to them, and did they
Arcadia points to a mystic cult of this goddess, and we can infer strongly impress the popular belief in immortality? Limits of
the existence of a similar worship of Themis. Now these are space allow us only to adumbrate the results that research on
either various forms of the earth-goddess, or are related closely the lines of these questions has hitherto yielded.
"
to her, being powers that we call chthonian," associated with The paramount divine personalities of the mystery were in
the world below, the realm of the dead. We may surmise then the earliest period of which we have literary record, the mother
that the mystic setting of a cult arose in many cases from the and the daughter, Demeter and Kore, the latter being never
dread of the religious miasma which emanated from the nether styled Persephone in the official language of Eleusis; while the
world and which suggested a prior ritual of purification as neces- third figure, the god of the lower world known by the euphemistic
sary to safeguard the person before approaching the holy presence names of Pluto (Plouton) and at one time Eubouleus, the ravisher
or handling certain holy objects. This would explain the and the husband, is an accessory personage, comparatively in
necessity of mysteries in the worship of Dionysus also, the Cretan the background. This is the conclusion naturally drawn from
Zagreus, Trophonius at Lebadeia, Palaemon-Melicertes on the the Homeric hymn to Demeter, a composition of great ritualistic
Isthmus of Corinth. They might also be necessary for those value, probably of the 7th century B.C., which describes the
who desired communion with the deified ancestor or hero, and abduction of the daughter, the sorrow and search of the mother,
thus we hear of the mysteries of Dryops at Asine, of Antinoiis her sitting by the sacred well, the drinking of the KVKf&v or
the favourite of Hadrian at Mantineia. Again, where there was sacred cup and the legend of the pomegranate. An ancient
hope or promise that the mortal should by communion be able hymn of Pamphos, from which Pausanias freely quotes and
to attain temporarily to divinity, so hazardous an experiment which he regards as genuine, 1 appears to have told much the
would be safeguarded by special preparation, secrecy and same story in much the same way. As far as we can say, then,
mystic ritual; and this may have been the prime motive of the the mother and daughter were there in possession at the very
institution of the Attis-Cybele mystery. (See GREAT MOTHER beginning. The other pair of divinities known as 6 debs ^ Ota,
OF THE GODS.) that appear in a 5th-century inscription and on two dedicatory
For the student of Hellenism, the Eleusinian and Orphic reliefs found at Eleusis, have been supposed to descend from
ceremonies are of paramount importance; the Samothracian, an aboriginal period of Eleusinian religion when deities were
which vied with these in attractiveness for the later Hellenic nameless, and when a peaceful pair of earth-divinities, male and
world, were not Hellenic in origin, nor wholly hellenized in char- female, were worshipped by the rustic community, before the
acter, and cannot be considered in an article of this compass. earth-goddess had pluralized herself as Demeter and Kore, and
As regards the Eleusinia, we are in a better position for the before the story of the madre dolorosa and the lost daughter had
investigation of them than our predecessors were; for the modern arisen. 2 But for various reasons the contrary view is more
methods of comparative religion and anthropology have at least probable, that 6 06j and 17 Oea are later cult-titles of the
taught us to asu. the right questions and to apply relevant married pair Pluto-Cora (Plouton-Kore), the personal names
hypotheses; archaeology, the study of vases, excavations on the being omitted from that feeling of reverential shyness which was
site, yielding an ever-increasing hoard of inscriptions, have specially timid in regard to the sacred names of the deities of
taught us much concerning the external organization of the the underworld. And it is a fairly familiar phenomenon in Greek
mysteries, and have shown us the beautiful figures of the deities religion that two separate titles of the same divinity engender
as they appeared to the eye or to the mental vision of the two distinct cults.
initiated. Thequestion as to the part played by Dionysus in the
As regards the inner content, the secret of the mystic celebra- Eleusinia is important. Some scholars, like M. Foucart, have
tion, it is in the highest degree unlikely that Greek inscriptions or supposed that he belonged from the beginning to the inner
art would ever reveal it; the Eleusinian scenes that appear on circle of the mystery; others that he forced his way in at a
Attic vases of about the sth century cannot be supposed to show somewhat owing to the great influence of the Orphic
later period
us the heart of the mystery, for such sacrilegious rashness would sects who captured
the stronghold of Attic religion and engrafted
be dangerous for the vase-painter. If we are to discover it, we the Orphic-Sabazian Up6s Xiyyoj, the story of the incestuous
must turn to the ancient literary records. These must be union of Dionysus-Sabazius with Demeter-Kore, and of the
handled with extreme caution and a more careful scrutiny than death and rendering of Zagreus, upon the primitive Eleusinian
is often applied. We must not expect full enlightenment from faith. A saner and more careful criticism rejects this view.
the Pagan writers, who convey to us indeed the poetry and the There no genuine trace discovered as yet in the inner circle
is
glow of this fascinating ritual, and who attest the deep and puri- of the mysteries of any characteristically Orphic doctrine; the
fying influence that it exercised upon the religious temperament, names of Zagreus and Phanes are nowhere heard, the legend of
but who are not likely to tell us more. It is to the Christian Zagreus and the death of Dionysus are not known to have
Fathers we must turn for more esoteric knowledge, for they been mentioned there. Nor is there any print within or in
would be withheld by no scruple from revealing what they knew. the precincts of the rt\wriipiov: the hall of the Muorot, of the
But we cannot always believe that they knew much, for only footsteps of the Phrygian deities, Cybele, Attis, Sabazius.
those who, like Clement and Arnobius, had been Pagans in their 'i; 38, 3: i-
39. i.
1
See Dittenberger, Sylloge, 13; Corp. inscr. all. 2, 1620 c, 3, 1109;
youth, could ever have been initiated. Many of them uncriti-
Ephem. archaiol. (1886), *li>. 3; Hcberdey in Festschrift fur Benndorf,
cally confuse in the same context nd in one sweeping verdict p. 3, Taf. 4; Von Prott in Athen. Mittheil. (1899), p. 262.
MYSTERY nq
1
The exact relation of Dionysus to the mysteries involves the dirapxtu or tithe-offerings of corn to Eleusis, record the far-
question as to the divine personage called lacchus; who and what sighted policy of Periclean Athens, her determination to find a
was lacchus? Strabo (p. 468), who is a poor authority on such religious support for her hegemony.
"
matters, describes him as the daemon of Demeter, the founder At least from the sth century onwards, the external control
of the leader of the mysteries." More important is it to note and all questions of the organization of the mysteries were in
" "
that lacchus is unknown to the author of the Homeric hymn, the hands of the Athenian state, the rule holding in Attica as
and that the first literary notice of him occurs in the well-known elsewhere in Hellas that the state was supreme over the Church.
passage of Herodotus (viii. 65), who describes the procession of The head of the general management was the king-archon
"
the mystae as moving along the sacred way from Athens to (arckon-basileus) who with his paredros and the four epimele-
"
Eleusis and as raising the cry "latcxf. We find lacchus the tai formed a general committee of supervision, and matters of
theme of a glowing invocation in an Aristophanic Ode (Frogs, importance connected with the ritual were decided by the Boule
"
324-398), and described as a beautiful young god "; but he is or Ecclesia. But the claim of Eleusis as the religious metropolis
first explicitly identified with Dionysus in the beautiful ode of was not ignored. The chief of the two priestly families, in whose
Sophocles' Antigone (1119); and that this was in accord with the hands lay the mystic celebration itself and the formal right of
" "
popular ritualistic lore is proved by the statement of the scholiast admission, was the Eleusinian gens of the Eumolpidae; it
on Aristophanes (Frogs, 482) that the people at the Lenaea, the was to their ancestor that Demeter had entrusted her opyia,
winter-festival of Dionysus, responded to the command of and the recognition of their claims maintained the principle
" " "
Invoke the god! with the invocation Hail, lacchus, son of of apostolic succession. To them belonged the hierophant
Semele, thou giver of wealth!" We are sure, then, that in the (lepo<t>avTTis) the high priest of the Eleusinia, whose function
,
"
high tide of the Attic religious history lacchus was the youthful alone it was to reveal the orgies," to show the sacred things,
Dionysus, a name of the great god peculiar to Attic cult; and and who alone or perhaps with his consort-priestess could
this is all that here concerns us to know. penetrate into the innermost shrine in the hall; an impres-
We can now answer the question raised above. This youthful sive figure, so sacred in person that no one could address him
Attic Dionysus has his home at Athens; he accompanies his by his personal name, and bound, at one period at least, by a
"
votaries along the sacred way, filling their souls with the exalta- rule of celibacy. We hear also of two hierophantides," female
tion and ecstasy of the Dionysiac spirit but at Eleusis he had no
;
attendants on the older and younger goddesses. In fact, while
temple, altar or abiding home; he comes as a visitor and departs. the male priest predominates in this ritual, the women play a
His image may have been carried into the Hall of the Mysteries, prominent part: as we should expect, considering that the
but whether it played any part there in a passion-play we do sister-festival of the Thesmophoria was wholly in their hands.
not know. That he was a primary figure of the essential mystery The other old priestly family was that of the " Kerykes,"
"
is hard to believe, for we find no traces of his name in the to whom the 5<fSovx.os belonged, the holder of the torch,"
other Greek communities that at an early period had insti- the official second in rank to the lepcxpavn^. It is uncertain
tuted mysteries on the Eleusinian model. Apart from lacchus, whether this family was of Eleusinian origin; and in the 4th
Dionysus in his own name was powerful enough at Eleusis as in century it seems to have died out, and the office of the SpSoDxos
most other localities. And the votaries carried with them no passed into the hands of the Lycomidae, a priestly family of
doubt into the hall the Bacchic exaltation of the lacchus proces- Phlye, suspected of being devotees of Orphism.
sion and the nightly revel with the god that preceded the full Turning now to the celebration itself, we can only sketch
initiation; many of them also may have belonged to the private the more salient features here. On the i3th of Boedromion,
Dionysiac sects and might be tempted to read a Dionysiac signifi- the Attic month corresponding roughly to our September,
cance into much that was presented to them. But all this is the Ephebi (q.v.) marched out to Eleusis, and returned to Athens
" "
conjecture. The interpretation of what was shown would natur- the next day bringing with them the holy things (iepd) to
" "
ally change somewhat with the changing sentiment of the ages; the Eleusinion in the city; these Upa. probably included small
but the mother and the daughter, the stately and beautiful images of the goddesses. The i6th was the day of the ayvpnos,
figures presented to us by the author of the homeric hymn, who the gathering of the catechumens, when they met to hear the
says no word of Dionysus, are still found reigning paramount address of the hierophant, called the irp6pp7j<7is. This was
and supreme at Eleusis just before the Gothic invasion in the no sermon, but a proclamation bidding those who were dis-
latter days of Paganism. Triptolemus the apostle of corn- qualified or for some reason unworthy of initiation to depart.
culture, Eubouleus originally a euphemistic name of the god The legally qualified were all Hellenes and subsequently all
"
of the under-world, the giver of good counsel," conveying a Romans above a certain very youthful limit of age, women,
hint of his oracular functions these are accessory figures of and as it appears even slaves; barbarians, and those uncleansed
Eleusinian cult and mythology that may have played some part of some notorious guilt, such as homicide, were disqualified. We
in the great mystic drama that was enacted in the hall. are sure that there was no dogmatic test, nor would time allow
The development and organization of the Eleusinia may now of any searching moral scrutiny, and only the Samothracian
be briefly sketched. The legends concerning the initiation of rites, in this respect unique in the world of classical religion,
Heracles and the Dioscuri preserve the record of the time when possessed a system of confessional. The hierophant appealed to
the mysteries were closed against all strangers, and were the the conscience of the multitude; but we are not altogether sure
privilege of the Eleusinians alone. Now the Homeric hymn in of the terms of his proclamation, which can only be approximately
its obvious appeal to the whole of the Greek world to avail restored from late Pagan and early Christian writers. We know
"
themselves of these mysteries gives us to suppose that they that he demanded of each candidate that he should be of
had already been thrown open to Hellas; and this momentous intelligiblespeech (i.e. an Hellene) and pure of hand "; and he
change, abolishing the old gentile barriers, may have naturally catechized him as to his condition of ritualistic purity the food
coincided with, or have resulted from, the fusion of Eleusis and he had eaten or abstained from. It appears also from Libanius
Athens, an event of equal importance for politics and religion that in the later period at least he solemnly proclaimed that the
which we may place in the prehistoric period. The reign of " *
catechumen should be pure of soul," and this spiritual
Peisistratus was an era of architectural activity at Eleusis; conception of holiness had arisen already in the earlier periods
but the construction of the /iu<m/<6s en/iois was one of the of Greek religious thought. On the other hand we must bear in
achievements of the Periclean administration. Two inscriptions, mind the criticism that Diogenes is said to have passed upon the
containing decrees passed during the supremacy of Pericles, the Eleusinia, that many bad characters were admitted to com-
one proclaiming a holy truce of three months for the votaries munion, thereby securing a promise of higher happiness than an
that came from any Greek community, 1 the other bidding the uninitiated Epaminondas *tould aspire to.
subject allies and inviting the independent states to send An essential preliminary was purification and lustration, and
1 1 '
Corp. inscr. alt. i. I. Dittenberger, Sylloge, 13. Or. Corinth, iv. 356.
I2O MYSTERY
" "
after the assembly the mystae went to the sea-shore (a\aoe archaeological evidence that has been supposed to support the
HvaTai) and purified themselves with sea-water, and probably statement of Hippolytus is deceptive.
with sprinkling of pigs' blood, a common cathartic medium. Finally, we must not suppose that there could be any very
After their return from the sea, a sacrifice of some kind was elaborate scenic arrangements in the hall for the representation
offered as an essential condition of JUITJCTIS, but whether as a of Paradiseand the Inferno, whereby the rewards of the faithful
sacrament or a gift-offering to the goddesses it is impossible to and the punishments of the damned might be impressively
determine. On the igth of Boedromion the great procession brought home to the mystae. The excavations on the site have
" "
started along the sacred way bearing the fair young god proved that the building was without substructures or under-
lacchus; and as they visited many shrines by the way the march ground passages. A large number of inscriptions present us
must have continued long after sunset, so that the 2oth is some- with elaborate accounts of Eleusinian expenditure; but there is
times spoken of as the day of the exodus of lacchus. On the no item for scenic expenses or painting. We are led to suppose
way each wore a band as an amulet and the ceremonious
saffron ;
that the pageant-play produced its effect by means of gorgeous
" "
reviling to which the
mystai were subjected as they crossed raiment, torches and stately figures.
the bridge of the Cephissus answered the same purpose of But the mystic action included more than the pageant-play.
averting the evil eye. Upon the arrival at Eleusis, on the same The hierophant revealed certain holy objects to the eyes of the
night or on the following, they celebrated a midnight revel assembly. There is reason to suppose that these included cer-
under the stars with lacchus, which Aristophanes glowingly tain primitive idols of the goddesses of immemorial sanctity;
describes. and, if we accept a statement of Hippolytus (loc. cit.) we must
What was "
The question of supreme interest now arises: the believe that the epoptae were also shown that great and marvel-
mystic ceremony in the hall? what was said and what was done? lous mystery of perfect revelation, a cut corn-stalk." The value
We can distinguish two grades in the celebration; the greater of this definite assertion, which appears to be an explicit revela-
was the rXa and r<wmKa, the full and satisfying celebration, tion of the secret, would be very great, if we could trust it; but
to which only those were admitted who had passed the lesser unfortunately it occurs in the same suspicious context as the
stage at least a year before. As regards the actual ritual in the Brimo-Brimos formula, and we again suspect the same uncritical
hall of the mystae, much remains uncertain in spite of the confusion of Eleusinian with Phrygian ritual, for we know that
"
unwearying efforts of many generations of scholars to construct Attis himself was identified in his mysteries with the reaped
a reasonable statement out of fragments of often doubtful corn," the OTaxw apr/ros, almost the very phrase used by
evidence. We are certain at least that something was acted there Hippolytus. Only, it is in the highest degree probable, whether
in a religious drama or passion-play, the revelation was partly Hippolytus knew anything or not, that a corn-token was shown
a pageant of holy figures; the accusations against Aeschylus among the sacred things of a mystery which possessed an original
and Alcibiades would suffice to prove this; and Porphyry speaks agrarian significance and was intended partly to consecrate and
of the hierophant and the 5p5oDxos acting divine parts. to foster the agricultural life. But to say this is by no means the
What the subject of this drama was may be gathered partly same as to admit the view of Lenormant 1 and Dr Jevons2 that
"
from the words of Clement Deo (Demeter) and Kore became the Eleusinians worshipped the actual corn, or revered it as a
the personages of a mystic drama, and Eleusis with its Sqfiovxos clan-totem. For of direct corn-worship or of corn-totemism
celebrates the wandering, the abduction and the sorrow" there is no trace either at Eleusis or elsewhere in Greece.
" "
(Protrept., p. 12 Potter), partly from Psyche's appeal to Demeter Among the Sp&ufva or things done may we also include
"
in Apuleius (Metamarph. 6) by the unspoken secrets of the a solemn sacrament, the celebration of a holy communion, in
mystic chests, the winged chariots of thy dragon-ministers, the which the votary was united to the divinity by partaking of
bridal descent of Proserpine [Persephone], the torch-lit wander- some holy food or drink? We owe to Clement of Alexandria
ings to find thy daughter and all the other mysteries that the (Protrept. p. 18, Potter) an exact transcription of the pass-word
shrine of Attic Eleusis shrouds in secret." We
may believe then of the Eleusinian mystae; it ran as follows (if we accept
"
that the great myth of the mother's sorrow, the loss and the Lobeck's emendation cf tyytvaanevos for p7oerd/Ki'os) I :
partial recovery of her beloved was part of the Eleusinian have fasted, I have drunk the barley-drink, I have taken [the
passion-play. Did it also include a iepos yafux? should We things] from the sacred chest, having tasted thereof I have placed
naturally expect that the sacred story acted in the mystic them into the basket and again from the basket into the chest."
pageant would close with the scene of reconciliation, such as a We gather from this that some kind of sacrament was at least a
holy marriage of the god and the goddess. But the evidence preliminary condition of initiation; the mystae drank of the same
"
that this is mainly indirect, apart from a doubtful passage
was so cup as the goddess drank in her sorrow, partly as we say in
in Asterius,a writer of questionable authority in the 4th century memory of her," partly to unite themselves more closely with
A.D. (Econom. martyr, p. 194, Combe). At any rate, if a holy her. We know also from an inscription that the priest of the
marriage formed part of the passion-play, it may well have been Samothracian mysteries broke sacred bread and poured out drink
acted with solemnity and delicacy. We have no reason to for the mystae (Arch, epigr. Mitth. 1882, p. 8, No. 14). But
believe that even to a modern taste any part of the ritual would neither in these nor in the Eleusinian is there any trace of the
appear coarse or obscene; even Clement, who brings a vague more mystic sacramental conception, any indication that the
charge of obscenity against all mysteries in general, does not votaries believed themselves to be partaking of the actual body
try to substantiate it in regard to the Eleusinia, and we hear
3
of their divinity; for there is no evidence that Demeter was
from another Christian writer of the scrupulous purity of the identified with the corn, still less with the barley-meal of which
hierophant. the Kuxeop was compounded. Nor is it likely that the sacra-
It would be interesting to know if the birth of a holy child, ment was the pivot of the whole mystery or was part of the
a babe lacchus, for example, was a motive of the mystic drama. essential act of the iiinjavi itself. In the first place we have
The question seems at first sight to be decided by a definite an almost certain representation of the Eleusinian sacrament on
statement of Hippolytus (Philosoph. 5, 8), that at a certain an archaic vase in Naples, 4 probably of Attic provenance, and
moment in the mysteries the hierophant cried aloud: " The lady- the artistic reproduction of a holy act would have been impious
goddess Brimo has borne Brimos the holy child." But a careful and dangerous, if this had belonged to the inner circle of the
consideration of the context almost destroys the value of his mystery. Again, there is no mention of sacrament or sacrifice
authority. For he does not pretend to be a first-hand witness, among the five essential parts of /iwjais given by Theo
:
but admits that he is drawing from Gnostic sources, and he goes 1
Daremberg et Saglio, Dictionnaire, p. 1066.
,
8
on at once to speak of Attis and his self-mutilation. The formula Introduction to the Study of Religion.
3
This is Dr Jevons's supposition op. cit on which he bases
may then refer to the Sabazian-Phrygian mystery, which the an important theory of the whole Eleusinian mysteries and their
Gnostics with their usual spirit of religious syncretism would intrinsic attraction.
have no scruple in identifying with the Eleusinian. And the 4
Farnell, Cults, vol. iii. pi. xv*.
MYSTERY 121
Smyrnaeus, nor in the imaginary narrative of the late rhetorician be found in the ancient sources suggesting that the recital of
Sopatros, who supposes the strange case of a man being initiated
1
magic formulae was part of the ceremony. The X67, what-
by the goddesses in a dream: they admit him to their full ever it was, was comparatively unimportant. And the Greek
communion merely by telling him something and showing him public in general, in its vigorous period when the Eleusinian
something. religion reached its zenith, was not tormented, as modern
Besides the dp&neva, then, there were also certain things Europe has at times been, by ghostly terrors of judgment.
said in the hall, or in the earlier stages of initiation, which we The assurance of the hope of the Eleusinian votary was
would gladly discover. Part of these were mystic formulae, obtained by the feeling of friendship and mystic sympathy,
one of which has been discussed already, the pass-word of established by mystic contact, with the mother and the daughter,
the votaries. We gather also from Proclus and Hippolytus 2 the powers of life Those who won their friendship
after death.
that in the Eleusinian rites they gazed up to heaven and by initiation in would by the simple logic of faith
this life
" "
cried aloud rain i) and gazed down upon the earth and regard themselves as certain to win blessing at their hands in
" "
cried conceive Kde. This ritual charm we cannot call it the next.
prayer descends from the old agrarian magic which underlay It is obvious that the mysteries made no direct appeal to
the primitive mystery. What else the votaries may have uttered, the intellect, nor on the other hand revolted it by any oppressive
whether by way of thanksgiving or solemn litany, we do not dogmatism. As regards their psychic effect, we have Aristotle's
know. 3 But there was also a certain ttpos Myos, some exposi- "
invaluable judgment: The initiated do not learn anything so
tion accompanying the unfolding of the mysteries; for it was part much as feel certain emotions and are put into a certain frame
"
of the prestige of the hierophant that he was chief spokesman, of mind (Synes. Dion. p. 480). The appeal was to the eye
"
who poured forth winning utterance and whose voice the and to the imagination through a form of religious mesmerism
"
catechumen ardently desired to hear (Anth. Pal., app. 246) and ; working by means that were solemn, stately and beautiful.
"
Galen speaks of the rapt attention paid by the initiated to the To understand the quality and the intensity of the impression
things done and said in the Eleusinian and Samothracian produced, we should borrow something from the modern experi-
"
mysteries (De usu part. 7. 14). But we have no trustworthy ences of Christian communion-service, mass, and passion-play,
evidence as to the real content of the \tryos of the hierophant. and bear in mind also the extraordinary susceptibility of the
We need not believe that the whole of his discourse was taken Greek mind to an artistically impressive pageant.
up with corn-symbolism, as Varro seems to imply (Aug. De civil. That the Eleusinia preached a higher morality than that
Dei. 20), or that he taught natural philosophy rather than of the current standard is not proved. That they exercised
theology, or again, the special doctrine of Euhemerus, as two a direct and elevating influence on the individual character is
passages in Cicero (De natur. dear. i. 42; Tusc. i. 13) might nowhere explicitly maintained, as Diodorus (v. 49) maintains
'
prompt us to suppose. His chief theme was probably an expo- concerning the Samothracian. But on general grounds it is
sition of the meaning and value of the itpa, as in an Australian reasonable to believe that such powerful religious experience
initiation rite it is the privilege of the elders to explain the as they afforded would produce moral fruit in many minds. The
" "
nature of the churinga to the youths. And his discourse genial Aristophanes (Frogs, 455) intimates as much, and
on these may have been coloured to some extent by the theories Andocides (De myster. p. 36, 31; p. 44, 125) assumes that
current in the philosophic speculation of the day. But though those who had been initiated would take a juster and sterner
in the time of Julian he appears to have been a philosopher of view of moral innocence and guilt, and that foul conduct was
Neo-platonic tendencies, we ought not to suppose that the a greater sin when committed by a man who was in the official
hierophant as a rule would be able or inclined to rise above the service of the mother and the daughter.
anthropomorphic religion of the times. Whatever symbolism Besides the greater mysteries at Eleusis, we hear of the
attached to the Upa, the sacred objects shown, was probably lesser mysteries of Agrae on the banks of the Ilissos. Estab-
simple and natural; for instance, in the Eleusinian, as in Egyptian lished, perhaps, originally by Athens herself at a time when
eschatology, the token of the growing corn may have served as Eleusis was independent and closed her rites to strangers,
an emblem though not a proof of man's resurrection. The they became wholly subordinated to the greater, and were put
doctrine of the continuance of the soul after death was already under the same management and served merely as a necessary
accepted by the popular belief, and the hierophant had no need preliminary to the higher initiation into them. Sacrifice was
to preach it as a dogma; the votaries came to Eleusis to ensure offered to the same great goddesses at both; but we have the
themselves a happy immortality. And in our earliest record, authority of Duris (Athenae, 253^), the Samian historian, and
the Homeric hymn, we find that the mysteries already hold out the evidence of an Attic painting, called the pinax of Nannion, 4
this higher promise. How, we may ask, were the votaries that the predominant goddess in the mysteries at Agrae was
assured? M. Foucart in Les grands mysteres d' Eleusis has Kore. And this agrees with the time of their celebration, in
maintained that the object of the mysteries was much the same the middle of Anthesterion, when Kore was supposed to return
as that of the Egyptian Book of the Dead; to provide the mystae in the young corn. Stephanus (s.v. "A.ypa), drawing from an
with elaborate rules for avoiding the dangers that beset the road unknown source, declares that the Dionysiac story was the
to the other world, and for attaining at last to the happy regions; theme of their mystic drama. Hence theorists have supposed
that for this purpose the hierophant recited magic formulae that their content was wholly Orphic or that their central
whereby the soul could repel the demons that it might encounter motive was the marriage of Dionysus and Kore. The theory
on the path; and that it was to seek this deliverance from the has no archaeological or literary support except the passage in
terrors of hell that all Greece flocked to Eleusis. This is in Stephanus, nor have we reason for believing that the marriage
" "
accord with his whole egyptizing theory concerning the of thesetwo divinities was recognized in Attic state ritual.
Eleusinia, a theory which, though Egyptian influence cannot The influence of Eleusis in early times must have been
a priori be ruled out, is not found in harmony with the facts great, for we find offshoots of its cult, whether mystic or not,
of the two religious systems. And the particular hypothesis in other parts of Greece. In Boeotia, Laconia, Arcadia, Crete
just stated is altogether wanting in direct evidence, or
we and Thera, Demeter brought with her the title of "Eleusinia";
may say in vraisemblance. There is no hint or allusion to and no other explanation is so probable as the obvious one
"
1
that this name designates the goddess of Eleusis," and though
Rhet. grace . viii. 121. "
2
In Tim. 293'; Ref. Omn. Haer. 5, 7, p. 146. there may have been other places called Eleusis," the only
1
The other formula which the scholiast on Plato (Gorg. 497 c.) famous religious centre was the Attic. The initiation rites of
"
I have eaten from the timbrel, I Demeter at Celeae near Phlius, at Lerna in Argolis, and at
assigns to the Eleusinian rite:
have drunk from the cymbal, I have carried the sacred vessel,
Naples, were organized after the pattern of the Eleusinian. But
I have crept under the bridal-chamber," belongs, not to Eleusis,
of these and the other Demeter mysteries in the Greek world,
but, as Clement and Firmicus Maternus themselves attest, to Phrygia
*
and to Attis. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, vol. iii. p. 242, pi. xvi.
122 MYSTERY
there is little to record that is certain and at the same time of of this religion. Admitted among the soberer cults of the
primary importance for the history of religion. The Arcadian Greek communities, it lost most of its wildness and savagery,
city of Pheneus possessed a mystery that boasted an Eleusinian while still retaining a more emotional ecstatic character than
character and origin, yet in the record of it there is no mention the rest. But this cooling process was arrested by a new
of Kore, and we may suspect that, like other Demeter-worships wave of Dionysiac fervour that spread over Greece from the
in the Peloponnese, it belonged to a period when the earth- 7th century onwards, bringing with it the name of Orpheus,
4
goddess was revered as a single personality and Kore had not and engendering at some later date the Orphic brotherhoods
yet emanated from her. We know much more of the details (thiasi). This religious movement may have started like
of the great Andaman mysteries in Messenia, owing to the the earlier one from the lands north of Greece; but Crete and
discovery of the important and much-discussed Andanian in- even Egypt are supposed to have contributed much to the
scription of 91 B.C.
1
But what we know are facts of secondary Orphic doctrine and ritual. Our earliest authority for the
importance only. We gather from Pausanias (4. 33. 4;cf. 4. i. proceedings of the mystery-practitioner who used the name
5. and 4. 26. 8; 4. 27. 6) that the rites, which he regards
as second of Orpheus is the well-known passage in Plato's Republic
in solemnity and prestige to the Eleusinian alone, were conse- (p. 3640), in which he speaks contemptuously of the itinerant
crated to the MeydXa: Gtai, the great goddesses,
. . . and that . . . ritualists who knock at the doors of the rich, the vendors of
"
Kore enjoyed the mystic title of Hagne, the holy one." magic incantations, who promise absolution from sins and
The inscription has been supposed to correct and to refute happiness in the next world to be attained by a ritual of puri-
Pausanias, but it does not really controvert his statements, fication and mystic initiation. This record brings to our notice
which are attested by other evidence; it proves only that other a phenomenon unknown elsewhere in Greek religion; the
divinities came at a later time to have a share in the mysteries, missionary spirit, the impulse to preach to all who would hear,
such as the Me-yaAoi 6eoi who were probably the Cabeiri (<?..). It which foreshadows the breaking down of the gentile religious
is clear that the Andanian mysteries included a sacred drama, barriers of the ancient world. And it is probable that some
" "
in which women personated the goddesses. The priestesses were kind of Orphic propagandism, whether through books or
married women, and were required to take an oath that they itinerant mystery-priests, or both, had been in vogue some time
had lived " in relation to their husbands a just and holy life." before Plato. We may fairly conjecture that it has to some
We hear also of grades of initiation, purification-ceremonies, extent inspired the glowing eschatology of Pindar, who describes
but of no sacrament or eschatologic promise; yet it is probable the next world as wplace of penance and purgation from ancestral
that these mysteries, like the Eleusinian, maintained and or personal taint and of final reward for the purified soul, and
secured the hope of future happiness. who unites this belief with a doctrine of reincarnation. In
The Eleusinian faith is not wholly unattested by the grave- the Hippolytus of Euripides, Theseus taunts his son with
" "
inscriptions of Hellas, though it speaks but rarely on these. cloaking his immorality under hypocritical Orphic preten-
The most interesting example is the epitaph of a hierophant sions to purity, the pharisaic affectation, for instance, of a
who proclaims that he has found that " death was not an evil, vegetarian diet (952-954). Still more important is the fragment
but a blessing." 2 of the Cretans of Euripides, attesting the strength of the
Of equal importance for the private religion of Greece were antiquity of these mystic Dionysiac associations in Crete.
the Orphic mystic societies, bearing a Thraco-Phrygian tradition The initiated votary proclaims himself as sanctified to Zeus of
into Greece, and associated originally with the name of Dionysus, Ida, to Zagreus the Orphic name of the nether-world Dionysus
and afterwards with Sabazius also and the later cult-ideas of and to the mountain-goddess Rhea-Cybele; he has fulfilled
"
Phrygia.
3
The full account of the Dionysiac mysteries would the solemn rite of the banquet of raw flesh," and henceforth
"
demand a critical study of the Dionysiac religion as a whole, he robes himself in pure white and avoids the taint of child-
as well as of the private sects that sprang up under its shadow. birth and funerals and abstains from meat." And what is
It is only possible here to indicate the salient characteristics of most significant he calls himself by the very name of his god
those which are of primary value for the history of religion. he is himself BIXKXOJ. In spirit and in most of its details
Originally a great nature-god of the Thraco-Phrygian stock, the passage accords well with the Bacchae of Euripides, which
powerful over all vegetation and especially revealing his power reflects not so much the public worship of Greece, but rather
in the vine, Dionysus was forcing his way into Greece at least the mystic Dionysiac brotherhoods. Throughout this inspired
as early as the Homeric period, and by the 6th century was drama the votary rejoices to be one with his divinity and to
received into the public cults of most of the Greek communities. call himself by his name, and this mystic union is brought
We can gather with some certainty or probability his aboriginal about partly, though Euripides may not have known it, through
" "
characteristics and the form of his worship. Being a god of the meal of raw flesh or the drinking of the blood of the
the life of the earth, he was also a nether divinity, the lord of goat or the kid or the bull. The sacramental intention of this
the world of souls, with whom the dead votary entered into is confirmed by abundant proof; even in the state-cult of
privileged communion; his rites were mystic, and nightly Tenedos they dressed up a bull-calf as Dionysus and reveren-
celebrations were frequent, marked by wild ecstasy and orgiastic tially sacrificed it (Ael. Nat. an. 12. 34); those who partook of
self-abandonment, in which the votary became at one with the flesh were partaking of what was temporarily the body of
the divinity and temporarily possessed his powers; women their god. The Christian fathers at once express their abhorrence
played a prominent part in the ritual; a savage form of sacra- of this savage <jfio4>ayia and reveal its true significance
mental communion was in vogue, and the animal victim of (Arnob. Adv. nat. 5. 119); and Firmicus Maternus (De error.,
whose flesh and blood the votaries partook was at times re- p. 84) attests that the Cretans of his own day celebrated a funeral
garded as the incarnation of the divinity, so that the god himself festival in honour of Dionysus in which they enacted the life and
"
might be supposed to die and to rise again; finally we may the death of the god in a passion-play and rent a living bull
regard certain cathartic ideas as part of the primeval tradition with their teeth."
But the most speaking record of the aspirations and ideas
'See Sauppe, Mysterieninschrift von Andania; cf. Foucart's of the Orphic mystic is preserved in the famous gold tablets
commentary in Le Bas, Voyage archeol. 2, No. 326*; H. Collitz, found in tombs near Sybaris, one near Rome, and one in Crete.
Dialect-inschriften, 4689. These have been frequently published and discussed; and here
1
Eph. arch. (1883), p. 81.
it is only possible to allude to the salient features that concern
3
The best account of the origin and development of the Dionysiac
religion is in Rohde's Psyche, vol. i. for Orphic ritual and doctrine
;
the general history of religion. They contain fragments of a
" "
see article on Orpheus in Roscher's Ausfuhrliches Lexikon der sacred hymn that must have been in vogue at least as early
griechischenund romischen Mythologie; Miss Harrison, Prolegomena, as the 3rd century B.C., and which was inscribed in order to
to the Study of Greek Religion, pp. 455-659, with critical appendix
by G_. Murray on the Orphic tablets discovered in Crete, near Rome, 4
The name 'Op&ets first occurs in Ibycus, Frag. 10: bvona.K.\vri>v
and in south Italy. 'Op<t>Tll>.
MYSTICISM 123
be buried with the defunct, as an amulet that might protect of a supreme, all-pervading, and indwelling power, in whom
him from the dangers of his journey through the under-world all things are one. Hence the
speculative utterances of
and open to him the gates of Paradise. The verses have the mysticism are always more or less pantheistic in character. On
power of an incantation. The initiated soul proclaims its divine the practical side, mysticism maintains the possibility of direct in-
" " "
descent I am the son of Earth and Heaven
: I am perishing
: tercourse with this Being of beings intercourse, not through any
"
with thirst, give me
to drink of the waters of memory ": I come external media such as an historical revelation, oracles, answers
"
from the pure ": I have paid the
penalty of unrighteousness ": to prayer, and the like, but by a species of ecstatic transfusion
" or identification, in which the individual becomes in very truth
I have flown out of the weary, sorrowful circle of life." His
" "
'reward is assured him: O blessed and happy one, thou hast partaker of the divine nature." Godceases to be an object
put off thy mortality and shall become divine." The strange to him and becomes an experience. In the writings of the
formula ept<os ya\' tirtrov, "la kid fell into the milk," mystics, ingenuity exhausts itself in the invention of phrases
has been interpreted by Dieterich (Eine Mithras Liturgie, to express the closeness of this union. Mysticism differs, there-
p. 174) with great probability as alluding to a conception of fore, from ordinary pantheism in that its inmost motive is
Dionysus himself as tpl<t>uK, the divine kid, and to a ritual religious; but,whereas religion is ordinarily occupied with a
of milk-baptism in which the initiated was born again. practical problem and develops its theory in an ethical refer-
We discern, then, in these mystic brotherhoods the germs of ence, mysticism displays a predominatingly speculative bent,
a high religion and the prevalence of conceptions that have starting from the divine nature rather than from man and his
played a great part in the religious history of Europe. And surroundings, taking the symbolism of religious feeling as
as late as the days of Plutarch they retained their power of literally or metaphysically true, and straining after the present
consoling the afflicted (Consol. ad uxor., c. 10). realization of an ineffable union. The union which sound
The Phrygian-Sabazian mysteries, associated with Attis, religious teaching represents as realized in the submission of
Cybele and Sabazius, which invaded later Greece and early the will and the ethical harmony of the whole life is then reduced
imperial Rome, were originally akin to these and contained to a passive experience, to something which comes and goes
many concepts in common with them. But their orgiastic in time, and which may be of only momentary duration.
ecstasy was more violent, and the psychical aberrations to Mysticism, it will be seen, is not a name applicable to any
which the votaries were prone through their passionate desire particular system. It may be the outgrowth of many differing
for divine communion were more dangerous. Emasculation modes of thought and feeling. Most frequently it appears
was practised by the devotees, probably in order to assimilate historically, in relation to some definite system of belief, as a
themselves as far as possible to their goddess by abolishing the reaction of the spirit against the letter. When
a religion begins
distinction of sex, and the high-priest himself bore the god's to ossify into a system of formulas and observances, those who
name. Or communion with the deity might be attained by the protest in the name of heart-religion are not unfrequently
priest through the bath of blood in the taurobolion (q.v.), or known by the name of mystics. At times they merely bring
by the gashing of the arm over the altar. A more questionable into prominence again the ever-fresh fact of personal religious
method which lent itself to obvious abuses, or at least to the experience; at other times mysticism develops itself as a
imputation of indecency, was the simulation of a sacred powerful solvent of definite dogmas.
marriage, in which the catechumen was corporeally united A review of the historical appearances of mysticism will serve
with the great goddess in her bridal chamber (Dieterich, op. to show how far the above characteristics are to be found,
cit. pp. 121-134). Prominent also in these Phrygian mysteries separately or in combination, in its different phases.
were the conception of rebirth and the belief, vividly impressed In the East, mysticism is not so much a specific phenomenon
by solemn pageant and religious drama, in the death and resur- as a natural deduction from the dominant philosophic systems,
rection of the beloved Attis. The Hilaria in which these and the normal expression of religious feeling in the
were represented fell about the time of our Easter; and Firmicus lands in which it appears. Brahmanic pantheism
Maternus reluctantly confesses its resemblance to the Christian and Buddhistic nihilism alike teach the unreality of
celebration. 1 the seeming world, and preach mystical absorption as the
The Eleusinian mysteries are far more characteristic of the highest goal; in both, the sense of the worth of human person-
older Hellenic mind. These later rites breathe an Oriental ality is lost. India consequently has always been the fertile
spirit, and though their forms appear strange and distorted mother of practical mystics and devotees. The climate itself
they have more in common with the subsequent religious encourages to passivity, and the very luxuriance of vegetable
phenomena of Christendom. And the Orphic doctrine may and animal life tends to blunt the feeling of the value of life.
have even contributed something to the later European ideals Silent contemplation and the total deadening of consciousness
of privateand personal morality. 2 by perseverance for years in unnatural attitudes are among the
LITERATURE. For citation of passages in classical literature commonest forms assumed by this mystical asceticism. But
bearing on Greek mysteries in general see Lobeck's Aglaophamus the most revolting methods of self-torture and self-destruction
(1829) and the collection of material for Demeter mysteries in L. R.
; are also practised as a means of rising in sanctity. The
Farnell, Cults of the Greek States (1906), iii. 343-367. For general sense of sin can hardly be said to enter into these exercises that
theory and discussion see Dr Jevons, Introduction to the Study of
is, they are not undertaken as penance for personal transgression.
Religton; Farnell, Cults of the Creek States, iii. 127-213; Dyer's The
Gods of Greece (1891), en. v. ; M. P. Foucart, Les Grands mysteres They are a despite done to the principle of individual or separate
d'Eleusis (1900); Andrew Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion (1887), existence.
pp. 264276
Goblet d'Alviella, Eleusinia (1903). See further articles
;
The so-called mysticism of the Persian Sufis is less intense and
DIONYSUS; GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS; DEMETER. (L. R. F.)
practical, more airy and literary in character. Sufism (q.v.)
MYSTICISM (from GT. pbtu>, to shut the eyes; /U^TJJS, one appears in the gth century among the Mahommedans of Persia
initiated into the mysteries), a phase of thought, or rather as a kind of reaction against the rigid monotheism and. formalism
perhaps of feeling, which from its very nature is hardly suscep- of Islam. It is doubtless to be regarded as a revival of ancient
tible of exact definition. It appears in connexion with the habits of thought and feeling among a people who had adopted
endeavour of the human mind to grasp the divine essence or the Koran, not by affinity, but by compulsion. Persian literature
the ultimate reality of things, and to enjoy the blessedness of after that dace, and especially Persian poetry, is full of an ardent
actual the Highest. The first is the philosophic
communion with natural pantheism, in which a mystic apprehension of the unity
side of mysticism; the second, its religious side. The first effort and divinity of all things heightens the delight in natural and
is theoretical or speculative; the second, practical. The in human beauty. Such is the poetry of Hafiz and Saadi,
thought that is most intensely present with the mystic is that whose verses are chiefly devoted to the praises of wine and
1
Farnell, Cults, 299-302.
iii. women. Even the most licentious of these have been fitted
by Mahommedan theologians with a mystical
1
See Archivfiir Religionswiss. (1906), article by Salomon Reinach. interpretation.
124 MYSTICISM
The delights of love are made to stand for the raptures of union greatest representative in Plotinus. He develops the Platonic
with the divine, the tavern symbolizes an oratory, and intoxica- philosophy into an elaborate system by means of the doctrine
tion is the bewilderment of sense before the surpassing vision. of emanation. The One, the Good, and the Idea of the Good
Very often, if not most frequently, it cannot be doubted that were identical in Plato's mind, and the Good was therefore not
the occult religious significance depends on an artificial deprived of intelligible essence. It was not separated from
exegesis; but there are also poems of Hafiz, Saadi, and other the world of ideas, of which it was represented as either the
writers, religious in their first intentions. These are unequivo- crown or the sum. By Plotinus, on the contrary, the One is
"
cally pantheistic in tone, and the desire of the soul to escape explicitly exalted above the vow and the ideas "; it trans-
and rest with God is expressed with all the fervour of Eastern cends existence altogether (eirexeiva rtjs owias), and is not-
poetry. This speculative mood, in which nature and beauty cognizable by reason. Remaining itself in repose, it rays out,
and earthly satisfaction appear as a vain show, is the counterpart as it were, from its own fullness an image of itself, which is
of the former mood of sensuous enjoyment. called vovs, and which constitutes the system of ideas of the
For opposite reasons, neither the Greek nor the Jewish mind intelligible world. The soul is in turn the image or product of
lent itself readily to mysticism: the Greek, because of its clear and the coOj, and the soul by its motion begets corporeal matter.
sunny naturalism; the Jewish, because of its rigid monotheism The soul thus faces two ways towards the vovs, from which
and its turn towards worldly realism and statutory observance. it springs, and towards the material life, which is its own
It is only with the exhaustion of Greek and Jewish civilization pioduct. Ethical endeavour consists in the repudiation of
that mysticism becomes a prominent factor in Western thought. the sensible; material existence is itself estrangement from
It appears, therefore, contemporaneously with Christianity, God. (Porphyry tells us that Plotinus was unwilling to name
and is a sign of the world-weariness and deep religious need his parents or his birthplace, and seemed ashamed of being
that mark the decay of the old world. Whereas Plato's main in the body.) Beyond the Ka0a.p<rtis, or virtues which purify
problem had been the organization of the perfect state, and from the further stage of complete identification with
sin, lies
Aristotle's intellect had ranged with fresh interest over all God (OVK afiaprias dvai; dXXo. Oeov elvai).
co To reach the
departments of the knowable, political speculation had become ultimate goal, thought itself must be left behind; for thought
a mockery with the extinction of free political life, and know- is a form of motion, and the desire of the soul is for the motion-
ledge as such had lost its freshness for the Greeks of the Roman less rest which belongs to the One. The union with transcendent
Empire. Knowledge is nothing to these men if it does not deity is not so much knowledge or vision as ecstasy, coalescence,
show them the infinite reality which is able to fill the aching contact (tKaraaK airXcoois, a.(j>ri, Ennead., vi. 9. 8-9). But in
void within. Accordingly, the last age of Greek philosophy our present state of existence the moments of this ecstatic union
"
is theosophical in character, and its ultimate end is a practical must be few and short; I myself," says Plotinus simply,
"
satisfaction. Neoplatonism seeks this in the ecstatic intuition have realized it but three times as yet, and Porphyry hitherto
of the ineffable One. The systematic theosophy of Plotinus not once."
and his successors does not belong to the present article, except It will be seen from the above that Neoplatonism is not
so far as it is the presupposition of their mysticism; but, inas- mystical as regards the faculty by which it claims to apprehend
much as the mysticism of the medieval Church is directly philosophic truth. It is first of all a system of complete
derived from Neoplatonism through the speculations of the rationalism; it is assumed, in other words, that reason is capable
pseudo-Dionysius, Neoplatonic mysticism fills an important of mapping out the whole system of things. But, inasmuch as
section in any historical review of the subject. a God is affirmed beyond reason, the mysticism becomes in a
Neoplatonism owes its form to Plato, but its underlying sense the necessary complement of the would-be all-embracing
motive is the widespread feeling of self-despair and the longing rationalism. The system culminates in a mystical act, and
for divine illumination characteristic of the age in the sequel, especially with lamblichus and the Syrian
niatonism m which it appears. Before the rise of Neoplaton- Neoplatonists, mystical practice tended more and more to
ism proper we meet with various mystical or semi- overshadow the theoretical groundwork.
mystical expressions of the same religious craving. The It was probably about the end of the 5th century, just as
contemplative asceticism of the Essenes of Judaea may be ancient philosophy was dying out in the schools of Athens,
mentioned, and, somewhat later, the life of the Therapeutae that the speculative mysticism of Neoplatonism made a
on the shores of Lake Moeris. In Philo, Alexandrian Judaism definite lodgment in Christian thought through the literary
"
had already seized upon Plato as the Attic Moses," and done forgeries of the pseudo-Dionysius (see DIONYSIUS THE AREOPA-
its best to combine his speculations with the teaching of his GITE). The doctrines of Christianity were by that time so firmly
Jewish prototype. Philo's God is described in terms of absolute established that the Church could look upon a symbolical or
transcendency; his doctrine of the Logos or Divine Sophia is a mystical interpretation of them without anxiety. The author
theistical transformation of the Platonic world of ideas; his of the Theologia mystica and the other works ascribed to the
allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament represents Areopagite proceeds, therefore, to develop the doctrines of
the spiritualistic dissolution of historical Judaism. Philo's Proclus with very little modification into a system of esoteric
ethical ideal is renunciation, contemplation, complete surrender Christianity. God is the nameless and supra-essential One,
to the divine influence. Apollonius of Tyana and the so-called elevated above goodness itself. Hence " negative theology,"
Neopythagoreans drew similar ethical consequences from which ascends from the creature to God by dropping one after
their eclectic study of Plato. Wonder-workers like Alexander another every determinate predicate, leads us nearest to the
the Paphlagonian exhibit the grosser side of the longing for truth. The return to God (^voxns, 0ko<rw) is the consummation
spiritual communion. The traits common to Neoplatonism of all things and the goal indicated by Christian teaching. The
and all these speculations are well summed up by Zeller (Philos. same doctrines were preached with more of churchly fervour
"
der Griechen, iii. 2. 214) as consisting in: (i) the dualistic by Maximus the Confessor (580-622). St Maximus represents
opposition of the divine and the earthly; (2) an abstract con- almost the last speculative activity of the Greek Church, but
ception of God, excluding all knowledge of the divine nature; the influence of the pseudo-Dionysian writings were transmitted
(3) contempt for the world of the senses, on the ground of the to the West in the gth century by Erigena, in whose speculative"
Platonic doctrines of matter and of the descent of the soul from spirit both the scholasticism and the mysticism of the middle
a superior world into the body; (4) the theory of intermediate ages have their rise. Erigena translated Dionysius into Latin
potencies or beings, through whom God acts upon the world along with the commentaries of Maximus, and his system is
of phenomena; (5) the requirement of an ascetic self-emancipa- essentially based upon theirs. The negative theology is adopted,
tion from the bondage of sense and faith in a higher revelation and God is stated to be predicateless Being, above all categories,
to man when in a state called enthusiasm." Neoplatonism and therefore not improperly called Nothing. Out of this
appears in the first half of the 3rd century, and has its Nothing or incomprehensible essence the world of ideas or
MYSTICISM
"
primordial causes eternally created.
is This is the Word or To lose thyself in some sort, as ifthou wert not, and to have
Son of God, in whom all things exist, so far as they have no consciousness of thyself at all to be emptied of thyself
substantial existence. All existence is a theophany, and as and almost annihilated such is heavenly conversation. ... So
"
God is the beginning of all things, so also is He the end. Erigena to be affected is to become God." As the little water-drop
teaches the restitution of all things under the form of the Diony- poured into a large measure of wine seems to lose its own nature
sian adunatio or deificatio. These are the permanent outlines entirely and to take on both the taste and the colour of the wine ;
of what may be called the philosophy of mysticism in Christian or as iron heated red-hot loses its own appearance and glows like
times, and it is remarkable with how little variation they are fire;or as air filled with sunlight is transformed into the same
repeated from age to age. brightness so that it does not so much appear to be illuminated
In Erigena mysticism has not yet separated itself in any as to be itself light so must all human feeling towards the
way from the dogma of the Church. There is no revulsion, Holy One be self-dissolved in unspeakable wise, and wholly
as later, from dogma as such, nor is more stress laid upon one transfused into the will of God. For how shall God be all in
if anything of man remains in man?
dogma than upon another; all are treated upon the same footing, all The substance will
and the whole dogmatic system is held, as it were, in solution indeed remain, but in another form, another glory, another
"
by the philosophic medium in which it is presented. No power (De diligendo Deo, c. 10). These are the favourite
distinction is drawn, indeed, between what is reached by reason similes of mysticism, wherever it is found.
and what is given by authority; the two are immediately Mysticism was more systematically developed by Bernard's
identical for Erigena. In this he agrees with the speculative contemporary Hugh of St Victor (1096-1 141). The Augustinian
mystics everywhere, and differentiates himself from the scholas- monastery of St Victor near Paris became the head-
tics who followed him. The distinguishing characteristic of quarters of mysticism during the I2th century. It
scholasticism is the acceptance by reason of a given matter, had a wide influence in awakening popular piety, and
the truth of which is independent of rational grounds, and the works that issued from it formed the textbooks of mystical
which remains a presupposition even when it cannot be under- and pietistic minds in the centuries that followed. Hugh's
stood. Scholasticism aims, it is true, in its chief representatives, pupil, Richard of St Victor, declares, in opposition to dialectic
at demonstrating that the content of revelation and the teaching scholasticism, that the objects of mystic contemplation are
of reason are identical. But what was matter of immanent partly above reason, and partly, as in the intuition of the
assumption with Erigena is in them an equating of two things Trinity, contrary to reason. He enters at length into the con-
which have been dealt with on the hypothesis that they are ditions of ecstasy and the yearnings that precede it. Walter.
separate, and which, therefore, still retain that external relation the third of the Victorines, carried on the polemic against the
to one another. This externality of religious truth to the mind dialecticians. Bonaventura (1221-1274) was a diligent student
is fundamental in scholasticism, while the opposite view is of the Victorines, and in his Itinerarium mentis ad Deum maps
equally fundamental in mysticism. Mysticism is not the out the human faculties in a similar fashion. He introduces
"
and " scintilla " (also " synderesis"
"
voluntary demission of reason and its subjection to an external the terms apex mentis
authority. In that case, all who accept a revelation without or awTijpjjms) to describe the faculty of mystic intuition.
professing to understand its content would require to be ranked Bonaventura runs riot in phrases to describe the union with
as mystics; the fierce sincerity of Tertullian's credo quia ab- God, and his devotional works were much drawn upon by
surdum, Pascal's reconciliation of contradictions in Jesus mystical preachers. Fully a century later, when the system
Christ, and Bayle's half-sneering subordination of reason to of scholasticism was gradually breaking up under the predomi-
faith would all be marks of this standpoint. But such a temper nance of Occam's nominalism, Pierre d'Aiily (1350-1425), and
of mind is much more akin to scepticism than to mysticism; his more famous scholar John Gerson (1363-1429), chancellor
it is characteristic of those who either do not feel the need of of the university of Paris, are found endeavouring to com-
philosophizing their beliefs, or who have failed in doing so and bine the doctrines of the Victorines and Bonaventura with a
take refuge in sheer acceptance. Mysticism, on the other hand, nominalistic philosophy. They are the last representatives
is marked on speculative side by even an overweening
its of mysticism within the limitations imposed by scholasticism.
confidence in human reason. Nor need this be wondered at if we From the i2th and i3th centuries onward there is observable
consider that the unity of the human mind with the divine is in the different countries of Europe a widespread reaction
its underlying presupposition. Hence where reason is discarded against the growing formalism and worldliness of
by the mystic it is merely reason overleaping itself; it occurs the Church and the scandalous lives of many of the
at the end and not at the beginning of his speculations. Even clergy. Men began to feel a desire for a theology Mystic".
then there is no appeal to authority; nothing is accepted from of the heart and an unworldly simplicity of life.
without. The appeal is still to the individual, who, if not by Thus there arose in the Netherlands the Beguines and Beghards,
reason then by some higher faculty, claims to realize absolute in Italy the Waldenses (without, however, any mystical leaning),
truth and to taste absolute blessedness. in the south of France and elsewhere the numerous sect or sects
Mysticism first appears in the medieval Church as the protest of the Cathari, and in Calabria the apocalyptic gospel of Joachim
of practical religion against the predominance of the dialectical of Floris, all bearing witness to the commotion of the time.
spirit. It is so with Bernard of Clairvaux (1090- The lay societies of the Beghards and the Beguines (for
IX S3). wno condemns Abelard's distinctions and men and women respectively) date from the end of the
reasonings as externalizing and degrading the faith. 1 2th century, and soon became extremely popular both
St Bernard's mysticism is of a practical cast, dealing in the Low Countries and on the Rhine. They were
mainly with the means by which man may attain to the know- free at the outset from any heretical taint, but were never
ledge and enjoyment of God. Reason has three stages, in the much in favour with the Church. In the beginning of the
highest of which the mind is able, by abstraction from earthly I3th century the foundation of the Dominican and Franciscan
things, to rise to contemplatio or the vision of the divine. More orders furnished a more ecclesiastical and regular means of
.exalted still, however, is the sudden ecstatic vision, such as was supplying the same wants, and numerous convents sprang
granted, for example, to Paul. This is the reward of those up at once throughout Germany. The German mind was
who are dead to the body and the world. Asceticism is thus a peculiarly fruitful soil for mysticism, and, in connexion either
the counterpart of medieval mysticism; and, by his example with the Beguines or the Church organization, a number of
as well as by his teaching in such passages, St Bernard unhappily women appear about this time, combining a spirit of mystical
encouraged practices which necessarily resulted in self-delusion. piety and asceticism with sturdy reformatory zeal directed
Love grows with the knowledge of its object, he proceeds, and against the abuses of the time. Even before this we hear of
at the highest stage self-love is so merged in love to God that we the prophetic visions of Hildegard of Bingen (a contemporary
love ourselves only for God's sake or because God has loved us. of St Bernard) and Elizabeth of Schonau. In the I3th century
12& MYSTICISM
Elizabeth of Hungary, the pious landgravine of Thuringia, was also visited by a succession of famines and floods, and in
assisted in the foundation of many convents in the north of 1348 the Black Death swept over Europe like a terrible scourge.
Germany. (For an account of the chief of these female saints In the midst of these unhappy surroundings religion became
see the first volume of W. Preger's Geschichte der deutschen more inward in men of real piety and the desire grew among
Mystik.) Mechthild of Magdeburg appears to have been the them to draw closer the bonds that united them to one another.
most influential, and her book Das fliessende Licht der Gcttheit Thus arose the society of the Friends of God (Coliesjreunde)
is important as the oldest work of its kind in German. It in the south and west of Germany, spreading as
h
proves that much of the terminology of German mysticism far as Switzerland on the one side and the Nether- T>
Q0ttes
was current before Eckhart's time. Mechthild's clerico-political lands on the other. They formed no exclusive faunae,"
"
utterances show that she was acquainted with the eternal sect. They often took opposite sides in politics
"
gospel of Joachim of Floris. Joachim had proclaimed the and they also differed in the type of their religious life; but
doctrine of three world-ages the kingdom of the Father, of they uniformly desired to strengthen one another in living
the Son, and of the Spirit. The reign of the Spirit was to begin intercourse with God. Among them chiefly the followers of
with the year 1 260, when the abuses of the world and the Church Eckhart were to be found. Such were Heinrich Suso of Con-
were to be effectually cured by the general adoption of the stance (1295-1366) and JohannTauler of Strassburg (1300-1361),
monastic life of contemplation. Very similar to this in appear- the two most celebrated of his immediate disciples. Nicolas
ance is the teaching of Amalric of Bena (d. 1207); but, while of Basel, the mysterious layman from whose visit Tauler dates
the movements just mentioned were reformatory without being his true religious life, seems to have been the chief organizing
heretical, this is very far from being the case with the mystical force among the Gottesfreunde. The society counted many
pantheism derived by Amalric from the writings of Erigena. members among the pious women in the convents of southern
His followers held a progressive revelation of God in the ages of Germany. Such were Christina Ebner of Engelthal near
the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Just as the Mosaic dispensation Nuremberg, and Margaretha Ebner of Medingen in Swabia.
came to an end with the appearance of Christ, so the sacraments Laymen also belonged to it, like Hermann of Fritzlar and
of the new dispensation have lost their meaning and efficacy Rulman Merswin, the rich banker of Strassburg (author of a
since the incarnation of God as Holy Spirit in the Amalricans. mystical work, Buck der neun Felsen, on the nine rocks or
With this opposition to the Church they combine a complete up wards steps of contemplation). It was doubtless one of the
antinomianism, through the identification of all their desires Friends who sent forth anonymously from the house of the
with the impulses of the divine Spirit. Amalric's teaching Teutonic Order in Frankfort the famous handbook of mystical
was condemned by the Church, and his heresies led to the public devotion called Eine deutsche Theologie, first published in 1516
burning of Erigena's De divisione naturae in 1225. The sect by Luther.
of the New Spirit, or of the Free Spirit as it was afterwards Jan van Ruysbroeck (1294-1381), the father of mysticism
called, spread widely through the north of France and into in the Netherlands, stood in connexion with the Friends of God,
Switzerland and Germany. They were especially numerous in and Tauler is said to have visited him in his seclusion
ay*
the Rhineland in the end of the I3th and during the I4th cen- at Groenendal (Vauvert, Griinthal) near Brussels.
tury; and they seem to have corrupted the originally orthodox He was decisively influenced by Eckhart, though there is no-
communities of Beghards, for Beghards and Brethren of the ticeable occasionally a shrinking back from some of Eckhart's
Free Spirit a.re used henceforward as convertible terms, and phraseology. Ruysbroeck's mysticism is more of a practical
the same immoralities are related of both. Such was the seed- than a speculative cast. He is chiefly occupied with the means
ground in which what is specifically known as German mysticism whereby the unio mystica is to be attained, whereas Eckhart
sprang up. dwells on the union as an ever-present fact, and dilates on its
In MeisterEckhart (? 1260-1327) the German mind definitively metaphysical implications. Towards the end of Ruysbroeck's
asserts its pre-eminence in the sphere of speculative mysticism. life, in 1378, he was visited by the fervid lay-preacher Gerhard
Eckhart was a distinguished son of the Church; Groot (1340-1384), who was so impressed by the life of the com-
but in reading his works we feel at once that we munity at Groenendal that he conceived the idea of founding a
have passed into quite a different sphere of thought from that Christian brotherhood, bound by no monastic vows, but living
of the churchly mystics; we seem to leave the cloister behind together in simplicity and piety with all things in common,
and to breathe a freer atmosphere. The scholastic mysticism after the apostolic pattern. This was the origin of the Brethren
was, for the most part, practical and psychological in character. of the Common Lot (or Common Life). The first house of
It was largely a devotional aid to the realization of present the Brethren was founded at Deventer by Gerhard Groot and
union with God; and, so far as it was theoretical, it was a theory his youthful friend Florentius Radewyn; and here Thomas
of the faculties by which such a union is attainable. Mysticism a Kempis (q.v.) received his training. Similar brother-houses
was pieced on somewhat incongruously to a scholastically soon sprang up in different places throughout the Low Countries
accepted theology; the feelings and the intellect were not brought and Westphab'a, and even Saxony.
together. But in Eckhart the attitude of the churchman and It has been customary for Protestant writers to represent
traditionalist is entirely abandoned. Instead of systematizing the mystics of Germany and Holland as precursors of
dogmas, he appears to evolve a philosophy by the free exercise the Reformation. In a sense this is true. But Mystics
of reason. His system enables him to give a profound signifi- it would be false to say that these men protested aaa the Re-
formation.
cance to the doctrines of the Church; but, instead of the system against the doctrines of the Church in the way the
being accommodated to the doctrines, the doctrines and Reformers felt themselves called upon to do. There is no
especially the historical facts acquire a new sense in the system, sign that Tauler, for example, or Ruysbroeck, or Thomas a
and often become only a mythical representation of speculative Kempis had felt the dogmatic teaching of the Church jar in
truth. The freedom with which Eckhart treats historical any point upon their religious consciousness. Never-
single
Christianity allies him much more to the German idealists of theless,mysticism did prepare men in a very real way for a
the gth century than to his scholastic predecessors.
i break with the traditional system. Mysticism instinctively
The
political circumstances of Germany in the first half of recedes from formulas that have become stereotyped and
the i4th century were in the last degree disastrous. The war mechanical. On the other hand its claim for spiritual freedom
between the rival emperors, Frederick of Austria and Louis was soon to be found in opposition also to the Reformers.
of Bavaria, and the interdict under which the latter was placed The wild doctrines of Thomas Munzer and the Zwickau
in 1324 inflicted extreme misery upon the, unhappy people. prophets, merging eventually into the excesses of the Later
From some places the interdict was not removed for twenty-six Peasants' War and the doings of the Anabaptists in German
Men's minds were pained and disquieted by the conflict Mystics.
years. Miinster, first roused Luther to the dangerous
of duties and the absence of spiritual consolation. The country possibilities of mysticism as a disintegrating force. He was
MYSTICISM 127
also calledupon to do battle for his principle against men like of Boehmenists were formed in England and Holland. Later in
Caspar Schwenkfeld (1490-1561) and Sebastian Franck (1500- the century he was much studied by the members of the
1545), the latter of whom developed a system of pantheistic Philadelphian Society, John Pordage, Thomas Bromley, Jane
mysticism, and went so far in his opposition to the letter as to Lead, and others. The mysticism of William Law (1686-1761)
declare the whole of the historical element in Scripture to be and of Louis Claude de Saint Martin in France (1743-1803),
but a mythical representation of eternal truth. Valentin Weigel who were also students of Boehme, is of a much more elevated
(1533-1588), who stands under manifold obligations to Franck, and spiritual type. The " Cherubic Wanderer," and other
represents also the influence of the semi-mystical physical poems, of Johann Scheffler (1624-1677), known as Angelus
speculation that marked the transition from scholasticism to Silesius, are more closely related in style and thought to
modern times. The final breakdown of scholasticism as a Eckhart than to Boehme.
rationalized system of dogma may be seen in Nicolas (or The religiosity of the Quakers, with their doctrines of the
" "
Nicolaus) of Cusa (1401-1464), who distinguishes between the inner light and the influence of the Spirit, has decided
intelleclus and the discursively acting ratio almost precisely affinities with mysticism; and the autobiography of George
in the style of later distinctions between the reason and the Fox (1624-1691), the founder of the sect, proceeds throughout
understanding. The intellect combines .what the understanding on the assumption of supernatural guidance. Stripped of its
separates hence Nicolas teaches the principle of the coincidentia
; definitely miraculous character, the doctrine of the inner light
contradictoriorum. If the results of the understanding go by may be regarded as the familiar mystical protest against for-
the name of knowledge, then the higher teaching of the intellec- malism, literalism, and scripture-worship. Swedenborg, though
tual intuition may be called ignorance ignorance, however, selected by Emerson
in his Representative Men
as the typical
" "
that conscious of itself, docta ignorantia.
is Intuitio," specu- mystic, belongs rather to the history of spiritualism than to
" " that of mysticism as understood in this article. He possesses
latio," visio sine comprehensione," comprehensio incom-
" "
man of science rather than the
prehensibilis," mystica theologia," tertius caelus," are some the cool temperament of the
of the terms he applies to this knowledge above knowledge; fervid Godward
aspiration of the mystic proper; and the specu-
but in the working out of his system he is remarkably free from lative impulse which lies at the root of this form of thought
Nicolas's doctrines were of influence upon is almost entirely absent from his writings. Accordingly, his
extravagance.
Giordano Bruno and other physical philosophers of the isth supernatural revelations resemble a course of lessons in celestial
and 1 6th centuries. All these physical theories are blended geography more than a description of the beatific vision.
with a mystical theosophy, of which the most remarkable Philosophy since the end of the i8th century has frequently
shown a tendency to diverge into mysticism. This has been espe-
example is, perhaps, the chemico-astrological speculations of cially so in Germany. The term mysticism is indeed often extended
Paracelsus (1493-1541). The influence of Nicolas of Cusa by popular usage and philosophical partisanship to the whole activity
and Paracelsus mingled in Valentin Weigel with that of the of the post-Kantian idealists. In this usage the word would be
Deutsche Theologie, Andreas Osiander, Schwenkfeld and Franck. equivalent to the more recent and scarcely less abused term, tran-
scendentalism, and as such it is used even by a sympathetic writer
Weigel, in turn, handed on these influences to Jakob Boehme like Carlyle; but this looseness of phraseology only serves to blur
(1575-1624), philosophus teutonicus, and father of the chief important distinctions. However absolute a philosopher's idealism
developments of theosophy in modern Germany (see BOEHME). may be, he is erroneously styled a mystic if he moves towards his
conclusions only by the patient labour of the reason. Hegel there-
Mysticism did not cease within the Catholic Church at the
fore, to take an instance, can no more fitly be classed as a mystic
Reformation. In St Theresa (1515-1582) and John of the Cross than Spinoza can. It would be much nearer the truth to take both
other the counter-reformation can boast of saints second as types of a thoroughgoing rationalism. In either case it is of course
Forms at to none in the calendar for the austerity of their open to anyone to maintain that the apparent completeness of
Mysticism, mortifications and the rapture of the visions to synthesis really rests on the subtle intrusion of elements of feeling
into the rational process. But in that case it might be difficult to
which they were admitted. But, as was to be expected, find a systematic philosopher who would escape the charge of
their mysticism moves in that comparatively narrow round,
mysticism; and it is better to remain by long-established and
and consists simply in the heaping up of these sensuous serviceable distinctions. So, again, when R6cejac defines mysti-
"
experiences. The speculative character has entirely faded cism as the tendency to draw near to the Absolute in moral union
out of it, or rather has been crushed out by the tightness with by symbolic means," the definition, as developed by him, is one
which would apply to the philosophy of Kant. Recdjac's interesting
which the directors of the Roman Church now held the reins work, Les Fondements de la connaissance mystique (Eng. trans. 1899),
of discipline. Their mysticism represents, therefore, no widening though it touches mysticism at various points, and quotes from
or spiritualizing of their theology; in all matters of belief they mystic writers, is in fact a protest against the limitations of experi-
ence to the data of the senses and the pure reason to the exclusion
remain the docile children of their Church. The gloom and "
of the moral consciousness and the deliverances of the heart."
harshness of these Spanish mystics are absent from the tender, But such a position is not describable as mysticism in any recognized
contemplative spirit of Francois de Sales (1567-1622); and in sense. On the other hand, where philosophy despairs of itself,
" "
the quietism of Mme Guyon (1648-1717) and Miguel de exults in its own overthrow, and yet revels in the mysteries of a
Molinos (1627-1696) there is again a sufficient implication of speculative Christianity, as in I. G. Hamann (1730-1788), the term
mysticism may be fitly applied. So, again, it is in place where the
mystical doctrine to rouse the suspicion of the ecclesiastical movement of revulsion from a mechanical philosophy takes the
authorities. Quietism, name and thing, became the talk of form rather of immediate assertion than of reasoned demonstration,
all the world through the bitter and protracted controversy to and where the writers, after insisting generally on the spiritual
which it gave rise between Fenelon and Bossuet. basis of phenomena, either leave the position without further defini-
tion or expressly declare that the ultimate problems of philosophy
In the 1 7th century mysticism is represented in the philo- cannot be reduced to articulate formulas.
Examples of this are
sophical field by the so-called Cambridge Platonists, and men like Novalis, Carlyle and Emerson, in whom philosophy may be
especially by Henry Mone (1614-1687), in whom the influence said to be impatient of its own task. Schelling's explicit appeal
of the Kabbalah is combined with a species of christianized in the Identitats-philosophie to an intellectual intuition of the
Pierre Poiret (1646-1719) exhibits a violent Absolute, is of the essence of mysticism, both as an appeal to a supra-
Neoplatonism. rational faculty and as a claim not merely to know but to realize
reaction against the mechanical philosophy of Descartes, and God. The opposition of the reason to the understanding, as formu-
especially against its consequences in Spinoza. He was an lated by S. T. Coleridge, is not free from the first of these faults.
ardent student of Tauler and Thomas a Kempis, and became The later philosophy of Schelling and the philosophy of Franz
von Baader, both largely founded upon Boehme, belong rather to
an adherent of the quietistic doctrines of Mme
Bourignon.
theosophy (q.v.) than to mysticism proper.
His philosophical works emphasize the passivity of the reason. AUTHORITIES. Besides the sections on mysticism in the general
The first influence of Boehme was in the direction of an obscure histories of philosophy
by Erdmann, Ueberweg and Windelband,
religious mysticism. J. G. Gichtel (1638-1710), the first editor
and in works on church history and the history of dogma, reference
of his complete works, became the founder of a sect called the may be made for the medieval period to Heinrich Schmid, Der
Mysticismus in seiner Entstehungsperiode (1824); Charles Schmidt,
Angel-Brethren. All Boehme's works were translated into Essai sur les mystiques du 14"" siecle (1836); Ad. Helfferich, Die
English in the time of the Commonwealth, and regular societies christliche Mystik (1842); L. Noack, Die christliche Mystik des
128 MYTHOLOGY
Mitlelallers (1853); J. Gorres, Die christliche Mystik (new ed., 1879- view of Cagn, the Bushman god. But in the mythological
1880); Rufus M. Jones, Studies in Mystical Religion (1909). On account of Cagn given by Qing he appears as a kind of grass-
the German mystics see W. Preger's Geschichte der deutschen Mystik
(vol. i. 1874; vol. ii. 1 88 1; vol. iii. 1893). The works of Eckhart hopper, supernaturally endowed, the hero of a most absurd
and his precursors are contained in F. Pfeiffer's Deutsche Mystiker cycle of senseless adventures. Even religion is affected by these
des 14. Jahrhunderts (1845-1857). (A.S. P.-P.) irrational .notions, and the gods of savages and of many civilized
MYTHOLOGY are worshipped with cruel, obscene, and irrational
(Gr. /iu0oX<ryia, the science which examines peoples
nWoi, myths or legends of cosmogony and of gods and
rites. But, on the whole, the religious sentiment strives to
transcend the mythical conceptions of the gods, and is shocked
heroes. Mythology is also used as a term for these legends
" " and puzzled by the mythical narratives. As soon as this sense
themselves. Thus when we speak of the mythology of Greece
of perplexity is felt by poets, by priests, or by most men in an
we mean the whole body of Greek divine and heroic and cosmo-
gonic legends. When we speak of the" science of mythology " age of nascent criticism, explanations of what is most crude and
we refer to the various attempts which have been made to absurd in the myths are put forward. Men ask themselves
explain these ancient narratives. Very early indeed in the why their gods are worshipped in the form of beasts, birds, and
fishes; why their gods are said to have prosecuted their amours
history of human thought men awoke to the consciousness
much want in bestial shapes; why they are represented as lustful and passion-
that their religious stories were in of explanation.
The myths of civilized peoples, as of Greeks and the Aryans of ate thieves, robbers, murderers and adulterers. The answers
to these questions sometimes become myths themselves. Thus
India, contain two elements, the rational and what to modern
minds seems the irrational. The rational myths are those both the Mangaians and the Egyptians have been puzzled by
which represent the gods as beautiful and wise beings. The their own gods in the form of beasts. The Egyptians invented an
Artemis of the Odyssey
"
taking her pastime in the chase of explanation itself a myth that in some moment of danger
boars and swift deer, while with her the wild wood-nymphs the gods concealed themselves from their foes in the shapes
of animals. 1 The Mangaians, according to W. W. Gill, hold
disport them, and high over them all she rears her brow, and "
is easily to be known where all are fair," is a perfectly rational
that the heavenly family had taken up their abode in these
2
and
mythic representation of a divine being. We feel, even now, birds, fishes, reptiles."
that the conception of a
"
queen and huntress, chaste and fair,"
A
people so curious and refined as the Greeks were certain
the lady warden of the woodlands, is a beautiful and natural to be greatly perplexed by even such comparatively pure
fancy which requires no explanation. On the other hand, the mythical narratives as they found in Homer, still more by
Artemis of Arcadia, who is confused with the nymph Callisto, the coarser legends of Hesiod, and above all by the ancient
who, again, is said to have become a she-bear, and later a star,
localmyths preserved by local priesthoods. Thus, in the 6th
and the Brauronian Artemis, whose maiden ministers danced century before Christ, Xenophanes of Colophon severely blamed
a bear-dance, are goddesses whose legend seems unnatural, the poets for their unbecoming legends, and boldly called certain
"
and is felt to need explanation. Or, again, there is nothing myths the fables of men of old." 3 Theagenes of Rhegium
not explicable and natural in the conception of the Olympian (520 B.C.?), according to the scholiast on Iliad, xx. 67,* was the
Zeus as represented by the great chryselephantine statue of author of a very ancient system of mythology. Admitting
"
Zeus at Olympia, or in the Homeric conception of Zeus as a god that the fable of the battle of the gods was unbecoming," if
who " turns everywhere his shining eyes " and beholds all literally understood, Theagenes represented it as an allegorical
But the Zeus whose grave was shown in Crete, or the account of the war of the elements. Apollo, Helios, and
things.
Zeus who played Demeter an obscene trick by the aid of a ram, Hephaestus were fire, Hera was air, Poseidon was water, Artemis
or the Zeus who, in the shape of a swan, became the father of was the moon, KCLL TO. \onra. 6/xotcos. Or, by another system, the
Castor and Pollux, or the Zeus who was merely a rough stone, names of the gods represented moral and intellectual qualities.
or the Zeus who deceived Hera by means of a feigned marriage Heraclitus, too, disposed of the myth of the bondage of Hera
with an inanimate object, or the Zeus who was afraid of Attes, as allegorical philosophy. Socrates, in the Cratylus of Plato,
"
is a being whose myth is felt to be unnatural and in great need expounds a philosophy which came to him all in an instant,"
of explanation. It is this irrational and unnatural element
an explanation of the divine beings based on crude philological
" " analyses of their names. Metrodorus, rivalling some recent
as Max Miiller saySj the silly, savage and senseless element
that makes mythology the puzzle which men have so long flights of conjecture, resolved not only the gods but even heroes
"
like Agamemnon, Hector and Achilles into elemental combina-
found it.
tions and physical agencies." 6 Euripides makes Pentheus
Early Explanations of Myths. The earliest attempts at a " "
crude science of mythology were efforts to reconcile the legends (but he was notoriously impious) advance a rationalistic
of the gods and heroes with the religious sentiment which theory of the story that Dionysus was stitched up in the thigh
of Zeus.
recognized these beings objects of worship and respect.
in
When Christianity became powerful the heathen philosophers
Closely as religion and myth are intertwined, it is necessary
to hold them apart for the purposes of this discussion. evaded its satire by making more and more use of the allegorical
Religion
and non-natural system of explanation. That method has
may here be defined as the conception of divine, or at least
two faults. First (as Arnobius and Eusebius reminded their
supernatural powers entertained by men in moments of gratitude
or of need and distress, in hours of weakness, when, as Homer heathen opponents), the allegorical explanations are purely
says,
"
all folk yearn after the gods." Now this conception arbitrary, depend upon the fancy of their author, and are
all equally plausible and equally unsupported by evidence. 6
may be rude enough, and it is nearly related to purely
magical ideas, to efforts to secure supernatural aid by Secondly, there is no proof at all that, in the distant age when
the myths were developed, men entertained the moral notions
magical ceremonies. Still the roughest form of spiritual
and physical philosophies which are supposed to be " wrapped
prayer has for its basis the hypothesis of beneficent beings, " "
visible or invisible. The senseless stories or myths about up, as Cicero says, in impious fables." Another system of
the gods are soon felt to be at variance with this hypothesis. explanation is that associated with the name of Euemerus
As an example we may take the instance of Qing, the (316 B.C.). According to this author, the myths are history
Bushman hunter. Qing, when first he met white men, was in disguise. All the gods were once men, whose real feats have
asked about his religion. He began to explain, and mentioned been decorated and distorted by later fancy. This view suited
Cagn. Mr Orpen, the chief magistrate of St John's Terri- Lactantius, St Augustine and other early Christian writers
" De Iside et Osiride.
Is Cagn good or malicious? how do you pray
1
tory, asked: Plutarch,
" 'O 2
Myths and Songs from the South Pacific, p. 35 (1876).
to him?" Answer (in a low imploring tone): Cagn! 3 4
O Cagn! are we not your children? do you not see our hun- Xenoph. Fr. i. 42. Dindorf'sed., iv. 231.
6
Grote, Hist, of Greece, (ed. 1869) i. 404.
ger? give us food;' and he gives us both hands full" (Cape _
Cf. Lobeck, Aglaophamus, \. 151-152, on allegorical interpreta-
Monthly Magazine, July 1874). Here we see the religious tion of myths in the mysteries.
MYTHOLOGY 129
"
very well. They were pleased to believe that Euemerus by that Lafitau, a Jesuit missionary in North America, while
historical research had ascertained that the gods were once but inclined to take a mystical view of the secrets concealed
mortal men." Precisely the same convenient line was taken by Iroquois myths, had also pointed out the savage element
5
by Sahagun in his account of Mexican religious myths. As surviving in Greek mythology.
there can be no doubt that the ghosts of dead men have been Recent Mythological Systems. Up to a very recent date
worshipped in many lands, and as the gods of many faiths are students of mythology were hampered by orthodox traditions,
tricked out with attributes derived from ancestor-worship, and still more by ignorance of the ancient languages and of
the system of Euemerus retains some measure of plausibility. the natural history of man. Only recently have Sanskrit and
While we need not believe with Euemerus and with Herbert the Egyptian and Babylonian languages become books not
Spencer that the god of Greece or the god of the Hottentots absolutely sealed. Again, the study of the evolution, of human
was once a man, we cannot deny that the myths of both these institutions from the lowest savagery to civilization is essentially
gods have passed through and been coloured by the imaginations a novel branch of research, though ideas derived from an
of men who practised the worship of real ancestors. For unsystematic study of anthropology are at least as old as
example, the Cretans showed the tomb of Zeus, and the Phocians Aristotle. The new theories of mythology are based on the
"
(Pausanias x. 5) daily poured blood of victims into the tomb belief that it is man, it is human thought and human
of a hero, obviously by way of feeding his ghost. The language combined, which naturally and necessarily pro-
Hottentots show many tombs of their god, Tsui-Goab, and tell duced the strange conglomerate of ancient fable." 6 But, while
tales about his death; they also pray regularly for aid at the there is now universal agreement so far, modern mythologists
tombs of their own parents. We may therefore say that,
1
differed essentially on one point. There was a school (with
while it rather absurd to believe that Zeus and Tsui-Goab
is internal divisions) which regarded ancient fable as almost
"
were once real men, yet their myths are such as would be entirely a disease of language," that is, as the result of con-
developed by people accustomed, among other forms of religion, fusions arising from misunderstood terms that have survived in
to the worship of dead men. Very probably portions of the speech after their original significance was lost. Another school
legends of real men harve been attracted into the mythic accounts (also somewhat divided against itself) believes that misunder-
of gods of another character, and this is the element of truth stood language played but a very slight part in the evolu-
at the bottom of Euemerism. tion of mythology, and that the irrational element in myths
Later Explanations of Mythology. The ancient systems of is merely the survival from a condition of thought which was
explaining what needed explanation in myths were, then, once common, if not universal, but is now found chiefly among
physical, religious and historical.
ethical, One student, like savages, and to a certain extent among children. The former
Theagenes, would see a physical philosophy underlying Homeric school considered that the state of thought out of which myths
legends. Another, like Porphyry, would imagine that the were developed was produced by decaying language; the latter
meaning was partly moral, partly of a dark theosophic and maintains that the corresponding phenomena of language were
religious character. Another would detect moral allegory the reflection of thought. For the sake of brevity we might
" "
alone, and Aristotle expresses the opinion that the myths were call the former the philological system, as it rests chiefly
"
the inventions of legislators to persuade the many, and to on the study of language, while the latter might be styled the
" " " " "
be used in support of law (Met. xi. 8, 19). A fourth, like historical or anthropological school, as it is based on
Euemerus, would get rid of the supernatural element altogether, the study of man in the sum of his manners, ideas and insti-
and find only an imaginative rendering of actual history. When tutions.
Christians approached the problem of heathen mythology, The System of Max Mutter. The most distinguished and popular
they sometimes held, with St Augustine, a form of the doctrine advocate of the philological school was Max Muller, whose views
of Euemerus. 2 In other words, they regarded Zeus, Aphrodite may be found in his Selected Essays and"
Lectures on Language. The
problem "was to explain what he calls the silly, savage and senseless
and the rest as real persons, diabolical not divine. Some later element in mythology (Set. Ess. i. 578). Max Muller says (speaking
"
philosophers, especially of the iyth century, misled by the resem- of the Greeks), their poets had an instinctive aversion to every-
blance between Biblical narratives and ancient myths, came to thing excessive or monstrous, yet they would relate of their gods
the conclusion that the Bible contains a pure, the myths a what would make the most savage of Red Indians creep and
"
shudder stories, that is, of the cannibalism of Demeter, of the
distorted, form of an original revelation. The abbe Banier mutilation of Uranus, the cannibalism of Cronus, who swallowed
"
published a mythological compilation in which he systematically his own children, and the like. Among the lowest tribes of Africa
resolved all the Greek myths into ordinary history. 3 Bryant and America we hardly find anything more hideous and revolting."
Max Muller refers the beginning of his system of mythology to
published (1774) A New System, or an Analysis of Ancient the discovery of the connexion of the Indo-European or, as they
Mythology, wherein an Attempt is made to divest Tradition of Fable, are called,
"
Aryan
"
languages. Celts, Germans, speakers of
"
in which he talked very learnedly of that wonderful people, the Sanskrit and Zend, Latins and Greeks, all prove by their languages
descendants of Cush," and saw everywhere symbols of the ark that their tongues may be traced to one family of speech. The
and traces of the Noachian deluge. Thomas Taylor, at the end comparison of the various words which, in different forms, are com-
mon to all Indo-European languages must inevitably throw much
of the i8th century, indulged in much mystical allegorizing
light on the original meaning of these words. Take, for example,
of myths, as in the notes to his translation of Pausanias (1794). the name of a god, Zeus, or Athene, or any other. The word may
At an earlier date (1760) De Brosses struck on the true line of have no intelligible meaning in Greek, but its counterpart in the
interpretation in his little work Du Culte des dieux fetiches,
allied tongues, especially in Sanskrit or Zend, may reveal the original
"
ou parallele de I'ancienne religion de I'Egypte avec la religion significance of the terms. To understand the origin and meaning
of the names of the Greek gods, and to enter into the original intention
actuelle de Nigrilie. In this tract De Brosses explained the of the fables told of each, we must take into account the collateral
"
animal-worship of the Egyptians as a survival among a evidence supplied
by Latin, German, Sanskrit and Zend philology
civilized people of ideas and practices springing from the (Led. on Lang., 2nd series, p. 406). A name may be intelligible in
Sanskrit which has no sense in Greek. Thus Athene is a divine name
intellectual condition of savages, and actually existing among
without meaning in Greek, but Max Muller advances reasons for
negroes. A vast symbolical explanation of myths and mysteries supposing that it is identical with ahana,
"
the dawn," in Sanskrit.
was attempted by Friedrich Creuzer. 4 The learning and sound It is his opinion, apparently, that whatever story is told of Athene
sense of Lobeck, in his Aglaophamus, exploded the idea that the must have originally been told of the dawn, and that we must keep
this before us in attempting to understand the legends of Athene.
Eleusinian and other mysteries revealed or concealed matter
Thus again (op. cit. p. 410), he says, " we have a right to explain
of momentous religious importance. It ought not to be forgotten all that is told of him
" "
(Agni, fire ") as originally meant for fire."
1
Hahn, Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi, p. 113. The system is simply this: the original meaning of the names of gods
2
De civ. dei., yii. 18; viii. 26. must be ascertained by comparative philology. The names, as a
'La Mythologie el les fables expliquees par I'histoire (Paris, 1738; rule, will be found to denote elemental phenomena. And the silly,
3 vols. 410).
4
Symbolik und Mythologie der alien Volker (Leipzig and Darm- 8
Mceurs des sauvages (Paris, 1724).
stadt, 1836-1843). 6
Max Muller, Lectures on Language (1864), 2nd series, p. 410.
xix. 5
130 MYTHOLOGY
savage and senseless elements in the legends of the gods will be shown vitality." These words must reflect the thought of the men who use
to have a natural significance, as descriptions of sky, storms, sunset, them before they react upon that thought and confirm it in its mis-
water, fire, dawn, twilight, the life of earth, and other celestial and conceptions. So far Spencer seems at one with the philological
terrestrial existences. Stated in the barest form, these results do school of mythologists, but he warns us that the misconstructions
not differ greatly from the conclusions of Theagenes of Rhegium, of language in his system are" different in kind, and the erroneous
"
who held that Hephaestus was fire, Hera was air, Poseidon was course of thought is opposite in direction." According to Spencer
water, Artemis was the moon, <al T&. Xoiird &nolws." But Max Miiller's (and his premises, at least, are correct), the names of human beings
system is based on scientific philology, not on conjecture, and is inan early state of society are derived from incidents of the moment,
supported by a theory of the various processes in the evolution of and often refer to the period of the day or the nature of the weather.
myths out of language. We find, among Australian natives, among Abipones in South
It is no longer necessary to give an elaborate analysis of this theory, America, and among Ojibways in the North, actual people named
because neither in its philological nor mythological side has it any Dawn.Gold Flower of Day, Dark Cloud, Sun, and so forth. Spencer's
advocates who need be reckoned with. The attempt to disengage argument is that, given a story about real people so named, in process
the history of times forgotten and unknown, by means of analysis of time and forgetfulness the anecdote which was once current
of roots and words in Aryan languages, has been unsuccessful, or about a man named Storm and a woman named Sunshine will be
has at best produced disputable results. Max Miiller's system was a transferred to the meteorological phenomena of sun and tempest.
" "
result of the philological theories that indicated the linguistic unity Thus these purely natural agents will come to be personalized
" "
of the Indo-European or Aryan peoples, and was founded on an (Prin. Soc. 392), and to be credited with purely human origin and
analysis of their language. But myths precisely similar in irrational human adventures. Another misconception would arise when men
and repulsive character, even in minute details, to those of the had a tradition that they came to their actual seats from this moun-
Aryan races, exist among Australians, South Sea Islanders, Eskimo, tain, or that lake or river, or from lands across the sea. They will
Bushmen in Africa, among Solomon Islanders, Iroquois, and so mistake this tradition of local origin for one of actual parentage,
forth. The facts being identical, an identical explanation should and will come to believe that, like certain Homeric heroes, they are
be sought, and, as the languages in which the myths exist are essen- the sons of a river (now personified), or of a mountain, or, like a
tially different, an explanation founded on the Aryan language is tribe mentioned by Garcilasso de la Vega, that they are descended
likely to prove too narrow. Once more, even if we discover the from the sea. Once more, if their old legend told them that they
original meaning of a god's name, it does not follow that we can came from the rising sun, they will hold, like many races, that they
explain by aid of the significance of the name the myths about the are actually the children of the sun. By this process of forgetfulness
god. For nothing is more common than the attraction of a more and misinterpretation, mountains, rivers, lakes, sun and sea would
ancient story into the legend of a later god or hero. Myths of un- receive human attributes, while men would degenerate from a more
known antiquity, for example, have been attracted into the legend sensible condition into a belief in the personality and vitality of
of Charlemagne, just as the bans mots of old wits are transferred inanimate objects. As Spencer thinks ancestor-worship the first
to living humorists. Therefore, though we may ascertain that Zeus form of religion, and as he holds that persons with such names as
means " sky " and Agni " fire," we cannot assert, with Max Muller, sun, moon and the like became worshipped as ancestors, his theory
that all the myths about Agni and Zeus were originally told of results in the belief that nature- worship and the myths about natural
fire and sky. When*these gods became popular they would inevit- phenomena dawn, wind, sky, night and the rest are a kind of
ably inherit any current exploits of earlier heroes or gods. These transmuted worship of ancestors and transmuted myths about real
exploits would therefore
be explained erroneously if regarded as men and women. " Partly by confounding the parentage of the
originally myths of sky or fire. We cannot convert Max Miiller's race with a conspicuous object marking the natal region of the race,
"
proposition there was nothing told of the sky that could not in partly by literal interpretation of birth names, and partly by literal
" ' "
some form or other be ascribed to Zeus into there was nothing interpretation of names given in eulogy (such" as Sun and Bull,
ascribed to Zeus that had not at some time or other been told of the among the Egyptian kings), and also through implicit belief in
sky." This is also, perhaps, the proper place to observe that names the statements of forefathers," there has been produced belief in
derived from natural phenomena sky, clouds, dawn and sun descent from mountains, sea, dawn, from animals which have become
are habitually assigned by Brazilians, Ojibways, Australians and constellations, and from persons once on earth who now appear
other savages to living men and women. Thus the story originally
" " "
as sun and moon. A very common class of myths (see TOTEMISM)
told of a man or woman bearing the name sun," dawn," cloud, assures us that certain stocks of men are descended from beasts,
may be mixed up later with myths about the real celestial dawn, or from gods in the shape of beasts. Spencer explains these by the
cloud or sun. For all these reasons the information obtained from theory that the remembered ancestor of a stock had, as savages
of names is to be distrusted. We must also often have, an animal name, as Bear, Wolf, Coyote, or what not.
philological analysis
bear in mind that early men when they conceived, and savage men In time his descendants came to forget that the name was a mere
when they conceive, of the sun, moon, wind, earth, sky and so forth, name, and were misled into the opinion that they were children of a
have no such ideas in their minds as we attach to these names. real coyote, wolf or bear. This idea, once current, would naturally
They think of sun, moon, wind, earth and sky as of living human stimulate and diffuse the belief that such descents were possible,
beings with bodily parts and passions. Thus, even when we dis- and that the animals are closely akin to men.
cover an elemental meaning in a god's name, that meaning may be The chief objection to these processes is that they require, as a
all unlike what the word suggests to civilized men. A final objection necessary condition, a singular amount of memory on the one hand
is that philologists differ widely as to the true analysis and real and of forgetfulness on the other. The lowest contemporary savages
meaning of the divine names. Max Muller, for example,"connects remember little or nothing of any ancestor farther back than the
Kronos (KpAros) with xp6ms, "time"; Preller with upotvoi, I fulfil," grandfather. But men in Spencer's Mythopoeic age had much
and so forth. longer memories. On the other hand, the most ordinary savage
The civilized men of the Mythopoeic age were not obliged, as does not misunderstand so universal a custom as the imposition of
Max Muller held, to believe that all phenomena were persons, names peculiar to animals or derived from atmospheric phenomena.
because the words which denoted the phenomena had gender- He calls his own child Dawn or Cloud, his own name is Sitting Bull
terminations. On the other hand, the gender-terminations were or Running Wolf, and he is not tempted to explain his great-grand-
survivals from an of thought in which personal character- father's name of Bright Sun or Lively Raccoon on the hypothesis
early stage
istics, including sex, had been attributed to all phenomena. This that the ancestor really was a raccoon or the sun. Moreover,
condition of thought is demonstrated to be, and to have been, savages do not worship ancestresses or retain lively memories of
universal among savages, and it may notoriously be observed among their great-grandmothers, yet it is through the female line in the
"
children. Thus Max Miiller's theory that myths are a disease of majority of cases that the animal or other ancestral name is derived.
"
fanguage seems destitute of evidence, and inconsistent with what The son of an Australian male, whose kin or totem name is Crane,
is historically known about the relations between the language and takes, in many tribes, his mother's kin-name, Swan or Cockatoo,
the social, political and literary condition of men. or whatever it may be, and the same is a common rule in Africa and
Theory of Herbert Spencer. The system of Herbert Spencer, as America among races who rarely remember their great-grandfathers.
explained in Principles of Sociology, has many points in common On the whole, then (though degeneracy, as well as progress, is a
with that of Max Muller. Spencer attempts to account for the state force in human evolution), we are not tempted to believe in so strange
of mind (the foundation of myths) in which man personifies and a combination of forgetfulness with long memory, nor so excessive
animates all phenomena. According to his theory, too, this habit a degeneration from common sense into a belief in the personality
of mind may be regarded as the result of degeneration, for in his of phenomena, as are required no less by Spencer's system than by
view, as in Max Miiller's, it is not primary, but the result of miscon- that of Max Muller.
ceptions. But, while language is the chief cause of misconceptions
with Max Muller, with Spencer it is only one of several forces all
Preliminary Problems. We have stated and criticized the
working to the same result. Statements which originally had a
different significance are misinterpreted, he thinks, and names of more prominent modern theories of mythology. It is now
human beings are also misinterpreted in such a manner that early necessary first to recapitulate the chief points in the problem,
races are gradually led to believe in the of and then to attempt to explain them by a comparison of the
personality phenomena.
He too notes " the defect in early speech "" that is, the " lack of
words free from implications of vitality as one of the causes myths of various races. The difficulty of mythology is to
which " favour personalization." Here, of course, we have to ask account for the following among other apparently irrational
" elements in myths: the wild and senseless stories of the
Spencer, with Max Muller, why words in early languages imply
MYTHOLOGY
beginnings of things, of the origin of men, sun, stars, animals, will survive in anything so closely connected as mythology
death, and the world in general; the infamous and absurd adven- with the conservative religious sentiment.
tures of the gods; why divine beings are regarded as incestuous, If this view of mythology can be proved, much will have been
adulterous, murderous, .thievish, cruel, cannibals, and addicted to done to explain a problem which we .have not yet touched, namely,
wearing the shapes of animals, and subject to death in some the distribution of myths. The science of mythology has to account,
stories; the myths of metamorphosis into plants, beasts and if it can, not only for the existence of certain stories in the legends
stars; the repulsive stories of the state of the dead; the descents of certain races, but also for the presence of stories practically
of the gods into the place of the dead, and their return thence. It the same among almost all races. In the long history of mankind
is extremely difficult to keep these different categories of myths it is impossible to deny that stories may conceivably have
separate from each other. If we investigate myths of the origin spread from a single centre, and been handed on from races like
of the world, we often find gods in animal form active in the the Indo-European and the Semitic to races as far removed
work of world-making. If we examine myths of human descent from them in every way as the Zulus, the Australians, the
from animals, we find gods busy there, and if we try to investigate Eskimo, the natives of the South Sea Islands. But, while the
the myths of the origin of the gods, the subject gets mixed up possibility of the diffusion of myths by borrowing and
with the mythical origins of things in general. transmission must be allowed for, the hypothesis of the
Our first question will be, Is there any stage of human society, origin of myths in the savage state of the intellect supplies
and of the human intellect, in which facts that appear to us a ready explanation of their wide diffusion. Archaeologists
to be monstrous and irrational are accepted as ordinary occur- are acquainted with objects of early art and craftsmanship,
rences of every day life ? E. W. Lane, in his preface to the rude clay pipkins and stone weapons, which can only be classed
"
Arabian Nights, says that the Arabs have an advantage over as human," and which do not bear much impress of any one
us as story-tellers. They can introduce such incidents as the national taste and skill. Many myths may be called " human "
change of a man into a horse, or of a woman into a dog, or the in this sense. They are the rough products of the early human
intervention of an afreet, without any more scruple than our mind, and are not yet characterized by the differentiations
own novelists feel in describing a duel or the concealment of of race and culture. Such myths might spring up anywhere
a will. Among the Arabs the actions of magic and of spirits among untutored men, and anywhere might survive into civilized
are regarded as at least as probable and common as duels and literature. Therefore where similar myths are found among
concealments of wills in European society. It is obvious that Greeks, Australians, Egyptians, Mangaians and others, it is
we need look no farther for the explanation of the supernatural unnecessary to account for their wide diffusion by any hypothesis
events in Arab romances. Now let us apply this system to of borrowing, early or late. The Greek
" "
key pattern found
mythology. It is admitted that Greeks, Romans, Aryans of on objects in Peruvian graves was not necessarily borrowed
India in the age of the Sanskrit commentators, Egyptians of from Greece, nor did Greeks necessarily borrow from Aztecs
"
the Ptolemaic and earlier ages, were as much puzzled as we are the wave " pattern which is common to both. The same
by the mythical adventures of their gods. But is there any explanation may be applied to Greek and Aztec myths of the
known stage of the human intellect in which these divine deluge, to Australian and Greek myths of the original theft
adventures, and the metamorphoses of men into animals, trees, of fire. Borrowed they may have been, but they may as probably
stars, and converse with the dead, and all else that puzzles us have been independent inventions.
in the civilized mythologies, are regarded as possible incidents It is true that some philologists deprecate as unscientific the com-
of daily human life? Our answer is that everything in the parison cf myths which are found in languages not connected with
civilizedmythologies which we regard as irrational seems only each other. The objection rests on the theory that myths are a
disease of language, a morbid offshoot of language, and that the
part of the accepted and rational order of things (at least in
" " legends in unconnected languages must therefore be kept apart.
the case of medicine-men or magicians) to contemporary
But, as the theory which we are explaining does not admit that
savages, and in the past seemed equally rational and natural language is more than a subordinate cause in the development of
to savages concerning whom we have historical information. myths, as it seeks for the origin of myths in a given condition of
Our theory is, therefore, that the savage and senseless element in thought through which all races have passed, we need do no more
than record the objection.
mythology is, for the most part, a legacy from ancestors of
the civilized races who were in an intellectual state not higher The Intellectual Condition of Savages. Our next step must
than that of Australians, Bushmen, Red Indians, the lower races be briefly to examine the intellectual condition of savages,
of South America, Mincopies, and other worse than barbaric that is, of races varying from the condition of the Andaman
peoples. As the ancestors of the Greeks, with the Aryans of Islanders to that of the Solomon Islanders and the ruder Red
India, the Egyptians, and others advanced in civilization, Men of the American continent. In a developed treatise on the
their religious thought was shocked and surprised by myths subject of mythology it would be necessary to criticize, with
(originally dating from the period of savagery, and natural a minuteness which is impossible here, our evidence for the
in that period) which were preserved down to the time of very peculiar mental condition of the lower races. Max Miiller
Pausanias by local priesthoods, or which were stereotyped in asked (when speaking of the mental condition of men when
"
the ancient poems of Hesiod and Homer, or in the Brahmanas myths were developed), was there a period of temporary
and Vedas of India, or were retained in the popular religion madness through which the human mind had to pass, and was
"
of Egypt. This theory recommended itself to Lobeck. We it a madness identically the same in the south of India and the
"
may believe that ancient and early tribes framed gods like north of Iceland? To this we may answer that the human
themselves in action and in experience, and that the allegorical mind had to pass through the savage stage of thought, that this
" "
element in myths is the addition of later peoples who had stage was for all practical purposes identically the same
attained to purer ideas of divinity, yet dared not reject the everywhere, and that to civilized observers it does resemble
" "
religion of their ancestors (Aglaoph. i. 153). The senseless a temporary madness." Many races are still abandoned to
element in the myths would by this theory be for the most part that temporary madness; many others which have escaped
a " survival." And the age and condition of human thought from itwere observed and described while still labouring under
from which it survived would be one in which our most ordinary its delusions. Our evidence for the intellectual ideas of man
ideas about the nature of things and the limits of possibility in the period of savagery we derive partly from the reports of
did not yet exist, when all things were conceived of in quite voyagers, historians, missionaries, partly from an examination
other fashion the age, that is, of savagery. It is universally of the customs, institutions, and laws in which the lower races
"
admitted that " survivals of this kind do account for many gave expression to their notions.
anomalies in out institutions, in law, politics, society, even in
As to the first kind of evidence, we must be on our guard against
dress and manners. If isolated fragments of an earlier age several sources of error. Where religion is concerned, travellers
abide in these, it is still more probable that other fragments in general and missionaries in particular are biased in several distinct
132 MYTHOLOGY
ways. The missionary is sometimes anxious to prove that religion and movements? How are the motions of sun and moon to
can only come by revelation, and that certain tribes, having received be accounted for? Why has this tree a red flower, and this
no revelation, have no religion or religious myths at all. Sometimes
the missionary, on the other hand, is anxious to demonstrate that bird a black mark on the tail? What was the origin of the
the myths of his heathen flock are a corrupted version of the Biblical tribal dances, or of this or -that law of custom or etiquette?
narrative. In the former case he neglects the study of savage
Savage mythology, which is also savage science, has a reply
myths; in the latter he unconsciously accommodates what he hears
" to all these and all similar questions, and that reply is always
to what he calls the truth." The traveller who is not a missionary
found in the shape of a story. The answers cannot be accounted
may either have the same prejudices, or he may be a sceptic about
revealed religion. In the latter case he is perhaps unconsciously for without the previous existence of the questions.
moved to put burlesque versions of Biblical stories into the mouths We have now shown how savages come'to have a mythology.
of his native informants, or to represent the savages as ridiculing
It is their way of satisfying the early form of scientific curiosity,
the Scriptural traditions which he communicates to them. Yet
their way of realizing the world in which they move. But they
again we must remember that the leading questions of a European
inquirer may furnish a savage with a thread on which to" string frame their stories, necessarily and naturally, in harmony with
answers which the questions themselves have suggested. Have "
" " " " their general theory of things, with what we may call savage
you ever had a great flood ? Yes Was any one saved ? " "
The question starts the invention of the savage on a deluge-myth, metaphysics." Now early man, as Max Miiller says, not only
of which, perhaps, the idea has never before entered his mind. There did not think as we think, but did not think as we suppose he
still remain the difficulties of all conversation between civilized ought to have thought." The chief distinction between his
men and unsophisticated savages, the tendency to hoax, and other mode of conceiving the world and ours is his vast extension of
sources of error and confusion.
By this time, too, almost every the theory of personality. To the savage, and apparently to men
explorer of savage life is a theorist. He is a Spencerian,
"
or a believer
in the universal prevalence of the faith in an All-Father," or he
more backward than the most backward peoples we know, all
" nature was a congeries of animated personalities. The savage's
looks everywhere for gods who are spirits of vegetation." In
receiving this kind of evidence, ther, we need to know the character notion of personality is more a universally diffused feeling than
of our informant, his means of communicating with the heathen,
a reasoned conception, and this feeling of a personal self he
his power of testing evidence, and his good faith. His testimony
will have additional weight if supported by the
"
undesigned coin- impartially distributes all over the world as known to him.
" One of the Jesuit missionaries in North America thus describes
cidences of other evidence, ancient and modern. If Strabo and
Herodotus and Pomponius Mela, for example, describe a custom, "
the Red Man's philosophy: 2 Les sauvages se persuadent que
rite or strange notion in the Old World, and if mariners and mission-
non seulement les hommes et les autres animaux, mais aussi
aries find the same notion or custom or rite in Polynesia or Australia
or Kamchatka, we can scarcely doubt the truth of the reports. que toutes les autres choses sont animees." Crevaux, in the
The evidence is best when given by ignorant men, who are astonished Andes, found that the Indians believed that the beasts have
at meeting with an institution which ethnologists are familiar with piays (sorcerers and doctors) like themselves.* This opinion
in other parts of the world.
we may name personalism, and it is the necessary condition
Another method of obtaining evidence is by the comparative
study of savage laws and institutions. Thus we find in Asia, Africa,
of savage (and, as will be seen, of civilized) mythology. The
America and Australia that the marriage laws of the lower races Jesuits could not understand how spherical bodies like sun
are connected with a belief in kinship or other relationship with and moon could be mistaken for human beings. Their catechu-
animals. The evidence for this belief is thus entirely beyond sus- mens put them off with the answer that the drawn bows of the
picion. We find, too, that political power, sway and social influence "
The
are based on the ideas of magic, of metamorphosis, and of the heavenly bodies gave them' their round appearance.
power wind was formerly a person; he became a bird," say the Bushmen,
which certain men possess to talk with the dead and to visit the
abodes of death. All these ideas are the stuff of which myths are and do kal kai, a respectable Bushman once saw the personal
made, and the evidence of savage institutions, in every part of the wind at Haarfontein. 4 The Egyptians, according to Herodotus
world, proves that these ideas are the universal inheritance of
(iii. 16), believed fire to be Orjpiov e/i^uxop, a live beast. The
savages.
Bushman who saw the Wind meant to throw a stone at it, but
Savage men are like ourselves in curiosity and anxiety causas
it ran into a hill. From the wind as a person the Bhinyas in
cognoscere rerum, but with our curiosity they do not possess
India (Dalton, p. 140) claim descent, and in Indian epic tradition
Savage Ideas our powers of attention. They are as easily satisfied
the leader of the ape army was the son of the wind. The
about the with an explanation of phenomena as they are eager
WorM -
to possess an explanation. Inevitably they furnish
Wind, by certain mares, became the father of wind-swift steeds
themselves with their philosophy out of their scanty stock mentioned in the Iliad. The loves of Boreas are well known.
of acquired ideas, and these ideas and general conceptions
These are examples of the animistic theory applied to what, in
our minds, seems one of the least personal of natural phenomena.
seem almost imbecile to civilized men. Curiosity and
The sky (which appears to us even less personal) has been re-
credulity, then, are the characteristics of the savage intellect.
garded as a personal being by Samoyeds, Red Indians, Zulus,
6
When a phenomenon presents itself the savage requires an
and traces of this belief survive in Chinese, Greek and Roman
explanation, and that explanation he makes for himself, or
receives from tradition, in the shape of a myth. The basis of religion.
these myths, which are just as much a part of early conjectural
We must remember, however, that to the savage, Sky, Sun,
science as of early religion, is naturally the experience of the Sea, Wind, are not only persons, but they are savage persons.
" Their conduct is not what civilized men would attribute to
Savage as construed by himself. Man's craving to know the
" " characters so august; it is what uncivilized men think probable
reason why is already among rude savages an intellectual
" and befitting among beings like themselves.
appetite," and even to the Australian scientific speculation
has its germ in actual experience." 1 How does he try to satisfy The savage regards all animals as endowed with personality.
"
this craving ? E. B. Tylor replies,
"
When the attention of Us tiennent les poissons raisonnables, comme aussi les cerfs,"
a man in the myth-making stage of intellect is drawn to any says a Jesuit father about the North-American g^,^
Indians (Relations, loc. In Australia the Theory of
phenomenon or custom which has to him no obvious reason, '/.).
he invents and tells a story to account for it.
" natives believe that the wild dog has the power Man's He/a-
Against this
of speech, like the cat of the Coverley witch in the
statement it has been urged that men in the lower stages of J
culture are not curious, but take all phenomena for granted. If Spectator. The Breton peasants, according to P.
there were no direct evidence in favour of Tylor's opinion, it Sebillot, credit all birds with language, which they even attempt
would be enough to point to the nature of savage myths them- to interpret. The old English and the Arab superstitions
selves. It is not arguing in a circle to point out that almost about the language of beasts are examples of this opinion sur-
all of them are nothing more than explanations of intellectual viving among civilized races. The bear in Norway is regarded
as almost a man, and his dead body is addressed and his wrath
difficulties, answers to the question, How came this or that "
deprecated by Samoyeds and Red Indians. The native bear
phenomenon to be' what his? Thus savage myths answer
the questions What was the origin of the world, and of men, *
Relations (1636), p. 114. *
Voyages, p. 159.
and of beasts? How came the stars by their arrangement 4
South African Folk-Lore Journal (May 1880).
1 E. B. Tylor, op.
E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, \. 369 (1871). cit. ii. 256.
MYTHOLOGY
"
Kur-bo-roo is the .sage counsellor of the aborigines in all their the usual prayers demand for the deceased the power of going and
difficulties. When bent on a dangerous expedition, the men coming from and to everywhere under any form they like."* A
trace of this opinion may be noticed in the Aeheid. The serpent
will seek help from clumsy creature, but in what way his
this
that appeared at the sacrifice of Aeneas was regarded as possibly
" "
opinions are made known is nowhere recorded." H.R. School-
l
a manifestation of the soul of Anchises (Aeneid, v. 84)
" "
craft mentions a Red Indian story explaining how the bear Dixerat haec, adytis quum lubricus anguis ab imis
does not die," but this tale Schoolcraft (like Herodotus in Egypt) Septem ingens gyros, septena volumina, traxit,"
" and Aeneas
cannot bring himself to relate." He also gives examples of "
is
lowas conversing with serpents. These may serve as examples Incertus, geniumne loci, famulumne parentis
Esse putet."
of the savage belief in the human intelligence of animals. Man
On the death of Plotinus, as he gave up the ghost, a snake glided from
is on an even footing with them, and with them can interchange under his bed into a hole in the wall. 10 Compare Pliny " on the cave
"
his ideas. But savages carry this opinion much further. Man in quo manes Scipionis Africani majoris custodire draco dicitur."
in their view is actually, and in no figurative sense, akin to the The last peculiarity in savage philosophy to which we need call
" attention here is the belief in spirits and in human intercourse
beasts. Certain tribes in Java believe that women when
delivered of a child are frequently delivered at the same time with the shades of the dead. With the savage natural death
of a young crocodile." 2 The common European story of a is not a universal and inevitable ordinance.
"
All men must
"
is a generalization which he has
queen accused of giving birth to puppies shows the survival of die scarcely reached; in his
"
the belief in the possibility of such births among civilized races, philosophy the proposition is more like this all men who die
while the Aztecs had the idea that women who saw the moon die by violence." A natural death is explained as the result of
in certain circumstances would produce mice. But the chief a sorcerer's spiritual violence, and the disease is attributed to
evidence for the savage theory of man's close kinship with the magic or to the action of hostile spirits. After death the man
lower animals is found in the institution called totemism (q.v.) survives as a spirit, sometimes taking an animal form, sometimes
"
the belief that certain stocks of men in the various tribes are invisible, sometimes to be observed in his habit as he lived "
descended by blood descent from, or are developed out of, or (see APPARITIONS). The philosophy of the subject is shortly
otherwise connected with, certain objects animate or inani- put in the speech of Achilles (Iliad, xxiii. 103) after he has beheld
"
mate, but especially with beasts. The strength of the opinion is the dead Patroclus in a dream: Ay me, there remaineth then
proved by its connexion with very stringent marriage laws. even in the house of Hades a spirit and phantom of the dead, for
No man (according to the rigour of the custom) may marry a allnight long hath the ghost of hapless Patroclus stood over me,
woman who bears the same kin name as himself, that is, who is wailing and making moan." It is almost superfluous to quote
descended from the same inanimate object or animal. Nor may here the voluminous evidence for the intercourse with spirits
people (if they can possibly avoid it) eat the flesh of animals who which savage chiefs and medicine men are believed to maintain.
are their kindred. Savage man also believes that many of his They can call up ghosts, or can go to the ghosts, in Australia,
own tribe-fellows have the power of assuming the shapes of New Caledonia, New Zealand, North America, Zululand, among
animals, and that the souls of his dead kinsfolk revert to animal the Eskimo, and generally in every quarter of the globe. The
forms. men who enjoy this power are the same as they who can change
E. W. Lane, in his introduction to the Arabian Nights (i. 58), themselves and others into animals. They too command the
"
says he found the belief in these transmigrations accepted seriously weather, and, says an old French missionary, are regarded as
in Cairo. H. H. Bancroft brings evidence to prove that the Mexicans in their hands the lightning and the
very Jupiters, having
supposed pregnant women would turn into beasts, and sleeping thunder " (Relations, loc. til.). They make good or bad seasons,
children into mice, if things went wrong in the ritual of a certain
solemn sacrifice. There is a well-known Scottish legend to the effect and control the vast animals who, among ancient Persians and
that a certain old witch was once fired at in her shape as a hare, Aryans of India, as among Zulus and Iroquois, are supposed to
and that where the hare was hit there the old woman was found to grant or withhold the rain, and to thunder with their enormous
be wounded. J. F. Lafitau tells the same story as current among
his Red Indian flock, except that the old witch and her son took the
wings in the region of the clouds.
form of birds, not of hares. A
Scandinavian witch does the same in Another fertile source of myth is magic, especially the magic
the Egil saga. In Lafitau's tale the birds were wounded by the designed to produce fertility, vegetable and animal. From the
magic arrows of a medicine man, and the arrow-heads were found natives of northern and
central Australia to the actors in the
in the bodies of the human culprits. In Japan 3 people chiefly
transform themselves into badgers. The sorcerers of Honduras among whom arose the customs of
ritual of Adonis, or the folk
(Bancroft, i. 740)
"
possessed the power of transforming men into
crowning the May king or the king of the May, all peoples have
wild beasts." J. F. Regnard, the French dramatist, found in Lap- done magic to encourage the breeding of animals as part of the
land (1681) that witches could turn men into cats, and could them- food supply, and to stimulate the growth of plants, wild or
selves assume the forms of swans, crows, falcons and geese. Among cultivated. In the opinion of J. G. Frazer, the human repre-
"
the Bushmen 4 sorcerers assume the form of beasts and jackals."
M. Dobrizhofer, a missionary in Paraguay (1717-1791), learned that sentatives or animal representatives, in the rites, of the spirit
" of vegetation; of the corn spirit; of the changing seasons, winter
sorcerers arrogate to themselves the power of changing men into
"
tigers (Eng. trans., i. 63). He was present at a conversion of this or summer, have been developed into many forms of gods,
sort, though the miracle beheld by the people was invisible to the with appropriate myths, explanatory of the magic, and of the
missionary. Near Loanda Livingstone noted that " a chief may
sacrifice of the chief performer.In the same way the adoration
metamorphose himself into a lion, kill any one he chooses, and resume
his proper form." The same accomplishments distinguish the Barotse of living human beings, the deification of living kings whose
and Balonda. 6 Among the Mayas of Central America sorcerers title survives in our king or queen of the May, and in the rex
could transform themselves " into dogs, pigs and other animals;
nemorensis, the priest of Diana in the grove of Aricia has been
their glance was death to a victim (Bancroft, ii. 797). The
Thlinkeets hold that their shamans have the same powers." A
most fruitful in myths of divine beings. These human beings
bamboo in Sarawak is known to have been a man. Metamor- are often sacrificed, for various reasons, actual or hypothetical,
phoses into stones are as common among Red Indians and Australians and godl and heroes are almost as likely to be explained as
as in Greek mythology. Compare the cases of Niobe and the victims
spirits of vegetation now, as they were likely to become solar
of the Gorgon's head. 7 Zulus, Red Indians, Aztecs, Andaman
8
Islanders and other races believe that their dead assume the shapes mythological figures in the system of Max Miiller. It is certainly
of serpents and of other creatures, often reverting to the form of the true that divine beings in most mythologies are apt to acquire
animal from which they originally descended. In ancient Egypt solar with other elemental attributes, including vegetable
1
R. Brough Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, i. 446 (1878). attributes. But that the origins of such mythical beings were,
2
Hawkesworth, Voyages, iii. 756.
J. ab initio, either solar or vegetable, or, for that matter, animal,
'Lord Redesdale, Talts of Old Japan (1871). it would often be hard to prove.
*
Bleek, Brief Account of Bushman Folk-Lore, pp. 15, 40. Frazer's ideas are to be found in a work of immense erudition,
6
Missionary Travels, pp. 615, 642. The Golden Bough (London, 1900). Two studies by him, pursuing
W. H. Dall, Alaska, p. 423 (1870).
7
Dorman, Origin of Primitive Superstitions, pp. 130, 134. *
Records of the Past, x. 10.
8
Sahagun, French trans., p. 226. 10
Plotini vita, pp. 2, 95. H. N. xv. 44, 85.
134 MYTHOLOGY
the same set of ideas in more detail, are Adonis, Attis, Osiris (1906) in another world. Again, it is naturally kind to its living kinsfolk,
and Lectures on the Early History of the Kingship (1905). See A. and so may be addressed in prayer. These are the doctrines of
Lang, Magic and Religion (London, 1901), for a criticism in detail animism (g.t).), and, according to the usual anthropological theory,
of the general theory as set forth in The Golden Bough. Whatever these spirits come to thrive to god's estate in favourable circum-
may be said, Frazer has certainly made the most important of recent stances, as where the dead man, when alive, had great mana or wakan,
contributions to the study of mythology. He has fixed the attention a great share of the ether, so to speak, which, in savage metaphysics,
of students on a mass of early ideas, previously much neglected save is the viewless vehicle of magical influences. Thus the ghost of the
by W. Mannhardt, and on the facts of ritual, which preserve these hero or medicine man .of a km or tribe may be raised to divine rank,
ideas and represent them in a kind of mystery plays. while again the doctrine of spirits once developed, and spirits once
allotted to the great elemental forces and phenomena of nature, sky,
We are now in a position to sum up the ideas of savages about thunder, the sea, the forests we have the beginnings of depart-
man's relations to the world. We started on this inquiry mental deities, such as Agni, gjod of fire; Poseidon, god of the sea;
because we found that savages regarded sky, wind, sun, earth Zeus, god of the sky though in recent theories Zeus appears to be
and so forth as practically men, and we had then to ask, what regarded as primarily the god of the oak tree, a spirit of vegetation.
sort of men, men with what powers ? The result of our exam- On this theory animism, the doctrine of spirits, is the source of
all belief in gods. But it is found that among the lowest or least
ination, so far, is that in savage opinion sky, wind, sun, sea and cultured races, such as the south-eastern tribes of Australia, who
many other phenomena have, being personal, all the powers do not propitiate ancestral spirits by offerings of food, or address
attributed to real human persons. These powers and qualities them in prayer, there often exists a belief in an " All-Father," to
use Howitt's convenient expression. This being cannot have been
are: (i) relationship to animals and ability to be transformed
evolved out of the cult of ancestors, where ancestors are not wor-
and to transform others into animals and other objects; (2) shipped; and he is not even regarded as a spirit, but, in Matthew
"
magical accomplishments, as (a) power to visit or to procure Arnold's phrase, as a magnified non-natural man." He existed
the visits of the dead; (b) other magical powers, such as control before death came into the world, and he still exists. His home is in
or above the sky, but there was a time when he walked the earth, a
over the weather and over the fertility of nature in all depart-
potent magic-worker; endowed mankind with such arts and institu-
ments. Once more, the great forces of nature, considered as tions as they possess; and left to them certain rules of life, ethics
persons, are involved in that inextricable confusion in which and ritual. Often he is regarded as the maker of things, or of most
men, beasts, plants, stones, stars, are all on one level of person- things, and of mankind; or mankind are his children, descended
from disobedient sons of his, whom he cast out of heaven. Very
ality and animated existence. This is the philosophy of savage
and it is on these principles that the savage constructs his frequently he is the judge of souls, and sends the good and bad to
life, their own places of reward and punishment. He is usually supposed
myths, while these, again, are all the scientific explanations of to watch over human conduct, but this is by no means invariably
the universe with which he has been able to supply himself. the case. Sometimes he, like the Atnatu of the Kaitish tribe of
central Australia, is only vigilant in matters of ritual, such as cir-
Examples of Mythology. Myths of the origin of the world cumcision, subincision and the use of the sacred bull-roarer, the
and man are naturally most widely diffused. Man has every- Greek ^/i/3oj. As an almost universal rule, in the lowest culture,
where asked himself whence things came and how, and his no prayers are addressed to this being; he has no sacrifices, no dwell-
myths are his earliest extant form of answer to this question. ing made with hands; and the images of him, in clay, that are made
So confused and inconsistent are the mythical answers that it and danced round with invocations of his name at the tribal cere-
monies of initiation, are destroyed at the close of the performances.
is very them according to any system. If
difficult to classify If the name of
" "
god is denied to such beings because they receive
we try beginning with myths of creative gods, we find that the little cult, it may still be admitted that the belief might easily develop
world is sometimes represented as pre-existent to the divine into a form of theism, independent of and underived from animism,
or the ghost theory.
race. If we
try beginning with myths of the origin of the world, The best account of this All-Father belief in the lowest culture is
we frequently find that it owes its origin to the activity of pre- to be read in R. Howitt's Native Races of South-East A ustralia. Under
existent supernatural beings. According to all modern views the names of Baiame, Pundjel, Mulkari, Daramulun
of creation, the creative mind is prior to the universe which it and many others, the south-eastern tribes (both those Australian
created. There is no such consistency of opinion in myths, who reckon descent in the female and those who reckon Savages.
whether of civilized or savage races. Perhaps the plan least open by the male line) have this faith in an All-Father, the
attributes varying in various communities. The most highly
to objection is to begin with myths of the gods. But when we developed All-Father is the Baiame or Byamee of the Euahlayi
speak of gods, we must not give to the word a modern signifi- tribe of north-western New South Wales, to whom prayers for the
welfare of the souls of the dead are, or recently were, addressed the
cance. As used here, gods merely mean non-natural and
" tribe dwelling a hundred miles away from the nearest missionary
powerful beings, sometimes magnified non-natural men," station (Protestant). 1
sometimes beasts, birds or insects, sometimes the larger forces In the centre of Australia, Atnatu, self-created, is known, as has
and phenomena of the universe conceived of as endowed with been said, to the Kaitish tribe, next neighbours of the Arunta of the
human personality and passions. When Plutarch examined Macdonnell Hills. Among the Arunta, Mr Strehlow (Globus, May
" " 1907) finds such a being as Atnatu, and also among some other
the Osirian myth (De Isid. xxv.) he saw that the gods in
" " adjacent tribes, as the Luritja. See, too, Strehlow and von Leon-
the tale were really demons," stronger than men, but hardi, in Veroffentlichungen aus dent stddlischen Volker-Museum
" "
having the divine part not wholly unalloyed magnified non- (Frankfurt-am-Main, 1907, vol. i.). But Messrs B. Spencer and
natural men," in short. And such are the gods of mythology. F. J. Gillen, who discovered Atnatu, did not find any trace of an
All-Father among the Arunta, or any other of the tribes to the north
In examining the myths of the gods we shall begin with the and north-east of the centre. Mr Strehlow's branch of the Arunta
conceptions of the most backward tribes, and advance to the they did not examine.
divine legends of the ancient civilized races. It will appear that, It is plain that the All-Father belief, in favourable circumstances,
while the non-civilized gods are often theriomorphic, made in especially if ghost worship remained undeveloped, might be evolved
into theism. But all over the savage world, especially in Africa,
accordance with the ideas of non-civilized men, the civilized
spirit _worship has sprung up and choked the All-Father, who, how-
gods retain many characteristics of the savage gods, and these ever, in most savage regions, abides as a name, receiving no sacrifice,
" "
characteristics are the irrational element in the divine myths. and, save among the Masai, seldom being addressed in prayer.
A list of such otiose great beings in the background of religion is
Myths of Gods: Savage Ideas. It is not easy to separate the dis- given in Lang's The Making of Religion (1898). Since the publica-
cussion of savage myths of gods from the problem, Whence and how tion of that book much additional evidence has accrued from Africa
arose the savage belief in gods ? The orthodox anthropological and Melanesia, where the belief occurs in a few islands, but, in the
explanation has been "
that of E. B. Tylor, which closely resembles
majority, is absent or unrecorded. Most of the fresh evidence is
Herbert Spencer's
" ghost theory." By reflection on dreams, in given in La Notion de I'etre supreme chez les peuples non-civilises,
which the self, or spirit," of the savage seems to wander free from
the bounds of time and space, to see things remote, and to meet by Ren6 Hoffmann (Geneva, 1907). See also the Journal of the
Anthropological Institute (1899-1907), vols. xxix., xxxii., xxxiv.,
and recognize dead friends or foes by speculation on the experiences
;
xxxv., and the works of Miss Mary Kingsley, and Spieth, Die Evie-
of trance and of phantasms of the dead or living, beheld with waking
Stamme, Reimer (Berlin, 1906), and Sundermann in Warneck's
eyes; by pondering on the phenomena of shadows, of breath, of
death and life, the savage evolved the idea of a separable soul or Allgemeine Missionszeilschrift, vol. xi. An excellent statement is that
of Pere Schmidt, S.V.D., in Anthropos, Bd. III., Hft. 3 (1908), pp.
spirit capable of surviving bodily death. The spirit of the dead may
tenant a material object, a " fetish," or may roam hungry and 559/-6II. Tylor's efforts to show that these All-Fathers were
derived from missionary or other European influences (Nineteenth
comfortless and need propitiation by food, for unpropitiated it is
" "
dangerous, or may be reincarnated, or may go to its own herd
1
See Mrs Langloh Parker's The Euahlayi Tribe.
MYTHOLOGY
Century, 1892) have not been successful (see Lang,.WagJC and Religion, poetic romances appear to have the same origin and shade away
" of Loan Gods and N.W.Thomas in Man The baser Greek myths of the wanderings,
The Theory ") (1905), v., 49 into the fairies.
et seq. The All-Father is most potent among the lowest
belief amours and adventures of the gods, myths ignored by Homer, are
races, and always tends to become obsolete under the competition parallel to ^he adventures of the Alcheringa people, and the fable of
of serviceable ancestral spirits, or gods made in the image of such the mutilation of Osiris and the search for the lost organ by Isis,
spirits, who can be bribed by sacrifices or induced by prayers to help actually occurs among the Alcheringa tales of Messrs Spencer and
man in his various needs. Gillen. Among the Arunta, the Alcheringa folk are part of a
The belief in the All-Father in south-eastern Australia is concealed strangely elaborate theory of evolution and of animism, which leaves
from the women and children who, at most, know his exoteric no room for a creative being, or for a future life of the spirit, which
"
name, often meaning Our Father," and is revealed only to the is merely reincarnated at intervals.
initiate, among whom are a very few white men, like Howitt. Mrs Thus the doctrines of evolution and of creation, or the making of
Langloh Parker, of course, was not initiated (indeed, no white man things, stand apart, or blend, in the metaphysics and religion of the
has gone through the actual and very painful rites), but confidences lowest and least progressive of known
peoples.
The question as to
were made to her with great secrecy. The All-Father, even at his which theory came first, whether Alcheringaism is a scientific
best, among the Kurnai, Kamilaroi and Euahlayi, is the centre of effort that swept away All-Fatherism, or whether All-Fatherism is
many grotesque and sportive myths. He usually has a wife and a religious reaction in despair of science and of the evolutionary
children, not in all cases born, but rather they are emanations. doctrine, is settled by each inquirer in accordance with his personal
One of these children is often his mediator with men, and has the bias. It has been
argued that All-Fatherism is an advance, con-
charge of the rites and the mystic bull-roarer. The relation is that ditioned
by coastal influences more rain and more food con-
of Apollo to Zeus in Greek myth. comitant with a social advance to individual marriage, and reckon-
Many of the wilder myths are the expressions of the sportive and ing of kin in the male line. But tribes far from the sea, as in northern
humorous faculties. Some arise naturally thus: Baiame, say, New South Wales and Queensland, have the All-Father belief, with
originated everything, therefore he originated the grotesque individual marriage and female descent, while tribes of the north
mummeries and dances of the mysteries. To explain these, myths coast, with male descent, are credited with no All-Father; and the
have been developed to show that they arose in some grotesque Arunta, as far as possible from the sea, have no All-Father (save in
incident of Baiame's personal existence on earth. Many Greek Strehlow's district), and have individual marriage and male reckon-
myths, most derogatory to the dignity of Demeter, Dionysus, Zeus ing of descent in matters of inheritance; while the Urabunna "
and
or Hera, arose in the same way, as explanations of buffooneries in Dieri, with female descent and the custom of pirrauru (called
" group
the Eleusinian or other mysteries. In medieval literature the most marriage by Howitt), are not credited with the All-Father belief.
sacred persons of our religion have grotesque associations attached Thus coastal conditions have clearly no causal influence on the
to them in the same manner. development of the All-Father belief. If they had, the natives of
While the All-Father belief is common in the tribes of south- central Queensland, remote from the sea, should not have their
eastern Australia, the tribes round Lake the Arunta (as All-Father (Mulkari), and the natives of the northern and north-
Eyre,
known to Messrs Spencer and Gillen), and the other central and eastern coasts should have an All-Father, who is still to seek. The
northern tribes, are credited with no germs of belief in what is called Arunta of Messrs Spencer and Gillen may have possessed and deposed
a supreme, and may truly be styled a superior being. That being, the Altjira superior being of the Arunta known to Mr Strehlow,
in many but not so commonly in Australia, has a malevolent
cases, like the Atnatu of the adjacent Kaitish, or the All-Father of the
opposite who thwarts his work, an Ahriman to his Ormuzd. In neighbouring Luritja; or these beings may be more recent diver-
one district, where the superior being is a crow, his opposite is an gences of doctrine, departures from pure Alcheringaism with no All-
eagle-hawk. These two birds in many tribes give names to the two Father. At present, at least, it is premature to dogmatize on these
great exogamous and intermarrying divisions in their case there is a
1
; problems.
va et vient of divine, human and theriomorpnic elements, just as in The chief being among the supernatural characters of Bushman
the Greek myths of Zeus. As a rule, however, the Australian All- mythology is the insect called the Mantis.
1
Cagn or Ikaggen, the
Father is anthropomorphic, and fairly well described in the native Mantis, is sometimes regarded with religious respect as
term when they speak English as " the Big Man," powerful, death- a benevolent god. But his adventures are the merest African
" " Savages.
Jess, friendly, able to go everywhere and do everything," to see nightmares of puerile fancy. He "has a wife, an " adopted
whatever you do." The existence of the belief in this being was daughter, whose real father is the swallower in Bushman swallow-
accepted by T. Waitz, and, though disputed by many squatters and ing and the daughter has a son, who is the Ichneumon.
most anthropologists, is now admitted on the strength of the evidence The myths,
Mantis made an eland out of the shoe of his son-in-law. The
of Howitt, Cameron, Mrs Langloh Parker, Dawson, W. E. Roth in moon was also created by the Mantis out of his shoe, and it is red,
Ethnological Studies, and many other close observers. The belief because the shoe was covered with the red dust of Bushman-land.
being esoteric, a secret of the initiated, necessarily escaped casual The Mantis is defeated in an encounter with a cat which happened
inquirers. to be singing a song about a lynx. The Mantis (like Poseidon,
Meanwhile, among some of the Arunta of the centre, among the Hades, Metis and other Greek gods)was once swallowed, butdis-
Dieri and Urabunna tribes near Lake Eyre and their congeners, alive. The swallower was the monster Ilkhwai-hemm.
and among the tribes north by east of the Arunta, no such belief ike Heracles when he leaped into the belly of the monster which
Ejrged
has been discovered by Messrs Spencer and Gillen, from whom the was about to swallow Hesione, the Mantis once jumped down the
tribes kept no secrets, or by Mr Siebert, a missionary among the now throat of a hostile elephant, and so
destroyed him. The heavenly
all but extinct Dieri. There is just a trace of a dim sky-dwelling bodies are gods among the Bushmen, but their nature and adventures
being, Arawotja, possibly an all but obliterated survival of an All- must be discussed among other myths of sun, moon and stars. As
Father. Howitt speaks too of the Dieri Kutchi, who inspires a creator Cagn is sometimes said to have " given orders, and caused
medicine-men with ideas, but about him our information is scanty. all things to appear to be made." He struck snakes with his staff
Among all these tribes religion now takes another line, the belief and turned them into men, as Zeus did with the ants in Aegina.
in a supernormal race of Titanic beings, with no superior, who were But the Bushmen's mythical theory of the origin of things must,
the first dwellers on earth who possessed powers far exceeding those
;
as far as possible, be kept apart from the fables of the Mantis, the
of the medicine-men of
to-day;
and who, in one way or another, Ichneumon and other divine beings. Though animals, these gods
were connected with, or developed from, the totem animals,vege- have human passions and character, and possess the usual magical
tables and other objects. These beings modified the face of the powers attributed to sorcerers.
country; in Arunta" belief rocks and trees" arose to mark the places Concerning the mythology of the Hottentots and Namas, we have
where they finally went into the ground (Oknanikilla), and their a great deal of information in a book named Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme
spirits still haunt certain places such as these and are reincarnated
; BeingoftheKhoi-Khoi(i88i),byDrT.Hahn. This author collected
in native women who pass by. These beings, in Arunta called the old notices of Hottentot myths, and added material from his
" "
the people of the Alcheringa, or dream time (but cf. Strehlow own researches. The chief god of the Hottentots is a being named
in Globus, ut supra), originated the tribal rites of initiation. In Tsuni-Goam, who is universally regarded by his worshippers as a
Dieri they are called M
ura-Mura, and to them prayers are made for deceased sorcerer. According to one old believer, " Tsui-Goab "
"
rain, accompanied by rain-making magic ceremonies, which in this (an alternative reading of the god's name) was a great powerful
case may be a symbolical expression of the There is a chief of the Khoi-Khoi in fact, he was the first Khoi-Khoib from
prayers.
large body of myths about the Alcheringa folk, or Mura-Mura whom all the Khoi-Khoi tribes took their name." He is always
(see Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, Native
Tribes of Northern Australia, and Howitt, Native Tribes of South- l
The drawback to knowledge is the rarity of full acquaintance
Eastern Australia), and the myths of their wanderings, with native languages. Strehlow, Roth and Ridley seem best
prodigies
and institution of rites and magic are represented in the dances of equipped on the linguistic side. Spencer and Gillen do not tell us
the mysteries. Most of the magic is worked (Intichiuma in Arunta) that they have a colloquial knowledge of any Australian language.
by the members of each totem kin or group for the behoof of the Gason, author of a work on the Dieri tribe, knew their language
totem as an article of food supply. These rites are common in well, but several of his statements appear to be inaccurate. Mrs
North America, but are worked, by members of gilds or societies, Langloh Parker describes her methods of checking and controlling
not by totem kins. native statements made in English.
The belief in these Mura-Mura or Alcheringafolk may obviously J
Accounts of the Mantis and of his performances will be found
develop, in favourable circumstances, into a polytheism like that of in the Cape Monthly Magazine(July 1874), and in Dr Bleek's
Brief
Greece, or of Egypt, or of the Maoris. The old Irish gods in the Account of Bushman Folk-Lore.
136 MYTHOLOGY
represented as at war (in the usual crude dualism of savages) with Banks Islands are chiefly ancestor-worshippers, but they also believe
" "
another chief named Gaunab. The prayers "
addressed to Tsui-
" in,and occasionally pray to, a being named I Qat, one of the prehuman
Goab are simple and natural in character, the private ejaculations race endowed with supernatural powers who here, as elsewhere, do
of men in moments of need or distress. As usual, religion is more duty as gods. Here is an example of a prayer" to Qat the devotee
advanced than mythology. It appears that, by some accounts, is supposed to be in danger with his canoe: Qate! Marawa! look
Tsui-Goab lives in the red sky and Gaunab in the dark sky. The down on me, smooth the sea for us two that I may go safely on the sea.
neighbouring race of Namas have another old chief for god, a being Beat down for me the crests of the tide-rip let the tide-rip settle
;
called Heitsi Eibib. His graves are shown in many places, like those down away from me, beat it down level that it may sink and roll
of Osiris, which, says Plutarch, abounded in Egypt. He is propi- away, and I may come to a quiet landing-place." Compare the
tiated by passers-by at his sepulchres. He has intimate relations prayer of Odysseus to the river, whose mouth he had "reached after
in peace and war with a variety of animals whose habits are some-
'
three days' swimming on the tempestuous sea. Hear me,
times explained (like those of the serpent in Genesis) as the result O king, whosoever thou art, unto thee I am come as to one to whom
of the curse of Heitsi Eibib. Heitsi Eibib was born in a mysterious prayer is made .
nay, pity me, O king, for I avow myself thy
. .
way from a cow, as Indra in the Black Yaji'r-Veda entered >nto and suppliant.' So spake he, and the god stayed his stream, "and with-
was born from the womb of a being who also bore a cow. The held his waves, and made the water smooth before him (Odyssey
"
Rig-Veda (iv. "18, i) remarks, His mother, a cow, bore Indra, an v. 450). The prayer of the Melanesian is on rather a higher religious
unlicked calf probably a metaphorical way of speaking. Heitsi level than that of the Homeric hero. The myths of Qat's adventures,
Eibib, like countless other gods and herpes, is also said to have been however, are very crude, though not so wild as some of the Scan-
the son of a virgin who tasted a particular plant, and so became dinavian myths about Odin and Loki, while they are less immoral
pregnant, as in the German and Gallophrygian marchen of the than the adventures of Indra and Zeus. Qat was born in the isle
almond tree, given by Grimm and Pausanias. Incest is one of the of Vanua Levu; his mother was either a stone at the time of his
feats of Heitsi Eibib. Tsui-Goab, in the opinion of his worshippers, birth, or was turned into a stone afterwards, jike Niobe. The mother
as we have seen, is a deified dead sorcerer, whose name means of Apollo, according to Aelian, had the misfortune to be changed
Wounded Knee, the sorcerer having been injured in the knee by an into a wolf. Qat had eleven brothers, not much more reputable
enemy. Dr Hahn tries to" prove (by philology's " artful aid ") than the Osbaldistones in Rob Roy. The youngest brother was
"
that the name really means red dawn," and is a Hottentot way of Tangaro Loloqong, the Fool." His pastime was to make wrong
speaking of the infinite. The philological arguments advanced all that Qat made right, and he is sometimes the Ahriman to Qat's
are extremely weak, and by no means convincing. If we grant, Ormuzd. The creative achievements of Qat must be treated of in
however, for the sake of argument, that the early Hottentots wor- the next section. Here it may be mentioned that, like the hero
" "
shipped the infinite under the figure of the dawn, and that, by for- in the Breton marchen, Qat brought the dawn by introducing
getting their own meaning," they came "to believe that "the words birds whose notes proclaimed the coming of morning. Before
which really meant red dawn" meant wounded knee we must Qat's time there had been no night, but he purchased a sufficient
still admit that the devout have assigned to their deity all the attri- allowance of darkness from I Qong, that is, night considered as a
"
butes of an ancestral sorcerer. In short, their Red Dawn," if person in accordance with the law of savage thought already ex-
red dawn he be, is a person, and a savage person, adored exactly as plained. Night is a person in Greek mythology, and in the four-
the actual fathers and grandfathers of the Hottentots are adored. teenth book of the Iliad we read that Zeus abstained from punishing
"
We must explain this legend, then, on these principles, and not as an Sleep because he feared to offend swift Night." Qat produced
allegory of the dawn as the dawn appears to civilized people. About dawn, for the first time," by cutting the darkness with a knife of red
Gaunab (the Ahriman to Tsui-Goab's Ormuzd) Dr Hahn gives two obsidian. Afterwards the fowls and birds showed the morning."
"
distinct opinions.
"
Gaunab was at first a ghost, a mischief-maker On one occasion an evil power (Vui) slew all" Qat's brothers, and"
and evil-doer "(op. cit. p. 85). But Gaunab he declares to be hid them in a food-chest. As in the common swallowing-myths
"
the night-sky (p. 126). Whether we regard Gaunab, Heitsi which we have met among bushmen and Australians, and will find
Eibib and Tsui-Goab as originally mythological representations of among the Greeks, Qat restored his brethren to life. Qat is always
natural phenomena, or as deified dead men, it is plain that they are accompanied by a powerful supernatural spider named Marawa.
now venerated as non-natural human beings, possessing the "
custom- He first made Marawa's acquaintance when he was cutting down
ary attributes of sorcerers. Thus of Tsui-Goab it is said, He could a tree for a canoe. Every night (as in the common European story,
do wonderful things which no other man could do, because he was about bridge-building and church-building) the work was all undone
very wise. He could tell what would happen in future times. by Marawa, whom Qat found means to conciliate. In all his future
He died several times, and several times he rose again " (statement adventures the spider was as serviceable as the cat in Puss in Boots
of old Kxarab in Hahn, p. 61). or the other grateful animals in European legend. Qat's great
The my thology of the Zulus as reported by H. Callaway (Unkulun- enemy, Qasavara, was dashed against the hard sky, and was turned
kulu, 1868-1870) is very thin and uninteresting. The Zulus are into stone, like the foes of Perseus. The stone is still shown in Vanua
great worshippers of ancestors (who appear to men in the form of Levu, "like the stone which was Zeus in Laconia. Qat, like so many
snakes), and they regard a being called Unkulunkulu as their first other culture-heroes," disappeared mysteriously, and white men
ancestor, and sometimes as the creator, or at least as the maker of arriving in the island have been mistaken for Qat. His departure
men. It does not appear they identify Unkulunkulu, as a rule, is sometimes connected with the myth of the deluge. In the New
"
with the lord of heaven," who, like Indra, causes the thunder. Hebrides, Tagar takes the rfile of Qat, and Suqe of the bad principle,
The word answering to our lord is also applied," even to beasts, Loki, Ahriman, Tangaro Loloqong, the Australian Crow and so
as the lion and the boa." The Zulus, like many distant races, forth. These are the best known divine myths of the Melanesians.
"
sometimes attribute thunder to the thunder-bird," which, as in For their All-Fathers see Holmes, /. A. I., vol. xxxv., and O'Farrell,
"
North America, is occasionally seen and even killed by men. It J. A. I., vol. xxxiv., with Sundermann in Warneck's Allgemeine
is said to have a red bill, red legs and a short red tail like fire. The Missionszeitschrift, vol. xi. 1884.
" "
bird is boiled for the sake of the fat, which is used by the heaven- It is a far cry from Vanua Levu to Vancouver Island, and,
doctors to puff on their bodies, and to anoint their lightning-rods." ethnologically, the Ahts of the latter region are extremely remote
The Zulus are so absorbed in propitiating the shades of their dead from the Papuans with their mixture of Malay and , me _/can
(who, though in serpentine bodies, have human dispositions) that Polynesian blood. The Ahts, however, differ but little savas7
they appear to take little pleasure in" mythological narratives. At in their mythological beliefs from the races of the Banks
the same time, the Zulus have many nursery tales," the plots and Islands or of the New Hebrides. In Sproat's Scenes from Savage
incidents of which often bear the closest resemblance to the heroic Life (1868) there is a good account of Aht opinions by a settler who
myths of Greece, and to the marchen of European peoples. These
1
had won the confidence of the natives between 1860 and 1868.
"
indications will give a general idea of African divine myths. On There is no end to the stories which an old Indian will relate," says
" " "
the west coast the ananzi or spider takes the place of the mantis Mr Sproat, when one quite possesses his confidence." "The first
"
insect among the Bushmen. For some of his exploits Dasent's Tales Indian who ever lived is a divine being, something of a creator,
from the Norse (2nd ed., Appendix) may be consulted. For South something of a first father, like Unkulunkulu among the Zulus.
African religion see Lang. Magic and Religion; Dennett, At the His name is Quawteaht. He married a pre-existent bird, the thunder-
Back of the Black Man's Mind; Junod, Les Barotsa; Spieth, Die bird Tootah (we have met him among the Zulus), and by the
Ewe-Stamme; Frazer, The Golden Bough. bird he became the father of Indians. Wispohahp is the Aht
Turning from the natives of Australia, and from African races Noah, who, with his wife, his two brothers and their wives escaped
of various degrees of culture, to the Papuan inhabitants of Melanesia, from the deluge in a canoe. Quawteaht is inferior as a deity to the
.. . , we find that mythological ideas are scarcely on a higher Sun and Moon. He is the Yama of an Aht paradise, or home of the
"
leve '- A" excellent account of the myths of the Banks dead, where everything is beautiful and abundant." From all
Sava s
Islanders and Solomon Islanders was given in Journ. that is told of Quawteaht he seems to be an ideal and powerful Aht,
Anthropol. Inst. (Feb. 1881) by the Rev. R. H. Codrington. The imaginatively placed at the beginning of things, and quite capable
article contains a critical description of the difficulty with which mis- of intermarriage with a bird. His creative exploits must be con-
sionaries obtain information about the prior creeds. The people of the sidered later. Quawteaht is the Aht Prometheus Purphoros, or
fire-stealer.
These are collected by Callaway, Zulu Nursery Tales (1868). down the American continent from the north-west, we
Passing
Similar Kafir stories, also closely resembling the popular fictions of findYehl the chief hero-god and mythical personage among the
European races, have been published by Theal. Many other examples Tlingits. Like many other heroes or gods, Yehl had a miraculous
are published in the South African Folk-Lore Journal (1879, 1880). birth. His mother, a Tlingit woman, whose sons had all been
MYTHOLOGY
slain, met a friendly dolphin, which advised her to swallow a pebble and is familiar to all from the Greek examples. Leaving the high
and a little sea-water. The birth of Yehl was the result. In his gods whose functions are so large, while their forms (as of lizard,
youth he shot a supernatural crane, and can always fly about in its fish and tree) are often so mean, we come to Maui, the great divine
feathers, like Odin and Loki in Scandinavian myth. He is usually, hero of the supernatural race in Polynesia. Maui in some respects
however, regarded as a raven, and holds the same relation to men answers to the chief of the Adityas in Vedic mythology in others he
;
and the world as the eagle-hawk Pund-jel does in Australia. His answers to Qat, Quawteaht, and other savage divine personages.
great opponent (for the eternal dualism comes in) is Khanukh, who Like the son of the Vedic Aditi, 4 Maui is a rejected and abortive
is a wolf, and the ancestor or totem of the wolf-race of men as Yehl child of his mother, but afterwards attains to the highest reputation.
is of the raven. The opposition between the Crow and Eagle-hawk As Qat brought the hitherto unknown night, so Maui settled the sun
in Australia will be remembered. Both animals or men or gods and moon in their proper courses. He induced the sun to move
take part in creation. Yehl is the Prometheus Purphoros of the orderly by giving him a violent beating. A similar feat was per-
Tlingits, but myths of the fire-stealer would form matter for a formed by the Sun- trapper, a famous Red Indian chief. These
separate section. Yehl also stole water, in his bird-shape, exactly tales belong properly to the department of solar myths. Maui him-
" "
as Odin stole Suttung's mead when in the shape of an eagle. 1 self is thought by E. B. Tylor to be a myth of the sun, but the sun
Yehl's powers of metamorphosis and of flying into the air are the could hardly give the sun a drubbing. Maui slew monsters, invented
common accomplishments of sorcerers,
"
and he is a rather crude form barbs for fish-hooks, frequently adopted the form of various birds,
of first father, culture-hero and creator. 2 acted as Prometheus Purphoros the fire-stealer, drew a whole island
Among the Karok Indians we find the great hero and divine up from the bottom of the deep he was a great sorcerer and magician.
;
benefactor in the shape of, not a raven, nor an eagle-hawk, nor a Had Maui succeeded in his attempt to pass through the body of
mantis insect, nor a spider, but a coyote. Among both Karok Night (considered as a woman) men would have been immortal.
and Navaho the coyote is the Prometheus Purphoros, or, as the But a little bird which sings at sunset wakened Night, she snapped up
Aryans of India call him, Matarisvan the fire-stealer. Among the Maui, and men die. This has been called a myth of sunset, but the
Papagos, on the eastern side of the Gulf of California, the coyote or sun does what Maui failed to do, he passes through the body of Night
prairie wolf is the creative hero and chief supernatural being. In unharmed. The adventure is one of the
" myths of the origin of
Oregon the coyote is also the demiurge," but most of the myths death, which are almost universally diffused. Maui, though regarded
about him refer to his creative exploits, and will be more appro- as a god, is not often addressed in prayer. 6
priately treated in the next section. The whole system, as far as it can be called a system, of Maori
Moving up the Pacific coast to British Columbia, we find the
mythology is obviously based on the savage conceptions of the
musk-rat taking the part played by Vishnu, when in his avatar as a world which have already been explained. The Polynesian system
boar he fished up the earth from the waters. Among the Tinneh a differs mainly in detail; we have the separation of heaven and earth,
miraculous dog, who, like an enchanted fairy prince, could assume the animal-shaped gods, the fire-stealing, the exploits of Maui, and
the form of a handsome young man, is the chief divine being of the scores of minor myths in W. W. Gill's Myths and Songs the South
of
myths. He too is chiefly a creative or demiurgic being, answering Pacific, in the researches of W. Ellis, of Williams, in G. Turner's
to Purusha in the Rig Veda. So far the peculiar mark of the wilder Polynesia, and in many other accessible works.
American tribe legends is the bestial character of the divine beings, Mexican and Peruman Beliefs. The Maoris and other Polynesian
which is also illustrated in Australia and Africa, while the bestial peoples are perhaps the best examples of a race which has risen far
clothing, feathers or fur, drops but slowly off Indra, Zeus and the above the savagery of Bushmen and Australians, but has not yet
Egyptian Ammon, and the Scandinavian Odin. All these are more arrived at the stage in which great centralized monarchies appear.
or less anthropomorphic, but retain, as will be seen, numerous relics The Mexican and Peruvian civilizations were far ahead of Maori
of a theriomorphic condition. culture, in so far as they possessed the elements of a much more
See C. Hill-Tout and F. Boas in various publications, and, generally, settled and highly-organized society. Their religion had its fine
the volumes of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, lucid intervals, but their mythology and ritual were little better
"
U.S.A. For Ti-ra-wa, the Ruler of the Universe," also styled than savage ideas, elaborately worked up by the imagination of a
"
A-ti-us, father," among the Pawnees, see G. B. Grinnell, Pawnee cruel and superstitious priesthood. In cruelty the Aztecs surpassed
Hero Stories (1893). perhaps all peoples of the Old World, except certain Semitic stocks,
Maori and Polynesian Beliefs. Passing from the lower savage and their gods, of course, surpassed almost all other gods in blood-
myths, of which space does not permit us to offer a larger selection, thirstiness. But in grotesque and savage points of faith the ancient
we turn to races in the upper strata of barbarism. Among these Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Vedic Indians ran even the Aztecs
the Maoris of New Zealand, and the Polynesian people generally, pretty close. "
are remarkable for a mythology largely intermixed with early Bernal Diaz, the old conquistador," has "described the hideous
attempts at more philosophical speculation. The Maoris and aspect of the idols which Cortes destroyed, idols in the shape of
Mangaians, and other peoples, have had speculators among them hideous dragons as big as calves," idols half in the form of men,
not very far removed from the mental condition of the earliest Greek half of dogs, and serpents which were worshipped as divine. The
philosophers, Empedocles, Anaximander, and the rest. In fact the old contemporary missionary Sahagun has left one of the earliest
process from the view of nature which we call personalism to the detailed accounts of the natures and myths of these gods, but, though
crudest theories of the physicists was apparently begun in New Sahagun took great pains in collecting facts, his speculations must
Zealand before the arrival of Europeans. In Maori mythology it be accepted with caution. He was convinced (like Caxton in his
is more than usually difficult to keep apart the origin of the world Destruction of Troy, and like St Augustine) that the heathen gods
and the origin and nature of the gods. Long traditional hymns give were only dead men worshipped. Ancestor-worship is a great force
an account of the " becoming out of nothing " which resulted in in early religion, and the qualities of dead chiefs and sorcerers are
the evolution of the gods and the world. In the beginning (as in the freely attributed to gods, but it does not follow that each god was
Greek myths of Uranus and Gaea), Heaven (Rangi, conceived of as once a real man, as Sahagun supposes. Euemerism cannot be
a person) was indissolubly united to his wife Earth (Papa), and be- judiciously carried so far as this. Of Huitzilopochtli, the" famed
tween them they begat gods which necessarily dwelt in darkness. god, Sahagun says that he was a necromancer, loved shape-
These gods were some m vegetable, some in animal form; some like Odin, metamorphosed himself into animal forms, was
shifting,"
traditions place among these gods Tiki the demiurge, who (like miraculously conceived, and, among animals, is confused with the
Prometheus) made men out of clay. The offspring of Rangi and humming-bird, whose feathers adorned his statues."' This hum-
Papa (kept in the dark as they were) held a council to determine ming-bird god should be compared with the Roman Picus (Servius,
how they should treat their parents, " Shall we slay them, or shall 189). That the humming-bird (Nuitziton), which was the god's
we separate them?" In the Hesiodic fable, Cronus separates old shape, should become merely his attendant (like the owl of Pallas,
the heavenly pair
by mutilating his oppressive father Uranus. the mouse of Apollo, the goose of Priapus, the cuckoo of Hera), when
Among the Maoris the god Tutenganahan cut the sinews which the god received anthropomorphic form, is an example of a process
united Earth and Heaven, and Tane Mahuta wrenched them apart, common in all mythologies. Plutarch observes that the Greeks,
and kept them eternally asunder. The new dynasty now had though accustomed to the conceptions of the animal attendants
earth to themselves, but Tawhiramatea, the wind, abode aloft with of their own gods, were amazed when they found animals worshipped
his father. Some of the gods were in the forms of lizards and fishes ; as gods by the Egyptians. Miiller 7 mentions the view that the
some went to the land, some to the water. As among the gods humming-bird, as the most beautiful flying thing, is a proper symbol
and Asuras of the Vedas, there were many wars in the divine race, of the heaven, and so of the heaven-god, Huitzilopochtli. This
and as the incantations of the Indian Brahmanas are derived from vein of symbolism is so easy to work that it must be regarded with
those old experiences of the Vedic gods, so are the incantations of distrust. Perhaps it is safer to attribute theriomorphic shapes of
the Maoris. The gods of New Zealand, the greater gods at least,
" *
Rig Veda, x. 72, I, 8; Muir, Sanskrit Texts, iv. 13, where the fable
may be called departmental "; each person who is an elementary
force is also the god of that force. As Te Heu, a powerful chief, from the Satapatha-Brahmana is given.
said, there is division of labour among men, and so there is among
6
The best authorities for the New Zealand myths are the old
" traditional priestly hymns, collected and translated in the works of
gods. One made this, another that; Tane made trees, Ru moun-
The " departmental " Sir George in Taylor's New Zealand, in Shortland's Traditions
tains, Tanga-roa fish, and so forth."
*
Grey,
arrangement prevails among the polytheism of civilized peoples, of New_ Zealand (1857), in Bastian's Heilige Sage der Polynesier, and
in White's Ancient History of the Maori, i. 8-13.
1 6
Dasent, Bragi's Telling: Younger Edda, p. 94. See also Bancroft, iii. 288-290, and Acosta, pp. 352-361.
1
Taylor, New Zealand,
' T
Bancroft, vol. iv. p. 108 Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen, p. 592.
MYTHOLOGY
gods, not to symbolism (Zeus was a cuckoo), but to survivals from by an invasion of Semitic conquerors and Semitic ideas. Prior to
that quality of early thought which draws no line between man and that invasion the gods, when mentioned in monuments, are always
god and beast and bird and fish. If spiders may be great gods, why represented by animals, and these animals are the object of strictly
not the more attractive humming-birds ? Like many other gods, local worship. The name of each god is spelled in hieroglyphs beside
Huitzilopochtli slew his foes at his birth, and hence received names the beast or bird. The jackal stands for Anup, the hawk for Har,
analogous to AMOS and 4>6/3os: " Tylor (Primitive Culture, ii. the frog for Hekt, the baboon for Tahuti, and Ptah, Asiri, Hesi,
307) calls Huitzilopochtli an inextricable compound partheno- Nebhat, Hat-hor, Neit, Khnum and Amun-hor are all written out
genetic god." His sacrament, when paste idols of him were eaten phonetically,
but never represented in pictures. Different cities
by the communicants, was at the winter solstice, whence it may, had their different beast-gods. Pasht, the cat, was the god of
perhaps, be inferred that Huitzilopochtli was not only a war-god Bubastis; Apis, the bull, of Memphis; Hapi, the wolf of Sioot; Ba,
,
but a nature-god in both respects anthropomorphic, and in both the goat, of Mendes. The evidence of Herodotus, Plutarch and the
bearing traces of the time when he was but a humming-bird, as Yehl other writers shows that the Egyptians of each district refused to
was a raven (Muller, op. cit. p. 595). As a humming-bird, Huitzilo- eat the flesh of the animal they held sacred. So far the identity of
pochtli led the Aztecs to a new home, as a wolf led the Hirpini, and custom with savage totemism is absolute. Of all the explanations,
as a woodpecker led the Sabines. Quetzalcoatl, the Toltec deity, then, of Egyptian animal-worship, that which regards the practice
is as much a sparrow (or similar small bird) as Huitzilopochtli is a as a survival of totemism and of savagery seems the most satis-
humming-bird. Acosta says he retained the sparrow's head in his factory. So far Egyptian religion only represented her gods in
statue. For the composite character of Quetzalcoatl as a "culture- theriomorphic shape. Beasts also appeared in the royal genealogies,
" "
hero (a more polished version of Qat), as a nature-god," and as if the early Egyptians had filled up the measure of totemism by
as a theriomorphic god see Muller (op. cit. pp. 583-584). Muller regarding themselves as actually "descended from animals.
frankly recognizes that not only are animals symbols of deity and With one or two exceptions, the first (semi-anthropomorphic)
its attributes, not only are they
companions and messengers of deity figures of gods known in the civilized parts of Egypt are on the granite
(as in the period of anthropomorphic religion), but they have been obelisk of Bezig in the Fayyiim, erected by Usertesen I. of Dynasty
divine beings in and for themselves during the earlier stages of
" "
XII., and here we find the forms all full-blown at once. The first
thought. The Mexican departmental gods answer to those of group of deities belongs to a period and a district
"
in which Semitic
other polytheisms; there is an Aztec Ceres, an Aztec Lucina, an influences had undoubtedly begun to work (Petrie). From this
Aztec Vulcan, an Aztec Flora, an Aztec Venus. The creative myths period the mixed and monstrous figures, semi-theriomorphic, semi-
and sun myths are crude and very early in character. anthropomorphic, hawk-headed and ram-headed and jackal-headed
Egyptian Myths. On a much larger and more magnificent scale, gods become common. This may be attributed to Semitic influence,
and on a much more permanent basis, the society of ancient Egypt or we may suppose that the process of anthropomorphizing therio-
somewhat resembled that of ancient Mexico. The divine myths of morphic gods was naturally developing itself; for Mexico has shown
the two nations had points in common, but there are few topics us and Greece can show us abundant examples of these mixed
more obscure than Egyptian mythology. Writers are apt to speak figures, in which the anthropomorphic god retains traces of his
of Egyptian religion as if it were a single phenomenon of which all theriomorphic past. The heretical worship of the solar disk inter-
the aspects could be observed at a given time. In point of fact rupted the course of Egyptian religion under some reforming kings,
Egyptian religion (conservative though it was) lasted through per- but the great and glorious Ramesside Dynasty (XIX.) restored
" "
haps five thousand years, was subject to innumerable influences, Orus and Isis and the dog Anubis with the rest of the semi-
historical, ethnological, philosophical, and was variously represented theriomorphic deities. These survived even their defeat by the
"
by various schools of priests. We cannot take the Platonic specula- splendid human gods of Rome, and only fled from the folding
tions of lamblichus about the nature and manifestations of Egyptian star of Bethlehem."
godhead as evidence for the belief of the peoples who first worshipped Though Egypt was rich in gods, her literature is not fertile in
the Egyptian gods an innumerable series of ages before lamblichus myths. The religious compositions which have survived are, as a
"
and Plutarch. Nor can the esoteric and pantheistic theories of rule, hymns and litanies, the funereal service, the Book of the
priests (according to which the various beast-gods were symbolic Dead." In these works the myths are taken for granted, are
manifestations of the divine essence) be received as an historical alluded to in the course of addresses to the divine beings, but,
account of the origin of the local animal-worships. It has already naturally, are not told in full. As in the case of the Vedas, hymns
been shown that the lowest and least intellectual races indulge in are poor sources for the study of mythology, just as the hymns of
local animal-worship, each stock having its parent bird, beast, fish, the Church would throw little light on the incidents of the gospel
" "
or even plant, or inanimate object. It has also been shown that story or of the Old Testament. The sacred legends which the
these backward peoples recognize a non-natural race of men or priests or temple servants freely communicated to Herodotus
animals, or both, as the first fathers, heroes, and, in a sense, gods. are lost through the pious reserve of the traveller. Herodotus
Such ideas are consonant with, and may be traced to the confused constantly alludes to the most famous Egyptian myth.that of Osiris,
and nebulous condition of, savage thought. Precisely the same and he recognizes the analogies between the Osirian myth and
ideas are found at various periods among the ancient Egyptians. mysteries and those of Dionysus. But we have to turn to the very late
If we are to regard the Egyptian myths about the gods in animal authority of Plutarch (De Iside et Osiride) for an account, confessedly
shape, and about the non-natural superhuman heroes, and their incomplete and expurgated, of what mythology had to tell about
" "
wars and loves, as esoteric allegories devised by civilized priests, the great Egyptian culture-hero," daemon, and god. Osiris,
perhaps we should also explain Pund-jel, Qat, Quawteaht, the Mantis Horus, Typhon (Seth), Isis and Nephthys were the children of Seb
god, the Spider creator, the Coyote and Raven gods as priestly (whom the Greeks identified with Cronus) the myths of their birth
;
inventions, put forth in a civilized age, and retained by Australians, were peculiarly savage and obscene. Osiris introduced civilization
Bushmen, Hottentots, Ahts, Thlinkeets, Papuans, who preserve into Egypt, and then wandered over the world, making men
no other vestiges of high civilization. Or we may take the opposite acquainted with agriculture and the arts, as Pund-jel in his humbler
view, and regard the story of Osiris and his war with Seth (who shut way did in Australia. On his return Typhon laid a plot for him.
him up in a box and mutilated him) as a dualistic myth, originally He had a beautiful carved chest made which exactly fitted Osiris,
on the level of the battle between'Gaunab andTsui-Goab, or between and at an entertainment offered to give it to any one who could lie
Tagar and Suqe. We may regard the local beast- and plant-gods down in it. As soon as Osiris tried, Typhon had the box nailed up,
of Egypt as survivals of totems and totem-gods like those of Australia, and threw it into the Tanaite branch of the Nile. Isis wandered,
India, America, Africa, Siberia and other countries. In this article mourning, in search of the body, as Demeter sought Persephone,
the latter view is adopted. The beast-gods and dualistic and creative and perhaps in Plutarch's late version some incidents may be
myths of savages are looked on as the natural product of the savage borrowed from the Eleusinian legend. At length she found the
reason and fancy. The same beast-gods and myths in civilized chest, which in her absence was again discovered by Typhon. He
Egypt are looked on as survivals from the rude and early condition mangled the body of Osiris (as so many gods of all races were mangled),
of thought to which such conceptions are natural. and tossed the fragments about. Wherever Isis found a portion
In the most ancient Egyptian records the gods are not pictorially of Osiris she buried it hence Egypt was as rich in graves of Osiris as
;
represented, and we have not obtained from these records any Namaqualand in graves of Heitsi Eibib. The phallus alone she did
descriptions of adoration and sacrifice. There is a prayer to the not find, but she consecrated a model thereof hence (says the myth)
;
Sky on the coffin of the king of Dynasty IV., known as Mycerinus came the phallus-worship of Egypt. Afterwards Osiris returned
to the Greeks. The king describes himself as the child of Sky and from the shades, and (in the form of a wolf) urged his son Hprus to
Earth. He also somewhat obscurely identifies himself with Osiris. revenge him on Typhon^ The gods fought in animal shape (Birch, in
We thus find Osiris very near the beginning of what is known Wilkinson,
about Egyptian religion. This being is rather a culture-hero, a mous
member of a non-natural race of men like Qat or Manabozho, than a oft
god. His myth, to be afterwards narrated, is found alsoshow the stars into which they were metamorphosed, as the
pictorially
represented in a tomb and in the late temple of Philae, is frequently Eskimo and Australians and Aryans of India and Greeks have recog-
alluded to in the litanies of the dead about 1400 B.C., is indicated nized in the constellations their ancient heroes. Plutarch remarked
with reverent awe by Herodotus, and after the Christian era is the fact that the Greek myths of Cronus, of Dionysus, of Apollo and
"
described at full length by Plutarch. Whether the same myth was the Python, and of Demeter, all the things that are shrouded in
"
current in the far more distant days of Mycerinus, it is, of course, mystic ceremonies and are presented in rites," do not fall short in
impossible to say with dogmatic certainty. The religious history absurdity of the legends about Osiris and Typhon." Plutarch
of Egypt, from perhaps Dynasty X. to Dynasty XX., is interrupted naturally presumed that the myths which seem absurd shrouded
MYTHOLOGY 139
some great moral or physical mystery. But we apply no such poet recalls the noblest aspirations and regrets of the Hebrew
explanation to similar savage legends, and our theory is that the psalmist. But this aspect of the Vedic deities is essentially matter
Osirian myth is only one of these retained to the time of Plutarch by for the science of religion rather than of mythology, which is con-
the religious conservatism of a race which, to the time of Plutarch, cerned with the stories told about the gods. Religion is always
preserved in full vigour most of the practices of totemism. As a forgetting, or explaining away, or apologizing for these stories.
slight confirmation of the possibility of this theory we may mention Now the Vedic deities, so imposing when regarded as vast natural
that Greek mysteries retained two of the features of savage mysteries. forces (as such forces seem to us), so benignant when appealed to
The first was the rite of daubing the initiated with clay. 1 This as forgivers of sins, have also their mythological aspect. In this
custom prevails in African mysteries, in Guiana, among Australians, aspect they are natural phenomena still, but phenomena as originally
Papuans, and Andaman Islanders. The other custom is the use of conceived of
by the personifying imagination
of the savage, and
the turndun, as the Australians call a little fish-shaped piece of credited, like the gods of the Maori or the Australian, with all
wood tied to a string, and waved so as to produce a loud booming manner of freaks, adventures and disguises. The Veda, it is true,
and whirring noise and keep away the profane, especially women. does not usually dilate much on the worst of these adventures.
It is employed in New Mexico, South Africa, New Zealand and The Veda contains devotional hymns; we can no more expect much
Australia. This instrument, the KWTOJ, was also used in Greek narrative here than in the Psalms of David. Again, the religious
mysteries.* Neither the use of the KUTOS nor of the clay can very sentiment of the Veda is half-consciously hostile to the stories. As
well be regarded as a civilized practice retained by savages. The M. A. Barth says, " Le sentiment religieux a ecarte la plupart de
hypothesis that the rites and the stories are savage inventions ces mythes, mais il ne les a ecartes tous." The Brahmanas, on the
surviving into civilized religion seems better to meet the difficulty. other hand, later compilations, canonized books for the direction
That the Osirian myth (much as it was elaborated and allegorized) of ritual and sacrifice, are rich in senseless and irrational myths.
originated in the same sort of fancy as the Tacullie story of the Sometimes these myths are probably later than the Veda, mere
dismembered beaver out of whose body things were made is a con- explanations of ritual incidents devised by the priests. Sometimes
"
a myth probably older than the Vedas, and maintained in
clusion not devoid of plausibility.
Typhon's later career, commit- popular
ting dreadful crimes out of envy and spite, and throwing all things tradition, is reported in the Brahmanas. The gods in the Veda are
into confusion," was parallel to the proceedings of most of the divine by no means always regarded as equal in supremacy. There were
beings who put everything wrong, in opposition to the" being who " great and small, young and "
old gods (R. V. i. 27, 13). Elsewhere
makes everything right. This is perhaps an early dualist ii: this is flatly contradicted:
"
None of you, oh gods, is small or young,
myth. ye are all great (R. V. viii. 30, i). As to the immortality and the
Among other mythic Egyptian figures we have Ra, who once origin of the gods, there is no orthodox opinion in the Veda. Many
destroyed men in his wrath with circumstances suggestive of the of the myths of the origin of the divine beings are on a level with the
Deluge; Khnum, a demiurge, is represented at Philae as making man Maori theory that Heaven and Earth begat them in the ordinary way.
out of clay on a potter's wheel. Here the wheel is added to the Again, the gods were represented as the children of Aditi. " This may
Maori conception of the making of man. Khnum is said to have be taken either in a refined sense, as if Aditi were the infinite
6
reconstructed the limbs of the dismembered Osiris. Ptah is the region from which the solar deities rise, or we may hold with the
he is represented as a dwarf; men are said Taittirya-Brahmana* that Aditi was a female who, being desirous
Egyptian Hephaestus;
to have come out of his eye, gods out of his mouth a story like that of offspring, cooked a brahmandana offering for the Sadhyas.
of Purusha in the Rig Veda. As creator of man, Ptah is a frog. Various other fathers and mothers of the gods are mentioned.
Bubastis became a cat to avoid the wrath of Typhon. Ra, the sun, Some gods, particularly Indra, are said to have won divine rank by
" "
fought the big serpent Apap, as Indra fought Vrittra. Seb is a austere fervour and asceticism, which is one of the processes
goose, called the great cackler "; he laid the creative egg. 3 that makes gods out of mortals even now in India. 7 The gods are
Divine Myths of the Aryans of India. Indra. The gods of the not always even credited with inherent immortality. Like men,
Vedas and Brahmanas (the ancient hymns and canonized ritual-books they were subject to death, which they overcame in various ways.
of Aryan India) are, on the whole, of the usual polytheistic type. Like most gods, they had struggles for pre-eminence with Titanic
More than many other gods they retain in their titles and attributes opponents, the Asuras, who partly answer to the Greek Titans and
the character of elemental phenomena personified. That personifica- the Hawaiian foes of the divine race, or to the Scandinavian giants
tion is, as a rule, anthropomorphic, but traces of theriomorphic and the enemies who beset the savage creative beings. Early man,
personification are still very apparent. The ideas which may be living in a state of endless warfare, naturally believes that his gods
gathered about the gods from the hymns are (as is usual in heathen also nave their battles. The chief foes of Indra are Vrittra and Ahi,
religions) without consistency. There is no strict orthodoxy. As serpents which swallow up the waters, precisely as frogs do in Austra-
each bard of each bardic family celebrates his favourite god he is apt lian and Californian and Andaman myths. It has already been
to make him for the moment the pre-eminent deity of all. This way shown that such creatures, thunder-birds, snakes, dragons, and what
of thinking about the gods leads naturally in the direction of a not, people the sky in the imagination of Zulus, Red Men, Chinese,
pantheistic monotheism in which each divine being may be regarded Peruvians, and all the races who believe that beasts hunt the sun
as a manifestation of the one divine essence. No doubt this point and moon and cause eclipses. 8 Though hostile to Asuras, Indra
of view was attained in centuries extremely remote by sages of the was once entangled in an intrigue with a woman of that race, accord-
civilized Vedic world. It is easy, however, to detect certain peculiar ing to the Athania-Veda (Muir, 5. T. \. 82). The gods were less
characteristics of each god. As among races much less advanced numerous than the Asuras, but by a magical stratagem turned some
in civilization than the Vedic Indians, each of the greater powers bricks into gods (like a creation of new peers to carry a vote) so says
has his own separate department, however much his worshippers the Black Yajur-Veda.'
may be inclined to regard him as an absolute premier with undisputed Turning to separate gods, Indra first claims attention, for stories
latitude of personal government. Thus Indra is mainly concerned of Heaven and Earth are better studied under the heading of myths
with thunder and other atmospheric phenomena; but Vayu is the of the origin of things. Indra has this zoomorphic feature in common
wind, the Maruts are wind-gods, Agni is fire or the god of fire, and with Heitsi Eibib, the Namaqua god, 10 that his mother, or one of
so connected with lightning. Powerful as Indra is in the celestial his mothers, was a cow (R. V. iv. 18, i). This statement may be
world, Mitra and Varuna preside over night and day. Ushas is a mere of speaking in the Veda, but it is a rather Hottentot way. 11
way
Indra is also referred to as a ram in the Veda, and in one
the dawn, and Tvashtri is the mechanic among the gods, correspond- this
ing to the Egyptian Ptah and the Greek Hephaestus. Though ram could fly, like the Greek ram of the fleece of gold. myth He was
lofty moral qualities and deep concern about the conduct of men certainly so far connected with sheep that he and sheep and the
are attributed to the gods in the Vedic hymns, yet the hymns contain Kshatriya caste sprang from the breast and arms of Prajapati, a
traces (and these are amplified in the ritual books) of a divine kind of creative being. Indra was a great drinker of
spma juice;
chronique scandaleuse. In this chronique the gods, like other gods, a drinking-song by Indra, much bemused with soma, is in R. V. x.
are adventurous warriors, adulterers, incestuous, homicidal, given 1 19. On one occasion Indra got at the soma by assuming the shape
to animal transformations, cowardly, and in fact charged with all of a quail. In the Taitt. Sarah, (ii. 5; i. i) Indra is said to have been
human vices, and credited with magical powers. 4 It would be guilty of that most hideous crime, the killing of a Brahmana."
u
difficult to speak too highly of the ethical nobility of many Vedic
" " Once, though uninvited, Indra drank some soma that had been
hymns. The hunger and thirst after righteousness of the sacred prepared for another being. The soma disagreed with Indra; part
of it which was not drunk up became Vrittra the serpent, Indra's
1
Demosthenes, De corona, p. 313, uoi naBalpav rows Tt\ovnkvo\n nal
6
Kdl TOIS XlTUpOlS.
iiTOIiiiTTtjlV T<J> HTjXlJ Miiller, Hibbert Lectures, p. 230.
2
KWTOS uXApioc ow 4ijrrai fi> avaprlov, nal iv TaTs TeXtTais tioPtiro Muir, 5. T., v. 55; i. 27.
7
iKafioifjj. Quoted by Lobeck, Aglaophamus, i. 700, from Bastius See Sir A. Lyall, Asiatic Studies. For Ve^ic examples, see R.-V.
ad Gregor., 241, anil from other sources; cf. Arnobius, v. c. 19, x. 167, i x. 159, 4; Muir, 5. T. v. 15.
;
where the word turbines is the Latin term. 8
See Tylor, Primitive Culture, i. 288, 329, 356.
Wilkinson, iii. 62, see note by Dr Birch. A more detailed The chief authority for the constant strife between gods and
'
account of Egyptian religion is given under EGYPT. Unfortunately Asuras is the Satapatha-Brahmana, of which one volume is translated
Egyptologists have rarely a wide knowledge of the myths of the lower in Sacred Books
of the East (vol. xii.).
races, while anthropologists are seldom or never Egyptologists.
10
Hahn, Tsunt-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Hottentots, p. 68.
4
For examples of the lofty morality sometimes attributed to the 11
See Muir, 5. T., v. 16, 17, for Indra's peculiar achievements
gods, see Max Miiller, Hibbert Lectures, p. 284; Rig-Veda, ii. 28; with a cow.
iv. 12, 4; viii. 93 seq. Mutr, Sanskrit Texts, v. 218. a Sacred Books
;
of the East, xii. i, 48.
140 MYTHOLOGY
enemy. Indra cut him in two, and made the moon out of half of chief personage in a society of immortals, organized on the type of
"
his body. This serpent was a universal devourer of everything and contemporary human society. There is a great deal of human
everybody, like Kwai Hemm, the all-devourer in Bushman mytho-
'
nature in his wife Hera (Skr. Svar, Heaven). 6 It is to be remem-
logy. If this invention is a late priestly one, the person who intro- bered that philologists differ widely as to the origin and meaning of
duced it into the Satapatha-Brahmana must have reverted to the the names of almost all the Greek gods. Thus the light which the
intellectual condition of Bushmen. In the fight with Vrittra, Indra science of language throws on Greek myths is extremely uncertain.
"
lost his energy, which fell to the earth and produced plants and Hera is explained as the feminine side of heaven " by some authori-
shrubs. In the same way plants, among the Iroquois, were made of ties. The quarrels of Hera with Zeus (which are a humorous
pieces
knocked off Chokampok in his fight with Manabozho. Vines, anthropomorphic study in Homer) are represented as a way of speak-
in particular, are the entrails of Chokanipok. In Egypt, wine was ing about winter and rough weather. The other chief Homeric
the blood of the enemies of the gods. The Aryan versions of this deities are Apollo and Artemis, children of Zeus by Leto, a mortal
sensible legend will be found in Satapatha-Brahmana. 1 The civilized mother raised to divinity. Apollo is clearly connected in some way
mind soon wearies of this stuff, and perhaps enough has been said with light, as his name <oi/Jos seems to indicate, and with purity. 6
to prove that, in the traditions of Vedic devotees, Indra was not a Homer knows the legend that a giant sought to lay violent hands on
god without an irrational element in his myth. Our argument is, Leto (Od. xi. 580). Smintheus, one of Apollo's titles in Homer, is
that all these legends about Indra, of which only a sample is given, connected with the field-mouse (anlvOos), one of his many sacred
have no necessary connexion with the worship of a pure nature-god animals. His names, AUMOS, tviantviis, were connected by an-
as a nature-god would now be constructed by men. The legends tiquity with the wolf, by most modern writers with the light.
are survivals of a time in which natural phenomena were regarded, According to some legends Leto had been a were-wolf .' The whole
not as we regard them, but as persons, ana savage persons, Alcheringa subject of the relations of Greek gods to animals is best set forth in
folk, in fact, and became the centres of legends in the savage manner. the words of Plutarch (De Is. et Os. Ixxi.), where he says that the
"
Space does not permit us to recount the equally puerile and barbarous Egyptians worship actual beasts, whereas the Greeks both speak
legends of Vishnu, Agni, the loves of Vivasvat in the form of a horse, and believe correctly, saying that the dove is the sacred animal of
the adventures of Soma, nor the Vedic amours (paralleled in several Aphrodite, the raven of Apollo, the dog of Artemis," and so forth.
2
savage mythologies) of Pururavas and Urvasi. Each Greek god had a small menagerie of sacred animals, and it
Divine Myths of Greece. If any ancient people was thoroughly may be conjectured that these animals were originally the totems
civilized the Greeks were that people. Yet in the mythology and of various stocks, subsumed into the worship of the anthropomorphic
religion of Greece we find abundant survivals of savage manners and god. For the new theory of vegetation spirits and corn spirits see
of savage myths. As to the religion, it is enough to point to the The Golden Bough. Apollo, in any case, is the young and beautiful
traces of human sacrifice and to the worship of rude fetish stones. archer-god of Homer; Artemis, his sister, is the goddess of archery,
The human sacrifices at Salamis in Cyprus and at Alos in Achaia who takes her pastime in the chase. She holds no considerable place
Phthiotis may be said to have continued almost to the conversion in the Iliad in the Odyssey, Nausicaa is compared to her, as to the
;
of the empire (Grote i. 125, ed. 1869). Pausanias seems to have pure and lovely lady of maidenhood. Her name is commonly
found human sacrifices to Zeus still lingering in Arcadia in the 2nd connected with 4/>rc^s pure, unpolluted. Her close relations
"
century of our era. On this altar on the Lycaean hill they sacrifice (un-Homeric) with the bear and bear-worship have" suggested a"
to Zeus in a manner that may not be spoken, and little liking had I derivation from op/cros "ApxTejus. In Homer her gentle shafts
to pry far into that sacrifice. But let it be as it is, and as it hath
" "
deal sudden and
painless
death ; she is a beautiful Azrael. A" much
been from the beginning." Now from the beginning the sacrifice, more important daughter of Zeus in Homer is Athene, the grey-
" "
according to Arcadian tradition, had been a human sacrifice. In eyed or (as some take y\avKunra, rather improbably) the owl-
other places there were manifest commutations of human sacrifice, headed "goddess. Her birth from the head of Zeus is not explicitly
as at the altar of Artemis the Implacable at Patrae, where Pausanias alluded to in Homer. 8 In Homer, Athene is a warlike maiden, the
saw the wild beasts being driven into the_ flames. 3 Many other exam- patron-goddess of wisdom and manly resolution. In the twenty-
ples of human sacrifice are mentioned in Greek legend. Pausanias second book of the Odyssey she assumes the form of a swallow, and
gives full and interesting details of the worship of rude stones, she can put on the shape of any man. She bears the aegis, the awful
the oldest worship, he says, among the Greeks. Almost every shield of Zeus. Another Homeric child of Zeus, or, according to
temple had its fetish stone on a level with the pumice stone, which is Hesiod (Th. 927), of Hera alone, is Hephaestus, the lame craftsman
the Poseidon of the Mangaians. 4
The Argives had a large stone and artificer. In the Iliad* will be found some of the crudest
called Zeus Cappotas. The oldest idol of the Thespians was a rude Homeric myths. Zeus or Hera throws Hephaestus or Ate out of
stone. Another has been found beneath the pedestal of Apollo heaven, as in the Iroquois myth of the tossing from heaven of
in Delos. In Achaean Pharae were thirty squared stones, each Ataentsic. There is, as usual, no agreement as to the etymology of
named by the name of a god. Among monstrous images of the gods the name of Hephaestus. Preller inclines to a connexion with
which Pausanias, who saw them, regarded as the oldest idols, were fifflai, to kindle fire, but Max Muller differs from this theory.
the three-headed Artemis, each head being that of an animal, the About the close relations of Hephaestus with fire there can be no
Demeter with the horse's head, the Artemis with the fish's tail, the doubt. He is a rough, kind, good-humoured being in the Iliad.
Zeus with three eyes, the ithyphallic Hermes, represented after the In the Odyssey he is naturally annoyed by the adultery of his wife,
fashion of the Priapic figures in paintings on the walls of caves Aphrodite, with Ares. Ares is a god with whom Homer has no
among the Bushmen. We also hear of the bull and the bull-footed sympathy. He is a son of Hera, and detested by Zeus (Iliad, v. 890).
Dionysus. Phallic and other obscene emblems were carried abroad He is cowardly in war, and on one occasion was shut up for years
in processions in Attica both by women and men. The Greek in a huge brazen pot. This adventure was even more ignominious
custom of daubing people all over with clay in the mysteries than that of Poseidon and Apollo when they were compelled to serve
results as we saw in the mysteries of negroes, Australians and Laomedon for hire. The payment he refused, and threatened to
" "
American races, while the Australian turndun was exhibited cut off their ears wjth the sword (Iliad, xxi. 455). Poseidon is to
among the toys at the mysteries of Dionysus. The survivals the sea what Zeus is to the air, and Hades to the underworld in
of rites, objects of worship, and sacrifices like these prove that Homer. 10 His own view of his social position may be stated in his
religious conservatism in Greece retained much of savage practice, own words (Iliad, xv. 183, 211). " Three brethren are we, and sons
and the Greek mythology is not less full of ideas familiar to the of Cronus, sons whom Rhea bare, even Zeus and myself, and Hades
lowest races. The authorities for Greek mythology are numerous is the third, the ruler of the people in the underworld. And in
and various in character. The oldest sources as literary docu- three lots were all things divided, and each drew a lot of his own, 11 and
ments are the Homeric and Hesiodic poems. In the Iliad and to me fell the hoary sea, and Hades drew the mirky darkness, and
Odyssey the gods and goddesses are beautiful, powerful and immortal Zeus the wide heaven in clear air and clouds, but the earth and high
anthropomorphic beings. The name of Zeus (Skr. Dyaus) clearly Olympus are yet common to all."
indicates his connexion with the sky. But in Homer he has long Zeus, however, is, as Poseidon admits, the elder-born, and there-
ceased to be merely the sky conceived of as a person; he is the fore the revered head of the family. Thus Homer adopts the system
1
Sacred Books of the East, xii. 176, 177. 6
Cf Preller, Griechische Mythologie,-\. 128, note I, for this and
.
1
On the whole subject, Dr Muir's Ancient Sanskrit Texts, with other philological conjectures,
'translations, Lud wig's translation of the Rig Veda, the version
6
The derivation of 'AiriXXui' remains obscure. The derivation
"
of the Satapatha-Brahmana already referred to, and the translation of Leto from XoOtiv, and the conclusion that her name means the
"
of the Aitareya-Brahmana by Haug, are the sources most open to concealer that is, the night, whence the sun is born is disputed
English readers. Max Miiller's translation of the Rig Veda unfor- by Curtius (Preller i. 190, 191, note 4), but appears to be accepted
tunately only deals with the hymns to the Maruts. The Indian by Max Mtiller (Selected Essays, i. 386) Latinos being derived from
epics and the Puranas belong to a much later date, and are full of the same root as Leto, Latona, the night.
7
deities either unknown to or undeveloped in the Rig Veda and the Aristotle, H. An. 6; Aelian, N. A. iv. 4.
Brahmanas. _ It is much to be regretted that the Atharva-Veda, Her name, as usual, is variously interpreted by various etymolo-
which contains the magical formulae and incantations of the Vedic gists.
9
Indians, is still untranslated, though, by the very nature of its theme, xiv. 257; xviii. 395; xix.
pi, 132.
it must contain matter of extreme The name sought in such words as x6roi and
10
antiquity and interest. root of his is
8
Pausanias iii. 16; vii. 18. Human sacrifice to Dionysus, Paus. irora/xAs.
vii. 21 Plutarch,
; De Is. el Os. 35; Porphyry, De Abst. ii. 55.
u We learn from the Odyssey (xiv. 209) that this was the custom
Gill, Myths and Songs from the South Pacific, p. 60.
4
of sons on the death of their father.
MYTHOLOGY 141
of primogeniture, while Hesiod is all for the opposite and probably In Homer and in Hesiod myths enter the region of literature,
earlier custom of Jiingsten-recht, and makes supreme Zeus the and become, as it were, national. But it is probable that the local
" "
youngest of the sons of Cronus. Among the other gods Dionysus myths of various cities and temples, of the sacred chapters
is but slightly alluded to in Homer as the son of Zeus and Semele, which were told by the priests to travellers and in the mysteries to
as the object of persecution, and as connected with the myth of the initiated, were older in form than the epic and national myths.
"
Ariadne. The name of Hermes is derived from various sources, as Of these " sacred chapters we have fragments and hints in Hero-
from ipnav and Apuri, or, by Max Muller, the name is connected dotus, Pausanias, in the mythographers, like Apollodorus, in the
with Sarameya (Sky). If he had originally an elemental character, tragic poets, and in the ancient scholia or notes on the classics.
it is now difficult to distinguish, though interpreters connect him From these sources come almost all the more inhuman, bestial
with the wind. He is the messenger of the gods, the bringer of good and discreditable myths of the gods. In these we more distinctly
luck, and the conductor of men's souls down the dark ways of death. perceive the savage element. The gods assume animal forms:
In addition to the great Homeric gods, the poet knows a whole Cronus becomes a horse, Rhea a mare; Zeus begets separate families
" "
Olympian consistory of deities, nymphs, nereids, sea-gods and of men in the shape of a bull, an ant, a serpent, a swan. His mistress
goddesses, river-gods, Iris the rainbow goddess, Sleep, Demeter from whom the Arcadians claim descent becomes a she-bear. It
"
who lay with a mortal, Aphrodite the goddess of love, wife of Hephaes- is usual with mythologists to say that Zeus is the All-Father," and
tus and leman of Ares, and so forth. As to the origin of the gods, that his amours are only a poetic way of stating that he is the parent
Homer is not very explicit. He is acquainted with the existence of men. But why does he assume so many animal shapes ? Why
of an older dynasty now deposed, the dynasty of Cronus and the did various royal houses claim descent from the ant, the swan, the
"
Titans. In the Iliad (viii. 478) Zeus says to Hera, For thine anger she-bear, the serpent, the horse and so forth ? We have already
reck I not, not even though thou go to the nethermost bounds of seen that this is the ordinary pedigree of savage stocks in Asia,
earth and sea, where sit lapetus and Cronus . and deep Tartarus
. . Africa, Australia and America, while animals appear among Irish
" "
tribes and in
is round about them." The gods below that are with Cronus are Egyptian and ancient English genealogies.* It is a
mentioned (//. xiv. 274; xv. 225). Rumours of old divine wars plausible hypothesis that stocks which once claimed descent from
echo in the Iliad, as (i. 400) where it is said that when the other animals, sans phrase, afterwards regarded the animals as avatars
"
immortals revolted against and bound Zeus, The f is brought to his of Zeus. In the same way the Minas, a non-Aryan tribe of Rajpu-
aid Aegaeon of the hundred arms. The streams of Oceanus (//. xiv. tana, used to worship the pig; when the Brahmans got a turn at
"
246) are of as the source of all the gods, and in the same book them, the pig became an avatar of Vishnu (Lyall, Asiatic Studies).
" spoken "
(290) Oceanus and mother Tethys are regarded as the parents The tales of divine cannibalism to which Pindar refers with awe,
of the immortals. Zeus is usually called Cronion and Cronides, the mutilation of Dionysus Zagreus, the unspeakable abominations
"
which Homer certainly understood to mean son of Cronus," yet it of Dionysus, the loves of Hera in the shape of a cuckoo, the divine
"
is expressly stated that Zeus imprisoned Cronus beneath the earth powers of metamorphosing men and -women into beasts and stars
and the unvintaged sea." The whole subject is only alluded to these tales come to us as echoes of the period of savage thought.
incidentally. On the whole it may be said that the Homeric deities Further evidence on this point will be given below in a classification
are powerful anthropomorphic beings, departmental rulers, united of the principal mythic legends. The general conclusion is that
by the ordinary social and family ties of the Homeric age, capable many of the Greek deities were originally elemental, the elements
of pain and pleasure, living on heavenly food, but refreshed by the being personified in accordance with the laws of savage imagina-
sacrifices of men (Od. v. 100, 102), able to assume all forms at will, tions. But we cannot explain each detail in the legends as a myth
and to intermarry and propagate the species with mortal men and of this or that natural phenomenon or
process
as understood by
women. Their past has been stormy, and their ruler has attained ourselves. Various stages of late and early fancy have contributed
power after defeating and mediatizing a more ancient dynasty of his to the legends. Zeus is the sky, but not our sky he had originally
;
own kindred. a personal character, and that a savage or barbarous character.
From Hesiod we a much more elaborate probably a
receive He probably attracted into his legend stories that did not origi-
more ancient, certainly a more barbarous story of the gods and nally belong to him. He became anthropomorphic, and his myth
their origin. In the beginning the gods (here used in a wide sense was handled by local priests, by family bards, by national poets,
to denote an
early non-natural race) were begotten by Earth and by early philosophers. His legend is a complex embroidery on a
Heaven, conceived of as beings with human parts and passions very ancient tissue. The other divine myths are equally complex.
(Hesiod, Theog. 45). This idea recurs in Maori, Vedic and Chinese See L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States; Miss Jane Harrison,
mythology. Heaven and Earth, united in an endless embrace, Prolegomena to Greek Religion; and "Frazer, The Golden" Bough,
produced children which never saw the light. In New Zealand, especially as regards the vegetable or probably arboreal aspect
Chinese, Vedic, Indian and Greek myths the pair had to be sundered.
1
of Zeus.
"
Hesiod enumerates the children whom Earth bore when couched Scandinavian Divine Myths. The Scandinavian myths of the
in love with Heaven." They are Ocean, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, gods are numerous and interesting, but the evidence on which they
lapetus, Theia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Tethys and the have reached us demands criticism for which we lack space. That
"
youngest, Cronus, and he hated his glorious father." Others of there are in the Eddas and Sagas early ideas and later ideas
tinged
this early race were the Cyclopes, Bronte, Sterope and Arge, and by Christian legend seems indubitable, but philological and historical
three children of enormous strength, Cottus, Briareus (Aegaeon) learning has by no means settled the questions of relative purity
and Gyes, each with one hundred hands and fifty heads. Uranus and antiquity lin the myths. The Eddie songs, according to F. Y.
detested his offspring, and hid them in crannies of Earth. Earth Powell, one of the editors of the Corpus poeticum septenirionale
excited Cronus to attack the father, whom he castrated with a (the best work on the subject), " cannot date earlier " in their
"
sickle. From the blood of Uranus (this feature is common in Red present form than the 9th century," and may be vaguely placed
Indian and Egyptian myths) were born furies, giants, ash-nymphs between A.D. 800-1100. The collector of the fEdda probably
and Aphrodite. A number of monsters, as Echidna, Geryon and had the old poems recited to him in the ijth century, and where
the hound of hell, were born of the loves of various elemental
|
there was a break in the memory of the reciters the lacuna was
"
powers. The chief stock of the divine species was continued by filled up in prose. As one goes through the poems, one is ever
the marriage of Rhea (probably another form of the Earth) with and anon face to face with a myth of the most childish and barbaric
"
Cronus. Their children were Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades and which carries one back to prae-Aryan days." Side by
.
" " type,"
Poseidon. All these Cronus swallowed; and this swallow-myth side with these old stories come fragments of a different stratum
occurs in Australia, among the Bushmen, in Guiana, in Brittany of thought, Christian ideas, the belief in a supreme God, the notion
(where Gargantua did the swallow-trick) and elsewhere. At last of Doomsday. The Scandinavian cosmogonic myth (with its
Rhea bore Zeus, and gave Cronus a stone in swaddling bands, parallels among races sayage and civilized) is given elsewhere.
which he disposed of in the usual way. Zeus grew up, administered The most important god is Odin, the son of Bestla and Bor, the
an emetic to Cronus (some say Metis did this), and had the satis- husband of Frigg, the father of Balder and many other sons, the
faction of seeing all his brothers and sisters disgorged alive. The head of the Aesir stock of gods. Odin's name is connected with
stone came forth first, and Pausanias saw it at Delphi (Paus. x. 24). that of Wuotan, and referred to the Old High-German verb watan
Then followed the wars between Zeus and the gods he had rescued wuot meare, cum impetu ferri (Grimm, Tent. Myth., Eng. transl.,
from the maw of Cronus against the gods of the elder branch, the " " "
children of Uranus and Gaea Heaven and Earth. The victory and Zeus the ancient of days became Zeus the son of Cronus."
"
remained with the younger branch, the immortal Olympians of Having thus got a Cronus, the Greeks" and the misunderstanding
Homer. The system of Hesiod is a medley of later physical could nave happened in Greece only needed a myth of Cronus.
" "
speculation and of poetic allegory, with matter which we, at least, They therefore invented or adapted the swallow-myth so
familiar to Bushmen and Australians. This singular reversion to
regard as savage survivals, like the mutilation of Heaven and the
2 itself needs some explanation. But the hypothesis that
swallow-myth. savagery
Cronus is a late derivation from KpowSijs and fLpovluv is by no
1
See Tylor, Prim. Cult.
i. 326. means universally accepted. Others derive Kp&mt from upaLva,
s
Bleek, Bushman Folk-Lore, pp. 6-8.
"
Max Muller suggests and connect it with icpAwa, a kind of harvest-home festival.
another theory (Selected Essays, i. 460) : Kpwos did not exist Schwartz (Prdhistorisch-anthropologische Studien) readily proves
till
long after Zfcs in Greece." The name KporUav, or Kpovl&Tis, Cronus to be the storm, swallowing the clouds. Perhaps we may
"
looks like a
patronymic. Muller, however, thinks it originally say of Schwartz's view, as he says of Preller's das ist Gedanken-
meant only connected with time, existing through all time. spiel, aber nimmermehr Mythologie."
Very much later the name was mistaken for a genuine patronymic, 1
Elton, Origins of English History, pp. 298-301.
142 MYTHOLOGY
i. 131). Odin would thus (if we admit the etymology) be the exercised thought, and been rudely solved in myths. These vary
"
swift goer, the and it seems superfluous to make him in quality with the civilization of the races in which they are current,
" ganger,"
(with Grimm) the all-powerful, all-permeating being," a very but the same ideas which we proceed to state pervade all cosmo-
abstract and scarcely an early conception. Odin's brethren (in gonical myths, savage and civilized. All these legends waver
Gylfi's Mocking) are Vile and Ve, who with him slew Ymir the between the theory of creation, or rather of manufacture, and the
giant, and made all things out of the fragments of his body. They theory of evolution. The earth, as a rule, is supposed to have
also made man out of two stocks. In the Haya-Mal Odin claims grown out of some original matter, perhaps an animal, perhaps an
for himself most of the attributes of the medicine-man.
"
In Loka egg which floated on the waters, perhaps a fragment of soil fished
Senna, Loki, the evil god, says that " Odin dealt in magic in up out of the floods by a beast or a god. But this conception does
Samsey." The goddess Frigg remarks, Ye should never talk of not exclude the idea that many of the things in the world minerals,
your old doings before men, of what ye "two Aesir went through in plants, people, and what not are fragments of the frame of an
old times." But many relics of these old times," many traces animal or non-natural magnified man, or are excretions from the
"
of the medicine-man and the skin-shifter," survive in the myth of body of a god. We proceed to state briefly the various forms of
Odin. When he stole Suttung's mead (which answers somewhat these ideas. The most backward races usually assume the prior
to nectar and the Indian soma), he flew away in the shape of an existence of the earth.
eagle.
1
The hawk is sacred to Odin one of his names is " the
;
The aborigines of the northern parts of Victoria (Australia)
Raven-god." He was usually represented as one-eyed, having believe that the earth was made by Pund-jel, the bird-creator,
left an eye in pawn that he might purchase a draught from Mimir's who sliced the valleys with a knife. Another Australian theory is
well. This one eye is often explained as the sun. Odin's wife that the men of a previous race, the Nooralie (very old ones), made
was Frigg; their sons were Thor (the thunder-god) and Balder, the earth.
whose myth is well known in English poetry. The gods were The problem of the origin of the world seems scarcely to have
"
divided into two not always friendly stocks, the Aesir and Vanir. troubled the Bushmen. They know about men who brought
Their relations are, on the whole, much more amicable than those the sun," but their doctrines are revealed in mysteries, and Qing,
of the Asuras and Devas in Indian mythology. Not necessarily the informant of Mr Orpen (Cape Monthly Magazine, July 1874),
" "
immortal, the gods restored their vigour by eating the apples of did not dance that dance that is, had not been initiated into
Iduna. Asa Loki was a being of mixed race, half god, half giant, all the secret doctrines of his tribe. According to Qing, creation
and wholly mischievous ana evil. His legend includes animal was the work of Cagn (the mantis insect), " he gave orders and
metamorphoses of tht most obscene character. In the shape of caused all things to appear." Elsewhere in the myth Cagn made
a mare he became the mother of the eight-legged horse of Odin. or manufactured things by his skill.
He borrowed the hawk-dress of Freya, when he recovered the As a rule the most backward races, while rich in myths of the
apples
of Iduna. Another Eddie god, Hoene, is described in origin of men, animals, plants, stones and stars, do not say much
" " about the making of the world. Among people a little more ad-
phrases from lost poems as the long-legged one," lord of the
ooze," and his name is connected with that of the crane. The con- vanced, the earth is presumed to have grown out of the waters. In
stant enemies of the gods, the giants, could also assume animal the Iroquois myth (Lafitau, Mcsurs des sauvages, 1724), a heavenly
forms. Thus in Thiodolf's Haust-long (composed after the settle- woman was tossed out of heaven, and fell on a turtle, which
ment of Iceland) we read about a shield on which events from myth- developed into the world. Another North-American myth assumes
" a single island in the midst of the waters, and this island grew into
ology were painted; among these was the flight of giant Thiazzi
in an ancient eagle's feathers." The god Herindal and Loki once the world. The Navaho and the Digger Indians take earth for
fought a battle in the shapes of seals. On the whole, the Scan- granted as a starting-point in their myths. The Winnebagos, not
dinavian gods are a society on an early human model, of beings untouched by Christian doctrine, do not go farther back. The
indifferently human, animal and divine some of them derived Great Manitou awoke and found himself alone. He took a piece of
from elemental forces personified, holding sway over the elements, his body and a piece of earth and made a man. Here the existence
and skilled in sorcery. Probably after the viking days came in the of earth is assumed (Bancroft iv. 228). Even in Guatemala,
conceptions of the last war of gods, and the end of all, and the theory though the younger sons of a divine race succeed in making the
of Odin All-Father as a kind of emperor in the heavenly world. earth where the elder son (as usual) failed, they all had a supply of
The famous tree that lives through all the world is regarded as clay as first material. The Pima, a Central-American tribe, say
" the earth was made by a powerful being, and at first appeared
foreign, Christian, and confined to few poems." There is, almost "
undoubtedly, a touch of the Christian dawn on the figure and like a spider's web." This reminds one of the Ananzi or spider
myth of the pure and beloved and ill-fated god Balder, and his creator of West Africa. The more metaphysical Tacullies of
descent into hell. The whole subject is beset with critical diffi- British Columbia say that in the beginning nought existed but
culties, and we have chiefly noted features which can hardly be water and a musk-rat. The musk-rat sought his food at the
regarded as late, and which correspond with widely distributed bottom of the water, and his mouth was frequently filled with mud.
mythical ideas. This he kept spitting out, and so formed an island, which developed
Dasent's Prose or Younger Edda (Stockholm, 1842) the Corpus
;
into the world. Among the Tinneh, the frame of a dog (which
Septentrionale already referred to; C. F. Keary's Mythology of the could assume the form of a handsome young man) became the first
Eddas (1882) Pigott's Manual of Scandinavian Mythology (1838)
; ;
material of most things. The dog, like Osiris, Dionysus, Purusha
and Laing's Early Kings of Norway may be consulted by English and other gods, was torn to pieces by giants; the fragments became
students. many of the things in the world (Bancroft i. 106). Even here the
It is now necessary to cast a hasty existence of earth for the dog to live in is assumed.
Classification of Myths.
Coming to races more advanced in civilization, we find the New
glance over the chief divisions of myths. These correspond to Zealanders in possession of ancient hymns in which the origin of
the chief problems which the world presents to the curiosity of things is traced back to nothing, to darkness, and to a metaphysical
untutored men. They ask themselves (and the answers are process
from nothing to something, from being to becoming. The
given in myths) the following questions: What is the Origin hymns may be read in Sir George Grey's Polynesian Mythology, and
in Taylor's New Zealand. It has been suggested that these hymns
of the World ? The Origin of Man ? Whence came the Arts bear traces of Buddhist and Indian influence in any case, they are
;
of Life? Whence the Stars? Whence the Sun and Moon? rather metaphysical than mystical. Myth comes in when the
What is the Origin of Death? How was Fire procured by Man? Maoris represent Rangi and Papa, Heaven and Earth, as two vast
The question of the origin of the marks and characteristics of beings, male and female, united in a secular embrace, and finally
severed by their children, among whom Tane Mahuta takes the
various animals and plants has also produced a class of myths
part of Cronus in the Greek myth. The gods were partly elemental,
in which the marks are said to survive from some memorable
partly animal in character; the lists of their titles show that every
adventure, or the plants and animals to be metamorphosed human crime was freely attributed to them. In the South Sea
human beings. Examples of all these myths are found among Islands, generally, the fable of the union and separation of Heaven
and Earth is current; other forms will be found in Gill's Myths and
savages and in the legends of the ancient civilizations. A few
Songs from the South Pacific.
such examples may now be given. The cosmogonic myths of the Aryans of India are peculiarly
Myths of the Origin of the World. We have found it difficult to interesting, as we find in the Vedas and Brahmanas and Puranas
keep myths of the gods apart from myths of the origin of the world almost every fiction familiar to savages side by side with the most
ana of man, because gods are frequently regarded as creative abstract metaphysical speculations. We have the theory that
powers. The origin of things is a problem which has everywhere earth grew, as in the Iroquois story of the turtle, from a being
named Uttanapad (Muir v. 335). We find that Brahmanaspati
1
Indra was a hawk when, " being well-winged, he carried to "
blew the gods forth from his mouth," and one of the gods,
men the food tasted by the gods " (R. V. iv. 26, 4). Yehl, the Tvashtri, the mechanic among the deities, is credited with having
Tlingit god-hero, was a raven or a crane when he stole the water fashioned the earth and the heaven (Muir v. 354). The " Purusha
(Bancroft iii. 100-102). The prevalence of animals, or of god- Sukta," the 9Oth hymn of the tenth book of the Rig Veda, gives us
animals, in myths of the stealing of water, soma and fire, is very the Indian version of the theory that all things were made out of
remarkable. Among the Andaman Islanders, a kingfisher steals the mangled limbs of Purusha, a magnified non-natural man, who-
fire for men from the god Puluga (Anthrop. Journal, November was_sacnficed by the gods. As this hymn gives an account of the
1882). origin of the castes (which elsewhere are scarcely recognized in the
MYTHOLOGY
Rig Veda), it is sometimes regarded as a late addition. But we can according to Egede, "who settled the Danish colony "
in Greenland,
scarcely think the main conception late, as it is so widely scattered regarded the stars very nonsensically," as so many of their
that it meets us in most mythologies, including those of Chaldaea ancestors"; the Egyptian priests showed Plutarch the stars that
and Egypt, and various North-American trioes. Not satisfied had been Isis and Osiris. Aristophanes, in the Pax, shows us that
with this myth, the Aryans of India accounted for the origin of the belief in the change of men into stars survived in his own day
species in the following barbaric style. A being named Purusha in Greece. The Bushmen (Bleek) have the same opinion. The
was alone in the world. He differentiated himself into two beings, Satapatlia-Brahmana (Sacred Books of the East, xii. 284) shows
husband and wife. The wife, regarding union with her producer how Prajapati, in his incestuous love, turned himself into a roe-
as incest, fled from his embraces as Nemesis did from those of buck, his daughter into a doe, and how both became constellations.
Zeus, and Rhea from Cronus, assuming various animal disguises. This is a thoroughly good example of the savage myths (as in Peru,
The husband pursued in the form of the male of each animal, and according to Acosta) by which beasts and anthropomorphic gods
from these unions sprang the various species of beasts (Satapatha- and stars are all jumbled together. 1 The Rig Veda contains
Brahmana, xiv. 4, 2 Muir i. 25). The myth of the cosmic egg
; examples of the idea that the good become stars.
from which all things were produced is also current in the Brah- Solar and Lunar Myths. These are and are
universally found,
manas. In the Puranas we find the legend of many successive too numerous to be examined here. The sun and moon, as in the
creations and destructions of the world a myth of world-wide Bulgarian ballad of the Sun's Bride (a mortal girl), are looked on
distribution. as living beings. In Mexico they were two men, or gods of a human
As a rule, by a deluge is the most favourite myth,
destruction character who were burned. The Eskimo know the moon as a
but destructions by and wind and by the wrath of a god are
fire man who visits earth, and, again, as a girl who had her face spotted
common in Australian, Peruvian and Egyptian tradition. The by ashes which the Sun threw at her. The Khasias make the sun
idea that a boar, or a god in the shape of a boar, fished up a bit of a woman, who daubs the face of the moon, a man. The Homeric
"
earth, which subsequently became the world, out of the waters, is hymn to Helios, as Max Miiller observes, looks on the sun as a
very well known to the Aryans of India, and recalls the feats of half-god, almost a hero, who had once lived on earth." This is
American musk-rats and coyotes already described. 1 The tortoise precisely the Bushman view; the sun was a man who irradiated
from which all things sprang, in a myth of the Satapatha-Brahmana, light from his armpit. In New Zealand and in North America
reminds us of the Iroquois turtle. The Greek and Mangaian myth the sun is a beast, whom adventurers have trapped and beaten.
of the marriage of Heaven and Earth and its dissolution is found Medicine has been made with his blood. In the Andaman Islands
in the Aitareya-Brahmana (Haug's trans, ii. 308; Rig Veda, i. Ixii.). the Sun is the wife of the Moon (Jour, of A nth. Soc., 1882). Among
So much for the Indian cosmogonic myths, which are a collection aboriginal tribes in India (Dalton, p. 186) the Moon is the 'Sun's
of ideas familiar to savages, blended with sacerdotal theories and bride; she was faithless and he cut her in two, but occasionally
ritual mummeries. The philosophical theory of the origin of things, lets her shine in full beauty. The Andaman Islanders account for
a hymn of remarkable stateliness, is in Rig Veda, x. 129. The the white brilliance of the moon by saying that he is daubing
Scandinavian cosmogonic myth starts from the abyss, Ginnungagap, himself with white clay, a custom common in savage and Greek
a chaos of ice, from which, as it thawed, was produced the giant mysteries. The Red Men accounted to the Jesuits for the spherical
Ymir. Ymir is the Scandinavian Purusha. A man and woman forms of sun and moon by saying that their appearance was caused
sprang from his armpit, like Athene from the head of Zeus. A by their bended bows. The Moon in Greek myths loved Endymion,
cow licked the hoar-frost, whence rose Bur, whose children, Odin, and was bribed to be the mistress of Pan by the present of a
"
Vile and Ve, slew the giant Ymir. Of his flesh they formed the fleece, like the Dawn in Australia, whose unchastity was rewarded
earth, of his blood seas and waters, of his bones mountains, of his by a gift of a red cloak of opossum skin. Solar and lunar myths
teeth rocks and stones, of his hair all manner of plants." This is usually account for the observed phenomena of eclipse, waning
the story in the Prose Edda, derived from older songs, such as the and waxing, sunset, spots on the moon, and so forth by various
Grimnersmal. However the distribution of this singular myth may mythical adventures of the animated heavenly beings. In modern
be explained, its origin can scarcely be sought in the imagination folk-lore the moon is a place to which bad people are sent, rather
of races higher in culture than the Tinneh and Tacullies, among than a woman or a man. The mark of the hare in the moon has
whom dogs and beavers are the theriomorphic form of Purusha or struck the imagination of Germans, Mexicans, Hottentots, Sinhalese,
Ymir. ,
- ^ . and produced myths among all these races. 4
Myths of the Origin oj Man. These partake of the conceptions Myths of Death. Few savage races regard death as a natural
of evolution and of creation. Man was made out of clay by a super- event. All natural deaths are supernatural with them. Men are
natural being. Australia: man was
"
made by Pund-jel. New assumed to be naturally immortal, hence a series of myths to
" "
Zealand: man was made he took red clay, and kneaded account for the origin of death. Usually some custom or taboo
by Tiki;
it with his own blood." Mangaia: the woman of the abyss made is represented as having been broken, when death has followed.
a child from a piace of flesh plucked out of her own side. Melanesia: In New Zealand, Maui was not properly baptized. In Australia,
"
man was made of clay, red from the marshy side of Vanua Levu"; a woman was told not to go near a certain tree where a bat lived ;
woman was made by Qat of willow twigs. Greece: men were she infringed the prohibition, the bat fluttered out, and men died.
8
irXdoTiara mjXoO, figures baked in clay by Prometheus. India: The Ningphoos were dismissed from Paradise and became mortal,
men were made after many efforts, in which the experimental because one of them bathed in water which had been tabooed
beings did not harmonize with their environment, by Prajapati. (Dalton, p. 13). In the Atharua Veda, Yama, like Maui in New
"
In another class of myths, man was evolved out of the lower animals Zealand, first spied out the path to the other world," which all
lizards in Australia; coyotes, beavers, apes and other beasts in men after him have taken. In the Rig Veda (x. 14), Yama " sought
America. The Greek myths of the descent of the Arcadians, out a road for many." In the Solomon Islands (Jour. Anth, Inst.,
"
Myrmidons, children of the swan, the cow, and so forth, may be Feb. 1 880, Koevari was the author of death, by resuming her
compared. Yet again, men came out of trees or plants or rocks: cast-off skin." The same story is told in the Banks Islands. In
as from the Australian wattle-gum, the Zulu bed of reeds, the great the Greek myth (Hesiod, Works and Days, 90), men lived without
" "
tree of the Ovahereros, the rock of the tribes in Central Africa, the ill diseases that give death to men till the cover was lifted
"
cave of Bushman and North-American and Peruvian myth, from from the forbidden box of Pandora. As to the myths of Hades,
"
tree or stone (Odyssey, xix. 163). This view was common among the place of the dead, they are far too many to be mentioned in
the Greeks, who boasted of being autochthonous. The Cephisian detail. In almost all the gates of hell are guarded by fierce beasts,
marsh was one scene of man's birth according to a fragment of and in Ojibway, Finnish, Greek, Papuan and Japanese myths no
Pindar, who mentions Egyptian and Libyan legends of the same mortal visitor may escape from Hades who has once tasted the
description. food of the dead.
Myths of the
"
Arts of Life. These are almost unanimously Myths of Fire-stealing. Those current in North America (where
attributed to culture-heroes," beings theriomorphic or anthropo- an animal is commonly the thief) will be found in Bancroft, vol. iv.
morphic, who, like Pund-jel, Qat, Quawteaht, Prometheus, The Australian version, singularly like one Greek legend, is given
Manabozho, Quetzalcoatl, Cagn and the rest, taught men the use by Brough Smyth. Stories of the theft of Prometheus are recorded
of the bow, the processes (where known) of pottery, agriculture by Hesiod, Aeschylus, and their commentators. Muir and Kuhn
(as Demeter), the due course of the mysteries, divination, and may be consulted for Vedic fire-stealing.
everything else they knew. Commonly the teacher disappears Heroic and Romantic Myths. In addition to myths which are
mysteriously. He is often regarded by modern mythologists as clearly intended to explain facts of the universe, most nations have
the sun. their heroic and romantic Familiar examples are the
" myths.
Star Myths. The stars came otherwise," says Browning's stories of Perseus, Odysseus, Sigurd, the Indian epic stories, the
Caliban. In savage and civilized myths they are usually meta- adventures of Ilmarinen and Wainamoinen in the Kalewala, and
morphosed men, women and beasts. In Australia, the Pleiades, so forth. To discuss these myths as far as they can be considered
as in Greece, were girls. Castor and Pollux in Greece, as in Australia, apart from divine and explanatory tales would demand more space
were young men. Our Bear was a bear, according to Charlevoix than we have at our disposal. It will become evident to any
and Lafitau, among the North-American Indians; the Eskimo, student of the romantic myths that they consist of different arrange-
1
Black Yajur-Veda and Satapatha-Brahmana; Muir, i. 52. 1
See also Vishnu Purana, i. 131.
" "
'Aristophanes, Aves, 686; Etym. Magn., s.v. 'lubvwv. Pausanias
4
See Cornhill Magazine,
"
How the Stars got" their Names
saw the clay (Paus. x. iv.). The story is also quoted by Lactantius (1882, p. 35), and Some Solar and Lunar Myths (1882, p. 440);
from Hesiod. Max Miiller, Selected Essays, i. 609-611.
144 MYXOEDEMA MYZOSTOMIDA
ments of a rather limited set of incidents. These incidents have myths may be adorned and classified marchen, in themselves
been roughly classified by Von Hahn. 1 We may modify his arrange- survivals of savage fancy, see Fortnightly Review, May 1872, " Myths
ment as follows. and Fairy Tales." The old explanation was that marchen are
There is (i) the story of a bride or bridegroom who transgresses degenerate heroic myths. This does not explain the marchen of
a commandment of a mystic nature, and disappears as a result of African, and perhaps not of Siberian races.
the sin. The bride sins as in Eros and Psyche, Freja and Oddur, In this sketch of mythology that of Rome is not included, because
Pururavas and Urvasi. 2 The sin of Urvasi and Psyche was seeing its most picturesque parts are borrowed from or adapted into
their husbands naked in the latter case. The sin was against harmony with the mythology of Greece. Greece, India and Scandi-
"
the manner of women." Now the rule of etiquette which forbids navia will supply a fair example of
Aryan mythology (without
seeing or naming the husband (especially the latter) is of the widest entering on the difficult Slavonic and Celtic fields). (A. L.)
distribution. The offence in the Welsh form of the story is naming
the partner a thing forbidden among early Greeks and modern MYXOEDEMA (or athyrea), the medical term for a constitu-
Zulus. Presumably the tale (with its example of the sanction) sur- tional disease (see METABOLIC DISEASES) due to the degeneration
"
vives the rule in many cases. (2) Penelope formula." The man of the thyroid gland, and occurring in adults; it may be con-
leaves the wife and returns after many years. A
good example trasted with cretinism, which is a condition appearing in early
occurs in Chinese legend. (3) Formula of the attempt to avoid
fate or the prophecy of an oracle. This incident takes numerous childhood. There are two forms, myxoedema proper and opera-
shapes, as in the story of the fatal birth of Perseus, Paris, the tive myxoedema (cachexia sirumipriiia) (i) Myxoedema has
.
Egyptian prince shut up in a tower, the birth of Oedipus. (4) been termed " Gull's Disease" from Sir William Gull's observa-
Slaughter of a monster. This is best known in the case of Andro- tions in. 1873. Women are more often the victims than men, in
meda and Perseus. (5) Flight, by aid of an animal usually, from
a ratio of 6 to i. It frequently affects members of the same
cannibalism, human sacrifice, or incest. The Greek example is
Phrixus, Helle, and the ram of the golden fleece. (6) Flight of a family and may be transmitted through the mother, and it has
and her lover from a giant father or wizard father. Jason been observed sometimes to follow exophthalmic goitre. The
lady
and Medea furnish the Greek example. (7) The youngest brother
the successful adventurer, and the head of the family. We
have symptoms are a marked increase in bulk and weight of the body,
seen the example of Greek mythic illustrations of
"
Jungsten- puffy appearance of skin which does not pit on pressure, the line
recht," or supremacy of the youngest, in the Hesiodic myth of of the features becoming obliterated and getting coarse and
Zeus, the youngest child of Cronus. (8) Bride given to whoever broad, the lips thick and nostrils enlarged, with loss of hair,
will difficult adventures or vanquish girl in race.
accomplish The subnormal temperature and marked mental changes. There is
custom of giving a bride without demanding bride-price, in reward
for a great exploit, is several times alluded to in the Iliad. In striking slowness of thought and action, the memory becomes
Greek heroic myth Jason thus wins Medea, and (in the race) Milanion defective, and the patient becomes irritable and suspicious.
wins Atalanta. In the Kalewala much of the Jason cycle, including In some instances the condition progresses to that of dementia.
this part, recurs. The rider through the fire wins Brunhild but The thyroid gland itself is diminished in size, and may become
this may belong to another cycle of ideas. (9) The grateful beasts,
completely atrophied and converted into a fibrous mass. The
who, having been aided by the hero, aid him in his adventures.
Melampus and the snakes is a Greek example. This story is but untreated disease is progressive, but the course is slow and the
one specimen of the personal human character of animals in myths, symptoms may extend over 12 to 15 years, death from asthenia
already referred to the intellectual condition of savages. (10) or tuberculosis being the most frequent ending. (2) Symptoms
Story of the strong man and his adventures, and stories of the
comrades Keen-eye, Quick-ear, and the rest. Jason has comrades similar to the above may follow complete removal of the thyroid
" Kocher of Bern found that, in the total removal of the
like these, as had Ilmarinen and Heracles, the Greek strong man." gland.
(ll) Adventure with an ogre, who is blinded and deceived by a gland by operation, out of 408 cases operative myxoedema
pun of the hero's. Odysseus and Polyphemus is the Greek ex- occurred in 69, but it is thought that if a small portion of the
ample. (12) Descent into Hades of the hero. Heracles, Odysseus,
Wainamoinen in the Kalewala, are the best-known examples in gland is left, or if accessory glands are present, these symptoms
epic literature. These are twelve specimens of the incidents, to will not develop. The treatment of myxoedema is similar to
"
which we may add (13) the false bride," as in the poem of Berte that of cretinism.
aux grans Pi6s, and (14) the legend of the bride said to produce MYZOSTOMIDA, a remarkable group of small parasitic
beast-children. The belief in the latter phenomenon is very common
worms which live on crinoid echinoderms; they were first dis-
in Africa, and in the Arabian Nights, and we have seen it in America.
Of these formulae (chosen because illustrated by Greek heroic covered by Leuckart in 1827. Some species, such as Myzostoma
legends) (l) is a sanction of barbarous nuptial etiquette; (2) is an cirriferum, move about on the host; others, such as M
glabrum, .
obvious ordinary incident; (3) is moral, and both (3) and (i) may remain stationary with the pharynx inserted in the mouth of the
pair off with all the myths of the origin of death from the infringe-
ment of a taboo or sacred command; (4) would naturally occur
crinoid. M
deformator gives rise to a
.
"
gall
"
on the arm of the
one joint of the pinnule growing round the worm so as to
wherever, as on the West Coast of Africa, human victims have host,
been offered to sharks or other beasts; (5) the story of flight from enclose it in a cyst (see fig. E) whilst
;
M
pulvinar lives actually
.
a horrible crime, occurs in some stellar myths, and is an easy and in the alimentary canal of a species of Antedon.
natural invention; (6) flight from wizard father or husband, is
found in Bushman and Namaqua myth, where the husband is an A typical myzostomid (see A, B, C) is of a flattened rounded
elephant; (7) success of youngest brother," may have been an ex- shape, with a thin edge drawn out into delicate radiating cirri.
"
Maui in New Zealand The skin is ciliated. The dorsal surface is smooth ventrally there
planation and
sanction of Jiingsten-recht
;
is an and Herodotus found the story among the Scythians; are five pairs of
parapodia,
armed with supporting and hooked
example, setae, by means of which the worm adheres to its host.
(8) the bride given to successful adventurer, is consonant with
Beyond
heroic manners as late as Homer; (9) is no less consonant with the the parapodia are four pairs of organs, often called suckers, but
belief that beasts have human sentiments and supernatural powers; probably of sensory nature, and comparable to the lateral sense
(10) the
"
strong man," is found among Eskimo and Zulus, and was organs of Capitellids (Wheeler). The mouth and cloacal aperture
an obvious invention when strength was the most admired of are generally at opposite ends of the ventral surface. The former
and Irish, leads to a protrusible pharynx (B), from which the oesophagus
qualities; (n) the baffled ogre, is found among Basques
and turns on a form of punning which inspires an " ananzi " story opens into a wide intestinal chamber with branching lateral diver-
in West Africa; (12) descent into Hades, is the natural result of
ticula. There appears to be no vascular system. The nervous
the savage conception of Hades, and the tale is told of actual living system consists of a circumoesophageal nerve, with scarcely differ-
entiated brain, joining below a large ganglionic mass no doubt
people in the Solomon Islands and in New Caledonia; Eskimo
representing many fused ganglia (B). The dorsoventral and the
Angekoks can and do descend into Hades it is the prerogative of
the necromantic magician; (13) "the false bride," found among parapodial muscles are much developed, whilst the coelom is re-
the Zulus, does not permit of such easy explanation naturally, duced mostly to branched spaces in which the genital
produces
in Zululand, the false bride is an animal; (14) the bride accused of ripen. Full-grown myzostomids are hermaphrodite. The male
bearing beast-children, has already been disposed of; the belief is organ (C) consists of a branched sac opening to the exterior on
inevitable where no distinction worth mentioning is taken between each side. The paired ovaries discharge their products into a
men and animals. English folk-lore has its woman who bore median coelemic chamber with lateral branches (C), otten called
rabbits. the uterus, from which the ripe ova are discharged by a median
The formulae here summarized, with dorsal pore into the terminal region of the rectum (cloaca). Into
others, are familiar in the
this same cloacal chamber open ventrally a pair of ciliated tubes
marchen of Samoyeds, Zulus, Bushmen, Hottentots and Red
Indians. For an argument intended to show that Greek heroic communicating by funnels with the coelom (Nansen and Wheeler) ;
these are possibly nephridia, and excretory in function.
1
Griechische und albanesische Marchen, i.
45.
" " The
'Tenth Book of Rig Veda and Brahmana of Yajur-Veda; Myzostomida are protandric hermaphrodites, being
Muller, Selected Essays, i.
410. functional males when small, Hermaphrodite later, and finally
MZABITES
" "
functional females (Wheeler). Small males are in some long provisional setae. The mesoderm becomes segmented,
species constantly associated with large hermaphrodites, but and the parapodia subsequently develop from before backwards;
according to Beard there are in some cases true dwarf males, but almost all internal traces of segmentation are lost in the
comparable to the complementary males described by Darwin adult. The structure and development of the Myzostomida
in the Cirripedia. The embryology of Myzostoma has been seem to show that they are nearly related to Polychaeta (see
CHAETOPODA), though highly modified in relation to their
parasitic mode of life.
AUTHORITIES. L. v. Graff, Das Genus Myzostoma (Leipzig,
"
1877); and The Myzostomida," Challenger Reports (1884), vol. x. ;
E. Metchnikoff, Zeit. Wiss. Zool. (1866), vols. v., xvi.; J. Beard,
Mittk. Z. St Neapel (1884), vol. v.; W. M. Wheeler, ibid. (1896),
vol. xii. (E. S. G.)
MZABITES, or BENI-MZAB, a .confederation of Berber tribes,
now under the direct authority of France. Of all the Berber
peoples the Mzabites have remained freest from foreign admix-
ture. Their own country is a region of the Algerian Sahara,
about ico m. south of El-Aghuat. It consists of five oases close
together, viz. Ghardaia, Beni-Isguen, El-Ateuf, Melika and
Bu Nura, and two isolated oases farther north, Berrian and
Guerrara. The total population numbered at the 1906 census
45,996, of whom about 100 were Europeans and a very small
proportion Arabs and Jews. The Mzabites are of small and
slender figure, with very short necks and under-developed legs.
Their faces are flat, with short nose, thick lips and very deep-set
eyes, and their complexion pale. Their dress is a shirt of thick
wool, usually many-coloured. They are agriculturists, and are
also famed as traders. The butchers, fruiterers, bath-house
keepers, road-sweepers and carriers of the African littoral from
Tangier to Tripoli are nearly all Mzabites. Their industries, too,
are highly organized. The Mzabite burnouses and carpets are
found throughout North Africa. Their commercial honesty is
proverbial. Nearly all read and write Arabic, though in talking
among themselves they use the Zenata dialect of the Berber
language, for which, in common with other Berber peoples,
they have no written form surviving. They are Mahomme-
dans, of the Ibadite sect, and are regarded as heretics by the
A, Ventral view of Myzostoma. D, Larva of Myzostoma glabrum. Sunnites.
B, Diagram of Myzostoma, show- (After Beard.)
ing the nervous and alimen- E, Portion of the arm of Penta-
According to tradition the Ibadites, after their overthrow at
Tiaret by the Fatimites, took refuge during the loth century
tary systems. crinus, showing a cyst
C, Diagram of Myzostoma, show- containing Myzostoma. in the country to the south-west of Wargla, where they founded
ing the genital organs (from an independent In 1012, owing to further persecutions,
state.
v. Graf and Wheeler).
they fled to their present quarters,where they long remained
a, Cloacal aperture. n, Ciliated tube (nephfidium?). invulnerable. After the capture of El-Aghuat by the French,
ar, Arm. o, Opening. the Mzabites concluded with the Algerian government, in 1853,
c. Cirrus. ov, Ovary.
" a convention by which they engaged to pay an annual con-
d, Cloaca." Parapodium.
f, Pharynx. tribution of 1800 in return for their independence. In Novem-
coe.Coelom. ,
ct, Swollen pinnule forming a s, Sense organ. ber 1882 the Mzab country was definitely annexed to Algeria.
cyst. sp, Sperm-sac. Ghardaia (pop. 7868) is the capital of the confederation, and
f, Intestine and its caeca. vn, Ventral ganglionic mass.
next in importance is Beni-Isguen (4916), the chief commercial
Is, Larval setae. cf, Male opening.
Female opening. centre. Since the establishment of French control, Beni-Isguen
m, Mouth. S,
has become the dep6t for the sale of European goods. French
studied by Metchnikoff and Beard. Cleavage leads to the engineers have rendered the oases much more fertile than they
formation of an epibolic gastrula and ciliated embryo which used to be by a system of irrigation works. (See also ALGERIA.)
hatches as a free-swimming larva remarkably like that of a See A. Coyne, Le Mzab (Algiers, 1879); Rinn, Occupation du
Polychaete worm (D). The larva is provided with postoral Mzab (Algiers, 1885); Amat, Le M'Zab et les M'Zabites (Paris,
and perianal ciliated bands, and on either side with a bunch of 1888). Also ALGERIA and BERBERS.
14-6 N NABATAEANS
letterwhich regularly follows Min the alphabet, and, important part in the so-called
" Yankee "
pronunciation of
NA like in its early forms has the first limb longer than
it
the others; thus, written from right to left, V\.
Semitic languages gradually diminish the size of the
The
Americans.
NAAS (pron. Nace, as in place), a market town of Co.
(P. Gi.)
Kildare, Ireland, 20 m. S.W. from Dublin on branches of the
other two limbs, while the Greek and Latin alphabets tend to Great Southern and Western railway and of the Grand Canal.
make all three of equal length. The earliest name of the symbol Pop. (1901) 3836. It is situated among the foothills of the
was Nun, whence comes the Greek ny (vv). The sound of Wicklow Mountains, close to the river Liffey. The town is of
varies according to the point at which the contact of the tongue great antiquity, and was a residence of the kings of Leinster, the
with the roof of the mouth is made; it may be dental, alveolar, place of whose assemblies is marked by a neighbouring rath or
palatal or guttural. In Sanskrit these four sounds are dis- mound. Naas returned two members to the Irish parliament
tinguished by different symbols; the last two occur in com- from 1559 until the union in 1800. Of a castle taken by Cromwell
bination with stops or affricates of the same series. The French in 1650, and of several former abbeys, there are no remains.
or German n when standing by itself is dental, the English Punchestown racecourse, 2^ m. S.E., is the scene of well-known
alveolar, i.e. pronounced like the English t and d against the steeplechases.
sockets of the teeth instead of the teeth themselves. The guttural NABATAEANS, a people of ancient Arabia, whose settlements
nasal is written in English ng as in ring; for. the palatal n as in the time of Josephus (Ant. i. 12. 4; comp. Jerome, Quaesl.
in lynch there is no separate symbol. The sound of n stands in the in Gen. xxv.) gave the name of Nabatene to the border-land
same relation to d as m stands to b; both are ordinarily voiced between Syria and Arabia from the Euphrates to the Red Sea.
and the mouth position for both is the same, but in pronouncing Josephus suggests, and Jerome, apparently following him,
n the nasal passage is left open, so that the sound of n can be affirms, that the name is identical with that of the Ishmaelite
continued while that of d cannot. This is best observed by tribe of Nebaioth (Gen. xxv. 13; Isa. Ix. 7), which in later Old
pronouncing syllables where the consonant comes last as in and Testament times had a leading place among the northern Arabs,
id. When the nasal passage is closed, as when one has a bad cold, and is associated with Kedar (Isa. Ix. 7) much as Pliny v. u
(12)
m and n cannot be pronounced; attempts to pronounce moon associates Ndbataei and Cedrei. The identification is rendered
result only hi hood. Two important points arise in connexion uncertain by the fact that the name Nabataean is properly
with nasals: (i) sonant nasals, (2) nasalization of vowels. The spelled with t not / (on the
inscriptions, cf. also Arabic Nabat,
discovery of sonant nasals by Dr Karl Brugman in 1876 (Curtius, Nabit, &c.). Thus the history of the Nabataeans cannot certainly
Studien, 9, pp. 285-338) explained many facts of language which be carried back beyond 312 B.C., at which date they were attacked
had been hitherto obscure and elucidated many difficulties in without success by Antigonus I. Cyclops in their mountain
the Indo-European vowel system. It had been observed, for ex- fortress of Petra. They are described by Diodorus (xix. 94 seq.)
ample, that the same original negative prefix was represented in as being at this time a strong tribe of some 10,000 warriors,
Sanskrit by a, Greek by a, in Latin by in and in Germanic by un, pre-eminent among the nomadic Arabs, eschewing agriculture,
and these differences had not been accounted for satisfactorily. fixed houses and the use of wine, but adding to pastoral pursuits
Dr Brugman argued that in these and similar cases the syllable a profitable trade with the seaports in myrrh and spices from
was made by the consonant alone, and the nasal so used was Arabia Felix, as well as a trade with Egypt in bitumen from
termed a sonant nasal and written n. In most cases Sanskrit the Dead Sea. Their arid country was the best safeguard of their
and Greek lost the nasal sound altogether and replaced it by a cherished liberty; for the bottle-shaped cisterns for rain-water
vowel a, a, while in Latin and Germanic a vowel was developed which they excavated in the rocky or argillaceous soil were
independently before the nasal. In the accusative singular of carefully concealed from invaders. Petra (q.v.) or Sela' was the
consonant stems Sans, pddant, Gr. irbSa, Lat. pedem, Sanskrit ancient capital of Edom; the Nabataeans must have occupied
and Greek did not, as generally, agree, but it was shown that the old Edomite country, and succeeded to its commerce, after
in such cases there were originally two forms according to the the Edomites took advantage of the Babylonian captivity to
1
nature of the sound beginning the next word in the sentence. press forward into southern Judaea. This migration, the date
Thus an original Indo-European *pedm, would not be treated of which cannot be determined, also made them masters of the
precisely in the same way if the next word began with a vowel shores of the Gulf of 'Akaba and the important harbour of
as it would when a consonant followed. Sanskrit had adopted Elath. Here, according to Agatharchides (Geog. Gr. Min., i.
the form used before vowels, Greek the form before consonants 178), they were for a time very troublesome, as wreckers
and each had dropped the alternative form. The second point and pirates, to the reopened commerce between Egypt and
the nasalizing of vowels is difficult for an Englishman to under- the East, till they were chastised by the Greek sovereigns of
stand or to produce, as the sounds do not exist in his language. Alexandria.
Thus in learning to pronounce French he tends to replace the The Nabataeans had already some tincture of foreign culture
nasalized vowels by the nearest sounds in English, making when they first appear in history. That culture was naturally
"
the Fr. on a nasalized vowel into Eng. ong, a vowel Aramaic; they wrote a letter to Antigonus in Syriac letters,"
(o),
followed by a guttural consonant. The nasalized vowels are and Aramaic continued to be the language of their coins and
" "
produced by drawing forward the uvula, the tab at the end inscriptions when the tribe grew into a kingdom, and profited
of the soft palate, so that the breath escapes through the nose as by the decay of the Seleucids to extend its borders northward
well as the mouth. In the French nasalized vowels, however, over the more fertile country east of the Jordan. They occupied
many phoneticians hold that, besides the leaving of the nasal IJauran, and about 85 B.C. their king Aretas (Haritha)
passage open, there is a change in the position of the tongue in became lord of Damascus and Coele-Syria. Allies of the first
passing from a to a. The nasalized vowels are generally written Hasmonaeans in their struggles against the Greeks (i Mace,
with a hook below, upon the analogy of the transliteration of v. 25, ix. 35; 2 Mace. v. 8), they became the rivals of the Judaean
such sounds in the Slavonic languages, but as the same symbol is dynasty in the period of its splendour, and a chief element in
often used to distinguish an
" " " "
open vowel from a close one, the disorders which invited Pompey's intervention in Palestine.
the use is not without ambiguity. On the other hand, it is not The Roman arms were not very successful, and King Aretas
admissible to write a for the nasalized vowel in languages which retained his whole possessions, including Damascus, as a Roman
have accent signs, e.g. Lithuanian. It is possible to nasalize 1
See EDOM, and (for the view that Mai. i. 1-5, refers to the
some consonants as well as vowels; nasalized spirants play an expulsion of Edomites from their land) MALACHI.
NABBES NACHMANIDES
As " allies " of the Romans the Nabataeans continued to
vassal. 1 states,founded by a member of the Phulkian family, which estab-
flourishthroughout the first Christian century. Their power lished its independence about 1763. The first relations of the
extended far into Arabia, particularly along the Red Sea; and state with the British were in 1807-1808, when the raja obtained
Petra was a meeting-place of many nations, though its commerce protection against the threatened encroachments of Ranjit
was diminished by the rise of the Eastern trade-route from Singh. During the Mutiny in 1857 the raja showed distinguished
Myoshormus to Coptos on the Nile. Under the Roman peace loyalty, and was rewarded by grants of territory to the value of
they lost their warlike and nomadic habits, and were a sober, over 10,000. The imperial service troops of the raja Hira
acquisitive, orderly people, wholly intent on trade and agri- Singh (b. c. 1843; succeeded in 1871) did good service during the
culture (Strabo xvi. 4). They might have long been a bulwark Tirah campaign of 1897-98. The chief products of the state are
between Rome and the wild hordes of the desert but for the^short- wheat, millets, pulses, cotton and sugar. The estimated gross
sighted cupidity of Trajan, who reduced Petra and broke up the revenue is 100,000; no tribute is paid. The territory is crossed
Nabataean nationality (105 A.D.). The new Arab invaders who by the main line and also by several branches of the North-
soon pressed forward into their seats found the remnants of the Western railway, and is irrigated by the Sirhind canal.
Nabataeans transformed into fellahin, and speaking Aramaic The town of Nabha, founded in 1755, has a station on the
like their neighbours. Hence Nabataeans became the Arabic Rajpura-Bhatinda branch of the North-Western railway. Pop.
name for Aramaeans, whether in Syria or Irak, a fact which has (1901) 18,468.
been incorrectly held to prove that the Nabataeans were origin- See Phulkian States Gazetteer (Lahore, 1909).
ally Aramaean immigrants from Babylonia. It is now known, NABIGHA DHUBYANl and 7th
[Ziyad ibn Mu'awlyya] (6th
however, that they were true Arabs as the proper names on their
centuries), Arabian poet, was one of the last poets of pre-Islamic
inscriptions show who had come under Aramaic influence. times. His tribe, the Bani Dhubyan, belonged to the district near
See especially on this last Journ.
point (against Quatremere, Mecca, but he himself spent most of his time at the courts of
asiat. xv., vol. ii., 1835), Noldeke in Zeit. d. morgenldnd. Gesell.
" " Hira and Ghassan. In Hira he remained under Mondhir (Mund-
xvii. 705 seq., xxv. 122 seq. The so-called Nabataean Agriculture
(Falaha Nabaflya), which professes to be an Arabic translation by hir) III., and under his successor in 562. After a sojourn at the
Ibn Wabshiya from an ancient Nabataean source, is a forgery of court of Ghassan, he returned to Hira under Nu'man. He was,
the loth century (see A. von Gutschmid, Z. d. morgenl. Ges. xv.
however, compelled to flee to Ghassan, owing to some verses
i seq.; Noldeke, ib. xxix. 445 seq.). Complete bibliographical
information is given by E. Schurer in his sketch of Nabataean he had written on the queen, but returned again about 600.
history appended to Gesch. d. Jud. Volkes (1901, vol. i. cf. Eng.
; When Nu'man died some five years later he withdrew to his own
edition, 1890, i. 2, pp. 345 sqq.) to this may be added the article
; tribe. The date of his death is uncertain, but he does not seem
by H. Vincent, Rev. bibl. vii. 567 sqq., and, for more general informa- to have known Islam. His poems consist largely of eulogies and
tion, R. Dussaud, Les Arabes en Syrie (1907). For early external
evidence see H. Winckler, Keil. u. Alte Test.* p. 151 seq.; M. Streck, satires, and are concerned with the strife of Hira and Ghassan,
Mitten, d. vorderasial. Gesell. (1906). pt. iii., and Klio, 1906, p. 206 seq. and of the Bani Abs and the Bani Dhubyan. He is one of the
The Nabataean inscriptions (see SEMITIC LANGUAGES) are collected six eminent pre-Islamic poets whose poems were collected before
in the Corpus Inscr. Semiticarum of the French Academy, pt. ii. ;
the middle of the 2nd century of Islam, and have been regarded
see also the Academy's Repertoire d'epigr. sent. and the discussions,
;
&c., in the writings of Clermont-Ganneau (Rec. d'archeol. Orient.)
as the standard of Arabian poetry. Some writers consider him
and M. Lidzbarski (Handbuch d. nord-semit. Epig.; Ephemeris f. the first of the six.
sent. Epig.). For English readers the selection in G. A. Cooke, His poems have been edited by W. Ahlwardt in the Diwans of the
North-Semitic Inscriptions (Oxford, 1903) is the most useful. six ancient Arabic Poets (London, 1870), and separately by H.
(W. R. S.;S. A. C.) Derenbourg (Paris, 1869, a reprint from the Journal asiatique for
NABBES, THOMAS (b. 1605), English dramatist, was born in 1868). (G.W.T.)
humble circumstances in Worcestershire. He entered Exeter NABOB, a corruption of the Hindostani nawab, originally used
College, Oxford, in 1621, but left the university without taking a for native rulers. In the i8th century, when Clive's victories
degree, and about 1630 began a career in London as a dramatist. made Indian terms familiar in England, it began to be applied
His works include: Covent Garden (acted 1633, printed 1638), to Anglo-Indians who returned with fortunes from the East.
a prose comedy of small merit; Tottenham Court (acted 1634, NABUA, a town in the extreme S. of the province of Ambos
printed 1638), a comedy the scene of which is laid in a holiday Camarines, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Bicol river, about
resort of the London tradesmen; Hannibal and Scipio (acted 22 m. S.S.E. of Nueva Caceres, the capital. Pop. (1903) 18,893.
1635, printed 1637), a historical tragedy; The Bride (1638), a Nabua is in the district known as La Rinconada a name
comedy; The Unfortunate Mother (1640), an unacted tragedy; originally given to it on account of its inaccessibility. It is
Microcosmus, a Morall Maske (printed 1637) two other masques,
; connected by road, railway and the Bicol river (navigable for
Spring's Glory and Presentation intended for the Prince his light-draft boats) with Nueva Caceres. Nabua is the centre of
Highnesse on his Birthday (printed together in 1638); and a an agricultural region, which produces much rice and some
continuation of Richard Knolles's Generall Historic of the Turkes Indian corn, sugar and pepper. The language is Bicol.
(1638). His verse is smooth and musical, and if his language NACAIRE, NAKER, NAQUAIRE (Arab, naqara), the medieval
is sometimes coarse, his general attitude is moral. The masque name for the kettledrum, the earliest representation of which
of Microcosmus really a morality play, in which Physander
appears in the unique MS. known as the Vienna Genesis (sth or
after much error is reunited to his wife Bellanima, who personifies 6th century). The nacaire was, according to Froissart, among the
the soul is admirable in its own kind, and the other two masques, instruments used at the triumphal entry of Edward III. into
slighter in construction but ingenious, show Nabbes at his best. Calais. The Chronicles of Joinville describe the instrument as
Nabbes's plays were collected in 1639; and Microcosmus was a kind of drum: " Lor il fist sonner les labours que 1'on appelle
printed in Dodsley's Old Plays (1744). All his works, with the
nacaires." Chaucer, in his description of the tournament in the
exception of his continuation of Knolles's history, were reprinted
by A. H. Bullen in his Old English Plays (second series, 1887). Knight's Tale, line 1653, also refers to this early kettledrum.
See also F. G. Fleay, Biog. Chron. of the English Drama (1891). NACHMANIDES (NA^MANIDES), the usual name of MOSES
NABHA, a native state of India, within the Punjab. Area, BEN NAHMAN (known also as RAMBAN), Jewish scholar, was born
in Gerona in 1194 and died in Palestine c. 1270. His chief work,
966 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 297,949. Its territories are scattered;
one section, divided into twelve separate tracts, lies among the the Commentary on the Pentateuch, is distinguished by originality
territories of Patiala and Jind, in the east and south of the and charm. The author was a mystic as well as a philologist,
Punjab; the other section is in the extreme south-east. The and his works unite with peculiar harmony the qualities of reason
whole of the territories belong physically to a plain; but they and feeling. He was also a Talmudist of high repute, and wrote
vary in character from the great fertility of the Pawadh region glosses on various Tractates, Responsa and other legal works.
to the aridity of the Rajputana desert. Nabha is one of the Sikh Though not a philosopher, he was drawn into the controversy
1
Compare 2 Cor. xi. 32. The Nabataean Aretas or Aeneas there that arose over the scholastic method of Maimonides (?..).
mentioned reigned from 9 B.C. to A.D. 40. He endeavoured to steer a middle course between the worshippers
148 NACHOD NADIA
and the excommunicators of Maimonides, but he did not succeed NADASDY, TAMAS I., COUNT, called the great palatine
in healing the breach. His homiletic books, Epistle on Sanctity (1498-1562), Hungarian statesman, was the son of Francis I.
(Iggereth ha-qodesh) and Law of Man (Torath ha-Adam), which Nadasdy and was educated at Graz, Bologna and Rome. In
deal respectively with the sanctity of marriage and the solemnity 1521 he accompanied Cardinal Cajetan (whom the pope had sent
of death, are full of intense spirituality, while at the same time to Hungary to preach a crusade against the Turks) to Buda as
treating of ritual customs a combination which shows essential his interpreter. In 1525 he became a member of the council of
Rabbinism at its best. He occupies an important position in the state and was sent by King Louis II. to the diet of Spires to ask
history of the acceptance by medieval Jews of the Kabbala for help in the imminent Turkish war. During his absence the
(q.v.); for, though he made no fresh contributions Mohacs catastrophe took place, and Nadasdy only returned
to the philo-
sophy of mysticism, the fact that this famous rabbi was himself to Hungary in time to escort the queen-widow from Komarom
a mystic induced a favourable attitude in many who would other- to Pressburg. He was sent to offer the Hungarian crown to
wise have rejected mysticism as Maimonides did. In 1263 the archduke Ferdinand, and on his coronation (Nov. 3rd, 1527)
Nahmanides was forced to enter into a public disputation with was made commandant of Buda. On the capture of Buda by
a Jewish-Christian, Pablo Christiani, in the presence of King Suleiman the Magnificent, Nadasdy went over to John Zapolya.
James of Aragon. Though Nachmanides was assured that In 1530 he successfully defended Buda against the imperialists.
perfect freedom of speech was conceded to him, his defence was In 1533 his jealousy of the dominant influence of Ludovic
pronounced blasphemous and he was banished for life. In 1267 Gritti caused him to desert John for Ferdinand, to whom he
he went to Palestine and settled at Acre. He died about 1270. afterwards remained faithful. He was endowed with enormous
See S. Schechter, Studies in Judaism, first series, pp. 120 seq.; estates by the emperor,'- and from 1537 onwards became
Graetz, History of the Jews (English translation vol. iii. ch. xvi. Ferdinand's secret but most influential counsellor. Subsequently,
and xvii.). (I. A.)
as ban of Croatia-Slavonia, he valiantly defended that border
NACHOD, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 109 m. E.N.E. of province against the Turks. He did his utmost to promote
Prague by rail.Pop. (1900) 9899, mostly Czech. It is situated education, and the school which he founded at tJj-Sziget, where
on the Mettau river, at the entrance of the Lewin-Nachod pass. he also set up a printing-press, received a warm eulogy from
The old castle contains a collection of historical paintings and Philip Melanchthon. In 1 540 Nadasdy was appointed grand-
archives, and there are several old churches, of which that of justiciar; in 1547 he presided over the diet of Nagyszombat,
St Lawrence is mentioned as the parish church in 1350. The and finally, in 1 5 59, was elected palatine by the diet of Pressburg.
town originally gathered round the castle of Nachod, of which In his declining years he aided the heroic Miklos Zrinyi against
the first lord was a member of the powerful family of Hron, the Turks.
in the middle of the i3th century. It suffered much during the See Mihaly Horvath, The Life of Thomas Nddasdy (Hung.) (Buda,
Hussite Wars, and in 1437 was captured by the celebrated robber 1838) ;
T. Nadasdy, Family ' correspondence of Thomas Nddasdy
(Hung.) (Budapest, 1882). (R. N. B.)
knight Kolda of 2ampach, and retaken by George of Podebrad
in 1456 and included in his estates. It was sold in 1623, and in NADEN, CONSTANCE CAROLINE WOODHILL (1858-1889),
1634 given to Ottavio Piccolomini; finally, after many changes English author, was born at Edgbaston, on the 24th of January
of ownership, the castle and titular lordship came in 1840 to 1858, her father being an architect. Her mother died just after
the princes of Schaumburg-Lippe. The important engagements the child's birth, and Constance was brought up in the home of
fought near the town on the 27th and 28th of June 1866 opened her grandfather. In 1881 she began to study physical science
Bohemia to the victorious Prussians. at Mason College, Birmingham. In 1881 she published Songs
NACHTIGAL, GUSTAV (1834-1885), German explorer in and Sonnets of Springtime; in 1887, A Modern Apostle, and other
Central Africa, son of a Lutheran pastor, was born at Eichstedt Poems. Her poems made such an impression on W. E. Gladstone
in the Mark of Brandenburg, on the 23rd of February 1834. that he included her, in an article in the Speaker, among the fore-
After medical study at the universities of Halle, Wurzburg most English poetesses of the day. After her grandfather's
and Greifswald, he practised for a few years as a military death Miss Naden found herself rich, and she travelled in the
surgeon. Finding the climate of his native country injurious East and then (1888) settled in London. She died on the 23rd
to his health, he went to Algiers and Tunis, and took part, as a of December 1889. After 1876 she had paid increasing attention
surgeon, in several expeditions into the interior. Commissioned to philosophy, with her friend Dr Robert Lewins, and the two
by the king of Prussia to carry gifts to the sultan of Bornu in had formulated a system of their own, which they called " Hylo-
acknowledgment of kindness shown to German travellers, he Idealism." Her main ideas on the subject are contained in a
set out in 1869 from Tripoli, and succeeded after two years' posthumous volume of her essays (Induction and Deduction,
journeyings in accomplishing his mission. During this period 1890), edited by Dr Lewins.
he visited Tibesti and Borku, regions of the central Sahara NADIA, or NUDDEA, a district of British India, in the
not previously known to Europeans. From Bornu he went Presidency division of Bengal. The administrative head-
to Bagirmi, and, proceeding by way of Wadai and Kordofan, quarters are at Krishnagar. Area, 2793 sq. m.; pop. (1901)
emerged from darkest Africa, after having been given up for 1,667,491. It is a district of great rivers. Standing at the head
lost, at Khartum in the winter of 1874. His journey, graphically of the Gangetic delta, its alluvial surface, though still liable to
described in his Sahara und Sudan (3 vols., 1879-1889), placed periodical inundation, has been raised by ancient deposits of
the intrepid explorer in the front rank of discoverers. On the silt sufficiently high to be permanent dry land. Along the entire
establishment of a protectorate over Tunisia by France, Nachtigal north-eastern boundary flows the main stream of the Ganges
was sent thither as consul-general for the German empire, and or Padma, of which all the remaining rivers of the district
remained there until 1884, when he was despatched by Prince are offshoots. The Bhagirathi on the eastern border, and the
Bismarck to West Africa as special commissioner, ostensibly Jalangi and the Matabhanga meandering through the centre
to inquire into the condition of German commerce, but really of the district, are the chief of those offshoots, called distinctively
to annex territories to the German flag. As the result of his
" Nadia
the rivers." But the whole surface of the country
mission Togoland and Cameroon were added to the German is interlaced with a network of minor streams, communicating
empire. On his return voyage he died at sea off Cape Palmas with one another by side channels. All the rivers are navigable
on the 2oth of April 1885, and was buried at Grand Bassam. in the rainy season for boats of the largest burthen, but during
the rest of the year they dwindle down to shallow streams, with
Nachtigal's travels are summarized in Gustav Nachtigal's Reisen
in der Sahara und im Sudan, by Dr Albert Frankel (Leipzig, 1887). dangerous sandbanks and bars. In former times the Nadia
A French translation, by J. van Vollenhoven, of that part of his rivers afforded the regular means of communication between
work concerning Wadai, appeared in the Butt, du comite del'Afriq. the upper valley of the Ganges and the seaboard; and much
"
frangaise for 1903 under the title of Le Voyage de Nachtigal au
Ouadai." Nachtigal died before transcribing his notes on Wadai, of the trade of the district still comes down to Calcutta by this
and they were edited in the German edition by E. Groddeck. route during the height of the rainy season. But the railways,
NADIM NAEVIUS 149
with the main stream of the Ganges and the Sundarbans route, The more striking of his many and varied discoveries are embodied
in the Zeitsch.fiir iviss. Bot. In this we begin with Naegeli's extension
now carry by far the larger portion of the traffic. Rice is the of Robert Brown's discovery of the nucleus to the principal families
staple crop; but the district is not as a whole fertile, the soil of Cryptogams, and the assertion of its universal occurrence in plants,
being sandy and the methods of cultivation backward. It is together with the recognition of "its vesicular structure. There is
"
traversed by the main line and also by several branches of the further his investigation of the mucous layer (Schleimschicht)
lining the" wall of all normal cells, where he shows that it consists of
Eastern Bengal railway. The battlefield of Plassey was situated
granular mucus," which, at an earlier stage, filled the cell-cavitv,
in this district, but the floods of the Bhagirathi have washed and which differs chemically from the cell-wall in that it is nitro-
away some part of it. genous. This layer he proved to be never absent from living cells
NADIA or NABADWIP, an ancient capital of Bengal, was formerly to be, in fact, itself the living part of the cell, a discovery which was
simultaneously (1846) made by Hugo von Mohl (1805-1872), who
situated on the east bank of the Bhagirathi, which has since "
gave to the living matter of the plant-body the name protoplasm."
changed its course. Pop. (1901) 10,880. It is celebrated for In connexion with these discoveries, Naegeli controverted Schleiden's
the sanctity and learning of its pundits, and as the birthplace view of the universality of free-cell-formation as the mode of cell-
of Chaitanya, the Vaishnav reformer of the i6th century. Its multiplication, and showed that in the vegetative organs, at least,
new cells are formed by division. In the Zeitschrift, too, is Naegeli's
Sanskrit schools, called Ms, are well known and of ancient
most important algological work such as the paper on Caulerpa,
foundation. which brought to Tight the remarkable unseptate structure of the
NADIM [Abulfaraj Mahommed ibn Ishaq ibn abi Ya'qub Siphoneae, and his research on Delesseria, which resulted in the
un-Nadim] (d. 995), of Bagdad, the author of one of the most discovery of growth by a single apical cell. This discovery led
works in Arabic literature, the Fihrist ul-*Ulum Naegeli on to the study of the growing-point in other plants. He
interesting
consequently gave the first accurate account of the apical cell, and
(" list of the books of all nations that were to be found in Arabic ") of the mode of growth of the stem in various Mosses and Liverworts.
with notices of the authors and other particulars, carried down Subsequently he observed that in Lycopodium and in Angiosperms
to the year 988. A
note in the Leiden MS. places the death of the growing-point has no apical cell, but consists of a small-celled
the author eight years later. Of his life we know nothing. His meristem, in which the first differentiation of the permanent tissues
can be traced. One of the most remarkable discoveries recorded in
work gives us a complete picture of the most active intellectual the Zeitschrift is that of the antheridia and spermatozoids of Ferns
period of the Arabian empire. He traces the rise and growth of and of Pilularia. The Beitrage zur miss. Botanik consists almost
philology and belles-lettres, of theology, orthodox and heretical, entirely of researches into the anatomy of vascular plants, while
the main feature of the Pflanzenphysiologische Untersuchungen is
of law and history, of mathematics and astronomy, of medicine
the exhaustive work on the structure, development and various
and alchemy; he does not despise the histories of knights errant, forms of starch-grains. The Botanische Mitteilungen include a
"
the fables of Kalila and Dimna, the facetiae of the boon com- number of papers in all departments of botany, many of them being
But to us no continuations and extensions of his earlier work. In his Theorie der
panions." the works of magic and divination.
Abstammungslehre Naegeli introduced the idea of "a definite material
part of his work is more interesting than his account of the basis for heredity; the substance he termed His
idioplasm."
beliefs of sects and peoples beyond Islam. Here, fortunately, theory of evolution is that the idioplasm of any one generation is
still more than in other parts of his work, he goes beyond the not identical with that of either its progenitors or its progeny:
functions of the mere cataloguer; he tells what he learned of it is always increasing in complexity, with the result that each succes-
sive generation marks an advance upon its predecessor. Hence
China from a Christian missionary of Nejran, of India from a de-
variation takes place determinately, and in the higher direction only ;
scription of its religion compiled for the Barmecide Yahya; his full while variability is the result of internal causes, and natural selection
accounts of the Sabians of Harran and of the doctrines of Mani plays but a small part in evojution. Whereas, on the Darwinian
are of the first importance for the historian of Asiatic religions. theory, all organization is adaptive, according to Naegeli the develop-
ment of higher organization is the outcome of the spontaneous
Imperfect manuscripts of the Fihrist exist in Paris, Leiden and evolution of the idioplasm.
Vienna. The text was prepared for publication by G. Flugel, and
More detailed accounts of Naegeli's life and work are to be found
edited after his death by J. Rodiger and A. Miiller (2 vols., Leipzig,
in Nature, i6th October 1891, and in Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. li.
1871-1872). Fliigel had already given a full analysis of the work (S. H. V.*)
in the Journal of the German Oriental Society, vol. xiii. (1859), pp.
559-650; cf. E. G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia (London, NAESTVED, a town of Denmark, ami (county) of
in the
1902), pp. 383-587. T. Houtsma supplied a lacuna in Fliigel's Praesto, near the S.W. coast of Zealand, 59 m. by rail S.W. of
edition in the Vienna Oriental Journal, vol. iv. pp. 217 sqq.
Copenhagen. Pop. (1901) 7162. From 1140 to the Reformation
NADIR (Arabic nadir, " opposite to," used elliptically for it was one of the most important towns of the kingdom, though
"
nafir-es-semt, opposite to the zenith "), a term used in astronomy dependent upon the monastery of St Peter (founded here in
for the point in the heavens exactly opposite to the zenith, the 1135). North of the town (ij m.) lies Herlufsholm, where
zenith and nadir being the two poles of the horizon. It is thus Admiral Herluf Trolle founded a Latin school in 1567, still
used figuratively of the lowest depth of a person's spirits or the extant.
lowest point in a career. NAEVIUS, GNAEUS (c. 264-? 194 B.C.), Latin epic poet and
NAEGELI, KARL WILHELM VON (1817-1891), Swiss dramatist. There is great uncertainty in regard to his life.
botanist, was born on the 27th of March 1817 near Zurich. He From the expression of Gellius (i. 24. i) characterizing his
" "
studied botany under A. P. de Candolle at Geneva, and graduated epitaph as written in a vein of Campanian arrogance it has
with a botanical thesis at Zurich in 1840. His attention having been inferred that he was born in one of the Latin communities
" "
been directed by M. J. Schleiden, then professor of botany at settled in Campania. But the phrase Campanian arrogance
Jena, to the microscopical study of plants, he engaged more seems to have been used proverbially for "gasconade"; and,
particularly in that branch of research. Soon after graduation as there was a plebeian gens Naevia in Rome, it is quite as
he became Privat dozent and subsequently professor extra- probable that he was by birth a Roman citizen. He served either
ordinary, in the university of Zurich; in 1852 he was called in the Roman army or among the socii in the first Punic War,
to fill the chair of botany in the university of Freiburg-in- and thus must have reached manhood before 241. His career
Breisgau; and in 1857 he was promoted to Munich, where he as a dramatic author began with the exhibition of a drama in
remained as professor until his death on the nth of May 1891. or about the year 235, and continued for thirty years. Towards
Among his more important contributions to science were a series the close he incurred the hostility of some of the nobility, espe-
of papers in the Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftlicke Botanik (1844- cially, it is said, of the Metelli, by the attacks which he made
1846); Die neuern Algensysteme (1847); Gattungen einzelliger upon them on the stage, and at their instance he was imprisoned
A Igen (1849); Pflanzenphysiologische Untersuchungen (1855- (Plautus, Mil. Glor. 211). After writing two plays during his
1858), with C. E. Cramer; Beitrage zur wissenschaftlichen imprisonment, in which he is said to have apologized for his
Botanik (1858-1868); a number of papers contributed to the former rudeness (Gellius iii. 3. 15), he was liberated through the
Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences, forming three volumes of interference of the tribunes of the commons; but he had shortly
Botanische Mitteilungen (1861-1881); and, finally, his volume, afterwards to retire from Rome (in or about 204) to Utica.
Mechanisch-physiologische Theorie der Abstammungslehre, pub- It may have been during his exile, when withdrawn from his
lished in 1884. active career as a dramatist, that he composed or completed his
NAEVUS NAGA HILLS
poem on the first Punic war. Probably his latest composition vigorous representative of the bold combative spirit of the ancient
was the epitaph already referred to, written like the epic in Roman commons. He was one of those who made the Latin
Saturnian verse: language into a great organ of literature. The phrases still
"
Immortales mortales si foret fas flere, quoted from him have nothing of an antiquated sound, while they
Flerent divae Camenae Naevium poetam ; have a genuinely idiomatic ring. As a dramatist he worked more
Itaque postquam est Orci traditus thesauro in the spirit of Plautus than of Ennius, Pacuvius, Accius or
Obhti sunt Romai loquier lingua Latina." l
Terence; but the great Umbrian humorist is separated from his
If these lines were dictated by a jealousy of the growing ascend- older contemporary, not only by his breadth of comic power, but
ancy of Ennius, the life of Naevius must have been prolonged by his general attitude of moral and political indifference. The
considerably beyond 204, the year in which Ennius began his power of Naevius was the more genuine Italian gift the power of
career as an author in Rome. As distinguished from Livius satiric criticism which was employed in making men ridiculous,
Andronicus, Naevius was a native Italian, not a Greek; he was not, like that of Plautus, in extracting amusement from the
also an original writer, not a mere adapter or translator. If it humours, follies and eccentricities of life. Although our means of
was due to Livius that the forms of Latin literature were, from forming a fair estimate of Naevius are scanty, all that we do
the first, moulded on those of Greek literature, it was due to know of him leads to the conclusion that he was far from being
Naevius that much of its spirit and substance was of native the least among the makers of Roman literature, and that
growth. with the loss of his writings there was lost a vein of national
Like Livius, Naevius professed to adapt Greek tragedies and feeling and genius which rarely reappears.
comedies to the Roman stage. Among the titles of his tragedies are Fragments (dramas) in L. Miiller, Livi Andronici et Cn. Naevi
Fabularum Reliquiae (1885), and (Bellum Punicum) in his edition
Aegisthus, Lycurgus, Andromache or Hector Proficiscens, Equus of Ennius (1884); monographs by E. Klussmann (1843); M. J.
Trojanus, the last named being performed at the opening of Pompey's Berchem (1861); D. de Moor (1877); Mommsen, History of Rome,
theatre (55). The national cast of his genius and temper was shown
bk, iii., ch. 14. On Virgil's indebtedness to Naevius and Ennius,
by his deviating from his Greek originals, and producing at least see V. Crivellari, Quae praecipue hausit Vergilius ex Naevio et Ennio
two specimens of the fabula praetexta (national drama) one founded
on the childhood of Romulus and Remus (Lupus or Alimonium (1889).
Rpmuli et Remi), the other called Clastidium, which celebrated the NAEVUS, a term in surgery signifying that form of tumour
victory of M. Claudius Marcellus over the Celts (222). But it was. which is almost entirely composed of enlarged blood-vessels.
as a writer of comedy that he was most famous, most productive
There are three principal varieties: (i) the capillary naevus,
and most original. _While he is never ranked as a writer of tragedy
with Ennius, Pacuvius or Accius, he is placed in the canon of the consisting of enlarged capillaries, frequently of a purplish colour,
"
grammarian Vplcacius Sedigitus third (immediately after Caecilius hence the term port-wine stain "; (2) the venous naevus, in
and Plautus) in the rank of Roman comic authors. He is there which the veins are enlarged, of a bluish colour; (3) the arterial
characterized as ardent and impetuous in character and style. He
is also appealed to, with Plautus and Ennius, as a master of his
naevus, in which there is distinct pulsation, it being composed
art in one of the prologues of Terence. His comedy, like that of of enlarged and tortuous arteries. The naevus can be lessened
Plautus, seems to have been rather a free adaptation of his originals in size by pressure. It generally occurs in the skin or immediately
than a rude copy of them, as those of Livius probably were, or an under it; sometimes it lies in the mouth in connexion with the
copy like those of Terence. The titles of most of them, like
artistic
those of Plautus, and unlike those of Caecilius and Terence, are
mucous membrane. It is often congenital, hence the term
"
Latin, not Greek. He drew from the writers of the old political mother's mark," or it may appear in early childhood. It often
comedy of Athens, as well as from the new comedy of manners, and he grows rapidly, sometimes slowly, and sometimes growth is
attempted to make the stage at Rome, as it had been at Athens, an checked, and it may gradually diminish in size, losing its vascu-
arena of political and personal warfare. A strong spirit of partisanship
is recognized in more than one of the fragments; and this spirit larity and becoming fibrous and non-vascular. This natural cure
is thoroughly popular and adverse to the senatorial ascendancy is followed by less deformity than a cure by artificial means.
which became more and more confirmed with the progress of the Various methods are used by surgeons when an operation is
second Punic war. Besides his attack on the Metelli and other called for: (i) the tumour may be excised; (2) a ligature tightly
members of the aristocracy, the great Scipio is the object of a tied may be applied to the base of the tumour; (3) inflammation
censorious criticism on account of a youthful escapade attributed to
him. Among the few lines still remaining from his lost comedies, we may be set up in the growth by the injection of irritating agents,
seem to recognize the idiomatic force and rapidity of movement in this way its vascularity may be checked and the formation
characteristic of the style of Plautus. There is also found that of fibrous tissue encouraged; (4) the blood in the enlarged vessels
love of alliteration which is a marked feature in all the older
Latin poets down even to Lucretius. In one considerable comic may be coagulated by the injection of coagulating agents or by
fragment attributed to him the description of a coquette there electrolysis.
is great truth and shrewdness of observation. But we find no NAGA HILLS, a district of British India in the Hills division
trace of the exuberant comic power and geniality of his great con- of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It forms part of the mountainous
temporary. borderland lying between the Brahmaputra valley and Upper
He was not only the oldest native dramatist, but the first author
of an epic poem (Bellum Punicum) which, by combining the
Burma. Area, 3070 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 102,402. Towards the
representation of actual contemporary history with a mythical N. lie the Patkoi hills, over which British jurisdiction has never
background, may be said to have created the Roman type of epic been extended; but since 1904 the southern tract, formerly
poetry. The poem was one continuous work, but was divided into known as the " area of political control," has been incorporated
seven books by a grammarian of a later age. The earlier part of it
treated of the mythical adventures of Aeneas in Sicily, Carthage in the district, thus extending its E. boundary from the Dikho
and Italy, and borrowed from the interview of Zeus and Thetis in the to the Tizic river. The whole country forms a wild expanse of
first book of the Iliad the idea of the interview of Jupiter and Venus;
forest, mountain and stream. The valleys are covered with
which Virgil has made one of the cardinal passages in the Aeneid.
dense jungle, dotted with small lakes and marshes. Coal is
The later part treated of the events of the first Punic war in the style
of a metrical chronicle. An important influence in Roman literature known many localities, as well as iron ore and petro-
to exist in
and belief, which had its origin in Sicily, first appeared in this leum. The administrative headquarters of the district are at
poem the recognition of the mythical connexion of Aeneas and Kohima (pop. 3093), which is garrisoned by two companies of
his Trojans with the foundation of Rome. The few remaining native infantry and a battalion of military police. The Dimapur-
fragments produce the impression of vivid and rapid narrative, to
which the flow of the native Saturnian verse, in contradistinction Manipur cart-road crosses the hills, connecting Kohima with
to the weighty and complex structure of the hexameter, was naturally the Assam-Bengal railway.
"
adapted. Naga means naked," and is the term applied by the Assamese
The impression we get of the man is that, whether or not he to the wild tribes of the hills, of which the chief clans are called
actually enjoyed the full rights of Roman citizenship, he was a Angami, Ao, Shota, Sema and Rengma. These tribes have
1 " shown extraordinary obstinacy in their resistance to the British
were permitted that immortals should weep for mortals,
If it
ms. Between 1832 and 1849 ten armed expeditions were
the divineCamenae would weep for Naevius the poet; for since he
hath passed into the treasure-house of death men have forgotten despatched to chastise them, and from 1866 to 1887 there were
at Rome how to speak in the Latin tongue." eight more, a record which exceeds that of the most turbulent
NAGAR NAGOYA
tribeson the North-West Frontier. Since 1892, however, little the fief of Nagasaki Kotaro in the I2th century, and from him
trouble has been experienced. it took its name. But it remained an insignificant village until
See Naga Hills District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1905). the 1 6th century, when, becoming the headquarters of Japanese
NAGAR, formerly BEDNUR, a village and ruined city of Mysore, Christianity, and subsequently the sole emporium of foreign
India; pop. (1901) 715. About 1640 the seat of government of trade in the hands of the Dutch and the Chinese, it developed
the rajas of Keladi was transferred to this place. When taken considerable prosperity. The opening of the port of Moji for
by Hyder Ali in 1763, it is said to have yielded a plunder of export trade deprived Nagasaki of its monopoly as a coaling
twelve millions. In 1783 it surrendered to a British detachment station, and the visits of war vessels were reduced when Russia
under General Matthews, but being shortly after invested by acquired Port Arthur, Great Britain Wei-hai-wei and Germany
Tippoo Sultan, the garrison capitulated on condition of safe Kiaochow. On the north side of the channel by which the
conduct to the coast. Tippoo violated the stipulation, put harbour is entered there stands a cliff called Takaboko, which,
General Matthews and the principal officers to death, and under the name of Pappenberg, has long been rendered notorious
imprisoned the remainder of the force. by a tradition that thousands of Christians were precipitated
NAGARJUNA, a celebrated Buddhist philosopher and writer. from it in the I7th century because they refused to trample on
He is constantly quoted in the literature of the later schools the Cross. It has been conclusively proved that the legend
of Buddhism, and a very large number of works in Sanskrit is is untrue.
attributed to him. None of these has been critically edited or NAGAUft or NAGORE, a town in India, in Jodhpur state of
translated; and there is much uncertainty as to the exact date Rajputana, with a station on the Jodhpur-Bikanir railway.
of his career, and as to his opinions. The most probable date Pop. (1901) 13,377. Nagaur is surrounded by a wall more than
seems to be the early part of the 3rd century A.D. He seems to 4 m. in circuit. It has given its name to a famous breed of cattle.
have been born in the south of India, and to have lived under the NAGELSBACH,' CARL FRIEDRICH (1806-1859), German
patronage of a king of southern Kosala, the modem Chattisgarh. was born at Wohrd near Nuremburg on the 28th
classical scholar,
Chinese and Tibetan authorities differ as to the name of this of March 1806. After studying at Erlangen and Berlin, he
monarch; but it apparently is meant to represent an Indian accepted in 1827 an appointment at the Nuremberg gymnasium,
name Satavahana, which is a dynastic title, not a personal name. and was professor of classics at Erlangen from 1842 till his death
Of the works he probably wrote one was a treatise advocating on the 2ist of April 1859. Nagelsbach is chiefly known for his
the Madhyamaka views of which he is the reputed founder; excellent Lateinische Stilistik (1846; gth ed. by Ivan Miiller,
another a long and poetical prose work on the stages of the 1905). Two other important works by him are Die Homerische
Bodhisattva career; and a third a voluminous commentary on Theologie (1840; 3rd ed. by G. Autenrieth, 1886) and Die
the Mahaprajna-paramita Sutra. Chinese tradition ascribes Nachhonterische Theologie (1857).
to him special knowledge of herbs, of astrology, of alchemy See J. L. Doederlein, Gedachtnissrede fur Herrn K. F. Nagelsbach
and of medicine. Two medical treatises, one on prescriptions in (1859); article by G. Autenrieth in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic,
xxiii.
general, the other on the treatment of eye-disease, are said, by (1886).
Chinese writers, to be by him. Several poems of a didactic NAGINA, a town of British India, in Bijnor district of the
character are also ascribed to him. The best known of these United Provinces, on the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway, 48 m.
poems is The Friendly Epistle addressed to King Udayana. N.W. of Moradabad. Pop. (1901) 21,412. There is considerable
A translation into English of a Tibetan version of this piece has trade in sugar, besides manufactures of guns, glassware (especially
been published by Dr Wenzel. bottles for the use of pilgrims carrying the sacred water of the
AUTHORITIES. H. Wenzel, Journal of the Pali Text Society
Ganges from Hardwar), ebony wares, hemp-sacking and cotton
(1866), pp. 1-32; T. Walters, On Yuan Chwdne, ed. by Rhys Davids
and S. W. Bushell (London, 1904-1905). Taranatha's Geschichte cloth.
des Buddhismus in Indien, trans. Anton Schiefner (Leipzig, 1869); NAGODE, a native state of Central India, in the Baghelkhand
W. Wassiljew, Der Buddhismus (Leipzig, 1860). (T. W. R. D.) agency. Area, 501 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 67,092, showing a de-
NAGASAKI, a town on the south-west of the island of Kiushiu, crease of 20% in the decade, due to famine; estimated revenue,
Japan, in 32 44' N., 129 51' E., with 163,324 (1905) inhabitants, 11,000. The chief, whose title is raja, is a Rajput of the Parihar
and a foreign settlement containing a population of 400 (ex- clan. The town of NAGODE is 17 m. W. of the British station of
cluding Chinese). The first port of entry for ships coming from Sutna. Pop. (1901) 3887. It was formerly a military canton-
the south or the west to Japan, it lies at the head of a beautiful ment, and has an Anglo-vernacular school and dispensary.
inlet some 3 m. long, which forms a splendid anchorage, and is The former capital (until 1720) was Unchahra.
largely used by ships coming to coal and by warships. Marine NAGOYA, the capital of the province of Owari, Japan, on
products, coal and cotton goods are the chief exports, and raw the great trunk railway of Japan, 235 m. from Tokyo and 94 m.
cotton, iron, as well as other metals and materials used for ship- from Kioto. Pop. (1903) 284,829. It is the fifth of the chief
building, constitute the principal imports. The value of imports cities in Japan. It lies near the head of the shallow Isenumi
approaches 2,000,000 annually. That of exports has fluctuated Bay, about 30 m. from the port of Yokkaichi, with which it
considerably. In 1889 it was 1,005,367, but in 1894 it was only communicates by light-draught steamers and by rail. The
444,839, and does not generally exceed 450,000. The most castle of Nagoya, erected in 1610, never suffered in war, but in
important industries of the town are represented by the engine modern times became a military dep6t; the interior contains
works of Aka-no-ura, three large docks and a patent slip, the much splendid decoration. The central keep of the citadel is
property of the Mitsu Bishi Company. Steamers of over 6000 a remarkable structure, covering close upon half an acre, but
tons have been constructed at these docks, which, as well as the rapidly diminishing in each of its five storeys till the top room
engine works, are situated on the western shore of the inlet. isonly about 12 yds. square. Gabled roofs and hanging rafters
The brisk atmosphere of business that pervades them does not break the almost pyramidal outline; and a pair of gold-plated
reach the town on the eastern side, which lies under the shadow of dolphins 8 ft. high form a striking finial. Both were removed
forests of tombstones that cover the over-looking hills. Nagasaki in 1872, and one of them was at the Vienna Exhibition in 1873;
is noted as a coaling station. The coal is obtained chiefly from but they have been restored to their proper site. The religious
Takashima, an islet 8 m. S.E. of the entrance to the harbour, buildings of Nagoya include a very fine Buddhist temple, Higashi
and in lesser quantities from two other islets, Naka-no-shima Hongwanji. Nagoya is well known as one of the great seats of the
and Ha-shima, which lie about i m. farther out. These sources pottery trade; 13^ m. distant are the potteries of Seto, where
of supply, however, show signs of exhaustion. There are several the first glazed pottery made in Japan was produced by Kato
favourite health resorts in the neighbourhood of Nagasaki, Shirozaemon, after a visit to China in 1229. From Kato's time
notably Unzen, with its sulphur springs. Seto continued, during several centuries, to be the chief centre
Nagasaki owed its earliest importance to foreign intercourse. of ceramic production in Japan, the manufacture of porcelain
Originally called Fukae-no-ura (Fukae Bay), it was included in being added to that of pottery in the i9th century. All the
152 NAGPUR NAGY-VARAD
products of the flourishing industry now carried on there and at in cereals and cattle. Nagykanizsa once ranked as the second
other places in the province are transported to Nagoya, for sale fortress of Hungary, and consequently played an important part
there or for export. Cotton mills have been established, and an during the wars with the Turks, who, having gained possession
extensive business is carried on in the embroidery of handker- of it in 1600, held it until, in 1690, after a siege of two years,
chiefs. Another of its celebrated manufactures is arimatsu- it was recovered by the Austrian and Hungarian forces. In
shibori, or textile fabrics (silk or cotton), dyed so as to show spots 1702 the fortifications were destroyed.
in relief from which the colour radiates. It is further distin- NAG YKIKINDA, a town of Hungary, in the county of Torontal,
guished as the birthplace of cloisonne enamelling in Japan, all 152 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 24,843, of which
work of that nature before 1838 when a new departure was made about 60% are Servians. Being one of the centres of production
by Kaji Tsunekichi having been for purposes of subordinate of the famous wheat of the Banat, its flour industry is important.
decoration. Quantities of doisonnS enamels are now produced Fruit-farming and cattle-rearing are extensively carried on in the
in the town. neighbourhood.
NAGPUR, a city, district and division of British India, in the NAGYSZEBEN (Ger. Hermannstadt, Rumanian Sibiu), a town
Central Provinces. The city is 1125 ft. above the sea; railway of Hungary, in Transylvania, the capital of the county of
station, 520 m. E. of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 127,734. The town Szeben, 122 m. S.S.E. of Kolozsvar by rail. Pop. (1900) 26,077,
is well laid out, with several parks and artificial lakes, and has of whom 16,141 were Saxons (Germans), 7106 Rumanians,
numerous Hindu temples. The prettily wooded suburb of Sita- and 5747 Magyars. It is beautifully situated at an altitude
baldi contains the chiefgovernment buildings, the houses of of 1411 ft. in the fertile valley of the Cibin (Hungarian, Szeben),
Europeans, the railway station and the cantonments, with fort encircled on all sides by the Transylvanian Alps. It is the seat
and arsenal. In the centre stands Sitabaldi Hill, crowned with of a Greek Orthodox (Rumanian) archbishop, and of the super-
the fort. Beyond the station lies the broad sheet of water intendent of the Protestants for the Transylvanian circle. Some
known as the Jama Talao,and farther east is the city, completely parts of Nagyszeben have a medieval appearance, with houses
hidden in a mass of foliage. Handsome tanks and gardens, built in the old German style. The most noteworthy of its public
constructed by the Mahratta princes, lie outside the city. The buildings is the handsome Protestant Church, begun in the I4th
palace, built of black basalt and profusely ornamented with century and finished in 1520, in the Gothic style, containing a
wood carving, was burnt down in 1864, and only the great gate- beautiful cup-shaped font, cast by Meister Leonhardus in 1438,
way remains. The garrison consists of detachments of European and a large mural painting of the Crucifixion by Johannes von
and native infantry from Kampti. Nagpur is the headquarters Rosenau (1445). In the so-called New Church, comprising the
of two corps of rifle volunteers. It is the junction of two im- west part of the whole building, which is an addition of the
portant railway systems the Great Indian Peninsula tojiombay 1 6th century, are many beautiful memorials of Saxon notables.
and the Bengal-Nagpur to Calcutta. The large weaving popu- Other buildings are: the Roman Catholic parish church, founded
lation maintain their reputation for producing fine fabrics. in 1726; the church of the Ursuline nuns, built in 1474; the
There are steam cotton mills and machinery for ginning and town hall, an imposing building of the 1 5th century, purchased
pressing cotton. The gaol contains an important printing by the municipality in 1545 and containing the archives of the
"
establishment. Education is provided by two aided colleges Saxon nation." The Brukenthal palace, built in 1777-1787
the Hislop and the Morris, called after a missionary and a former by Baron Samuel von Brukenthal (1721-1803), governor of
chief commissioner; four high schools; a law school; an Transylvania, contains an interesting picture-gallery with good
agricultural school, with a class for the scientific training of examples of the Dutch school, and a library. The museum
teachers; a normal school; a zenana mission for the manage- contains a natural history section with the complete fauna
ment of girls' schools; an Anglican and two Catholic schools for and flora of Transylvania, and a rich ethnographical section.
Europeans. There are several libraries and reading rooms, Nagyszeben has a law academy, a seminary for Greek Orthodox
and an active Anjuman or Mahommedan society. priests, a military academy and several secondary schools.
The DISTRICT or NAGPUR has an area of 384 sq. m. Pop. There are manufactures of cloth, linen, leather, caps, boots,
(1901) 751,844. It lies immediately below the great tableland soap, candles, ropes, as well as breweries and distilleries.
of the Satpura range. A
second line of hills shuts in the district The German name of the town is traceable to Hermann, a
on the south-west, and a third runs from north to south, parting citizen of Nuremberg, who about the middle of the 1 2th century
the country into two plains of unequal size. These hills are all established a colony on the spot. In the I3th century it bore
offshoots of the Satpuras, and nowhere attain any great ele- the name of Villa Hermanni. Under the last monarchs of the
vation. Their heights are rocky and sterile, but the valleys and native Magyar dynasty Hermannstadt enjoyed exceptional
lowlands yield rich crops of corn and garden produce. The privileges, and its commerce with the East rose to importance.
western plain slopes down to the river Wardha, is watered by the In the course of the isth and i6th centuries it was several
Jam and Madar, tributaries of the Wardha, and contains the times besieged by the Turks. At the beginning of 1849 it was
most highly-tilled land in the district, abounding in fruit trees the scene of several engagements between the Austrians and
and the richest garden cultivation. The eastern plain (six times Hungarians; and later in the year it was several times taken
the larger), stretching away to the confines of Bhandara and and retaken by the Russians and Hungarians.
Chanda, consists of a rich undulating country, luxuriant with NAGYSZOMBAT (Ger. Tyrnau), a town of Hungary, in the
mango groves and dotted towards the east with countless small county of Pozsony, 115 m. N.W. of Budapest by rail. Pop.
tanks. It is watered by the Kanhan, with its tributaries, which (1900) 12,422. It is situated on the Trnava, and has played an
flows into the Wainganga beyond the district. The principal important r61e in the ecclesiastical history of Hungary. It
crops are millets, wheat, oil-seeds and cotton. There are steam gained prominence after 1543, when the archbishop of Esztergom
factories for ginning and pressing cotton at the military canton- and primate of Hungary made it his residence after the capture
ment of Kampti, which was formerly the chief centre of trades. of Esztergom by the Turks. In consequence numerous churches
An important new industry is manganese mining. The district and convents were built, and the town acquired the title of " Little
is traversed by the two lines of railway which meet at Nagpur Rome." It possesses a Roman Catholic seminary for priests,
city, and several branches are under construction. and was the seat of a university founded in 1635, which was
The DIVISION OF NAGPUR comprises the five districts of Nagpur, transferred to Budapest in 1777. In 1820 the archbishop's
Bhandara, Chanda, Wardha and Balaghat. Area, 23,521 sq. m. residence was again removed to Esztergom. It has an active
Pop. (1901) 3,728,063, showing a decrease of 9% in the decade. trade in cereals and cattle.
See Nagpur District Gazetteer (Bombay, 1908). NAGY-VARAD (Ger. Grosswardein) , a town of Hungary,
NA6YKANIZSA, a town of Hungary, in the county of Zala, capital of the county of Bihar, 153 m. E.S.E. of Budapest by
137 m. S.W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1000) 23,255. It rail. Pop. (1900) 47,018. It is situated in a plain on both banks
possesses distilleries and brick-making factories, and has trade of the river Sebeskoros, and is the seat of a Roman Catholic
NAHE NAIL 153
and of a Greek (Old-United) bishopric.
Among principalits the city is mentioned by name in ii. 8 (9 Heb. text) its capture
and sack; (b) contains an oracle of Yahweh directed against the
buildings are the St Ladislaus parish church, built in 1723,
king of Assyria (" Behold, I am against th'ee, saith the Lord of
which contains the remains of the king St Ladislaus (d. 1095), Hosts," v. 13) (c) again gives a vivid picture of war and desolation
;
the Roman Catholic cathedral, built in 1752-1779, the Greek which are to overtake and humiliate Nineveh, as they have already
cathedral, the large palace of the Roman Catholic bishop, built overtaken No-Amon (i.e. Egyptian Thebes, w. 8-10); the defence
is pictured as futile and the ruin complete. The absence of dis-
in 1778 in the rococo style, the archaeological and historical
tinctly religious motive from these chapters is remarkable; the
museum, with an interesting collection of ecclesiastical art, and divine name occurs only in the repeated refrain, " Behold, I am
the county and town hall. Among the educational establishments against thee, saith the Lord of Hosts," ii. 13, iii. 5. They express
are a Jaw academy, a seminary for priests, a modern school, little more than merely human indignation at the oppression of
a Roman Catholic and a Calvinistic gymnasium, a commercial the world-power, and picture with undisguised satisfaction the
storm of war which overwhelms the imperial city.
academy, a training school for teachers and a secondary school (2) Chapter i. forms the exordium to the prophecy of doom
for girls. Nagy-Varad is an important railway junction; it against Nineveh in the book as it lies before us. Its tone is exalted,
possesses extensive manufactures of pottery and large distilleries, and a fine picture is given of Yahweh appearing in judgment:
and carries on a brisk trade in agricultural produce, cattle, horses, "The Lord (Yahweh) is a jealous God and avengeth; the Lord
fruit and wine. About 6 m. S. of the town is the village of Hajo, avengeth and is full of wrath." The effects of the divine anger on
the physical universe are forcibly described (w. 3-6); on the
which contains the Piispok Fiirdo or Bishop's Baths, with warm other hand, God cares for those
"
that put their trust in Him
"
saline and sulphurous waters (92 to 103 F.), used both for (. 7), but overwhelms His enemies (m. 8-120); in the following
drinking and bathing in cases of anaemia and scrofula. verses (126-15) the joyful news is conveyed to Judah of*the fall of
"
the oppressor: Behold upon the mountains the feet of him that
Nagy-Varad is one of the oldest towns in Hungary. Its
bringeth good tidings, that publisheth peace! Keep thy feasts, O
bishopric was founded by St Ladislaus in 1080. The town Judah, perform thy vows; for the wicked one shall no more pass
was destroyed by the Tatars in 1241. Peace was concluded through thee; he is utterly cut off" (v. 15).
here on the 24th of February 1538 between Ferdinand I. of Regarding chap. i. and ii. 2( = i. and ii. I, 3, Heb. text) there has
Austria and his rival John Zapolya, voivode of Transylvania. been much discussion in recent years. It was long ago noticed that
traces of an alphabetic acrostic survive in this section of the book;
In 1556 it passed into the possession of Transylvania, but
throughout the whole of chap. i. there is no reference to Nineveh,
afterwards reverted to Austria. In 1598 the fortress was un- though in some of the verses (8-l2a, 14) the enemies of Yahweh are
successfully besieged by the Turks, but it fell into their hands addressed, who have usually been identified with the people or city
in 1660 and was recovered by the Austrians in 1692. The of Nineveh; in m. 126, 13 and (certainly) v. 15 ( = ii. I Heb.)
Greek Old-United or Catholic bishopric was founded in 1776. Judah appears to be addressed. The text of i. 1-15, ii. 1-2 has been
reconstructed by H. Gunkel and G. Bickell so as to form a complete
NAHE, a river of Germany, a left-bank tributary of.the Rhine, alphabetic psalm with contents of an eschatological character, and
rises near Selbach in the Oldenburg principality of Birkenfeld. is regarded by them as a later addition to the book. It may be a
" "
For some distance it forms the boundary between the Bavarian generalizing supplement prefixed by the editor, possibly because
Palatinate and the Prussian Rhine Province, and it falls into the the original introduction to the oracle had been mutilated. It is
generally held by critical scholars that i. 1-8, 13, 15, and ii. 2 cer-
Rhine at Bingen. Its length is 78 m., but it is too shallow and
tainly do not proceed from Nahum; i. 9-12 may, however, belong
rocky to be navigable. Its picturesque valley, through which to the prophet. The phenomena are conflicting and a completely
runs the railway from Bingerbriick to Neunkirchen, is largely satisfactory solution seems to be impossible.
visited by tourists. Date of Nahum's Oracle. The date of the composition of
See Schneegans, Ceschichte des Nahelals (Kreuznach, 1890). Nahum's prophecy must lie between 607-606, when Nineveh was
NAHUATLAN STOCK, a North and Central American Indian captured and destroyed by the Babylonians and Medes, and the
stock. Nahuas or Nahuatlecas was the collective name for the capture of Thebes (No-Amon) which is alluded to in iii. 8 10.
dominant Indian peoples of Mexico at the time of the Spanish This was effected for the second time and most completely by
conquest, and the Nahuatlan stock consisted of the Nahuas (or Assur-bani-pal in 663 or 662 B.C. The tone of the prophecy
Aztecs) and a few scattered tribes in Central America. suggests, on the one hand, that the fall of Nineveh is imminent,
NAHUM (Hebrew for " rich in comfort [is God] "), an Old while, on the other, the reference to Thebes suggests that the
Testament prophet. The name occurs only in the book of Nahum ;
disaster that had befallen it was still freshly remembered. On
in Nehemiah vii. 7 it is a scribal error for
" the whole a date somewhat near 606 is more probable. It is
Rehum." Of the
prophet himself all that is known is the statement of the title noteworthy that no reference is made to the restoration of the
that he was an Elkoshite. But the locality denoted by the northern kingdom of Israel, or the return of its exiles. The poetry
designation is quite uncertain. Later tradition associated of the book is of a high order.
Nahum with the region of Nineveh, against which he prophesied, BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Commentaries on the Minor Prophets,
and hence his tomb has been located at a place bearing the name especially those of 1. Wellhausen, D. W. Nowack and K. Marti
of Alkush near Mosul (anc. Nineveh) and is still shown. 1 Accord- (all German) G. A. Smith, The Book of the Twelve Prophets (2
; vols.) ;
A. B. Davidson, Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah (Camb. Bible,
ing to Jerome, the prophet was a native of a village in Galilee, (G. H. Bo.)
1896).
which bore the name of Elkesi in the 4th century A.D. (the Galilean
town of Capernaum, which probably means " village of Nahum," NAIK, orNAYAK, from a Sanskrit word meaning a leader, a
title used in India in various senses. In the army it denotes a
may also point in the same direction; but cf. John vii. 29,
which seems to imply that in the time of Christ no prophet rank corresponding to that of corporal; and Hyder Ali of Mysore
"
was supposed to have come out of Galilee). E. Nestle has was proud of being called Haidar Naik, analogous to le petit
" " " It was also the title of the petty
caporal for Napoleon.
proposed to locate Elkesi beyond Betogabra (i.e. Eleuthero-
polis,mod. Beit Jibrin) in the tribe of Simeon (cf. Pal. Expl. dynasties that arose in S. India on the downfall of the Hindu
Fund Quart. Statement, 1879, pp. 136-138). empire of Vijayanagar in the i6th century.
BOOK OF NAHUM. The original heading of Nahum's prophecy NAIL (O. Eng. naegal, cf. Dutch, Ger.,S wed. nagel; the word is
is contained in the second part of the superscription:
" also related to Lat. unguis, Gr. owl;, Sans, nakhds) a word applied
[The
" both to the horny covering to the upper surface of the extremities
book of] the vision of Nahum the Elkoshite (cf. the similar
of the fingers and toes of man and the Quadrumana (see SKIN
headings in Isaiah, Obadiah and Habakkuk). The first part
(" Oracle concerning Nineveh ") is a late editorial insertion, but
and DERMAL SKELETON), and also to a headed pin or spike of
correctly describes the main contents of the little book. metal, commonly of iron. The principal use of nails is in wood-
work (joinery and carpentery), but they are also employed in
Contents of the Book, (i) Chapters i. and ii. The prophecy
against Nineveh in its present form really begins with chap. ii. i,
numerous other trades. Size, form of head, nature of point, and
followed immediately by tf. 3, and readily falls into three parts, special uses all give names to different classes of nails.
Thus we
viz. (a) ii. i, 3-10; (b) ii.
U-J3; and (c) iii. Here (a) describes in have tacks, sprigs and brads for very small nails; rose, clasp
language of considerable descriptive power the assault on Nineveh and clout, according to the form of head; and flat points or
1
Jonah's grave has been located similarly in Nineveh itself. sharp points according to the taper of the spike. According to
NAIL VIOLIN NAIRNE
the method of manufacture nails fall into four principal classes: NAINI TAL, a town and district of British India, in the
(i) hand-wrought nails; (2) machine-wrought and cut nails; Kumaon division of the United Provinces. The town
6400 ft. is
(3) wire or French and (4) cast nails.
nails; above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 7609. Naini Tal is a popular
The nailer handicraftwas formerly a great industry in the sanatorium for the residents in the plains, and the summer head-
country around Birmingham. The nails 'are forged from nail- quarters of the government of the province. It is situated on a
rods heated in a small smith's hearth, hammered on an anvil, the lake, surrounded by high mountains, and is subject to landslides;
nail length cut off on a chisel and the head formed by dropping a serious catastrophe of this kind occurred in September 1880.
" "
the spike into a hole in a bolster of steel, from which enough The approach from the plains is by the Rohilkhand and Kumaon
of the spike is left projecting to form the head. In the case of railway from Bareilly, which has its terminus at Kathgodam,
clasp nails the head is formed with two strokes of the hammer, 22 m. distant by cart road. There are several European schools,
while rose nails require four. The heads of the larger-sized nails besides barracks and convalescent dep6t for European soldiers.
" "
are made with an Oliver or mechanical hammer, and for The DISTRICT OF NAINI TAL comprises the lower hills of
" "
ornamental or stamped heads swages or dies are employed. Kumaon and the adjoining Tarai or submontane strip. Area,
The conditions of h'fe and labour among the hand nailers in 2677 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 311,237, showing a decrease of 15-4%
England were exceedingly unsatisfactory: married women and in the decade. The district includes the Gagar and other
young children of both sexes working long hours in small filthy foothills of the Himalayas, which reach an extreme height of
sheds attached to their dwellings; their employment was con- nearly 9000 ft. The Bhabar tract at their base consists of boulders
trolled by middle-men or nail-masters, who supplied them with from the mountains, among which the hill streams are swallowed
the nail-rods and paid for work done, sometimes in money and up. Forests cover vast tracts of the hill-country and the Bhabar.
sometimes in kind on the truck system. Machine- wrought and cut Beyond this is the Tarai, moist and extremely unhealthy. Here
nails have supplanted most corresponding kinds of hand-made the principal crops are rice and wheat. In the hills a small
nails. Horse nails are still made by hand-labour. These are amount of tea is grown, and a considerable quantity of fruit.
made from the finest Swedish charcoal iron, hammered out to a The only railway is the line to Kathgodam.
See Naini Tal District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1904).
sharp point. They must be tough and homogeneous throughout,
so that there may be no danger of their breaking over and leaving NAIRN, a royal, municipal and police burgh and county town
portions in the hoof. of Nairnshire, Scotland. Pop. of the royal burgh (1901) 5089.
In 1617 Sir D. Bulmer devised a machine for cutting nail-rods, It is situated on the Moray Firth, at the mouth of the Nairn and
and in 1 790 T. Clifford patented a device for shaping the rods, but on its left bank, 151 m. N.E. of Inverness by the Highland
the credit of perfecting machinery mainly belongs to American railway. The town, though of immemorial age, shows no signs
enterprise (the first American patent appears to be that of of its antiquity, being bright, neat and modern. It attracts
Ezekiel Reed, dated 1786). The machine, fed with heated (to many summer visitors by its good sea bathing and excellent
black heat only) strips of metal, usually mild steel, having a golf-course. The
industries include salmon fishing, deep-sea
breadth and thickness sufficient for the nail to be made, shears fishing, the making of rope and twine and the freestone quarries
"
off by its slicer the nail blank," which, falling down, is firmly of the neighbourhood. There is a commodious harbour with
clutched at the neck till a heading die strikes against its upper breakwater and pier. Nairn belongs to the Inverness district
end and forms the head, ths completed nail passing out through group of parliamentary burghs (Forres, Fortrose, Inverness and
an inclined shoot. In large nails the taper of the shank and Nairn). Nairn was originally called Invernarne (the mouth of
point is secured by the sectional form to which the strips are the Nairn) . It was made a royal burgh by Alexander I. (d. 1 1 24) ,
rolled; brads, sprigs and small nails, on the other hand, are cut but this charter having been lost it was confirmed by James VI.
from uniform strips in an angular direction from head to point, in 1589.
the strip being turned over after each blank is cut so that the NAIRNE, CAROLINA, BARONESS (1766-1845), Scottish song
points and heads are taken from opposite sides alternately, and writer, was born in the " auld hoose " of Gask, Perthshire, on
a uniform taper on two opposite sides of the nail, from head to the 1 6th of August 1766. She was descended from an old family
point, is secured. The machines turn out nails with wonderful which had settled in Perthshire in the I3th century, and could
rapidity, varying with the size of the nails produced from about boast of kinship with the royal race of Scotland. Her father,
100 to 1000 per minute. Wire or French nails are made from Laurence Oliphant, was one of the foremost supporters of the
round wire, which is unwound, straightened, cut into lengths and Jacobite cause, and she was named Carolina in memory of Prince
"
headed by a machine either by intermittent blows or by pressure, Charles Edward. In the schoolroom she was known as pretty
but the pointing is accomplished by the pressure of dies. Cast Miss Car," and afterwards her striking beauty and pleasing
"
nails, which are cast in sand moulds by the ordinary process, are manners earned for her the name of the Flower of Strathearn."
used principally for horticultural purposes, and the hob-nails or In 1806 she married W. M. Nairne, who became Baron Nairne
tackets of shoemakers are also cast. (see below) in 1824. Following the example set by Burns in the
See Peter Barlow, Encyclopaedia of Arts, Manufactures and Scots Musical Museum, she undertook to bring out a collection
Machinery (1848); Bucknall Smith, Wire, Its Manufacture and of national airs set to appropriate words. To the collection she
Uses(New York, 1891). contributed a large number of original songs, adopting the
" "
NAIL VIOLIN (Ger. Nagdgeige, Nagelharmonica), a musical signature B. B." Mrs Bogan of Bogan." The music was
curiosity invented by Johann Wilde, a musician in the imperial edited by R. A. Smith, and the collection was published at
orchestra at St Petersburg. The nail violin or harmonica consists Edinburgh under the name of the Scottish Minstrel (1821-
of a wooden soundboard about i ft. long and i ft. wide bent into 1824). After her husband's death in 1830 Lady Nairne took
a semicircle. In this soundboard are fixed a number of iron or up her residence at Enniskerry, Co. Wicklow, but she spent
brass nails of different lengths, tuned to give a chromatic scale. much time abroad. She died at Gask on the 26th of October
Sound is produced by friction with a strong bow, strung with 1845.
black horsehair. An improved instrument, now in the collection Her songs may be classed under three heads: (i) those
of the Hochschule in Berlin, has two half-moon sound-chests of illustrative of the characters and manners of the old Scottish
" "
different sizes, one on the top of the other, forming terraces. In gentry, such as The Laird o'
Cockpen," The Fife Laird,"
the rounded wall of the upper sound-chest are two rows of iron and "John Tod "; (2) Jacobite songs, composed for the most
staples, the upper giving the diatonic scale, and the lower the part to gratify her kinsman Robertson, the aged chief of Strowan,
"
intermediate chromatic semitones. History records the name of among the best known of which are perhaps Wha '11 be King
" " "
a single virtuoso on this instrument, which has a sweet bell-like but Charlie? Charlie is my darling," The Hundred Pipers,"
"
tone but limited technical possibilities; he was a Bohemian He's owre the Hills," and " Bonnie Charlie's noo awa ";
musician called Senal, who travelled all over Germany with his and (3) songs not included under the above heads, ranging over
" "
instrument about 1780-1790. (K. S.) a variety of subjects from " Caller Herrin' to the Land o' the
NAIRNSHIRE NAIROBI
Leal." For vivacity, genuine pathos and bright wit her songs pink crystals of orthoclase, has been employed as a building stone.
On the denuded surface of the schists the Old Red Sandstone was
are surpassed only by those of Burns.
deposited and formerly doubtless covered most of the county;
Lady Nairne's husband, William Murray Nairne (1757-1830). outlying patches still remain near Drynachan Lodge and near
He was descended from Sir Robert Nairne of Strathord (c. 1620- Highland Boath in Muckle Burn. The Lower Old Red rocks are
1683), a supporter of Charles II., who was created Baron Nairne
basal breccias followed
by shales with calcareous nodules containing
in 1681. After his death without issue the barony passed to
fossil fish. The Upper Old Red, which is found usually nearer the
coast, is unconformable on the Lower series; it consists of red
his son-in-law, Lord William Murray (c. 1665-1726), the husband shales and clays and obliquely bedded sandstones. Glacial deposits
of his only daughter Margaret (1660-1747) and a younger son are widely spread; they comprise a Lower Boulder Clay, a series
of gravels and sands, followed by an Upper Boulder Clay, above
of John Murray, ist marquess of Athole. William, who took
which comes a series of gravel on the moor-
the name of Nairne and became 2nd Baron Nairne, joined the deposits forming ridges
land between the Nairn and Findhorn rivers. A fine kame, resting
standard of the Jacobites in 1715; he was taken prisoner at the on the plain of sand and gravel, lies between Meikle Kildrummie
battle of Preston and was sentenced to death. He was, however, and Loch Flemington, south of the railway. Traces of the old
pardoned, but his title was forfeited. His son John (c. 1691- marine terraces at loo ft., 50 ft. and 25 ft. are found near the coast,
as well as considerable accumulations of blown sand.
1770), who but for this forfeiture would have been the 3rd Climate and Industries. The climate is healthy and equable.
Baron Nairne, was also taken prisoner at Preston, but he was The temperature for the year averages 47 F., for January 38 F.,
soon set at liberty. In the rising of 1745 he was one of the and for July, 58 F. The mean annual rainfall is 25 in. The soil
of the alluvial plain, or Laigh, is light and porous and careful cultiva-
Jacobite leaders, being present at the battles of Prestonpans, of
tion has rendered it very fertile; and there is some rich land on the
Falkirk and of Culloden, and consequently he was attainted in
Findhorn. Although the most advanced methods of agriculture are
1746; but escaped to France. His son John (d. 1782) was the in use, but a small proportion of the surface is capable of tillage, only
father of William Murray Nairne, who, being restored to the one-fifth of the whole area being under crops. The hills are mostly
barony of Nairne in 1824, became the 5th baron. The male line covered with heath and pasture, suitable for sheep, and cattle are
became extinct when his son William, the 6th baron (1808-1837), kept on the lower lying ground. The county accords many facilities
for sport. A few distilleries, some sandstone and granite quarries
died unmarried. The next heir was a cousin, Margaret, Baroness and the sea and salmon fisheries of the Nairn practically represent
Keith of Stonehaven Marischal (1788-1867), wife of Auguste the industries of the shire, apart from agriculture. The Highland
Charles Joseph, comte de Flahaut de la Billarderie, but she did Railway from Forres to Inverness crosses the north of the shire.
not claim the title. In 1874, however, the right of her daughter, Population and Government. In 1891 the population numbered
the wife of the 4th marquess of Lansdowne, was allowed by the 9155 and in 1901 it was 9291, or 57 persons to the sq. m. Besides
the county town of Nairn there are the parishes of
(pop. 5089),
House of Lords. Ardclach (pop. 772), and Auldearn (pop. of parish 1292, of village
For Lady Nairne's songs, see Lays from Strathearn, arranged with 313). Nairn and Elgin shires combine to return one member to
Symphonies and Accompaniments for the Pianoforte by Finlay Dun parliament, arid the county town belongs to the Inverness district
(1846); vol. i. of the Modern Scottish Minstrel (1857); Lye and group of parliamentary burghs (Forres, Fortrose, Inverness and
Songs of the Baroness Nairne, with a Memoir and Poems of Caroline Nairn). The shire forms a sheriffdom with Inverness and Elgin
Oliphant the Younger, edited by Charles Rogers (1869, new ed. and a sheriff -substitute sits alternately at Nairn and Elgin.
1886). See also T. L. Kington-Oliphant, Jacobite Lairds of Cask History. The country was originally peopled by the Gaelic
(1870). or northern Picts. Stone circles believed to have been raised
NAIRNSHIRE, a north-eastern county of Scotland, bounded by them are found at Moyness, Auldearn, Urchany, Ballinrait,
W. and S. by Inverness-shire, E. by Elginshire and N. by the Dalcross and Croy, the valley of the Nairn being especially rich
Moray Firth. It has an area of 103,429 acres or 161-6 sq. m., in such relics. To the north of Dulsie Bridge is a monolith
and a coast line of 9 m. and is the fourth smallest county in called the Princess Stone. A greater number of the mysterious
Scotland. The seaboard, which is skirted by sandbanks danger- prehistoric stones with cup-markings occur in Nairn than any-
ous to navigation, is lined by low dunes extending into Elginshire. where else in Scotland. Mote hills are also common. Whether
Parallel with the coast there is a deposit of sand and gravel there was any effective Roman occupation of the land so far
about 90 ft. high stretching inland for 4 or 5 m. This and the north is an open question, but there is little evidence of it in
undulating plain behind are a continuation westward of the fertile Nairn, beyond the occasional finding of Roman coins. Columba
Laigh of Moray. From this region southward the land rises and his successors made valiant efforts to Christianize the Picts,
rapidly to the confines of Inverness-shire, where the chief heights but it was long before their labours began to tell, although the
occur. Several of these border hills exceed 2000 ft. in altitude, saint's name was preserved late in the igth century in the annual
the highest being Cam Glas (2162 ft.). The only rivers of fair at Auldearn called
"
St Colm's Market," while to his
importance are the Findhorn and the Nairn, both rising in biographer Adamnan corrupted into Evan or Wean was
Inverness-shire. The Findhorn after it leaves that county dedicated the church at Cawdor, where an old Celtic bell also
takes a mainly north-easterly direction down Strathdearn for bears this name. By the dawn of the icth century the Picts had
17 m. and enters the sea to the north of Forres in Elginshire been subdued with the help of the Norsemen, and Nairn, which
after a total course of 70 m. The Nairn, shortly after issuing was one of the districts colonized by the Scandinavians, as
from Strathnairn, flows towards the N.E. for 12 m. out of its
part of the ancient province of Moray, soon afterwards became
complete course of 38 m. and falls into the Moray Firth at the an integral portion of the kingdom of Scotland. Macbeth was
county town. There are eight lochs, all small, but the loch of one of the kings that Moray gave to Scotland, and his name and
Clans is of particular interest because of its examples of crannogs,
memory survive to the present day. Hardmuir, between Brodie
or lake-dwellings. Nairnshire contains many beautiful woods and and Nairn, is the reputed heath where Macbeth met the witches.
much picturesque and romantic scenery. Territorially Moray was greatly contracted in the reign of David I. ,
Geology. The county is divided geologically into two clearly- and thenceforward the history of Nairn merges in the main in
marked portions. The southern and larger portion is composed
that of the bishopric and earldom of Moray (see ELGIN). The
of the eastern, Dalradian or younger Highland schists with associated
granite masses; this forms all the higher ground. The low-lying thane of Cawdor was constable of the king's castle at Nairn,
northern part of the country bordering Moray Firth is occupied by and when the heritable sheriffdom was established towards the
Old Red Sandstone. The schistose rocks are mainly thin bedded close of the I4th century this office was also filled by the thane
micaceous gneisses, schists and quartzites; between Dallaschyle
of the time.
and Creag an Daimb a more massive higher horizon appears in the .
centre of a synclinal fold. Porphyritic gneiss is found on the flanks BIBLIOGRAPHY. Charl<s J. G. Rampini, History of Moray and
of Carn nan tri-tighearnan. The schists are frequently intersected
by dikes of granite, amphibplite, &c. Three masses of granite are
found penetrating the schists; the largest lies on the eastern
boundary and extends from about Lethen Bar Hill southward by 1899).
Ardclach and Glenferness to the Bridge of Dulsie. The second
mass on the opposite side of the county belongs mainly to Inverness NAIROBI, capital of the British East Africa protectorate
but the granite reaches into Nairn on the slopes of Bein nan Creagan and of the province of Ukamba, 327 m. by rail N.W. of Mombasa
and Ben Buidhe Mhor. A smaller mass near Rait Castle, with large and 257 m. S.E. of Port Florence on Victoria Nyanza. Pop.
I
56 NAIVASHA NAKSKOV
(1907) 4737, including 350 Europeans and 1752 Indians. Nairobi NAJIBABAD, a town of British India, in the Bijnor district
is builton the Athi plains, at the foot of the Kikuyu hills and of the United Provinces, 31 m. S.E. of Hardwar. Pop. (1901)
5450 ft. above the sea; it commands magnificent views of 19,568. It was founded in the middle of the i8th century by a
Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kenya. It is the headquarters of the Rohilla chief, and contains several architectural monuments
still
Uganda railway, of the military forces in the protectorate, and of Rohilla magnificence. It has a station on the Oudh & Rohil-
of the Colonists' Association. It is divided into European, Indian khand railway, with a junction for the branch to Kotdwara.
and native quarters. Midway between the European and Indian There is considerable trade in timber, sugar and grain, and
quarters stands the town hall. The other public buildings include manufactures of metal-ware, shoes, blankets and cotton cloth.
railway works, places of worship (Protestant, Roman Catholic, NAKHICHEVAN, or NAKHJEVAN, a city of Russian Armenia,
Mahommedan and Hindu) and schools, an Indian bazaar, a in the government of Erivan, 85 m. S.E. of the town of Erivan.
general hospital and waterworks the water being obtained It occupies the brow of a spur of the Kara-bagh mountains,
from springs 13 m. distant. 2940 ft. above the sea, and looks out over the valley of the Aras.
The site of Nairobi was selected as the headquarters of the Pop. (1863) 6251, (1897) 8845. Built and rebuilt again and
Uganda railway, and the first buildings were erected in 1899. again, Nakhichevan is full of half-obliterated evidences of former
For some time nearly all its inhabitants were railway officials prosperity. The present houses have for the most part been
and Indian coolies engaged in the construction of the line. In quarried from ancient ruins; of the palace of the princes of
1902 the surrounding highlands were found to be suitable for Azerbaijan there remains a gateway with a Persian inscription,
European settlement, and Nairobi speedily grew in importance; flanked by two brick towers; and at a little distance stands the
in 1907 the headquarters of the administration were transferred so-called Tower of the Khans, a richly decorated twelve-sided
to it from Mombasa. The town is provided with clubs, cricket structure, 102 ft. in circumference and 75 ft. in height, dating,
and athletic grounds and a racecourse. to judge by the inscription which runs around the cornice,
NAIVASHA, the name of a lake, town and province, in British from the I2th century. There are also ruins of a large mosque.
East Africa. The lake, which is roughly circular with a diameter Situated on the highroad to Tabriz and Teheran, Nakhichevan
of some 13 m., lies at an altitude of 6135 ft. on the crest of the has a large transit trade. In the Persian period the city is said
highest ridge in the eastern rift-valley between the Kikuyu to have had 40,000 inhabitants; the population now consists
escarpment on the east and the Mau escarpment on the west. chiefly of Tatars and Armenians, who carry on gardening, make
It is fed from the north by the rivers Gilgal and Morendat, but wine and produce silk, salt and millstones.
has no known outlet. The rivers, which have a minimum dis- Armenian tradition claims Noah as the founder of Nakhichevan
charge of too cub. ft. per second, run in deep gullies. The water (the Naxuana of Ptolemy), and a mound of earth in the city is still
of the lake is fresh; the shore in many places is lined with visited by many pilgrims as his grave. Laid waste by the Persians
in the 4th century, Nakhichevan sank into comparative insignificance,
papyrus. North and north-west the lake is closed in by the but by the loth century had recovered its prosperity. In 1064 it
volcanic Buru hills; to the south towers the extinct volcano of was taken by Alp Arslan, sultan of the Seljuk Turks, and in the
Longonot. Hippopotami and otters frequent the lake, and on an I3th century it fell a prey to the Mongols of Jenghiz Khan. It
island about i m. from the shore are large numbers of antelopes afterwards suffered frequently during the wars between the Persians,
and other game. Naivasha was discovered in 1883 by Gustav Armenians and Turks, and it finally passed into Russian possession
by the peace of Turkman-chai in 1828.
Adolf Fischer (1848-1886), one of the early explorers of the Tana
and Masai regions, and the first to demonstrate the continuance NAKHICHEVAN-ON-THE-DON, a town of southern Russia,
of the rift-valley through equatorial Africa. Fischer was in the Don Cossacks territory, 6 m. by rail N.E. of the town of
followed later in the same year by Joseph Thomson, the Scottish Rostov and on the right bank of the Don. Pop. (1900) 30,883.
explorer. The railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza It was founded in 1780 by Armenian immigrants. It soon
skirts the eastern side of the lake, and on the railway close to became a wealthy place, and still is the administrative centre of
"
the lake is built the town of Naivasha, 6230 ft. above the sea, the Armenian district," a narrow strip along the banks of the
391 m. N.W. by rail of Mombasa and 193 m. S.E. by rail of Port Don, with a population of 27,250. The town has tobacco and
Florence on Victoria Nyanza. Naivasha province contains wadding factories, tallow-melting works, soap-works, brickworks
much land suitable for colonization by white men, and large areas and tanneries. There is a large trade in cereals and timber.
were leased to Europeans by the British authorities in 1903 and NAKHON SRI TAMMARAT (also known as LAKHON and
subsequent years. The East Africa Syndicate acquired a lease formerly as LIGOEE), a town of southern Siam, in the division
of 500 sq. m. in the valley of the Gilgal and surrounding country of the same name, about 380 m. S. of Bangkok, on the east
north of Lake Naivasha. North-west of the lake and along the coast of the Malay Peninsula. It is one of the most ancient cities
Molo river the 3rd Lord Delamere obtained a grant of 155 of Siam, and contains many buildings and ruins of antiquarian
sq. m. interest. The trade consists chiefly of the export of rice. In the
NAJARA, ISRAEL BEN MOSES, Hebrew poet, was born in bay, a short distance off, ships can lie safely at all seasons.
Damascus and wrote in the latter part of the i6th century (1587- The population (7000) is chiefly Siamese, but there is an ad-
1599). He was inspired by the mystical school, and his poems mixture of Burmese, the descendants of prisoners of war and of
are marked by their bold, sensuous images, as well as by a depth refugees from Tenasserim. The town is the headquarters of a
of feeling unequalled among the Jewish writers of his age. governor under the high commissioner at Singora. It has for
He often adapted his verses to Arabic and Turkish melodies. long been a centre of the American Presbyterian Mission to Siam.
To tunes which had been associated with light and even ribald It was once the capital of a feudatory state, the chief of which
themes, Najara wedded words which reveal an intensity of ruled the greater part of the Malay Peninsula in the name of the
religious emotion which often takes a form indistinguishable kings of Siam and bore the brunt of all the wars with Malacca
from love poetry. Some pietist contemporaries condemned his and other Malay states. It lies, however, north of the limit of
work for this reason; but this did not prevent many of his Malay expansion, and has never at any time come under Malay
poems from attaining wide popularity and from winning their rule. With the fall of the Siamese capital of Ayuthia in 1767
way into the prayer-book. In fact, Najara could claim the it became independent, but returned to its allegiance on the
" "
authority of the Biblical Song of Songs (mystically inter- founding of Bangkok. In the I7th century British, Portuguese
preted) for his combination of the language of human love with and Dutch merchants had factories here and carried on an
the expression of the relationship between God and humanity. extensive trade.
He published during his lifetime a collection of his poems, Songs NAKSKOV, a seaport of Denmark, in the amt (county) of
of Israel (Zemiroth Israel), in Safed in 1587; an enlarged edition Maribo, on a wide bay of the Laalands belt at the west end of
appeared in Venice (1599-1600). Others of his poems were published the island of Laaland, 31 m. by rail W. of Nykjobing. Pop.
at various times, and W. Bacher has described some previously
unknown poems of Najara (Revue des etudes juives, Nos. 116 seq.). (1901) 8310. The church dates from the beginning of the
(I. A.) 1 5th century. There is a large sugar factory. A great dike,
NAMAQU ALAND NAME 157
extending S.E. to Rodby (20 m.), protects the coast against the various races. The Romans have left names connected
inundation, a serious inroad of the sea having occurred in 1872. with camps (castra, chesters) and military roads; the English
NAMAQUALAND, a region of south-western Africa, extending have used simple descriptions of the baldest kind, or have ex-
along the west coast over 600 m. from Damaraland (22 43' hibited their attachment to the idea of property; the Celtic
S.) on the north to 31 S., and stretching inland 80 to 350 m. names (like those which the red men have left in America, or
It is divided by the lower course of the Orange river into two the blacks in Australia) are musical with poetic fancy, and filled
portions Little Namaqualand to the south and Great Namaqua- with interest in the aspects and the sentiment of nature. The
land to the north. Little Namaqualand forms part of Cape British race carries with it the ancient names of an older people
Colony (<?..), and Great Namaqualand is the southern portion into every continent, and titles perhaps originally given to places
of German South-West Africa (?..). The people of Namaqua- in the British Isles by men who had not yet learned to polish
land are the purest surviving type of Hottentots, and number their weapons of flint may now be found in Australia, America,
some twenty to thirty thousand. Africa and the islands of the farthest seas. Local names were
NAMASUDRA, the name adopted by the great caste or tribe originally imposed in a handy local manner. The settler or the
"
who inhabit the swamps of Eastern Bengal, India, whom the group of cave-men styled the neighbouring river the water,"
"
higher castes are wont to designate by the opprobrious term of the neighbouring hill the peak," and these terms often still
Chandal. Their number in 1901 exceeded 2 millions; but if survive in relics of tongues which can only be construed by the
the cognate Pods and also the Mahommedans of the same learned.
ethnical stock were to be added, the total would probably Personal Names. The history of personal names is longer
reach n millions. and more complex, but proceeds from beginnings almost as
NAME (O. Eng. nama; cognate forms in Teutonic languages simple. But in personal names the complexity of human
are Dutch naam, Ger. Name, &c., but the word is common to all character, and the gradual processes of tangling and disentangling
Indo-European languages; cf. Gr. ovo/ia, Lat. nomen, Sans. the threads of varied human interest, soon come in, and per-
naman, &c.), the distinguishing appellation by which a person, sonal names are not imposed once and for all. Each man in
place, thing or class of persons or things is known. very early societies may have many names, in different char-
Local Names. The study of names and of their survival in acters and at different periods of his life. The oldest personal
civilization enables us in some cases to ascertain what peoples names which we need examine here are those which indicate,
inhabited districts now tenanted by races of far different speech. not an individual, but a group, held together by the conscious
Thus the names of mountains and rivers in many parts of England sense or less conscious sentiment of kindred, or banded together
are Celtic for example, to take familiar instances, Usk, Esk for reasons of convenience. An examination of customs prevalent
and Avon. There are also local names (such as Mona, Monmouth, among the most widely separated races of Asia, Africa, Australia
Mynwy and others) which seem" to be relics of tribes even older and America proves that groups conceiving themselves to be
than the Celtic stocks, and vestiges of non-Aryan people, originally of the same kin are generally styled by the name
whom the Celts found in possession both on the Continent and of some animal or other object (animate or inanimate) from
" "
in the British Isles." 1 The later English name is sometimes which they claim descent. This object is known as the totem
the mere translation, perhaps unconscious, of the earlier Celtjc (see TOTEMISM). The groups of supposed kin, however widely
appellation, often added to the more ancient word. Penpole scattered in local distribution, are known as wolves, bears,
Point in Somerset is an obvious example of this redoubling of turtles, suns, moons, cockatoos, reeds and what not, according
names. The pre-Aryan place-names of the Aegean are much as each group claims descent from this or that stock, and some-
discussed by philologists. Such a name as Corinthos, with all times wears a mark representing this or that animal, plant or
other words in nthos, as hyacinthos, is thought to be pre-Hellenic. natural object. Unmistakable traces of the same habit of
The river-names Gade, Ver, Test and many other monosyllabic naming exist among Semitic and Teutonic races, and even among
river-names in the home counties, appear to be neither English Greeks and Romans. The names chosen are commonly those
nor Celtic, but have been neglected, being known to few but of objects which can be easily drawn in a rude yet recognizable
anglers and rustics. As to the meaning and nature of ancient way, and easily expressed in the language of gesture. In addition
local names, they are as a rule purely descriptive. A rive'r is to the totem names (which indicate, in each example, supposed
"
called by some word which merely signifies the water "; a blood-kindred), local aggregates of men received local names.
" " " " "
hill has a name which means no more than the point," the We hear of the hill-men," the cave-men," the bush-men,"
" " "
peak," the castle." Celtic names are often of a more romantic the coast-men," the men of the plain," precisely as in the
" When a
tone, as Ardnamurchan, the promontory by the great ocean," old Attic divisions of Aktaioi, Pediaioi and so forth.
an admirable description of the bold and steep headland which tribe comes to recognize its own unity, as a rule it calls itself
"
breasts the wash of the Atlantic. As a general rule the surviving by some term meaning simply the men," all other tribes being
Celtic names, chiefly in Ireland, Wales and Scotland, all contain regarded as barbarous or inferior. Probably other neighbouring
" "
some wide meaning of poetic appropriateness. The English tribes also call themselves the men in another dialect or
names, on the other hand, commonly state some very simple language, while the people in the neighbourhood are known
fact, and very frequently do no more than denote property, by an opprobrious epithet, as Rakshasas among the early Aryan
" " "
such and such a town or hamlet, ton or ham," is the property dwellers in India, or Eskimo (raw-eaters) in the far north of the
of the Billings, Uffings, Toolings, or whoever the early English American continent. Tribal names in Australia are often taken
The same attachment " " "
settlers in the district may have been. from the tribal term for yes or no "; cf. Languedoc.
to the idea of property is exhibited in even the local names of Leaving social for personal names, we find that, among most
petty fields in English parishes. Occasionally one finds a bit of uncivilized races, a name (derived from some incident or natural
half-humorous description, as when a sour, starved and weedy object) is given at the time of birth by the parents of each new-
"
plot is named starvacre "; but more usually fields are known born infant. Occasionally the name is imposed before the child
as "Thompson's great field," "Smith's small field," "the isborn, and the proud parents call themselves father and mother
fouracre," or the like. The name of some farmer or peasant of such an one before the expected infant sees the light. In
owner or squatter of ancient date survives for centuries, attached most cases the name (the earliest name) denotes some phenomenon
to what was once his property. Thus the science of local names of nature; thus Dobrizhofer met in the forests a young man
has a double historical value. The names indicate the various " "
styled Gold flower of day," that is, Dawn," his father
"
races (Celtic, Roman and English in Great Britain) who have having been named Sun." Similar names are commonly
set in the form of names the seal of their possession on the soil. given by the natives of Australia, while no names are more
Again, the meanings of the names illustrate the characters of common among North-American Indians than those derived
'Elton, Origins of English History, p. 165; Rhys, Lectures on from sun, moon, cloud and wind.
Celtic Philology, pp. 181, 182. The names of savage persons are not permanent. The name
i 58 NAME
firstgiven is ordinarily changed (at the ceremony answering to 'Hp66oros 'AXiKapi'ao'crew, 0oy<cu5i5ijs 6 'Aft/vaTos, and some-
confirmation in the church) for some more appropriate and times the name of the deme (see CLEISTHENES), e.g. Aij/ocxrflcn^
descriptive nickname, and that, again, is apt to be superseded Kaiavefc ,Nicknames denoting mental or bodily defects
" "
by various honour-giving names derived from various or striking peculiarities (e.g. colour of hair) were also favourite
exploits. The common superstition against being
"
named " methods of discrimination (e.g. 3,av66s, yellow).
has probably produced the custom by which each individual Roman Names. Towards the end of the republic free-born
has a secret name and is addressed, when possible, by some Romans were distinguished by three names and two (or even four)
" " "
wide term of kinship brother," father and the like. secondary indications. In an inscription the name of Cicero is
The bad luck which in Zulu customs as in Vedic myths attends given in the following form: M. Tullius M.f. M.n. M.pr. Cor(nelia
the utterance of the real name is evaded by this system of tribu) Cicero. ( M
= Marcus) is the praenomen; Tullius, the
addresses. Could we get a savage an Iroquois, for example nomen, the gentile or family name; Cicero, the cognomen.
"
to explain his titles, we would find that he is, say, Morning This order, always preserved, is the correct one. M.f. ( = Marci
" " = Marci nepos), M.pr. ( = Marci pronepos),Cor(nelia
Cloud " (by birth-name), Hungry Wolf (by confirmation films), M.n. (
name),
"
He that raises the white fellow's scalp " (by honour- tribu) are only used in formal description.
giving name), of the Crane totem (by kinship and hereditary Praenomen (corresponding to the modern Christian name).
Varro gives a list of 32 praenomina, of which 14 had fallen out of use
name, as understood by ourselves). When society grows so
in Sulla's time, the remaining 18 being confined to patrician families.
permanent that male kinship and paternity are recognized, the Some of these appear to have been appropriated by particular
custom of patronymics is introduced. The totem name gives families, e.g. Appius by the Claudii, Mamercus by the Aemilii. In
place to a gentile name, itself probably a patronymic in form; the case of plebeian families there was greater latitude and a larger
or, as in Greece, the gentile name gives place to a local name, variety of names, but those which became ennobled followed the
derived from the deme. Thus a Roman is called Caius; Julius patrician usage. After the time of Sulla some of the old praenomina
were revived, unless they are rather to be regarded as cognomina,
is his gentile name (of the Julian clan); Caesar is a kind of which in some families displaced the praenomen proper, as in the case
hereditary nickname. A Greek is Thucydides (the name usually
'
of a certain Africanus Aemilius Regulus.
derived from the grandfather), the son of Olorus, of the deme The nomen (gentile, gentilicium) belonged to all the individual
of Halimusia.
members of the gens and those in any way connected with it (wives,
clients, freedmen). In patrician gentes the nomina nearly all ended in
This system of names answered the purposes of Greek and -ius (-aeus, -eius, -eus), and are perhaps a sort of patronymic (lulius
Roman civilization. In Europe, among the Teutonic races, the from lulus). In some cases the name indicates the place of origin
stock-names (conceivably totemistic in origin) survive in English (Norbanus, Acerranus); -acus (Divitiacus) is peculiar to Game,
" " " " -na (Caecina, Perperna) to Etruscan, -enus (Arulenus) to Umbrian
local names, which speak of the ton or ham of the Billings
names. name stands by itself; perhaps it was
Verres as a gentile
or Toolings. An examination of these names, as collected in
originally a cognomen.
Kemble's Anglo-Saxons, proves that they were frequently derived The cognomen (" surname ") was the name given to a Roman
" citizen as a member of a familia or branch of the gens, whereby the
from animals and plants. Such English names as Noble
" " " family was distinguished from other families belonging to the same
Wolf (Ethelwulf), Wolf of War and so forth, certainly
a somewhat primitive and fierce stage of society. gens.
Cognomina were either of local origin (Calatinus, Sabinus) or ;
testify to denoted physical peculiarities or moral characteristics (Crassus,
Then came more vulgar nicknames and personal descriptions, Lqngus, Lentulus, Lepidus, Calvus, Naso); or they were really
" " " White " and so forth. Other names
as Long," Brown," praenomina (Cossus, Agrippa) or derivatives from praenomina or
are directly derived from the occupation or craft (Smith, Fowler, cognomina (Sextinus, Corvinus, Laevinus). The tria nomina (" three
names ") in the well-known passage of Juvenal (v. 127) was
Sadler) of the man to whom they were given, and yet other
probably a.t that time a mark of ingenuitas rather than of nobilitas.
names were derived from places. The noble and landowner was In addition to these three regular names, many Romans had a
" "
called of such and such a place (the German von and French fourth, cognomen secundum (agnomen was an introduction of the
" " " " " "
de). while the humbler man was called not of but at grammarians of the 4th century). These second surnames were
" chiefly bestowed in recognition of great achievements Asiaticus,
such a place, as in the name Attewell," or merely by the local Africanus, Creticus, or were part of the terminology in cases of
name without the particle. The " de " might also indicate adoption.
merely the place of a person's birth or residence; it was not a Persons adopted took all the three names of their adoptive father,
but at the same time, to keep his origin in mind, they added a second
proof of noblesse. If we add to these names patronymics formed
" cognomen, a derivative in -anus or -inus from his old gentile name;
by the addition of son," and terms derived from Biblical thus, Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus, son of Lucius Aemilius
characters (the latter adopted after the Reformation as a re- Paullus, adopted by Publius Cornelius Scipio. After the time of
action against the names of saints in the calendar), we have Sulla, the derivative was no longer used, one of the old names being
'
almost exhausted the sources of modern English and European substituted without change Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus.
Under the empire no fixed rule was observed, the most remarkable
names. A continual development of custom can be traced, and
thing being the very large number of names borne by one person (as
the analysis of any man's family and Christian names will lead many as ?6 occur on an inscription). Especially in the army and
us beyond history into the manners of races devoid of literary amongst the lower orders, nicknames (signa, vocabula) are of frequent
records. (A. L.) occurrence. Well-known examples are: Caligula; cedo alteram
(" another stick, please! "), given to a centurion of flogging pro-
Greek Names. The Greeks had only one, and no family, name;
pensities; manus ad ferrum ( hand on sword,") of Aurelian when
hence the name of a child was left to the discretion of the parents. tribune.
The eldest son generally took the name of his paternal grand- Women originally took the name of the head of the family
Genuine patronymics Caecilia (filia) Metelli, Metella Crassi (uxor). Later, f. ( = filia) was
father, girls that of their grandmother.
added after the name of a daughter. Towards the end of the republic
(Phocion, son of Phocus), analogous compounds (Theophrastus, women are denoted by their gentile name alone, while under the
son of Theodoras), or names of similar meaning (Philumenus, empire they always have two the nomen and cognomen of the father
son of Eros) also occur. Athenaeus divides names generally into (Aemilia Lepida, daughter of Lucius Aemilius Lepidus Paullus), or
the nomen of both father and mother (Valeria Attia, daughter of
(i) 6eo4>opa. chiefly derivatives or compounds of the names of
Attius Atticus and Valeria Sextina).
gods (Demetrius, Apollonius, Theodoras, Diodotus, Heraclitus, Slaves originally had no name, but simply took their master's
Diogenes); (2) fiflta, simple or variously compounded names, praenomen in the genitive followed by -por ( = puer): Marcipor,
especially such as were of good omen for a son's future career Publipor, Quintipor. Later, when the number of slaves was largely
(Aristides, Pericles, Sophocles, Alexander), although such hopes increased, by way of distinction names similar to those common in
Greece (national, physical or moral qualities) or simply foreign names
were frequently belied by the results. Instances of a subsequent
were given them. The word puer was subsequently replaced by
change of name are not uncommon; thus, Plato and Theo- servus and the form of the name ran:
Aphrodisius Plot! Gai servus;
phrastus were originally Aristocles and Tyrtamus. under the empire, Eleutherus C. Julii Florentini (the natural order
To obviate the ambiguity and confusion arising from the use being preserved in the master's name). When a slave exchanged
of a single name, various expedients were adopted, the commonest
one master for another, he adopted the name of his old master in an
adjectival form in -anus: Cissus Caesaris (servus) Maecenatianus
being to add the father's name Arj^ioff^eyrp AquoaOtvovs,
(formerly a slave of Maecenas). Freedmen used their own name as
6 KXttwou. Sometimes the birthplace was added a cognomen and took the nomen of him who gave them their freedom
NAMUR
and any praenomen they pleased: L. Livius Andronicus, freedman it is usual, for
purposes of publicity and evidence, to advertise the
of M. Livius Salinator. In the time of Caesar, the freedman took the change of name in the newspapers and to execute a deed poll setting
praenomen of the patronus and the gentile name of one of the friends out the change, and enrol the same in the central office of the Supreme
of the latter; thus, Cicero calls his stave Dionysius M. Pomponius Court.
Dionysius as a token of friendship for T. Pomponius Atticus. Both in France and Germany official authorization must be ob-
a- H. F.) tained for any change of name. By the German Code 1900 (s. 12)
if the right to a new name is disputed by another or his interest is
Law. The Christian name, i.e. the name given to a person on
injured thereby, the person entitled can compel the abandonment
admission to baptism into the Christian church, dates back to the of the new name.
early history of the Church. It has been said that the practice In England, a wife on marriage adopts the surname of her husband,
of giving a name on baptism was possibly imitated from the disregarding entirely her maiden surname; in Scotland the practice
usually is for the wife to retain her maiden name for all legal purposes,
Jewish custom of giving a personal name at circumcision. In adding the name of her husband as an alias. On remarriage the rule
England individuals were for long distinguished by Christian is for the wife to adopt the name of the new husband, but an ex-
names only, and the surname (see below) or family name is still ception to this is tacitly recognized in the case of a title acquired by
totally ignored by the Church. As population increased and marriage when the holder remarries a commoner. This exception
was very fully discussed in Cowley v. Cowley, 1901 A.C. 450.
intercourse became general, it became necessary to employ some ,
Peers of the United Kingdom when signing their names use only
further name by which one man might be known from another, their surnames or peerage designations. It is merely a privileged
and in process of time the use of surnames became universal, the custom, which does not go back further than the Stuart period.
Peeresses sign by their Christian names or initials followed by their
only exceptions in England being the members of the royal
peerage designation. Bishops sign by their initials followed by
family, who sign by their baptismal names only. the name of the see. In Scotland it is very usual for landowners
Where the ecclesiastical law does not come into conflict with the to affix to their names the designation of their lands, and this was
common law or has not been changed by it, it still prevails, and expressly sanctioned by an act of 1672.
therefore it may be said that the name given at baptism may be See Ency. Eng. Law, tits. "Christian Name," "Surname";
regarded as practically unalterable. But that a baptismal, name is W. P. W. Law and Practice of Change of Name; Fox-
Phillimore,
not altogether unalterable hms been a matter of contention. A Davies and Carlyon-Britton, Law concerning Names and Changes of
"
constitution of Archbishop Peckham (ob. 1292) directs that ministers Name. (T. A. I.)
shall take care not to permit wanton names to be given to children
baptized, and if otherwise it be done, the same shall be changed NAMUR, one of the nine provinces of Belgium. It lies between
by the bishop at confirmation." And before the Reformation the
Office for Confirmation must have contemplated the possibility of Hainaut on the one side and Liege and Luxemburg on the other,
such a change, as the bishop is directed therein to ask the child's and extends from Brabant up the Meuse valley to the French
name before anointing him with the chrism, and afterwards, naming frontier. Area, 1414 sq. m.; pop. (1904) 357,759. The part
him, to sign him with the cross. But in the second and subsequent north of the Meuse is very fertile, but the rest is covered with
Prayer-books all mention of the name in the Office for Confirmation
is omitted. Lord Coke was of opinion that such a change was forest and is little suited for agriculture. There are a few iron
permissible and gives examples (i Inst. p. 3), but Dr Burn (Ecc. and coal-mines between the Sambre and Meuse, and the quarries
Law, i. 80) held a contrary opinion. Phillimore, however, gives are of great importance. Arboriculture, and especially fruit-tree
several instances when such a change was made, one, in the diocese
of Liverpool, on the nth of June 1886 (see Phillimore, Ecc. Law, plantation, is on the increase. The province is divided into
the three arrondissements of Namur, Dinant and Philippeville,
'
5 1 /- 5j8; and also Notes and Queries, 4th ser. vol. vi. p. 17, 7th
ser. vol. ii. p. 1 7). In the case of those who have not been
baptized, but
and there are fifteen cantons for judicial purposes.
have a name (other than a surname) given them by their parents, NAMUR (Flemish, Namen), a town of Belgium, capital of
such a name acquires force only by repute. The Registration of
the province of Namur. Pop. (1904) 31,940. It is most pictur-
Births Act, which requires the registration of every birth, makes
provision for the insertion of a name, but such provision is purely esquely situated at the junction of the rivers Sambre and Meuse,
permissive, and the only object of entering a name on the register
the town lying on the left banks of the two rivers, while the rocky
is to have an authoritative record of the commencement of repute.
promontory forming the fork between them is crowned with the
A clergyman of the Church of England is compelled to perform the old citadel. This citadel is no longer used for military purposes,
ceremony of baptism when required by a parishioner, and to give and the hill on which it stands has been converted into a public
whatever name or names the godparents select, but although the
rubrics do not expressly say so, he can object to any name on religious park, while the crest is occupied by an enormous hotel to which
or moral grounds. access is gained by a cogwheel railway. Namur is connected
The freedom enjoyed in England and the United States as to the with the citadel by two bridges across the Sambre, and from the
kind of Christian name which may be given to a child is somewhat
limited in France and Germany. In France, by a decree of the n east side of the promontory there is a fine stone bridge to the
Germinal, an XI ., the only names permitted to be recorded in the civil suburb of Jambes. This bridge was constructed in the nth
register as Christian names (prenoms) of children were those of century and rebuilt in the reign of Charles V. It is the only old
saints in the calendar and the names of personages known in ancient
bridge in existence over the Meuse in the Belgian portion of its
history. Even at the present day an official list is issued (revised
from time to time) containing a selection of forenames, and no course. The cathedral of St Aubain or Albin was built in the
name of a child will be registered unless it occurs in this list. A middle of the i8th century. The church of St Loup is a century
limitation more or less similar prevails in Germany and other older, and is noticeable for its columns of red marble from the
European countries. quarry at St Remy near Rochefort. There is a considerable local
As regards the surname (Fr. surnom, name in addition), custom
has universally decreed that a man shall be known by the name industry in cutlery, and there are numerous tanneries along the
of his father. But in England and the United States, at least, this river-side.
custom is not legally binding; there is no law preventing a man The hill of the citadel is perhaps identical with Aduaticum,
from taking whatever name he has a fancy for, nor are there
any the fortified camp of the Aduatici captured and destroyed by
particular formalities required to be observed on adopting a fresh
surname; but, on the other hand, if a man has been known for a Julius Caesar after the defeat of the Nervii, although many
authorities incline to the plateau of Hast6don, north of the
considerable time
by the name of his father, or by a name of repute,
and he changes it for another, he cannot compel others to address Sambre and of Namur itself, as the more probable site of the
him or designate him by the new one. Neither does the English
law recognize the absolute right of any person in any particular name Belgic position. Many antiquities of the Roman-Gallic period
to the extent of preventing another person from assuming it (Du have been discovered in the neighbourhood and are preserved
Boulay v. Du Boulay, 1860., L.R. 2 P.C. 430). If, however, a person in the local archaeological museum. Here also are deposited the
adopts a new name and wishes to have it publicly notified and recog- human fossils of the Stone Age discovered at Furfooz on the Lesse.
nized in official circles, the method of procedure usually adopted In the feudal period Namur was always a place of some import-
is that by royal licence. This is by petition, prepared and presented
ance, and long formed a marquisate in the Courtenay family.
through the Heralds' Office. If granted, the royal licence is given
under the sign manual and privy seal of the sovereign, counter- One institution of the medieval period came down to modern
signed by the home secretary. In wills and settlements a clause is times, and was only discontinued in consequence of the fatalities
often inserted whereby a testator or settler imposes
upon the takers
of the estate an obligation to assume his name and bear his arms.
with which it was generally accompanied. This was the annual
The stamp duty payable for a royal licence in this case is fifty encounter on the Place d'Armes of rival parties mounted on
pounds, but if the application is merely voluntary the stamp duty stilts. Galliot, the historian of Namur, says the origin of these
is ten pounds. Where there is a more formal adoption of a surname, jousts is lost in antiquity, but considers the use of stilts was due
i6o NANA FARNA VIS NANCY
to the frequency with which the town was flooded before the burg. Pop. (1906), town, 98,302; commune (including troops),
rivers were embanked. Don John of Austria made Namur his 110,570. Nancy is situated on the bank of the Meurthe
left
headquarters during the greater part of his stay in the Nether- 6 m. above its junction with the Moselle and on the Marne-
lands, and died here in 1578. As a fortress Namur did not Rhine canal. The railway from Paris to Strassburg skirts the
attain the first rank until after its capture by Louis XIV. in city on the south-west side; other railways to Metz, to Epinal
1692, when Vauban endeavoured to make it impregnable; but by Mirecourt, to Chateau Salins join the main line near Nancy,
it was retaken by William III. in 1695. The French recaptured and make it an important junction. The town consists of two
it in 1 702 and retained possession for ten years. In 181 5 Marshal portions the Ville-Vieitte in the north-west between the Cours
Grouchy on his retreat into France fought an action here with Leopold and the Pepiniere gardens, with narrow and winding
the Prussians under General Pirch. In 1888, under the new streets, and the Ville-Neuve in the south-east with wide straight
scheme of Belgian defence, the citadel and its detached works streets, allowing views of the hills around the city. Between the
were abandoned, and in their place nine outlying forts were two lies, the Place Stanislas, a square worthy of a capital city:
constructed at a distance of from 3 to 5 m. round the town. in the centre stands the statue of Stanislas Leczinski, ruler of
All these forts are placed on elevated points. They are in their Lorraine, and on all sides rise imposing buildings in the i8th-
order, beginning on the left bank of the Meuse and ending on century style the town hall, episcopal palace, theatre, &c.
the right bank of the same river: (i) St Heribert, (2) Malonne, A fine triumphal arch erected by Stanislas in honour of Louis XV.
(3) Suarlee, (4) Emines, (5) Cognelee, (6) Gelbressee, (7) Maizeret, leads from the Place Stanislas to the Place Carriere, which forms
(8) Andoy and (9) Dave. The whole position is correctly de- a beautiful tree-planted promenade, containing at its further end
"
scribed as the tte de pont " of Namur, and in addition to its the government palace (1760) now the residence of the general
strong bomb-proof forts it possesses great natural advantages for commanding the XX. army corps, and adjoins the so-called
the defence of the intervals. Pepiniere (nursery) established by Stanislas. Other open spaces
NANA FARNA VIS (1741-1800), the great Mahratta minister in the city are the Place d'Alliance^ (formed by Stanislas, with
at Poona at the end of the i8th century. His real name was a fountain in memory of the alliance between Louis XV.
Balaji Janardhan Bhanu; but, like many other Mahrattas, he and Maria Theresa in 1756), the Place de 1' Academic,
was always known by a kind of nickname. Nana properly means the Place St Epvre with a statue of Duke Rene II., the
a maternal grandfather; Farnavis is the official title of the Place Dombasle and the Place de Thiers, the two latter
finance minister, derived from fard=a.n account and navis = embellished with the statues of Mathieu Dombasle, the agri-
a writer. He was born at Satara on the 4th of May 1741, and culturist, and Adolphe Thiers. The cathedral in the Ville-
was the son of a Chitpavan Brahman, of the same class as the Neuve, built in the i8th century, has a wide facade flanked by
Peshwa, who held the hereditary office of Farnavis. He escaped two dome-surmounted towers, and a somewhat frigid and sombre
from the fatal battle of Panipat in 1761; and from about 1774 interior. Of particular interest is the church of the Cordeliers, in
was the leading personage in directing the affairs of the Mahratta the old town, built by Rene II. about 1482 to commemorate his
confederacy, though never a soldier. This was the period when victory over Charles the Bold. Pillaged during the Revolution
Peshwas rapidly succeeded one another, and there was more period, but restored to religious uses in 1825, it contains the
than one disputed succession. It was the policy of Nana Farnavis tombs of Antony of Vaudemont and his wife Marie d'Harcourt,
to hold together the confederacy against both internal dissensions Philippe of Gueldres, second wife of Rene II., Henry III., count
and the growing power of the British. He died at Poona on of Vaudemont, and Isabella of Lorraine his wife, Rene II. (a
the i3th of March 1800, just before the Peshwa placed himself curious monument raised by his widow in 1515) and Cardinal
in the hanis of the British and thus broke up the Mahratta de Vaudemont (d. 1587). Here also is a chapel built at the
confederacy. In an extant letter to the Peshwa, the Marquess beginning of the i7th century to receive the tombs of the princes
"
Wellesley thus describes him: The able minister of your state, of the house of Lorraine. The church of St Epvre, rebuilt
whose upright principles and honourable views and whose zeal between 1864 and 1874 on the site of an old church of the I3th,
and prosperity both of the dominions of his own
for the welfare 1 4th and i5th centuries, has a fine spire and belfry and good
immediate superiors and of other powers were so justly cele- stained glass windows. Bonsecours Church, at the end of the
brated." St Pierre Faubourg, contains the mausoleums of Stanislas (by
See Captain A. Macdonald, Memoir of Nana Furnuwees (Bombay, whom it was built) and his wife Catherine, and the heart of their
1851). daughter Marie, queen of France, as well as the statue of Notre-
NANAIMO, a city of British Columbia, on the east coast of Dame de Bonsecours, the object of a well-known pilgrimage.
Vancouver Island. Pop. (1906) about 6500. It is connected Of the old ducal palace, begun in the i$th century by Duke
with Victoria by the Esquimalt and Nanaimo railway, and has Raoul and completed by Ren6 II., there remains but a single wing,
a daily steamer service to Vancouver, as well as to Comox, partly rebuilt after a fire in 1871. The entrance to this wing,
Sydney and other points on the coast. It is favourably situated which contains the archaeological museum of Lorraine, is a
for growing fruit, and mixed farming is carried on to a consider- beautiful specimen of the late Gothic of the beginning of the
able extent. There is a large export trade in coal from the 1 6th century. One of the greatest treasures of the collection is
neighbouring mines, which is gent chiefly to San Francisco. the tapestry found in the tent of Charles the Bold after the
NANA SAHIB, the common designation of Dandu Panth, an battle of Nancy. Of the old gates of Nancy the most ancient
adopted son of the ex-peshwa of the Mahrattas, Baji Rao, and remarkable is the Porte de la Craffe (1463). The town hall
who took a leading part in the great Indian Mutiny, and was contains a museum of painting and sculpture, and there is a rich
proclaimed peshwa by the mutineers. Nana Sahib had a griev- municipal library. A monument to President Carnot, and
ance against the British government because they refused to statues of Jacques Callot, the engraver, and of General Drouot,
continue to him the pension of eight lakhs of rupees (80,000) both natives of Nancy, and of Claude Gellee stand in various
which was promised to Baji Rao by Sir John Malcolm on his parts of the town.
surrender in 1818. This pension, however, was only intended Nancy is the seat of a bishop, a prefect, a court of appeal and
to be a life grant to Baji Rao himself. For this refusal the Nana a court of assizes, headquarters of the XX. army corps, and centre
bore the British a lifelong grudge, which he washed out in the of an academic (educational division) with a university comprising
blood of women and children in the massacres at Cawnpore. faculties of law, medicine, science and letters, and a higher school
In 1859, when the remnants of the rebels disappeared into of pharmacy. There are also tribunals of first instance and of
Nepal, the Nana was among the fugitives. His death was reported commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, lycees and training
some time afterwards, but his real fate remains obscure. colleges for both sexes, a higher ecclesiastical seminary, a school
NANCY, a town of north-eastern France, the capital formerly of agriculture, the national school of forestry, a higher school
of the province of Lorraine, and now of the department of of commerce, a technical school (ecole professionnelle), a school of
Meurthe-et-Moselle, 219 m. E. of Paris on the railway to Strass- arts and crafts (icole preparatoire des arts et metiers), a chamber
NANDAIR NANKEEN 161
of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. The industries in physical appearance; some resemble the Masai, being men
of Nancy include printing, brewing, cotton- and wool-spinning of tall stature with features almost Caucasian, other are dwarfish
and the weaving of cotton and woolleii goods, and the manufacture with markedly negro features. Like the Masai, Turkana and
of tobacco (by the State), of boots and shoes, straw hats, pottery, Suk, the Nandi-Lumbwa tribes were originally nomadic, but they
casks, embroidery, machinery, engineering material, larm im- have become agriculturists. They own large herds of cattle.
plements and iron goods. They have a double administrative system, the chief medicine
At the close of the nth century Odelric of Nancy, brother man or Orkoiyol being supreme chief and regulating war affairs,
of Gerard of Alsace, possessed at Nancy a castle which enabled while representatives of the people, called Kiruogik, manage
him to defy the united assaults of the bishops of Metz and Treves the ordinary affairs of the tribe. The medicine men are of
and the count of Bar. In the I2th century the town was sur- Masai origin and the office is hereditary. The young men form
rounded with walls, and became the capital of the dukes of a separate warrior class to whom is entrusted the care of the
Lorraine; but its real importance dates from the isth century, country. A period of about 7^ years is spent in this class, and
when on the 5th of January 1477 Charles the Bold was defeated the ceremony of handing over the country from one " age "
" "
by Rene II. and perished at its gates.
1
Enlarged, embellished to the succeeding age is of great importance. The arms of
and admirably refortified by Charles III., it was taken by the the warriors are a stabbing spear, shield, sword and club. Many
French in 1633 (Louis XIII. and Richelieu being present at the also possess rifles. All the Nandi are divided into clans, each
siege). After the peace of Ryswick in 1697 it was restored and having its sacred animal or totem. They have no towns, each
Duke Leopold set himself to repair the disasters of the past. family living on the land it cultivates. The huts are of circular
He founded academies, established manufactures and set pattern. The Nandi believe in a supreme deity Asis who
about the construction of the new town. But it was reserved takes a benevolent interest in their welfare, and to whom
for Stanislas Leczinski, to whom Lorraine and Bar were assigned prayers are addressed daily. They also worship ancestors and
in 1736, to carry out the plans of improvement in a style which consider earthquakes to be caused by the spirits moving in the
made Nancy one of the palatial cities of Europe, and rendered underworld. They practise circumcision, and girls undergo
himself the most popular as he was the last of the dukes of a similar operation. Spitting is a sign of blessing. Their scanty
Lorraine. city, which became French in 1766, was occupied
The clothing consists chiefly of dressed skins. The tribal mark is
by the allies in
1814 and 1815, and put to ransom by the Prussians a small hole bored in the upper part of the ear. Their language
in 1870. After the Franco-German war the population was is Nilotic and in general construction resembles the Masai.
greatly increased by the immigration of Alsatians and of people It has been slightly influenced by the Somali tongue. The
from Metz and its district. primitive hunting tribe known as the Wandorobo speak a
See C. Pfister, Histoire de Nancy (Paris and Nancy, 1902) J. Cayon,
; dialect closely resembling Nandi.
Histoire physique, civile, morale et politique de Nancy (Nancy, 1846). The Nandi at one time appear to have been subject to the
NANDAIR, or NANDER, a town of India, in the state of Masai, but when the country was first known to Europeans
Hyderabad, on the left bank of the Godaveri, with a station they were independent and occupied the plateau which bears
on the Hyderabad-Godaveri valley railway, 174 m. N.E. of their name. Hardy mountaineers and skilful warriors, they
Hyderabad city. Pop. (1901) 14,184. It is a centre of local closed their territory to all who did not get special permission,
trade, with a special industry of fine muslin and gold bordered and thus blocked the road from Mombasa to Uganda alike to
scarves. As the scene of the murder of Guru Govind, it contains Arab and Swahili. Caravans that escaped the Masai frequently
a shrine visited by Sikhs from all parts of India. fell victims to the Nandi, who were adepts at luring them to
NANDGAON, a feudatory state of India, in the Chhattisgarh destruction. When the railway to the Victoria Nyanza was
division of the Central Provinces. Area, 871 sq. m.; pop. built it had to cross the Nandi country. The tribesmen, who
(1901) 126,356, showing a decrease of 31% in the decade, due had already shown hostility to the whites, attacked both the
to famine; estimated revenue 23,000; tribute 4600. The railway and the telegraph line and raided other tribes. Eventually
state has a peculiar history. Its foundation is traced to a religious (1905-1906) the Nandi were removed by the British to reserves
celibate, who came from the Punjab towards the end of the i8th somewhat north of the railway zone (see BRITISH EAST AFRICA).
century. From the founder it passed through a succession of The Lumbwa reserve lies south of the railway, and farther south
chosen disciples until 1879, when the British government still are the reserves of the Buret and Sotik.
recognized the ruler as an hereditary chief and afterwards See A. C. Hollis, The Nandi: Their Language and Folk-lore, with
conferred upon his son the title of Raja Bahadur. The state introduction by Sir Charles Eliot (Oxford, 1909), and the works
there cited.
has long been well administered, and has derived additional
prosperity from the construction of the Bengal-Nagpur railway, NANDIORU6, a southern India, in the Kolar
hill fortress of
which has a station at Raj-Nandgaon, the capital (pop. 11,094). district of Mysore, 4851above the sea. It was traditionally
ft.
Here there is a steam cotton mill. held impregnable, and its storming by Lord Cornwailis in 1791
NANOI, an East African tribe of mixed Nilotic, Bantu and was one of the most notable incidents of the first war against
Hamitic origin. With them are more or less closely allied the Tippoo Sultan. It was formerly a favourite resort for British
Lumbwa (correctly Kipsikis), Buret (or Puret) and Sotik officials during the hot season.
(Soot) tribes, as well as the Elgonyi (properly Kony) of Mount NANGA, the most primitive form of the ancient Egyptian
Elgon. They have also affinities with the Masai tribes. The harp. The nanga consisted of a boat-shaped or vaulted body of
Nandi-Lumbwa peoples inhabit the country stretching south wood, the back of which was divided down the centre by a sound
from Mount Elgon to about i S. and bounded east by the escarp- bar built into the back; on this bar was fixed a cylindrical stick
ment of the eastern rift-valley and west by the territory of the round which one end of the strings was wound, the soundboard
tribes, such as the Kavirondo, dwelling round the Victoria or parchment being stretched over the back without interfering
Nyanza. They have given their name to the Nandi plateau. with the stick. The other end of the strings was fastened to pegs
The Hamitic strain in these allied tribes is derived from the Galla; set in the side of a curved neck, so that the strings did not lie
they also exhibit Pygmy elements. Their original home was directly over the soundboard. There were but 3 or 4 strings, one
in the north, and they probably did not reach their present home note only being obtained from each. Some of these nangas are
until the beginning of the i gth century. They differ considerably to be seen at the British Museum.
1
The battle raged in the district to the S., E. and N. of the town, NANKEEN, a cotton cloth originally made in China, and now
the operations extending from St Nicolas du Port (S.) to the bridge imitated in various countries. The name is derived from
of Bouxieres (N.). The chief struggle took place on the banks of the
Nanking, the city in which the cloth is said to have been originally
stream of Bon Secours, which now runs entirely underground,
manufactured. The characteristic yellowish colour of nankeen
flowing from the S.W. into the Meurthe. Much of the battlefield is
now covered by modern buildings, but S.W. of the town a cross is attributed to the peculiar colour of the cotton from which it
marks the spot where the body of Charles the Bold was discovered. was originally made.
XDC. 6
NANKING NANSEN, F.
NANKING (" the southern capital "), the name by which its manufacturing industries. Satin, crape, nankeen, cloth,
Kiang-ning, the chief city in the province of Kiangsu, China, has paper, pottery, and artificial flowers were among its chief
been known for several centuries. Pop. about 140,000. The products.
city stands in 32 5' N., 118 47' E., nearly equidistant between At Nanking, after its capture by British ships in 1842, Sir
"
Canton and Peking, on the south bank of the Yangtsze Kiang. Henry Pottinger signed the Nanking treaty." It was made a
It dates only from the beginning of the Ming dynasty (1368), treaty port by the French treaty of 1858, but was not formally
although it is built on the site of a city which for more than two opened. Its proximity to Chinkiang, where trade had established
thousand years figured under various names in the history of the itself while Nanking was still in the hands of the rebels, made its
empire. The more ancient city was originally known as Kin-ling ; opening of little advantage, and the point was not pressed. In
under the Han dynasty (206 B.C. to A.D. 25) its name was con- 1899 it was voluntarily thrown open to foreign trade by the
verted into Tan-yang; by the T'ang emperors (A.D. 618-907) Chinese government, and in 1909 it was connected by railway
it was styled Kiang-nan and Sheng Chow; by the first sovereign (192 m. long) with Shanghai.
"
of the Ming dynasty (A.D. 1368-1644) it was created the southern Since 1880 Nanking has been slowly recovering from the ruin
"
capital (Nan-king), and was given the distinctive name of caused by the T'aip'ing rebellion. Barely one-fourth of the area
Ying-t'ien; and since the accession to power of the present within the walls has been reoccupied, and though its ancient
Manchu rulers it has been officially known as Kiang-ning, industries are reviving, no great progress has been made. As the
though still popularly called Nan-king. It was the seat of the seat of the provincial government of Kiang-nan, however,
imperial court only during the reigns of the first two emperors of which embraces the three provinces of Kiang-su, Kiang-si,
the Ming dynasty, and was deserted for Shun-t'ien (Peking) by and Ngan-hui, Nanking is a city of first-class importance. The
Yung-lo, the third sovereign of that line, who in 1403 captured viceroy of Kiang-nan is the most powerful of all the provincial
the town and usurped the crown of his nephew, the reigning satraps, as he controls a larger revenue than any other, and has
emperor. the command of larger forces both naval and military. He is
The T'aip'ing rebels, who carried the town by assault in also superintendent of foreign trade for the southern ports,
1853, swept away all the national monuments and most of the including Shanghai, a position which gives him great weight in
more conspicuous public buildings it contained, and destroyed the all political questions. The city contains an arsenal for the
greater part of the magnificent wall which surrounded it. This manufacture of munitions of war, also powder-mills. A naval
wall is said by Chinese topographers to have been 96 li, or 32 m., college was opened in 1890, and an imperial military college a
in circumference. This computation has, however, been shown few years later under foreign instructors. The only foreign
to be a gross exaggeration, and it is probable that 60 li, or 20 m., residents are missionaries (mostly American), and employes of
would be nearer the actual dimensions. The wall, of which only the Chinese government. The only remaining features of interest
small portions remain, was about 70 ft. in height, measured 30 ft. in Nanking are the so-called Ming Tombs, being the mausolea
in thickness at the base, and was pierced by thirteen gates. of Hung-wu, the founder of the Ming dynasty, and of one or two
Encircling the north, east, and south sides of the city proper was a of his successors, which lie outside the eastern wall of the city.
second wall which enclosed about double the space of the inner They are ill cared for and rapidly going to decay. Since 1899 the
enclosure. In the north-east corner of the town stood the foreign trade has shown a steady increase.
imperial palace reared by Hung-wu, the imperial founder of the NANNING. a treaty port in the province of Kwangsi, China,
modern city. After suffering mutilation at the overthrow of the on the West river, 250 m. above Wuchow and 470 m. from
Ming dynasty, this magnificent building was burnt to the ground Canton. Pop. about 40,000. It is the highest point accessible
on the recapture of the city from the T'aip'ing rebels in 1864. for steam traffic on the West river. From Canton to Wuchow
But beyond comparison the most conspicuous public building at the river has a minimum depth of 8 ft., but on the section from
Nanking was the famous porcelain tower, which was designed Wuchow to Nanning not more than 3 or 4 ft. are found during
by the emperor Yung-lo (1403-1428) to commemorate the winter. The town is the chief market on the southern frontier.
virtues of his mother. Twelve centuries previously an Indian Its opening was long opposed by the French government, who
priest deposited on the spot where this monument afterwards had acquired the right to build a railway to it from Tongking,
stood a relic of Buddha, and raised over the sacred object a small by which they hoped to divert the trade through their own
pagoda of three stories in height. During the disturbed times possessions. Navigation by small native boats is open west-
which heralded the close of the Yuen dynasty (1368) this pagoda wards as far as Paise.
was utterly destroyed. It was doubtless out of respect to the relic, NANSEN, FRIDTJOF (1861- ), Norwegian scientist, ex-
which then perished that Yung-lo chose this site for the erection plorer and statesman, was born at Froen near Christiania on
" "
of his token-of-gratitude pagoda. The building was begun the loth of October 1861. His childhood was spent at this place
in 1413. But before it was finished Yung-lo had passed away, till his fifteenth year, when his parents removed to Christiania,
and it was reserved for his successor to see the final pinnacle where he' went to school. He entered Christiania university in
fixed in its place, after nineteen years had been consumed in 1880, where he made a special study of zoology; in March 1882
" "
carrying out the designs of the imperial architect. In shape the he joined the sealing-ship Viking for a voyage to Greenland
pagoda was an octagon, and was about 260 ft. in height, or, as waters. On his return in the same year he was appointed
the Chinese say, with that extraordinary love for inaccurate curator of the Bergen Museum, under the eminent physician
accuracy which is peculiar to them, 32 chang (a chang equals and zoologist Daniel Cornelius Danielssen (1815-1894). In 1886
about i ?o in.) 9 ft. 4 in. and -fy of an inch. The outer walls were he spent a short time at the zoological station at Naples. During
cased with bricks of the finest white porcelain, and each of the this time he wrote several papers and memoirs on zoological and
"
nine stories into which the building was divided was marked by histological subjects, and for one paper on The Structure and
overhanging eaves composed of green glazed tiles of the same Combination of the Histological Elements of the Central Nervous
material. The summit was crowned with a gilt ball fixed on the System " (Bergen, 1887) the Christiania university conferred
top of an iron rod, which in its turn was encircled by nine iron upon him the degree of doctor of philosophy. But his voyage in
" "
rings. Hung on chains which stretched from this apex to the the Viking had indicated Greenland as a possible field for
eaves of the roof were five large pearls of good augury for the exploration, and in 1887 he set about preparations for a crossing
safety of the city. One was supposed to avert floods, another of the great ice-field which covers the interior of that country.
to prevent fires, a third to keep dust-storms at a distance, a The possibility of his success was discountenanced by many
fourth to allay tempests, and a fifth to guard the city Arctic authorities, and a small grant he had asked for was refused
against disturbances. From the eaves of the several stories by the Norwegian government, but was provided by Augustin
there hung one hundred and fifty-two bells and countless Gamel, a merchant of Copenhagen, while he paid from his private
lanterns. In bygone days Nanking was one of the chief means the greater part of the expenses of the expedition. As
literary centres of the empire, besides being famous for companions Nansen had Otto Neumann Sverdrup (b. 1855),
NANSEN, H. 163
Captain O. C. Dietrichson (b. 1856), a third compatriot, and his party of the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition, and returned
"
two Lapps. The expedition started in May 1888, proceeding to Norway in his ship, the Windward," reaching Vardo on the
from Leith to Iceland, and there joining a sealing-ship bound 1 3th of August. A week later the " Fram "
also reached Norway
for the east coast of Greenland. On the i7th of July Nansen in safety. She had drifted north after Nansen had left her,
decided to leave the ship and force a way through the ice-belt to 85 57', and had ultimately returned by the west coast of
to the land, about 10 m. distant, but the party encountered Spitsbergen. An unprecedented welcome awaited Nansen. In
great difficulties owing to ice-pressures, went adrift with the ice, England he gave the narrative of his journey at a great meeting
and only reached the land on the 29th, having been carried far in the Albert Hall, London, on the 8th of February 1897,
to the south in the interval. They made their way north again, and elsewhere. He received a special medal from the Royal
along the coast inside the drift ice, and on the i6th of August Geographical Society, honorary degrees from the universities of
began the ascent of the inland ice. Suffering severely from Oxford and Cambridge, and a presentation of books (the " Chal-
"
storms, intense cold, and other hardships, they reached the lenger Reports) from the British government, and similar
highest point of the journey (8920 ft.) on the 5th of September, honours were paid him in other countries. The English version
and at the end of the month struck the west coast at the Ameralik of the narrative of the expedition is entitled Farthest North
Fjord. On reaching the settlement of Godthaab it was found (London, 1897), and the scientific results are given in The
that the party must winter there, and Nansen used the oppor- Norwegian North Polar Expedition 1893-1896; Scientific Rssulls
tunity to study the Eskimos and gather material for his book, (London, &c., 1900 sqq.).
Eskimo Life (English translation, London, 1893). The party In 1905, in connexion with the crisis between Norway and
returned home in May 1889, and Nansen's book, The First Sweden, which was followed by the separation of the kingdoms,
Crossing of Greenland (English translation, London, 1890), Nansen for the first time actively intervened in politics. He
demonstrates the valuable scientific results of the journey. A issued a manifesto and many articles, in which he adopted an
report of the scientific results was published in Petermanns attitude briefly indicated by the last words of a short work
Mitteilungen (Gotha, 1892). On his return from Greenland published later in the year: "Any union in which the one
Nansen accepted the curatorship of the Zootomic Museum of people is restrained in exercising its freedom is and will remain
"
Christiania university. In September 1889 he married Eva, a danger (Norway and the Union -with Sweden, London, 1905).
daughter of Professor Michael Sars of Christiania university, On the establishment of the Norwegian monarchy Nansen was
and a noted singer (d. 1907). appointed minister to England (1906), and in the same year he
In 1890 he propounded his scheme for a polar expedition was created G.C.V.O.; but in 1908 he retired from his post,
before the Norwegian Geographical Society, and in 1892 he and became professor of oceanography in Christiania university.
laid itbefore the Royal Geographical Society in London (see NANSEN, HANS (1598-1667), Danish statesman, son of the
" "
How can the North Polar Region be crossed ? Geogr. Journal, burgher Evert Nansen, was born at Flensburg on the 28th of
vol. i.), by which time his preparations were well advanced. November 1598. He made several voyages to the White Sea
His theory, that a drift-current sets across the polar regions and to places in northern Russia, and in 1621 entered the service
from Bering Strait and the neighbourhood of the New Siberia of the Danish Icelandic Company, then in its prime. For
Islands towards the east coast of Greenland, was based on a many years the whole trade of Iceland, which he frequently
number of indications, notably the discovery (1884), on drift visited, passed through his hands, and he soon became equally
ice off thesouth-west coast of Greenland, of relics of the American well known at Gliickstadt, then the chief emporium of the
" Iceland trade, and at Copenhagen. In February 1644, at the
north polar expedition in the ship Jeannette," which sank
N.E. of the New Siberia Islands in 1881. His intention was express desire of King Christian IV., the Copenhagen burgesses
therefore to get his vessel fixed in the ice to the north of Eastern elected him burgomaster. During his northern voyages he had
Siberia and let her drift with it. His plan was adversely criticized learnt Russian, and was employed as interpreter at court when-
by many Arctic authorities, but it succeeded. The Norwegian ever Muscovite embassies visited Copenhagen. His travels had
parliament granted two-thirds of the expenses, and the rest was begotten in him a love of geography, and he published in 1633
"
obtained by subscription from King Oscar and private indi- a Kosmografi," previously revised by the astronomer Longo-
" "
viduals. His ship, the Fram " (i.e. Forward "), was specially montanus. During the siege of Copenhagen by the Swedes in
built of immense strength and peculiar form, being pointed at 1658 he came prominently forward. At the meeting between the
bow and stern and having sloping sides, so that the ice-floes, king and the citizens to arrange for the defence of the capital,
pressing together, should tend, not to crush, but merely to slip Nansen urged the necessity of an obstinate defence. It was he
beneath and lift her. She sailed from Christiania on the 24th of who on this occasion obtained privileges for the burgesses of
June 1893. Otto Sverdrup was master; Sigurd Scott Hansen, Copenhagen which placed them on a footing of equality with
a Norwegian naval lieutenant, was in charge of the astronomical the nobility; and he was the life and soul of the garrison till
and meteorological observations; Henrik Greve Blessing was the arrival of the Dutch fleet practically saved the city. These
doctor and botanist; and among the rest was Frederik Hjalmar eighteen months of storm and stress established his influence
Johansen, lieutenant in the Norwegian army, who shipped as in the capital once for alland at the same time knitted him
fireman. On the 22nd of September the " Fram " was made closely to Frederick III., who recognized in Nansen a man
fast to a floe in 78 50' N., 133 37' E.; shortly afterwards she after his own heart, and made the great burgomaster bis chief
was frozen in, and the long drift began. She bore the pressure instrument in carrying through the anti-aristocratic Revolution
of the ice perfectly. During the whiter of 1894-1895 it was of 1660. Nansen used all the arts of the agitator with
decided that an expedition should be made northward over extraordinary energy and success. His greatest feat was the
the ice on foot in the spring, and on the I4th of March 1895 impassioned speech by which, on October 8th, he induced the
"
Nansen, being satisfied that the Fram " would continue to burgesses to accede to the proposal of the magistracy of Copen-
drift safely, left her in 84 N., 101 55' E., and started northward hagen to offer Frederick III. the realm of Denmark as a purely
accompanied by Johansen. On the 8th of April they turned hereditary kingdom. How far Nansen was content with the
back from 86 14' N., the highest latitude then reached by man; result of the Revolution absolute monarchy it is impossible
and they shaped their course for Franz Josef Land. They to say. It appears to be pretty certain that, at the beginning,
suffered many hardships, including shortage of food, and were he did not want absolutism. Whether he subsequently regarded
compelled to winter on Frederick Jackson Island (so named the victory of the monarchy and its corollary, the admittance
by Nansen) in Franz Josef Land from the 26th of August 1895 of the middle classes to all offices and dignities, as a satisfactory
to the igth of May 1896. They were uncertain as to the locality, equivalent for his original demands; or whether he was so
but, after having reached 80 N. on the south coast of the islands, overcome by royal favour as to sacrifice cheerfully the political
they were travelling westward to reach Spitsbergen, when, on liberties of his country, can only be a matter for conjecture.
the 1 7th of June 1896, they fell in with Frederick Jackson and After the Revolution Nansen continued in high honour, but
164 NANTERRE NANTES
he chiefly occupied himself with commerce, and was less and less collection paintings, modern French masters being well
of
consulted in purely political matters. He died on the I2th of represented; also has a natural history museum, a large library
it
November 1667. rich in manuscripts and a botanical garden to the east. The
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Oluf Nielsen, Kjobenhavns Historic, iii. (Copen- Pommeraye Passage, which connects streets on different levels
hagen, 1877) ; Julius Albert Fridericia, Adelsvaeldens sidste Dage and is built in stages connected by staircases, dates from 1843.
(Copenhagen, 1894); Danmarks Riges Historic, v. (Copenhagen, Between the Loire and the Erdre run the Cours St Pierre and
1897-1905). (R. N. B.) the Cours St Andre, adorned at the two ends of the line by
NANTERRE, a town of northern France, with a port on the statues of Anne of Brittany and Arthur III., Bertrand du
Seine, in the department of Seine, at the foot of Mount Valerien, Guesclin and Olivier de Clisson, and separated by the Place
8 m. N.W. of Paris on the railway to St Germain. Pop. (1906), Louis XVI., with a statue of that monarch on a lofty column.
town, 11,874; commune, 17,434. The principal manufactures The Place Royale, to the west of the Erdre, the great meeting-
are chemicals, tallow and aluminium; stone quarried in the place of the principal thoroughfares of the city, contains a
vicinity; the town is noted also for its cakes. The combined monumental fountain with allegorical statues of Nantes and the
prison and mendicity depot for the department is a large Loire and its affluents. A
flight of steps at the west end of the
institution,about 2 m. from the town. Nanterre (the ancient town leads up from the quay to the colossal cast-iron statue of
Nemptodurum or Nemetodurum) owes its origin to the shrine St Anne, whence a splendid view may be obtained over the
of Ste Genevieve (420-512), the patron-saint of Paris, whose valley of the Loire. Several old houses of the isth and i6th
name is still associated with various places in the town and centuries, the fish market and the Salorges (a vast granite
district. The shrine is the object of a pilgrimage in September. building now used as a bonded warehouse) are of interest.
NANTES, a city of western France, capital of the department Nantes has two great hospitals St Jacques on the left bank of
of Loire-Inferieure, on the right bank of the Loire, 35 m. above the Loire, and the Hotel-Dieu in Gloriette Island. It is the seat
its mouth, at the junction of the Orleans, Western and State of a bishopric and a court of assizes, and headquarters of the*
railways, 55 m. W.S.W. of Angers by rail. In population XI. army corps; it has tribunals of first instance and of
(town, 118,244; commune, 133,247, in 1906) Nantes is the first commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce
city of Brittany. The Loire here divides into several branches and a branch of the Bank of France. The educational institu-
forming islands over portions of which the city has spread. tions include lycees for both sexes, a training college for girls,
It receives on the left hand the Sevre Nantaise, and on the right schools of medicine and pharmacy and law, a preparatory school
the Erdre, which forms the outlet of the canal between Nantes to higher instruction, science and letters, schools of music, art and
and Brest. The maritime port of Nantes is reached by way of navigation, technical and commercial schools, and a school for
the Loire and the ship canal between the island of Garnet and deaf-mutes and the blind.
La Martiniere (9! m.). Vessels drawing as much as 20 ft. 8 in., Among the more important industries of Nantes are sugar-
and at spring tides, 22 ft., can reach the port, which extends over refining, flour-milling, rice-husking, the manufacture of oil,
a length of about 15 m. The outer port as far as the industrial soap, flour pastes and biscuits, and the preparation of tinned
suburb of Chantenay has a length of over half a mile. The provisions (sardines, vegetables, &c.); the manufacture of tin
principal quays extend along the right bank of the branch boxes, tiles, chemical manures, acid from chestnut bark, tobacco,
which flows past the town, and on the western shore of the island leather, wood-pulp for paper, rope, boots and shoes, brushes
of Gloriette. Their total length used for trading purposes is and glass; saw-milling, shipbuilding, metal founding and the
5 m., and warehouses cover an area of 17 acres. A slipway construction of engineering material; and wool and cotton-
facilitates the repairing of ships. The river port occupies the spinning and the manufacture of cotton and other fabrics,
St Felix and Madeleine branches, and has quays extending for hosiery and knitted goods. Coal and patent fuel (chiefly from
half a mile. Finally, on the Erdre is a third port for inland Great Britain) are the most important imports; next come
navigation. The quays are bounded by railway lines along the phosphates and pyrites; other imports are timber and pulp-wood.
right bank of the river, which the railway to St Nazaire follows. The principal exports are bunker-coal (to French colonies),
The older quarter of Nantes containing the more interesting pyrites, slate, hoops and provisions. In the ten years 1898-
buildings is situated to the east of the Erdre. 1907 the average annual value of the imports was 2,657,000;
The cathedral, begun in 1434 in the Gothic style, was unfinished of the exports 795,000. In 1907 there entered from foreign
till the igth century when the transept and choir were added. countries 738 vessels (209 British) with tonnage of 584,850,
There are two interesting monuments in the transept on the and cleared 778 with 154,720 tons of cargo, and 458,538 tons
right Michel Colomb's tomb of Francis II., duke of Brittany, and of ballast. Reckoning ships carrying cargo only the figures for
his second wife Marguerite de Foix (1507), and on the left that of the and last years of the decade 1898-1907 were: 1898,
first
General Juchault de Lamoriciere, a native of Nantes, by Paul ships entered, French 209 (tonnage 75,249), foreign 250 (tonnage
Dubois (1879). Of the other churches the most interesting is !S4>936); ships cleared, French 173 (tonnage 32,591), foreign
St Nicolas, a modern building in the style of the I3th century, 97 (tonnage 27,836). 1907, ships entered, French 186 (tonnage
on the right bank of the Erdre. Between the cathedral and the 127,635), foreign 419 (tonnage 361,002); ships cleared, French
Loire, from which it is separated only by the breadth of the quay, 126 (tonnage 81,299), foreign 128 (tonnage 45,181).
stands the castle of Nantes, founded in the gth or loth century. Before the Roman occupation Nantes was the chief town of
Rebuilt by Francis II. and the duchess Anne, it is flanked by the Namnetes and consisted of Condovicnum, lying on the hills
huge towers and by a bastion erected by Philip Emmanuel away from the river, and of Portus Namnelum, on the river.
duke of Mercceur in the time of the League. A fine facade in Under the Romans it became a great commercial and admini-
the Gothic style looks into the courtyard. From being the strative centre, though its two parts did not coalesce till the 3rd
residence of the dukes of Brittany, the castle became a state or 4th century. In the middle of the 3rd century Christianity
prison in which Jean-Francois Paul de Gondi, Cardinal de Retz, was introduced by St Clair. Clotaire I. got possession of the
Nicholas Fouquet, and Marie Louise of Naples, duchess of city in 560, and placed it under the government of St Felix
Berry, were 'at different times confined; it is now occupied as the the bishop, who executed enormous works to cause the Loire
artillery headquarters. The chapel in which the marriage of to flow under the walls of the castle. After being several times
Louis XII. with Anne of Brittany was celebrated was destroyed subdued by Charlemagne, Brittany revolted under his successors,
by an explosion in 1800. The Exchange (containing the tribunal and Nominoe, proclaimed king in 842, ordered the fortifications
and chamber of commerce), the Grand Theatre, the Prefecture of Nantes to be razed because it had sided with Charles the Bald.
and the town hall are buildings of the last half of the i8th or The Normans held the town from 843 to 936. About this time
early igth century; the law courts date from the middle of the began the rivalry between Nantes and Rennes, whose counts
i9th century. Nantes has an archaeological collection in the disputed the sovereignty of Brittany. Pierre de Dreux, declared
Dobree Museum, and in the museum of fine arts a splendid duke of Brittany by Philip Augustus, made Nantes his capital,
NANTES, EDICT OF NANTICOKE 165
surrounded it with fortifications and defended it valiantly In many ways the terms of the edict were very generous to
against John of England. During the Breton wars of succession the Protestants, but it must be remembered that the
liberty
Nantes took part first with Jean de Montfort, but afterwards to hold public worship was made the exception and not the rule;
with Charles of Blois, and did not open its gates to Monfort this was prohibited except in certain specified cases, and in this
till his success was assured and his English allies had retired. respect they were less favourably treated than they were under
In 1560 Francis II. granted Nantes a communal constitution. the arrangement made in 1576.
In the course of the isth and i6th centuries the city suffered The edict was greatly disliked by the Roman Catholic clergy
from several epidemics. Averse to Protestantism, it joined the and their friends, and a few changes were made to conciliate them.
League along with the duke of Mercceur, governor of Brittany, The parlement of Paris shared this dislike, and succeeded in
who helped to raise the country into an independent duchy; reducing the number of Protestant members of the chambre
and it was not
till 1598 that it opened its gates to Henry IV., de I'edit from six to one. Then cajoled and threatened by Henry,
who here signed on the and of May of that year the famous the parlement registered the edict on the 25th of February
Edict of Nantes which until its revocation by Louis XIV. in 1 599. After similar trouble it was also registered by the provincial
1685 was the charter of Huguenot liberties in France. It was parlements, the last to take this step being the parlement of
at Nantes that Henry de Talleyrand, count of Chalais, was Rouen, which delayed the registration until 1609.
punished in 1626 for plotting against Richelieu, that Fouquet The strong political position secured to the French Protestants
was arrested in 1661, and that the Cellamare conspirators were by the edict of Nantes was very objectionable, not only to the
executed under the regent Philip of Orleans. Having warmly ardent Roman Catholics, but also to more moderate persons,
embraced the cause of the Revolution in 1789, the city was in and the payments made to their ministers by the state were
1793 treated with extreme rigour by J. B. Carrier, envoy of viewed with increasing dislike. Thus about 1660 a strong move-
the Committee of Public Safety, whose noyad.es or wholesale ment began for its repeal, and this had great influence with the
drownings of prisoners became notorious. Nantes on more than king. One after another proclamations and declarations were
one occasion vigorously resisted the Vendeans. It was here issued which deprived the Protestants of their rights under the
that the duchess of Berry was arrested in 1832 while trying to edict; their position was rendered intolerable by a series of
stir up La Vendee against Louis Philippe. persecutions which culminated in the dragonnades, and at length
NANTES, EDICT OF, the law promulgated in April 1598 by on the i8th of October 1685 Louis revoked the edict, thus depriv-
which the French king, Henry IV., gave religious liberty to his ing the Protestants in France of all civil and religious liberty.
Protestant subjects, the Huguenots. The story of the struggle This gave a new impetus to the emigration of the Huguenots,
for the edict is part of the history of France, and during the which had been going on for some years, and England, Holland
thirty-five years of civil war which preceded its grant, many and Brandenburg received numbers of thrifty and industrious
treaties and other arrangements had been made between the French families.
contending religious parties, but none of these had been satis- The history of the French Protestants, to which the edict of Nantes
factory or lasting. The elation of the Protestants at the accession belongs, isdealt with in thearticles FRANCE: History,a.nA HUGUENOTS.
of Henry IV. in 1589 was followed by deep depression, when it
For further details about the edict see the papers and documents
was found that not only did he adopt the Roman Catholic faith, published as Le Trpisieme centenaire de I'edit de Nantes (1898);
N. A. F. Puaux, Histoire du Protestantisme franfais (Paris, 1894);
but that his efforts to redress their grievances were singularly H. M. Baird, The Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes
ineffectual. In 1594 they took determined measures to protect (London, 1895) ; C. Benoist, La Condition des Protestants sous le
themselves; in 1597, the war with Spain being practically over, regime de I'edit de Nantes et apres sa revocation (Paris, 1900) ; A. Lods,
L'Edit de Nantes deyant le parlement de Paris (1899) ; and the Bulletin
long negotiations took place between the king and their repre- historique et litteraire of the Socie'te' de 1'Histoire du Protestantisme
sentatives, prominent among whom was the historian J. A. de Frangais.
Thou, and at was drawn up. It consisted of 95
last the edict
NANTEUIL, ROBERT (1623-1678), French line-engraver, was
general articles, which were signed by Henry at Nantes on the born about 1623, or, as other authorities state, in 1630, the
i3th of April 1598, and of 56 particular ones, signed on the son of a merchant of Reims. Having received an excellent
2nd of May. There was also some supplementary matter. classical education, he studied engraving under his brother-in-
The main provisions of the edict of Nantes may be briefly
law, Nicholas Regnesson; and, his crayon portraits having
summarized under six heads: (i) It gave liberty of conscience attracted attention, he was pensioned by Louis XIV. and
to the Protestants throughout the whole of France. (2) It
appointed designer and engraver of the cabinet to that monarch.
gave to the Protestants the right of holding public worship in It was mainly due to his influence that the king granted the
those places where they had held it in the year 1576 and in the edict of 1660, dated from St Jean de Luz, by which engraving
earlier part of 1577; also in placeswhere this freedom had been was pronounced free and distinct from the mechanical arts, and
granted by the edict of Poitiers (1577) and the treaties of Nerac itspractitioners were declared entitled to the privileges of other
(1579) and of Felix (1580). The Protestants could also worship artists. He died at Paris in 1678. The plates of Nanteuil,
in two towns in each bailliage and senechausee. The greater several of them approaching the scale of life, number about three
nobles could hold Protestant services in their houses; the hundred. In his early practice he imitated the technique of
do the same, but only for gatherings of not
lesser nobles could his predecessors, working with straight lines, strengthened, but
more than thirty people. Regarding Paris, the Protestants not crossed, in the shadows, in the style of Claude Mellan, and
could conduct worship within five leagues of the city; previously in other prints cross-hatching like Regnesson, or stippling in the
this prohibition had extended to a distance of ten leagues. manner Jean Boulanger; but he gradually asserted his full
of
(3) Full civil rights were granted to the Protestants. They could individuality, modelling the faces of his portraits with the utmost
trade freely, inherit property and enter the universities, colleges
precision and completeness, and employing various methods
and schools. All official positions were open to them. (4) To of touch for the draperies and other parts of his plates. Among
deal with disputes arising out of the edict a chamber was estab- the finest works of his fully developed period may be named
lished in the parlement of Paris (le chambre de I' edit). This the portraits of Pomponne de Bellievre, Gilles Menage, Jean
was to be composed of ten Roman Catholic, and of six Protestant
Loret, the due de la Meilleraye and the duchess de Nemours.
members. Chambers for the same purpose, but consisting of A list of his works will be found in Dumesnil's Le Peintre-graveur
Protestants and Roman Catholics in equal numbers, were estab- franqais, vol. iv.
lished in connexion with the provincial parlements. (5) The NANTICOKE, a borough of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania,
Protestant pastors were to be paid by the state and to be freed U.S.A., on the North Branch of the Susquehanna river, opposite
from certain burdens, their position being made practically West Nanticoke, and 8 m. S.W. of Wilkes-Barre. Pop. (1880),
equal to that of the Roman Catholic clergy. (6) hundred A 3884; (1890), 10,044; (1900), 12,116, of whom 5055 were
places of safety were given to the Protestants for eight years, foreign-born; (1910 census) 18,877. It is served by the
Pennsylvania, the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western and the
the expenses of garrisoning them being undertaken
by the king.
i66 NANTUCKET
Central of New Jersey railways, and by an interurban electric collection of relics. Nantucket was the home of Benjamin
line. Nant.icoke is situated in the anthracite coal region, is Franklin's mother, Abiah, whose father, Peter Folger, was one
surrounded by mines, and its industries consist chiefly in mining of the earliest settlers (1663); of Maria Mitchell, and of Lucretia
and shipping coal; also has various manufactures, and in
it Mott. Adjoining the Maria Mitchell homestead is a memorial
1905 the factory product was valued at $358,091. Nanticoke astronomical observatory and library, containing the collections
was laid out in 1793, and was incorporated as a borough in 1874. of Miss Mitchell and of her brother, Professor Henry Mitchell
The name that of an Algonquian tribe of Indians, conspicuous
is (1830-1902), a distinguished hydrographer. The industries of
for their dark complexion, who originally lived in Maryland, the island are unimportant; there is considerable cod and scallop
were conquered by the Iroquois in 1678 and subsequently fishing. Sheep-raising was once an important industry. Nan-
scattered; the main body removed to lands along the eastern tucket was long famous as a whaling port. As early as the
branch of the Susquehanna, where some of them became merged beginning of the i8th century its fleets vied with those of eastern
with the Iroquois, and others removed to the Ohio and became Long Island. a Nantucket whaler, Christopher Hussey,
In 1712
merged with the Delaware. blown out to some sperm whales and thus introduced
sea, killed
NANTUCKET, a county and township (coextensive) of Massa- the sperm-oil industry and put an end to the period in which
chusetts, U.S.A. Its principal part is an island of the same only drift- and shore- or boat-whaling had been carried on
name, 28 m. S. of Cape Cod peninsula; it also includes the the shore fishery died out about 1760. In 1757 whaling was the
island of Tuckernuck, which has an area of 1-97 sq. m., and is only livelihood of the people of Nantucket; and in 1750-1775,
used for sheep grazing; Muskeget Island, which has excellent although whaling fleets were in repeated danger from French
hunting, and of which about one-half is a public park; and the and Spanish privateers, the business, with the allied coopers
Gravel Islands and other islets. Pop. of the county (1905 and other trades, steadily increased. In 1775 the Nantucket
state census), 2930; (1910) 2962. fleet numbered 150, and the population was between 5000 and
The island, with a minimum length of 15 m., an average width 6000, about 90% being Quakers; but by 1785 the fleet had
of 2| m., and an area of about 47 sq. m., has a coast-line of been shattered, 134 ships being destroyed or captured during
88 m.; it lies within the lo-fathom line, but is separated from the war. Tallow candles as a substitute for whale-oil had been
the mainland by Nantucket Sound, which is 25 to 30 m. across introduced, and the British market was closed by a duty of
and has a maximum depth of 50 ft. The surface of Nantucket 18 a ton on oil; a bounty offered by the Massachusetts legis-
Island is open, nearly treeless, with a few hills, the highest being lature (5 on white and 3 on yellow or brown spermaceti,
91 ft. above sea-level. The soil is sandy but affords good pasture and 2 on whale-oil per ton) was of slight assistance. During the
in some places, and has been farmed with some success; the war of 1812 the Nantucket fleet was the only one active; it
flora is rich, and includes some rare species. There are a score suffered severely during the war, and in the decade 1820-1830
of fresh-water ponds, the largest being Hummock (320 acres). Nantucket lost its primacy to New Bedford, whose fleet in 1840
Copaum (21 acres) was, at the time of the first settlement, a bay was twice as large. Nantucket's last whaler sailed in 1869.
and the commonly used harbour, but the present harbour (6 m. Subsequently the island has been chiefly important as a summer
long) is that formed by Coatue Beach, a long narrow tongue of resort.
land on the N. side of the island. The northern part of Coatue Title to Nantucket and the neighbouring islands was claimed
Beach is known as Coskata Beach, and curves to the N.W.; under grants of the Council for New England both by William
near its tip is Great Point, where a lighthouse was first built in Alexander, Lord Stirling, and by Sir Ferdinando Gorges. Lord
1784. There have been many terrible wrecks on the coast, agent sold them in 1641 to Thomas Mayhew (1592-
Stirling's
and there are life-saving stations on Muskeget Island, near 1682) of Watertown, Mass., and his son Thomas (c. 1616-
Maddaket, at Surfside and on Coskata Beach. At the W. end 1657) for 40, and a little later the elder Mayhew obtained
of the island is Tuckernuck Bank, a broad submarine platform, another deed for Martha's Vineyard from Gorges. In 1659 the
on whose edge are the island of Tuckernuck, on which is a village elder Mayhew sold a joint interest in the greater part of the
of the same name, and Muskeget Island. In the S.E. extremity island of Nantucket for 30 and two beaver hats to nine partners;
of Nantucket Island is Siasconset (locally 'Sconset), a summer early in the following year the first ten admitted ten others as
resort of some vogue; it has a Marconi wireless telegraph equal proprietors, and later, in order to encourage them to settle
station, connecting with incoming steamers, the Nantucket here, special half-grants were offered to tradesmen. The original
shoals lightship and the mainland. On a bluff on the S. is the twenty proprietors, however, endeavoured to exclude the trades-
small village of Surfside. Other hamlets are Maddaket, at the men from any voice in the government, and this caused strife.
W. end of the island; and Polpis, Quidnet and Wauwinet (at Both factions appealed to the governor of New York, that pro-
the head of Nantucket harbour) in its E. part. vince having claimed jurisdiction over the islands under the
The principal settlement and summer resort is the town of grant to the duke of York in 1664, and, becoming increasingly
Nantucket (on the S.W. end of the harbour), which is served by dissatisfied with that government, sought a union with Massa-
steamers from New Bedford, Martha's Vineyard and Wood's chusetts until the islands were annexed to that province by its
Hole, and is connected with Siasconset by a primitive narrow- new charter of 1691. The town of Nantucket was settled in
gauge railway. Here there are large summer hotels, old resi- 1661 and was incorporated in 1671. By order of Governor
dences built in the prosperous days of whaling, old lean-to houses, Francis Lovelace it was named Sherburne in 1673, but in 1795
old graveyards and an octagonal towered windmill built in 1746. the present name was adopted. Its original site was Maddaket
There are two libraries; one founded in 1836, and now a public on the W. end of the island; in 1672 it was moved to its present
library in the Atheneum building; and the other in what is site, then called Wescoe. When counties were first organized in
now the School of Industrial and Manual Training (1904), founded New York, in 1683, Nantucket and the neighbouring islands
in 1827 as a Lancasterian school by Admiral Sir Isaac Coffin were erected into Dukes county, but in 1695, after annexation
(1759-1839), whose ancestors were Nantucket people. The to Massachusetts,' Nantucket Island, having been set apart from
Jethro Coffin House was built in 1686, according to tradition; Dukes county, constituted Nantucket county, and in 1713
the Old North Vestry, the first Congregational meeting-house, Tuckernuck Island was annexed to it.
was moved in 1767, and again in 1834 to its present
built in 1711,
See the bulletins (1896 sqq.) of the Nantucket Historical Society,
siteon Beacon Hill. The old South Church Tower, a steeple and
established in 1894; F. B. Hough, Papers relating to the Island of
clock tower, 144 ft. above sea-level, has a fine Portuguese bell, Nantucket . while under the Colony of New York (Albany, N.Y.,
. .
made in 1810. Another old house, built in 1725, was the home 1856); M. S. Dudley, Nantucket Centennial Celebration; Historic
of Elihu Coleman, an anti-slavery minister of the Society of Sites and Historic Buildings (Nantucket, 1895) Obed Macy, History
;
of Nantucket (Boston, 1835); L. S. Hinchman, Early Settlers of
Friends, who were very strong here until the close of the first Nantucket (Philadelphia, 1896; 2nd ed., 1901); W. S. Bliss, Quaint
quarter of the igth century. Near the old Friends' School is Nantucket (Boston, 1896) and N. S. Shaler, Geology of Nantucket
;
the building of the Nantucket Historical Society, which has a (Washington, 1889), being U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin, No. 53.
NANTWICH NAPHTHALENE 167
NANTWICH, a market town in the Crewe parliamentary short. The word nap means a short sleep or doze (O. Eng.
also
"
division of Cheshire, England, 161 m. N.W. of London, on the hnappian). In napkin," a square of damask or other linen,
London & North-Western and Great Western railways. Pop. used for wiping the hands and lips or for protecting the clothes
of urban district (1901) 7722. It lies on the river Weaver, in the at meals, the second part is a common English suffix, sometimes
"
upper part of its flat, open valley. The church of St Mary and of diminutive force, and the first is from nape,"
*
Low Lat.
St Nicholas is a cruciform building in red sandstone, of the napa or nappa, a corrupt form of mappa, table-cloth. Nape still
"
Decorated and Perpendicular periods, with a central octagonal survives in napery," a name for household linen in general.
tower. The fine old carved stalls are said to have belonged to NAPHTALI, in the Bible, the name of an Israelite tribe, the
" "
Vale Royal Abbey, near Winsford in this county. Nantwich re- son of Jacob by Bilhah, Rachel's maid, and the uterine
tains not a few old timbered houses of the 1 6th and 1 7th centuries, brother of Dan (Gen. xxx. 8). It lay to the south of Dan in the
but the town as a whole is modern in appearance. The grammar eastern half of upper Galilee (Josh. xix. 32-39), a fertile mountain-
school was founded in 161 1. The salt industry, still the staple of ous district (cf. Gen. xlix. 21; Deut. xxxiii. 23), open to the
several towns lower down the vale of the Weaver, was so surrounding influences of Phoenicia and Aram. Apart from its
important here in the time of Henry VIII. that there were three share in the war against Sisera (Judg. iv. seq., see DEBORAH),
hundred salt-works. Though this industry has lapsed, there are little is known of it. It evidently suffered in the bloody conflicts
brine baths, much used in cases of rheumatism, gout and general of Damascus with Israel (i Kings xv. 20), and was depopulated
debility, and the former private mansion of Shrewbridge Hall is by Tiglath-Pileser IV. (2 Kings xv. 29; Isa. ix. i). Naphtali and
converted into a hotel with a spa. Nantwich has tanneries, a Dan are " brothers," perhaps partly on geographical grounds,
manufacture of boots and shoes, and clothing factories; and but Dan also had a seat in the south (south-west of Ephraim),
corn-milling and iron-founding are carried on. The town is one and the name of the " mother " Bilhah is apparently connected
of the best hunting centres in the county, being within reach with Bilhan, an Edomite and also a Benjamite name (Gen.
of several meets. xxxvi. 27; i Chron. vii. 10).
For the view connecting Naphtali (perhaps a geographical rather
From the traces of a Roman road between Nantwich and Middle-
than a tribal term), or rather its Israelite inhabitants, with the south
wich, and the various Roman remains that have been found in the see the full discussion by H. W. Hogg, Ency. Bib. iii. col. 3332 sqq.
neighbourhood, it has been conjectured that Nantwich was a salt- with references.
town in Roman times, but of this there is no conclusive evidence.
The Domesday Survey contains a long account of the laws, customs NAPHTHA, a word originally applied to the more fluid kinds of
and values of the salt-works at that period, which were by far the petroleum, issuing from the ground in the Baku district of
most profitable in Cheshire. The salt-houses were divided between Russia and in Persia. It is the va<t>9a of Dioscorides, and the
the king, the earl of Chester and certain resident freemen of the
neighbourhood. The name of the town appears variously as Wych naphtha, or bitumen liquidum candidum of Pliny. By the alchemists
Manbank, Wie Malban, Nantwich, Lache Mauban, Wysmanban, the word was used principally to distinguish various highly
Wiens Malbanus, Namptewiche. About the year 1070 William volatile, mobile and inflammable liquids, such as the ethers,
Malbedeng or Malbank was created baron of Nantwich, which barony sulphuric ether and acetic ether having been known respectively
he held of the earl of Chester. In the I3th century the barony fell
to three daughters and co-heiresses, and further subdivisions followed. as naphtha sulphurici and naphtha aceti.
This probably accounts for the lack of privileges belonging to Nant- The term is now seldom used, either in commerce or in science,
wich as a corporate town. The only town charter is one of 1567 without a distinctive prefix, and we thus have the following:
1568, in which Queen Elizabeth confirms an ancient privilege of 1. Coal-tar Naphtha. A volatile commercial product obtained by
the burgesses that they should not be upon assizes or juries with the distillation of coal-tar (see COAL-TAR). *
strangers, relating to matters outside the town. It is stated in the 2. Shale Naphtha. Obtained by distillation from the oil pro-
charter that the right to this privilege had been proved by an in- duced by the destructive distillation of bituminous shale (see
quisition taken in the I4th century, and had then already been held PARAFFIN).
from time immemorial. There was a gild merchant and also a town 3. Petroleum Naphtha. A name sometimes given (e.g. in the
bailiff, but the latter office was of little real significance and was United States) to a portion of the more volatile hydrocarbons
soon dropped. There is documentary evidence of a castle at Nant- distilled from petroleum (see PETROLEUM).
wich the I3th century. There is a weekly market on Saturday,
in 4. Wood Naphtha. Methyl alcohol (q.v.).
held by
prescription. In 1283 a three-days fair to be held at the 5. Bone Naphtha. Known also as bone oil or Dippel's oil. A
feast of St Bartholomew was granted to Robert Burnell, bishop of volatile product of offensive odour obtained in the carbonization of
Bath and Wells (then holder of a share of the barony of Nantwich). bones for the manufacture of animal charcoal.
" " " "
This is the Old Fair or Great Fair now held on the ^th of 6. Caoutchouc Naphtha. A volatile product obtained by the
September. Earl Cholmondeley received a grant of two fairs in destructive distillation of rubber. (B. R.)
1723. Fairs are now held on the first Thursday in April, June,
September and December, and a cheese fair on the first Thursday in NAPHTHALENE, CioH8 ,
a hydrocarbon discovered in the
" "
and " heavy
"
each month except January. The salt trade declined altogether in carbolic oil fractions of the coal-tar distillate
the 1 8th century, with the exception of one salt-works, which was
(see COAL-TAR) in 1819 by A. Garden. It is a product of the
kept open until 1856. There was a shoe trade in the town as early action of heat on many organic compounds, being formed when
as the I7th century, and gloves were made from the end of the
l6th century until about 1863. Weaving and stocking trades also the vapours of ether, camphor, acetic acid, ethylene, acetylene,
flourished in the l8th century. The one corn-mill of Nantwich was &c., are passed through a red-hot tube (M. Berthelot, Jahresb.,
converted into a cotton factory in 1789, but was closed in 1874.
1851), or when petroleum is led through a red-hot tube packed
See James Hall, A History of Nantwich or Wich Milbank (1883).
with charcoal (A. Letny, Ber., 1878, n, p. 1210). It may be
NAOROJI, DADABHAI (1825- ), Indian politician, was
synthesized by passing the vapour of phenyl butylene bromide
born at Nasik on the 4th of September 1825, the son of a Parsi over heated soda lime (B. Aronheim, Ann., 1874, 171, p. 219);
priest. During a long and active life, he played many parts: and by the action of ortho-xylylene bromide on sodium ethane
professor of mathematics at the Elphinstone college (1854); tetracarbexylic ester, the resulting tetra-hydronaphthalene
founder of the Rast Goftar newspaper; partner in a Parsi business
tetracarboxylic ester being hydrolysed and heated, when it
firm in London (1855); prime minister of Baroda (1874); yields hydronaphthalene dicarboxylic acid, the silver, salt of
member of the Bombay legislative council (1885); M.P. for which decomposes on distillation into naphthalene and other
Central Finsbury (1892-1895), being the first Indian to be elected
products (A. v. Baeyer and W. H. Perkin, junr., Ber., 1884,
to the House of Commons; three times president of the Indian
17, P- 451):
National Congress. Many of his numerous writings are collected
r ,
" Na-C(CO2 R)i
in Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901).
NAP, the pile on cloth, the surface of short fibres raised by
special processes, differing with the various fabrics, and then CH -CH-CO,H
smoothed and cut. Formerly the word was applied to the
r H S r lH4 ^CH -C(COH),
2
" " <CH .C(C0 H),
2 2
roughness on textiles before shearing. Nap in this sense
1 "
appears in many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Noppe, Dutch nop, Nape,"" the back of the neck, is of doubtful origin; it may be
Nor. napp; the verbal form is noppen or nappen, to trim, cut a variant of knap," a knob or protuberance.
i68 NAPHTHOLS
It is a colourless solid, which melts at 80 C., and boils at NAPHTHOLS, or HYDROXYNAPHTHALENES, Ci H 7 OH, the
218 C. It crystallizes in the monoclinic system; it is to be naphthalene homologues of the phenols. The hydroxyl group
noted that a- and /3-naphthol assume almost identical forms, so is more reactive than in the phenols, the naphthols being con-
that these three compounds have been called isomorphous. It is verted into naphthylamines by the action of ammonia, and
insoluble in water, but is readily soluble in alcohol, and ether. forming ethers and esters much more readily.
It has a characteristic smell, and is very volatile, distilling a-Naphthol may be prepared by fusing sodium-a-naphthalene
readily in a current of steam. It acts as a weak antiseptic. It is sulphonate with caustic soda; by heating a-naphthylamine
used for enriching coal gas, as a vermin killer, in the manufacture sulphate with water to 200 C. (English Patent 14301 (1892));
of certain azo dyes, and in the preparation of phthalic acid (q.v.). and by heating phenyl isocrotonic acid (R. Fittig and H.
When passed through a red-hot tube packed with carbon it Erdmann, Ann. 1885, 227, p. 242): C 6 H 6 CH:CH-CH 2 -CO2H
yields j3/3-dinaphthyl, (CioH 7 ) 2 It forms a crystalline compound
.
= CioH 7 OH+H
2 0. It forms colourless needles which melt at
with picric acid. It readily forms addition products with 94 C.; and is readily soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform,
chlorine and with hydrogen; the dichloride, CioH 8 Cl 2 is obtained ,
and caustic alkalis. It is volatile in steam. With ferric
as a yellow liquid by acting with hydrochloric acid and potassium chloride it gives dark-blue precipitate of a-dinaphthol,
a
chlorate; the solid tetrachloride, CK> H
8 CU, results when chlorine HOCioHe-CioHe-OH. Alkaline potassium permanganate oxi-
is passed into naphthalene dissolved in chloroform. Numerous dizes it to phenyl-glyoxyl-ortho-carboxylic acid, HC^C-CeHvCO-
hydrides are known; heated with red phosphorus and hydriodic CO 2 H. It is reduced by sodium in boiling amyl alcohol solution
" "
acid the hydrocarbon yields mixtures of hydrides of composition to aromatic tetrahydro-a-naphthol (reduction occurring in
CioHio to CioH 20 Sodium in boiling ethyl alcohol gives the
. the ring which does not contain the hydroxyl group). When
a-dihydride, Ci Hi (E. Bamberger, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 1705); heated with hydrazine hydrate at 160 C. it gives a-naphthyl
and with boiling amyl alcohol the /3-tetrahydride, Ci Hi 2 hydrazine, CioH 7 NH-NH2(L. Hoffmann, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2909).
(E. Bamberger, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 1561). The a-tetrahydro- Nitric acid converts it into nitro-compounds, which are occasion-
naphthalene is formed when naphthalene is heated with phos- ally used for dyeing silk and wool.
phonium iodide at i7o-i9O (A. v. Baeyer). Structurally Marlius yellow, CioH^NC^ONa-HzO, the sodium salt of 2-4
naphthalene may be represented as a fusion of two benzene dinitro-o-naphthol (for notation see NAPHTHALENE), is prepared
by the action of nitric acid on a-naphthol-2-4-disulphonic acid. It
nuclei, the hydrogen atoms being numbered as in the inset forms orange-yellow plates and dyes wool a golden yellow (from an
acid bath). Naphthol yellow S., CioH 4 (ONa)(NO2) 2 SO 3 Na, prepared
formula i, 4, 5, 8 are o-positions, 2, 3, 6, 7 are /3; by the action of nitric acid on a-naphthol-2-4-7-trisulphonic acid,
is an orange-yellow powder which dyes wool and silk yellow (from
an acid bath).
1-5 or 4-8 diderivatives are ana, whilst 1-8 or 4-5 are peri (see Numerous mono-, di- and trisulphonic acids of o-naphthol are
CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC). employed in the preparation of azo dyes. The most important is
Nevile and Winther's acid, CioH c (OH)(SO3H)(i-4), formed when
diazotized naphthionic acid (a-naphthylamine-4-sulphonic acid) is
a-Nitronaphthalene, CioH 7 'NO 2 is formed by the direct nitration of
,
For its commercial preparation see O. Witt, Die boiled with dilute sulphuric acid (Nevile and Winther, Ber., 1880,
naphthalene.
chemische Industrie, 1887, 10, p. 215. It crystallizes in yellow 13, p. 1949), or when sodium naphthionate is heated with concen-
trated caustic soda solution under pressure at 240 "-260 C. (German
needles, which melt at 61 C., and are readily soluble in alcohol.
By the action of nitro-sulphuric acid it is converted into a mixture patent 46307 (1888)). It melts at 170 C., and is readily soluble in
of 1-5 and 1-8 dinitronaphthalenes (P. Friedlander, Ber., 1809,32, water. With ferric chloride it gives a blue coloration.
P- 353 ') When heated with aniline and its salts it yields phenyl- fi-Naphthol, CioH 7 OH, prepared by fusing sodium j3-naphtha-
rosmdulin (German patent 67339 ( l888 ))- 0-Nitronaphthalene is lene sulphonate with caustic soda, crystallizes in plates which
prepared by acting with ethyl nitrite on an alcoholic solution of melt at 122 C. With ferric chloride it gives a green colouration,
' 2-nitro-o-naphthylamine in the presence of sulphuric acid (E. Lell-
mann and A. Remy, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 237), or with freshly prepared and after a time a white flocculent precipitate of a dinaphthol.
potassium cupronitrite on ^-naphthalene diazonium sulphate With sodium in boiling amyl alcohol solution it gives a mixture
(A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1900, 33, p. 2553). It crystallizes in small
of alicyclic and aromatic tetrahydro-jS-naphthols (E. Bamberger,
yellow needles which melt at 78 C. and are volatile in steam. When heated with ammonium formate
Sulphonic Acids. Two monosulphonic acids (o and /3) result by Ber., 1890, 23, p. 197).
acting with sulphuric acid on the hydrocarbon, the a-acid pre- to 150 C. it forms /3-naphthylamine. With nitrosodimethy-
dominating at low temperatures (80 C. and under) and the /3-acid laniline hydrochloride it forms Meldola's Blue (dimethylamino-
at higher temperatures (i7o-2OO C.). They are crystalline, hygro- CisHis^OCl
naphthophenoxazonium chloride), (R. Meldola,
scopic compounds and are employed for the manufacture of the
Numerous di- and acids are known. Ber., 1879, 12, p. 2065).
naphthols. /ri-sulphonic
a- Naphthoquinone, CioHeOa, resembles benzoquinone, and is formed The |8-naphthol sulphonic acids find extensive application in the
o-derivatives of naphthalene
many colour industry. The most important members are shown in the
by the oxidation of
with^chromic
acid. It crystallizes in yellow needles which melt at 125 C. It table :
sublimes readily, is volatile in steam and reduces to
the corresponding dihydroxynaphthalene. /3 Naphtho- FORMULA.
quinone is formed by oxidizing 2-amino-a-naphthol
(from/S-naphthol-orangebyreduction) withferric chlo-
ride. It crystallizes in red needles, which melt at 115
C; it has no smell and is non-volatile (cf. phenan-
the sodium bisulphite compound of 7-8 dioxy-a-
naphthoquinone, is a dyestuff used for printing on
cotton in the presence of a chromium mordant.
The naphthoquinone is prepared by the action
of zinc and concentrated sulphuric acid on o-di-
nitronaphthalene. A 2-6 naphthoquinone results
on oxidizing 2-6 dihydroxynaphthalene with lead
peroxide.
a-Naphthoic acid, CioHT-COsH, is formed by hydro-
.
lysis of the nitrile, obtained by distilling potassium-
o-naphthalene sulphonate with potassium cyanide (V.
Merz, Zeit. f. Chemie, 1868, p. 34), or by heating the
sulphonate withsodiumformate (V.Meyer, Ann. ,1870,
156, p. 274). It forms needles which melt at 160 C.
ft-Naphthoic acid, obtained by boiling j3-methylnaph-
thalene with dilute nitric acid, or by hydrolysis of
its nitrile (formed when formyl-/3-naphthalide is
heated with zinc dust), crystallizes from alcohol in
melt at 184 C.
NAPHTHYLAMINES NAPIER, SIR C. J. 169
a-naphthoquinone-oxime, formed by the action of nitrous acid on acting post captain. His rank was confirmed, but he was put on
o-naphthol or of hydroxylamine hydrochloride on a-naphthoquinone half -pay, when he came home with a convoy. He spent some time
(H. Goldschmidt and H. Schmidt, Ber., 1884, 17 p. 2064); and
at the university of Edinburgh, and then went to Portugal to
2-nitroso-a-naphthol (/3-naphthoquinone-oxime), formed by the action
of hydroxylamine hydrochloride on /3-naphthoquinone, visit his cousins in Wellington's army. In 1811 he served in
the Mediterranean, and in 1813 on the coast of America and in the
NAPHTHYLAMINES, or AMINONAPHTHALENES, C 10HvNH2 , expedition up the Potomac. The first years of his leisure he
the naphthalene homologues of aniline, in contrast to which spent in Italy and in Paris, but speculated so much in a steamboat
they may be prepared by heating the naphthols with ammonia- enterprise that by 1827 he was quite ruined. In that year he was
" "
zinc chloride. appointed to the Galatea (42), and was at the Azores when
a-Naphthylamine is prepared by reducing a-nitronaphthalene they were held by the count de Villa Flor for the queen of
with iron and hydrochloric acid at about 70 C., the reaction Portugal. He so much impressed the constitutional leaders that
mixture being neutralized with milk of lime, and the naphthy- they begged him to take command of the fleet, which offer he
lamine steam-distilled. It may also be prepared (in the form of accepted in February 1833. With it he destroyed the Miguelite
its acetyl derivative) by heating a-naphthol with sodium acetate, fleet off Cape St Vincent on July 5, and on the demand of
ammonium chloride and acetic acid (A. Calm, Ber., 1882, 15, France was struck off the English navy list. Continuing his
p. 6 1 6);by heating a-naphthol with calcium chloride-ammonia Portuguese services, he commanded the land forces on the success-
to 270 C.; and by heating pyromucic acid, aniline, zinc chloride ful defence of Lisbon in 1834, when he was made Grand Com-
and lime to 300 C. (F. Canzonieri and V. Oliveri, Gazz., 1886, 16, mander of the Tower and Sword, and Count Cape St Vincent in
p. 493). It crystallizes in colourless needles which melt at 50 C. the peerage of Portugal. On his return to England he was re-
It possesses a disagreeable faecal odour, sublimes readily, and stored to former rank in the navy 1836, and received
his
turns brown on exposure to air. Oxidizing agents (ferric command of the " Powerful " (84), in 1838. When troubles
chloride, &c.) give a blue precipitate with solutions of its salts. broke out in Syria he was appointed second in command, and
Chromic acid converts it into a-naphthoquinone. Sodium in boil- distinguished himself by leading the storming column at Sidon on
ing amyl alcohol reduces it to aromatic tetrahydro-a-naphthyl- September 26, 1840, and by other services, for which he was made
amine, a substance having the properties of an aromatic amine, a K.C.B. He went on half-pay in 1841, and was in 1842 elected
for it can be diazotized and does not possess an ammoniacal M.P. for Marylebone in the Liberal interest, but lost his seat in
smell. Since it does not form an addition product with bromine, 1846. He was promoted rear-admiral the same year, and com-
reduction must have taken place in one of the nuclei only, and manded the Channel fleet from 1846 to 1848. On the outbreak of
on account of the aromatic character of the compound it must be the Russian War he received the command of the fleet destined
in that nucleus which does not contain the amino group. This to act in the Baltic, and hoisted his flag in February 1854.
tetrahydro compound yields adipic acid, (CI^MCC^HJj, when He refused to attack Cronstadt, and a great outcry was raised
oxidized by potassium permanganate. The a-naphthylamine against him for not obeying the orders of the Admiralty and
sulphonic acids are used for the preparation of azo dyes, these attempting to storm the key of St Petersburg; but his inaction
dyes possessing the important property of dyeing unmordanted has been thoroughly justified by posterity. On his return in
cotton. The most important is naphthionic acid, i-amino-4- December 1854 he was not again offered a command. He was
sulphonic acid, produced by heating a-naphthylamine and elected M.P. for Southwark in February 1855, and maintained
sulphuric acid to 170-180 C. with about 3%
of crystallized his seat, though broken in health, until his death on the 6th of
oxalic acid. It forms small needles, very sparingly soluble in November 1860. Sir Charles Napier was a man of undoubted
water. With diazotized benzidine it gives Congo red. energy and courage, but of no less eccentricity and vanity.
0-Naphl/iylamine is prepared by heating /3-naphthol with zinc He caused great offence to many of his brother officers by his
chloride-ammonia to 200-210 (V. Merz and W. Weith, Ber., behaviour to his superior, Admiral Stopford, in the Syrian War,
1880, 13, 1300); or in the form of its acetyl derivative by and was embroiled all his life in quarrels with the Admiralty.
heating /3-naphthol with ammonium acetate to 270-280 C. See Major-General E. Napier's Life and Correspondence of Admiral
It forms odourless, colourless plates which melt at 111-112 C. Sir Charles Napier, K.C.B. (2 vols., London, 1862); Napier's own
It gives no colour with ferric chloride. When reduced by sodium War in Syria (2 vols., 1842); The Navy: its past and present state,
in a series of letters, edited by Sir W. F. P. Napier (1851); and
in boiling amyl alcohol solution it forms alicyclic tetrahydro-/3-
The History of the Baltic Campaign of 1854, from documents and
naphthylamine, which has most of the properties of the aliphatic oilier materials furnished by Vice-Admiral Sir C. Napier, K.C.B.
amines; it is strongly alkaline in reaction, has an ammoniacal (1857). See also The Life and Exploits of Commodore Napier (1841) ;
odour and cannot be diazotized. On oxidation it yields and Life of Vice-Admiral Sir C. Napier (1854).
ortho-carboxy-hydrocinnamic acid, I^C-CeHcCI^-CHa-COsH. NAPIER, SIR CHARLES JAMES (1782-1853), British soldier
Numerous sulphonic acids derived from /3-naphthylamine are and statesman, was born at Whitehall, London, in 1782, being
known, the more important of which are the 2-8 or Badische, the eldest son of Colonel George Napier (a younger son of the
the 2-5 or Dahl, the 2-7 or 5, and the 2-6 or Bronner acid. Of fifth lord Napier), and of his wife, the Lady Sarah Lennox
these, the5-acid and Brenner's acid are of more value technically, who had charmed King George III. After the custom of those
since they combine with ortho-tctrazoditolyl to produce fine red times Charles Napier had been gazetted an ensign in the 33rd
dye-stuffs. regiment in 1794, and in 1797 his father secured for him the
NAPIER, SIR CHARLES (1786-1860), British admiral, was appointment of aide-de-camp to Sir James Duff, commanding
the second son of Captain the Hon. Charles Napier, R.N., and the Limerick district. Longing for more active service, Napier
grandson of Francis, fifth Lord Napier. He was born at obtained a commission as lieutenant in the 95th Manningham's
Merchiston Hall, near Falkirk, on the 6th of March 1786. He Rifles (Rifle Brigade) in 1800. This newly formed corps was
became a midshipman in 1800, and was promoted lieu tenant designed to supply a body of light troops for the English army
in 1805. He was appointed to the " Courageux " (74), and was fit to cope with the French voltigeurs and tirailleurs, and was
.
present in her at the action in which the squadron under Sir J. B. specially trained, at first under the eye of Colonel Coote Manning-
Warren took the French " Marengo " (80) and " Belle Poule " ham, and then at Shorncliffe under the immediate supervision
(40), on the 1 3th of March 1806 in the West Indies. After re- of Sir John Moore. Moore speedily perceived the military
turning home with Warren he went back to the West Indies in the qualities of the Napiers, and inspired the three brothers
''
St George "
and was appointed acting commander of the Charles of the Rifles, George of the 52nd and William of the
"Pultusk" brig. The rank was confirmed on the 3Oth of 43rd with an enthusiasm which lasted all their lives; but,
November 1807. In August 1808 he was moved into the " Re- though happy in his general, Charles Napier quarrelled bitterly
" " "
cruit (18), and in her fought an action with the Diligent with William Stewart, the lieutenant-colonel, and in 1803 left
(18), in which his thigh was broken. In April 1809 he took the regiment to accompany General H. E. Fox to Ireland as
" "
part in the capture of the Hautpoult (74), and was promoted aide-de-camp. The great influence of his uncle, the duke of
iyo NAPIER, SIR C. J.
Richmond, and of his cousins, Charles James Fox and the general, England and was made a K.C.B.; but he was to wait till 1839
procured him in 1804 a captaincy in the staff corps, and in the before he received an offer of employment. In that year he was
beginning of 1806 a majority in the Cape regiment. On his way made commanding officer in the northern district, and found his
to the Cape, however, he exchanged into the soth regiment, command no sinecure, owing to the turbulent state of the
with which he served in the short Danish campaign under Lord Chartists in the towns of Yorkshire, Lancashire and the Midlands.
Cathcart in 1807. Shortly after his return from Denmark the His behaviour during the tenure of his command is described
5Oth was ordered to Portugal, and in command of it Napier by William Napier in his life of his brother, and his inability to
shared all the glories of the famous retreat to Corunna. At the hold a command which did not carry supreme authority is plainly
battle of Corunna, one of the last sights of Sir John Moore before portrayed. In this particular instance his sympathies were
he fell mortally wounded was the advance of his own old regiment on the popular side, and, though he maintained law and order
under the command of Charles Napier and Edward Stanhope, with the necessary rigour, he resigned as soon as the crisis had
and almost his last words were " Well done, my majors!" The passed, and went to India. He was stationed at Poona, and
5oth suffered very severely and both the majors were left "for dead in September 1842, when troubles were expected there, was
upon the field. Napier's life was saved by a French drummer ordered to Sind.
named Guibert, who brought him safely to the headquarters His command in Sind from 1842 till August 1847 is the period
of Marshal Soult. Soult treated him with the greatest kindness, of his life during which, according to his brother, he made good
and he was allowed by Ney to return to England to his " old his title to fame, but his acts, more especially at first, have
been
"
blind mother instead of being interned. After about a year most severely criticized. There can be little doubt that from
he heard that his exchange had been arranged, and, volunteering the moment he landed in the province he determined to conquer
for the Peninsula, he joined the light division before Ciudad the amirs, and to seek the first opportunity of doing so. He
Rodrigo. As a volunteer he served in the actions on the Coa, was to beaccompanied by James Outram (q.v.), who had been
and again at Busaco, where he was badly wounded in the face. resident in Sind during the Afghan War, and who felt a great
He was ordered to England, but refused to go, and in March 181 1 ,
admiration for him, but who had also a warm affection for the
though barely recovered, he hurried to the front to take part amirs, and believed that he could put off the day of their destruc-
in the pursuit of Massena. After the battle of Fuentes d'Onor, tion. On the isth of February 1843, Outram was treacherously
he received the lieutenant-colonelcy of the io2nd regiment, assailed at Hyderabad, and on the i7th Napier attacked the
which had become entirely demoralized at Botany Bay, and when Baluch army 30,000 strong with but 2800 men. With these
he joined it at Guernsey in 1811 was one of the worst regiments 2800 men, including the 22nd regiment, which would do anything
in the service. When he left it in 1813 it was one of the best. for him, he succeeded in winning the brilliant and decisive
He accompanied it in June 1812 from Guernsey to Bermuda, victory of Meeanee, one of the most amazing in the history of
where he wrought a wonderful change in the spirit both of officers the British army, in which generals had to fight like privates,
and men. By treating his men as friends he won their love and and Sir Charles himself engaged in the fray. In the March
admiration, and became in a peculiar degree the hero of the following, after marching without transport in the most intense
British soldiers. After seeing further active service against the heat, he finally destroyed the army of the amirs at the battle
United States in September 1813 he exchanged back into the of Hyderabad. His success was received with enthusiasm both
5oth regiment, and in December 1814, believing all chance of by the governor-general, Lord Ellenborough, and by the English
active service to be at an end, went on half -pay. He was gazetted people, and he was at once made a G.C.B. Whether or not the
one of the first C.B.'s on the extension of the order of the Bath conquest of Sind at that particular period can be justified,
in and was present as a volunteer at the capture of Cambray
1 8 1 4, ,
there can be no doubt that Charles Napier was the best adminis-
but he just missed the great battle of Waterloo. Though an trator who could be found for the province when conquered.
officer of some experience and more than thirty years of age, Sind, when it carne under English rule, was in a state of utter
he now entered the military college at Farnham, and completed anarchy, for the Baluchis had formed a military government
his military education. In 1819 he was appointed inspecting not unlike that of the Mamelukes in Egypt, which had been
field officer at Corfu, in 1820 was sent on a mission to Ali Pasha extremely tyrannical to the native population. This native
at lannina, and in 1821 visited Greece, where he became an ardent population was particularly protected by Sir Charles Napier,
supporter of the patriot party. From Corfu he was moved in who completed the work of the destruction of the Baluch
1822 to Cephalonia, where he remained for eight years as governor supremacy which he had commenced with the victory of Meeanee.
and military resident. He was the model of an absolute colonial The labour of administration was rendered more difficult by the
governor, and showed all the qualities of a benevolent despot. necessity of repressing the hill tribes, which had been encour-
He made good roads and founded great institutions, but every- aged to acts of lawlessness by the licence which followed the
thing must be done by him, and he showed himself averse to Afghan War. The later years of his administration were made
interference, whether from the high commissioner of the Ionian very stormy by the attacks on the policy of the conquest which
Islands, whom it was his duty to obey, or from the feudal magnates had been made in England. He left Sind, after quarrelling with
of his own little colony, over whom it was his duty to exercise every authority of the presidency of Bombay, and nearly every
strict supervision. An interesting episode in his command was authority of the whole of India, in August 1847, and received a
his communication with Lord Byron when he touched at perfect ovation on his return from all the hero-worshippers
Cephalonia on his way to take part in the Greek War of Inde- of the Napiers, of whom there were many in England. His short
pendence. Byron sent a letter to the Greek committee in London stay in England was occupied with incessant struggles with the
recommending Napier's appointment as commander-in-chief. directors of the East India Company; but the news of the
But after many negotiations the scheme came to nothing. indecisive victory of Chillianwalla created a panic in England,
In 1827 Napier, who had two years before been made a colonel and the East India Company was obliged by public opinion to
in the army, quarrelled with Sir Frederick Adam, the new high summon the greatest general of the day to command its armies.
commissioner, and in 1830, when Napier was in England on leave, Sir Charles started almost at a moment's notice, but on reaching
Adam seized his papers and forbade him to return. Napier India found that the victory of Gujrat had been won and the
-thereupon, refusing promotion to the residency of Zante, retired Sikh War was over. No taint of envy was in his nature, and he
in disgust, living for some years in the south of England and, rejoiced that he had not had to supersede Lord Gough in the
after the death of his wife in 1833, in Normandy. Here he wrote moment of defeat. His restless and imperious spirit was met
his work on the colonies, and also an historical romance on by one equally imperious in the governor-general, Lord Dalhousie.
William the Conqueror. Another work, entitled Harold, has The two men were good friends until, in the absence of Dalhousie
disappeared. In 1834 he refused the governorship of Australia, at sea, Napier took upon himself to alter the regulations regarding
hoping for military employment. In 1837 he was promoted
still the allowances to native troops; the occasion was urgent, as
major-general with his brother George, in 1838 he returned to the troops were in a state of mutiny, but on his return Dalhousie
NAPIER, JOHN 171
reprimanded the commander-in-chief and reversed his decision. married Janet, daughter of Francis Bothwell, and in the following
Napier immediately handed in his resignation, and when the year John Napier was born. In the criminal court of Scotland,
duke of Wellington supported Lord Dalhousie and repeated the the earl of Argyll, hereditary justice-general of the kingdom,
reprimand he returned to England. He had been credited sometimes presided in person, but more frequently he delegated
with foreseeing the Mutiny of 1857, and on the whole with his functions; and it appears that in 1561 Archibald Napier
justice. On one occasion he wrote that mutiny was " one of the was appointed one of the justice-deputes. In the register of
greatest, if not the greatest, danger threatening India a danger the court, extending over 1563 and 1564, the justice-deputes
that may come unexpectedly, and if the first symptoms be not named are " Archibald Naper of Merchistoune, Alexander
carefully treated, with a power to shake Leadenhall." On the Bannatyne, burgess of Edinburgh, James Stirling of Keir and
mutiny of the 66th native regiment at Govindgarh he disbanded Mr Thomas Craig." About 1565 he was knighted at the same
it, and handed its colours over to a Gurkha regiment, thus time as James Stirling, his colleague, whose daughter John
showing that he distrusted the high-class Brahman, and recognized Napier subsequently married. In 1582 Sir Archibald was
the necessity of relying upon a more warlike and more disciplined appointed master of the mint in Scotland, with the sole charge
race. His constitution was undermined by the Indian climate, of superintending the mines and minerals within the realm, and
especially by his fatiguing command in Sind, and on the 2gth this office he held till his death in 1608. His first wife died in
of August 1853 he died at Portsmouth. The bronze statue 1563, and in 1572 he married a cousin, Elizabeth Mowbray,
of him by G. G. Adams, which stands in Trafalgar Square, by whom he had three sons, the eldest of whom was named
London, was erected by public subscription, by far the greater Alexander. 1
number of the subscribers being, as the inscription records, As already stated, John Napier was born in 1550, the year
private soldiers. in which the Reformation in Scotland may be said to have
The chief authority for Sir Charles Napier's life is his Life and commenced. In 1563, the year in which his mother died, he
Opinions by his brother (1857); consult also MacColl, Career and matriculated at St Salvator's College, St Andrews. He early
Character of C. J. Napier (1857); M'Dougall, General Sir C. J.
became a Protestant champion, and the one extant anecdote
Napier, Conqueror and Governor of Scinde (1860); W. N. Bruce, "
Sir Charles Napier (1855) and T. R. E. Holmes, Four Famous of his youth occurs in his address to the Godly and Christian
;
"
Soldiers (1889). His own works are Memoir on the Roads of Cepha- reader prefixed to his Plaine Discovery. He writes:
lonia (1825) The Colonies, treating of their value generally and of the "
; In my tender yeares, and barneage in Sanct-Androis at the
Ionian Islands in particular; Strictures on the Administration of Schooles, having, on the one parte, contracted a loving familiaritie
Sir F. Adam (1833); Colonization, particularly in Southern Australia with a certaine Gentleman, &c. a Papist; And on the other part,
(1835) Remarks on Military Law and the Punishment of Flogging
;
being attentive to the sermons of that worthie man of God, Maister
(1837); A Dialogue on the Poor Laws (1838?); A Letter on the De- Christopher Goodman, teaching upon the Apocalyps, I was so mooved
fence of England by Corps of Volunteers and Militia (1852); Lights in admiration, against the blindnes of Papists, that could not most
and Shadows of Military Life (trans, from the French, 1840) and ;
evidently see their seven hilled citie Rome, painted out there so
A Letter to the Right Honourable Sir J. C. Hobhouse on the Baggage lively by Saint John, as the mother of all spiritual whoredome, that
of the Indian Army (1849); Defects, Civil and Military, of the Indian not onely bursted I out in continual reasoning against my
said
Government (1853); William the Conqueror, a Historical Romance, familiar, but also from thenceforth, I determined with my
selfe (by
edited by Sir W. Napier (1858). On Sind, consult primarily Sir the assistance of Gods spirit) to employ studie and diligence to
W. Napier, The Conques' of Scinde (1845); The Administration of
my
search out the remanent mysteries of that holy Book: as to this
Scinde (1851); Compilation of General Orders issued by Sir C. Napier houre (praised be the Lorde) I have bin doing at al such times as
(1850); and Outram, The Conquest of Scinde, a Commentary (1846). conveniently I might have occasion."
For his command-in-chief and the controversy about his resignation,
,
consult J. Mawson, Records of the Indian Command of General Sir The names of nearly all Napier's classfellows can be traced
C. J. Napier (Calcutta, 1851) Minutes on the Resignation of the late
;
as becoming determinantes in 1566 and masters of arts in 1568;
General Sir C. Napier, by Field-Marshal the Duke of Wellington, &c. but his own name does not appear in the lists. The necessary
(1854); Comments by Sir W. Napier on a Memorandum of the Duke inference is that his stay at the university was short, and that
of Wellington (1854); Sir William Napier, General Sir C. Napier
and the Directors of the East India Company (1857); Sir W. Lee only the groundwork of his education was laid there. Although
Warner, Life of Lord Dalhousie (1904). there is no direct evidence of the fact, there can be no doubt
that he left St Andrews to complete his education abroad, and
NAPIER, JOHN (1550-1617), Scottish mathematician and
inventor of logarithms, was born at Merchiston near Edinburgh that he probably studied at the* university of Paris, and visited
in 1550, and was the eighth Napier of Merchiston. The first Italy and Germany. He did not, however, as has been supposed,
" spend the best years of his manhood abroad, for he was certainly
Napier of Merchiston, Alexander Napare," acquired the
Merchiston estate before the year 1438, from James I. of Scotland. at home in 1571, when the preliminaries of his marriage were
He was provost of Edinburgh in 1437, and was otherwise dis- arranged at Merchiston; and in 1572 he married Elizabeth,
tinguished. His eldest son Alexander, who succeeded him in daughter of Sir James Stirling of Keir. About the end of the
1454, was provost of Edinburgh in 1455, 1457 and 1469; he year 1579 his wife died, leaving him one son, Archibald (who in
was knighted and held various important court offices under 1627 was raised to the peerage by the title of Lord Napier),
successive monarchs; at the time of his death in 1473 he was and one daughter, Jane. A few years afterwards he married
master of the household to James III. His son, John Napier again, his second wife being Agnes, daughter of Sir James
of Rusky the third of Merchiston, belonged to the royal household
,
1
The descent
of the first Napier of Merchiston has been traced to
"
in the lifetime of his father. He also was provost of Edinburgh Johan le del Counte de Dunbretan," who was one of those
Naper
at various times, and it is a remarkable instance of the esteem who swore fealty to Edward I. in 1296 and defended the castle of
in which the lairds of Merchiston were held that three of them Stirling against him in 1304; but there is no authority for this genea-
logy. The legend with regard to the origin of the name Napier was
in immediate lineal succession repeatedly filled so important an
given by Sir Alexander
" Napier, eldest son of John Napier, in 1625, in
office during perhaps the most memorable period in the history these words: One of the ancient earls of Lennox in Scotland had
of the city. He married a great-granddaughter of Duncan, issue three sons: the eldest, that succeeded him to the earldom of
8th earl of Levenax (or Lennox), and besides this relationship Lennox; the second, whose name was Donald; and the third, named
Gilchrist. The then king of Scotland having wars, did convocate his
by marriage the Napiers claimed a lineal male cadency from the lieges to battle, amongst whom that was commanded was the earl of
ancient family of Levenax. His eldest son, Archibald Napier Lennox, who, keeping his eldest son at home, sent his two sons to
of Edinbellie, the fourth of Merchiston, belonged to the house- serve for him with the forces that were under his command. . . .
hold of James IV. He fought at Flodden and escaped with his After the battle, as the manner is, every one drawing and setting
forth his own acts, the king said unto them, ye have all done valiantly,
but his eldest son Alexander, (fifth of Merchiston) was killed.
life, but there is one amongst you who hath Na-Peer (i.e. no equal);
Alexander's eldest son (Alexander, sixth of Merchiston) was born and calling Donald into his presence commanded him, in regard to
in 1513, and fell at the battle of Pinkie in 1547. His eldest son hjs worthy service,
and in augmentation of his honour, to change
was Archibald, seventh of Merchiston, and the father of John his name from Lennox to Napier, and gave him the lands of Gosford,
and lands in Fife, and made him his own servant, which discourse is
Napier, the subject of this article. confirmed by evidences of mine, wherein we are called Lennox alias
In 1549 Archibald Napier, at the early age of about fifteen, Napier."
172 NAPIER, JOHN
Chisholm of Cromlix, who survived him. By her he had five After the publication of the Plaine Discovery, Napier seems to
sons and five daughters. have occupied himself with the invention of secret instruments of
In 1588 he was chosen by the presbytery of Edinburgh one war, for in the Bacon collection at Lambeth Palace there is a
of its commissioners to the General Assembly. document, dated the 7th of June 1596 and signed by Napier,
On the 1 7th of October 1593 a convention of delegates was giving a list of his inventions for the defence of the country
held at Edinburgh at which a committee was appointed to follow against the anticipated invasion by Philip of Spain. The docu-
the king and lay before him in a personal interview certain ment is entitled " Secrett Inventionis, proffitabill and necessary
instructions relating to the punishment of the rebellious Popish in theis dayes for defence of this Iland, and withstanding of
This committee consisted of 3
earls and the safety of the church. strangers, enemies of God's truth and religion," and the in-
six members, two barons, two ministers and two burgesses ventions consist of (i) a mirror for burning the enemies' ships
the two barons selected being John Napier of Merchiston and at any distance, (2) a piece of artillery destroying everything
James Maxwell of Calderwood. The delegates found the king at round an arc of a circle, and (3) a round metal chariot, so con-
Jedburgh, and the mission, which was a dangerous one, was structed that its occupants could move it rapidly and easily,
successfully accomplished. Shortly afterwards another con- while firing out through small holes in it. It has been asserted
vention was held at Edinburgh, and it was resolved that the (by Sir Thomas Urquhart) that the piece of artillery was actually
delegates sent to Jedburgh should again meet the king at Lin- tried upon a plain in Scotland with complete success, a number
lithgow and repeat their former instructions. This was done of sheep and cattle being destroyed.
accordingly, the number of members of the committee being, In 1614 appeared the work which in the history of British
however, doubled. These interviews took place in October science can be placed as second only to Newton's Principia.
1593, and on the 29th of the following January Napier wrote The full title is as follows: Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis
to the king the letter which forms the dedication of the Plaine descriptio, Ejusque usus, in utraque Trigonometria; ut etiam in
Discovery. omni Logistica Malhematica, Amplissimi, Facillimi, &
expeditis-
The full title of this first work
of Napier's is given below. 1 simi explicatio. Authors ac Inventore loanne Nepero, Barone
"
It was written in English instead of Latin in order that hereby Merchistonii, &c., Scoto. Edinburgi, ex officind Andreae Hart
the simple of this Iland may be instructed "; and the author Bibliopolae, CID.DC.XIV, This is printed on an ornamental
apologizes for the language and his own mode of expression in title-page. The work is a small-sized quarto, containing fifty-
the following sentences: seven pages of explanatory matter and ninety pages of tables.
" The nature of logarithms is explained by reference to the
Whatsoever therfore through hast, is here rudely and in base
language set downe, I doubt not to be pardoned thereof by all motion of points in a straight line, and the principle upon which
good men, who, considering the necessitie of this time, will esteem they are based is that of the correspondence of a geometrical
it more meete to make hast to prevent the rising againe of Anti-
christian darknes within this Iland, then to prolong the time in and an arithmetical series of numbers. The table gives the
"
I graunt indeede, and am sure, that logarithms of sines for every minute to seven figures. This work
painting of language "; and
in the style of wordes and utterance of language, we shall greatlie contains the first announcement of logarithms to the world, the
differ, for therein I do judge my selfe inferiour to all men: so that first table of logarithms and the first use of the name logarithm,
scarcely in these high matters could I with long deliberation finde
wordes to expresse my minde." 2 which was invented by Napier.
In 1617 Napier published his Rabdologia* a duodecimo of one
Napier's Plaine Discovery is a serious and laborious work, to
hundred and fifty-four pages; there is prefixed to it as preface
which he had devoted years of care and thought. In one sense
a dedicatory epistle to the high chancellor of Scotland. The
It may be said to stand to theological literature in Scotland in
method which Napier terms " Rabdologia " consists in the use
something of the same position as that occupied by the Canon of certain numerating rods for the performance of multiplica-
Mirificus with respect to the scientific literature, for it is the first
tions and These rods, which were commonly called
divisions.
published original work
relating to theological interpretation, "
and is quite without a predecessor in its own field. Napier lived Napier's bones," will be described further on. The second
" "
in the very midst of fiercely contending religious factions; there method, which he calls the Promptuarium Multiplicationis on
account of its being the most expeditious of all for the perform-
was but little theological teaching of any kind, and the work
ance of multiplications, involves the use of a number of lamellae
related to what were then the leading political and religious
or little plates of metal disposed in a box. In an appendix of
questions of the day. " local
forty-one pages he gives his third method, arithmetic,"
1
A Plaine Discovery of the whole Revelation of Saint lohn: set which is performed on a chess-board, and depends, in principle,
downe in two treatises: The one searching and proving the true inter-
on the expression of numbers in the scale of radix 2. In the
pretation thereof: The other applying the same paraphrastically and
historically to the text. Set foorth by John Napier L. of Marchistoun Rabdologia he gives the chronological order of his inventions.
younger. Whereunto are annexed certaine Oracles of Sibylla, agreeing He speaks of the canon of logarithms as " a me longo tempore
with the Revelation and other places of Scripture. Edinburgh, printed elaboratum." The other three methods he devised for the sake
by Robert Walde-grave, prinier to the King's Majestie, 1593. Cum of those who would prefer to work with natural numbers; and
privilegio Regali.
1
A Dutch translation was published at Middelburg in 1600 and a he mentions that the promptuary was his latest invention. In
second edition in 1607. The work was translated into French by the preface to the appendix containing the local arithmetic
George Thomson, a naturalized Scotsman residing in La Rochelle, he states that, while devoting all his leisure to the invention of
and published by him at that town in 1602, under the title Ouverture
these abbreviations of calculation, and to examining by what
de tous les secrets de V Apocalypse. . . . Par Jean Napeir (c. a. d.)
Nonpareil, Sieur de Merchiston, reveue par lui-mesme, et mise en methods the toil of calculation might be removed, in addition
Francois par Georges Thomson,
Escossois. Subsequent editions were to the logarithms, rabdologia and promptuary, he had hit upon
published in 1603, 1605 and 1607. German translations were pub- a certain tabular arithmetic, whereby the more troublesome
'
lished at Gera in 1611 and at Frankfort in 1605 and 1627. The
second edition in English appeared at Edinburgh in 1611, and in the operations of common arithmetic are performed on an abacus
to it Napier states he intended to have published an edition or chess-board, and which may be regarded as an amusement
preface
in Latin soon after the original publication in 1593, but that, as the
work had now been made public by the French and Dutch trans-
"
8
A facsimile of this document is given by Mark Napier in his
lations, besides the English editions, and as he was advertised Memoirs of John Napier (1834), p. 248.
that our papistical adversaries wer to write larglie against the said Rabdologiae, seu Numerationis per virgalas Libri duo: Cum
*
"
editions that are alreadie set put," he defers the Latin edition till Appendice de expeditissimo Multiplicationis promptuario. Quibus
haying first seene the adversaries objections, I may insert in the Latin accessit & Arithmeticae Localis Liber unus. Authore ff Inventore
edition an apologie of that which is rightly done, and an amends of loanne Nepero, Barone Merchistonii, &c., Scoto. Edinburgi, Excu-
whatsoever is amisse." No criticism on the work was published, debat Andreas Hart (1617). Foreign editions were published in Italian
and there was no Latin edition. A third edition appeared at Edin- at Verona in 1623, in Latin at Leiden in 1626 and 1628, and in Dutch
burgh in 1645. Corresponding to the first two Edinburgh editions, at Gouda in 1626. In 1623 Ursinus published Rhabdologia Neperiana
copies were issued bearing the London imprint and dates 1594 and at Berlin, and the rods or bones were described in several other
1611. works.
NAPIER, JOHN 173
rather than a labour, for, by means of it, addition, subtraction, Briggs, who published asmall table, extending to 1000, in
multiplication, division and even the extraction of roots are 1617, and a 1
large work, Arithmetica Logarilhmica, containing
accomplished simply by the motion of counters. He adds that logarithms of numbers to 30,000 and from 00,000 to 100,000, in
he has appended it to the Rabdologia, in addition to the promp- 1624. (See LOGARITHM.)
tuary, because he did not wish to bury it in silence nor to publish Napier's Descriptio of 1614 contains no explanation of the
so small a matter by itself. With respect to the calculating rods, manner in which he had calculated his table. This account he
he mentions in the dedication that they had already found so kept back, as he himself states, in order to see from the reception
much favour as to be almost in common use, and even to have met with by the Descriptio, whether it would be acceptable.
been carried to foreign countries; and that he has been advised Though written before the Descriptio it had not been prepared
to publish his little work relating to their mechanism and use, for press at the time of his death, but was published by his son
lest they should be put forth in some one else's name. Robert in 1619 under the title Mirifici Logarilhmorum Canonis
John Napier died on the 4th of April 1617, the same year Construction In this treatise (which was written before Napier
as that in which the Rabdologia was published. His will, which had invented the name logarithm) logarithms are called " arti-
is extant, was signed on the fourth day before his death. ficial numbers."
No particulars are known of his last illness, but it seems likely The different editions of the Descriptio and Construct, as well
that death came upon him rather suddenly at last. In both the as the reception of logarithms on the continent of Europe, and
Canonis descriplio and the Rabdologia, however, he makes refer- especially by Kepler, whose admiration of the invention almost
ence to his ill-health. In the dedication of the former he refers equalled that of Briggs, belong to the history of logarithms (q.v.).
" mihi and in the
to himself as jam morbis pene confecto," It may, however, be mentioned here that an English translation
" Admonitio " at the end he "
infirma valetudo "; of the Constructio of 1619 was published by W. R. Macdonald
speaks of his
while in the latter he says he has been obliged to leave the at Edinburgh in 1889, and that there is appended to this edition
calculation of the new canon of logarithms to others "ob in- a complete catalogue of all Napier's writings, and their various
firmam corporis nostri valetudinem." editions and translations, English and foreign, all the works
It has been usually supposed that John Napier was buried in being carefully collated, and references being added to the
St Giles's church, Edinburgh, which was certainly the burial- various public libraries in which they are to be found.
place of some of the family, but Mark Napier (Memoirs, p. 426) Napier's priority in the publication of the logarithms is un-
quotes Professor William Wallace, who, writing in 1832, gives questioned and only one other contemporary mathematician
strong reasons for believing that he was buried in the old church seems to have conceived the idea on which they depend. There
of St Cuthbert. is no anticipation or hint to be found in previous writers, 3 and it
is very remarkable that a discovery or invention which was to
Professor Wallace's words are
" exert so important and far-reaching an influence on astronomy
My authority for this belief is unquestionable. It is a Treatise and every science involving calculation was the work of a single
on Trigonometry, by a Scotsman, James Hume
of Godscroft,
Berwickshire, a place still in possession of the family of Hume.
mind.
The work in question, which is rare, was printed at Paris, and has the The more one considers the condition of science at the time,
date 1636 on the title-page, but the royal privilege which secured and the state of the country in which the discovery took place,
it to the author is dated in October 1635, and it may have been
the more wonderful does the invention of logarithms appear.
written several years earlier. In his treatise (page 116) Hume
says, speaking of logarithms,
'
L'inuenteur estoit un Seigneur When algebra had advanced to the point where exponents were
de grande condition, et duquel la posterity est aujourd'huy en introduced, nothing would be more natural than that their utility
possession de grandes dignitez dans le royaume, qui estant sur as a means of performing multiplications and divisions should be
f'age, et grandement trauailte des gouttes ne pouvait faire autre it is one of the surprises in the history of science
chose que de s'adonner aux sciences, et principalment aux mathe-
remarked; but
that logarithms were invented as an arithmetical improvement
matiques et a la logistique, a quoy il se plaisoit mfiniment, et auec
estrange peine, a construict ses Tables des Logarymes, imprimees years before their connexion with exponents was known. It is
a Edinbourg en 1'an 1614. ... II mourut 1'an 1616, et fut enterre to be noticed also that the invention was not the result of any
hors la Porte Occidentale d'Edinbourg, dans 1'Eglise de Sainct
Cudbert.'
" happy accident. Napier deliberately set himself to abbreviate
multiplications and divisions operations of so fundamental a
There can be no doubt that Napier's devotion to mathematics character that it might well have been thought that they were
was not due to old age and the gout, and that he died in 1617 in rerum natura incapable of abbreviation; and he succeeded in
and not in 1616; still these sentences were written within eighteen devising, by the help of arithmetic and geometry alone, the one
years of Napier's death, and their author seems to have had 'The runs as follows: Arilhmetica Logarithmica, sive Log-
title
some special sources of information. Additional probability is arithmorum chUiades triginta. . . Has numeros primus invenit
.
given to Hume's assertion by the fact that Merchiston is situated clarissimus vir lohannes Neperus Baro Merchistonij; eos autem ex
in St Cuthbert's parish. It is nowhere else recorded that Napier eiusdem sententia mutavit, eorumque ortum et usum illustravit Henricus
suffered from the gout. It has been stated that Napier's mathe- Briggius. . . .
!
The was: Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Constructio;
full title
matical pursuits led him to dissipate his means. This is not so, Et eorum ad naturales ipsorum numeros habitudines; und cum Appen-
for his will (Memoirs, p. 427) shows that besides his large estates dice, de alid edque praestantiore Logarithmorum specie condendd.
he left amount of personal property.
a considerable Quibus accessere Propositiones ad triangula sphaerica faciliore r.alculo
resolvenda: Un& cum Annotalionibus aliquot doctissimi D. Henrici
The Canonis Descriptio on its publication in 1614, at once Authore & Inventore
Briggii, in eas & memoratam appendicem.
attracted the attention of Edward Wright, whose name is known loanne Nepero, Barone Merchistomi, &c. Scoto. Edinburgi, Excude-
in connexion with improvements in navigation, and Henry bat Andreas Hart, Anno Domini 1619. There is also preceding this
Briggs, then professor of geometry at Gresham College, London. title-page an ornamental title-page, similar to that of the Descriptio
of 1614; the words are different, however, and run Mirifici
The former translated the work into English, but he died in Accesserunt Opera Posthuma:
Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio . . .
1615, and the translation was published by his son Samuel Primo, Mirifici ipsius canonis ccnstructio, & Logarithmorum ad
Wright in 1616. Briggs was greatly excited by Napier's invention naturales ipsorum numeros habitudines. Secundd, Appendix de alid,
and visited him at Merchiston in 1615, staying with him a whole edque praestantiore Logarithmorum specie construenda. Tertib, Pro-
month; he repeated his visit in 1616 and, as he states,
"
would positiones quaedam eminentissimae, ad Triangula sphaerica mirA
facilitate resolvenda It would appear that this title-page was
have been glad to make him a third visit if it had pleased God to be substituted for the title-page of the Descriptio of 1614 by those
to spare him so long." The logarithms introduced by Napier who bound the two books together.
in the Descriptio are not the same as those now in common use, *
The work of Justus Byrgius is described in the article LOGA-
nor even the same as those now called Napierian or hyperbolic RITHM. In that article it is mentioned that a Scotsman in i$94. in a
letter to Tycho Brahe held out some hope of logarithms; it is likely
logarithms. The change from the original logarithms to common that the person referred to is John Craig, son of Thomas Craig, who
or decimal logarithms was made by both Napier and Briggs, has been mentioned as one of the colleagues of John Napier's father
and the first tables of decimal logarithms were calculated by as justice-depute.
174 NAPIER, JOHN
great simplification of which they were susceptible a simplifica- which is written on the first leaf, and is also in Robert
" Napier's
tion to which nothing essential has since been added. writing, runs thus : The Baron of Merchiston his booke of Arith-
meticke and Algebra. For Mr Henrie Briggs, Professor of Geometric
When Napier published the Canonis Descriptio England had at Oxforde."
taken no part in the advance of science, and there is no British These treatises were probably composed before Napier had
author of the time except Napier whose name can be placed in invented the logarithms or any of the apparatuses described in the
the same rank as those of Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Kepler, Rabdologia; for they contain no allusion to the principle of loga-
rithms, even where we should expect to find such a reference, and
Galileo, or Stevinus. In England, Robert Recorde had indeed
the one solitary sentence where the Rabdologia is mentioned ("sive
published his mathematical treatises, but they were of trifling omnium facillime per ossa Rhabdologiae nostrae ") was probably
importance and without influence on the history of science. added afterwards. It is worth while to notice that this reference
"
Scotland had produced nothing, and was perhaps the last country occurs in a chapter De Multiplications et Partitionis compendiis
in Europe from which a great mathematical discovery would miscellaneis," which, supposing the treatise to have been written in
have been expected. Napier lived, too, not only in a wild country, Napier's younger days, may have been his earliest production on a
subject over which his subsequent labours were to exert so enormous
which was in a lawless and unsettled state during most of his an influence.
life, but also in a credulous and superstitious age. Like Kepler Napier uses abundantes and defectivae for positive and negative,
and all his contemporaries he believed in astrology, and he defining them as meaning greater or less than nothing (" Abun-
dantes sunt quantitates majores nihilo: defectivae sunt quantitates
certainly also had some faith in the power of magic, for there is minores nihilo "). The same definitions occur also in the Canonis
extant a deed written in his own handwriting containing a con- "
Descriptio (1614), p. 5: Logarithmos sinuum, qui semper majores
tract between himself and Robert Logan of Restalrig, a turbulent nihilo sunt, abundantes vocamus, et hoc signo +, aut nullo praeno-
baron of desperate character, by which Napier undertakes " to tamus. Logarithmos autem minores nihilo defectives vocamus,
serche and sik out, and be al craft and ingyne that he dow, to praenotantes eis hoc signum "
-." Napier may thus have been the
" first to use the expression
" " quantity less than nothing." He uses
tempt, trye, and find out some buried treasure supposed to be radicatum for_power (for root, power, exponent, his words are
hidden in Logan's fortress at Fastcastle, in consideration of radix, radicatum, index).
receiving one-third part of the treasure found by his aid. Of Apart from the interest attaching to these manuscripts as the
" work of Napier, they possess an independent value as affording
this singular contract, which is signed, Robert Logane of
" " evidence of the exact state of his algebraical knowledge at the time
Restalrige and Jhone Neper, Fear of Merchiston," and is when logarithms were invented. There is nothing to show whether
dated July 1 594, a facsimile is given in Mark Napier's Memoirs. the transcripts were sent to Briggs as intended and returned by him,
As the deed was not destroyed, but is in existence now, it is to or whether they were not sent to him. Among the Merchiston
be presumed that the terms of it were not fulfilled; but the fact papers is a thin quarto volume in Robert Napier's writing contain-
ing a digest of the principles of alchemy; it is addressed to his son,
that such a contract should have been drawn up by Napier and on the first leaf there are directions that it is to remain in his
himself affords a singular illustration of the state of society and charter-chest and be kept secret except from a few. This treatise
the kind of events in the midst of which logarithms had their and the transcripts seem to be the only manuscripts which have
destruction.
birth. Considering the time in which he lived, Napier is singu- escaped
The principle of " Napier's bones " may be easily explained by
larly free from superstition: his Plaine Discovery relates to a imagining ten rectangular slips of cardboard, each divided into
method of interpretation which belongs to a later age; he shows nine squares. In the top squares of the
no trace of the extravagances which occur everywhere in the slips the ten digits are written, and each
slip contains in its nine squares the first 8 1
works of Kepler; and none of his writings contain allusions to
nine multiples of the digit which appears
astrology or magic. in the top square. With the exception of
the top squares, every square is divided
After Napier's death his manuscripts and notes came into the
into two parts by a diagonal, the units
possession of his second son by his second marriage, Robert, who
edited the Constructio and Colonel Milliken Napier, Robert's lineal
;
being written on one side and the tens on
male representative, was still in the possession of many of these the other, so that when a multiple consists
of two figures they are separated by the
private papers at the close of the i8th century. On one occasion
when Colonel Napier was called from home on foreign service, these diagonal. Fig. I shows the slips corre-
papers, together with a portrait of John ;Napier and a Bible with his sponding to the numbers 2, o, 8, 5 placed
side by side in contact with one another,
autograph, were deposited for safety in a room of the house at Milli-
and next to them is placed another slip
ken, in Renfrewshire. During the owner's absence the house was
burned to the ground, and all the papers and relics were destroyed. containing, in squares without diagonals,
The manuscripts had not been arranged or examined, so that the the first nine digits. The slips thus placed
give the multiples of the number
in contact
extent of the loss is unknown. Fortunately, however, Robert Napier
had transcribed his father's manuscript De Arte Logistica, and the 2085, the digits in each parallelogram being
added together; for example,
copy escaped the fate of the originals in the manner explained in the correspond-
ing to the number 6 on the right-hand slip,
following note, written in the volume containing them by Francis,
seventh Lord Napier: "John Napier of Merchiston, inventor of we have o, 8+3, 0+4, 2, I whence we find
;
FIG. i.
the logarithms, left his manuscripts to his son Robert, who appears o, i, 5, 2, i as the digits, written backwards,
to have caused the following pages to have been written out fair of 6X2085. The use of the for the purpose of multiplication is
slips
from his father's notes, for Mr Briggs, professor of geometry at now evident; thus to multiply 2085 by 736 we take out in this
Oxford. They were given to Francis, the fifth Lord Napier, by manner the multiples corresponding to 6, 3, 7, and set down the digits
William Napier of Culcreugh, Esq., heir-male of the above-named as they are obtained, from right to left, shifting them back one place
Robert. Finding them in a neglected state, amongst my family and adding up the columns as in ordinary multiplication, viz. the
figures as written down are
papers, I have bound them together, in order to preserve them
entire. NAPIER, 7th March 1801." 12510
An account of the contents of these manuscripts was given by 6255
Mark Napier in the appendix to his Memoirs of John Napier, and H595
the manuscripts themselves were edited in their entirety by him
in 1839 under the title De Arte Logistica Joannis Naperi Mer- 1534560
chistonii Baronis Libri qui supersunt. Impressum Edinburgi Napier's rods or bones consist of ten oblong pieces of wood or
M.DCCC.XXX.IX., as one of the publications of the Bannatyne Club. other material with square ends. Each of the four faces of each rod
The treatise occupies one hundred and sixty-two pages, and there contains multiples of one of the nine digits, and is similar to one of
is an introduction by Mark
Napier of ninety-four pages. The the slips just described, the first rod containing the multiples of
Arithmetic consists of three books, entitled (l) De Computationibus o, i, 9, 8, the second of o, 2, 9, 7, the third of o, 3, 9, 6, the fourth
Quantitatum omnibus Logisticae speciebus communium; (2) De of o, 4, 9, 5, the fifth of i, 2, 8, 7, the sixth of 1,3, 8, 6, the seventh
Logistica Arithmetical (3) De Logistica Geometrica. At the end of 1,4, 8, 5, the eighth of 2, 3, 7, 6, the ninth of 2, 4, 7, 5, and the
of this book occurs the tenth of 3, 4, 6, 5. Each rod therefore contains on two of its faces
note-^-" I could find no more of this geo-
metrical! pairt amongst all his fragments." The Algebra Joannis multiples of digits which are complementary to those on the other
"
Naperi Merchislonii Baronis consists of two books: (i) De nomi- two faces; and the multiples of a digit and of its complement are
nata Algebrae parte; (2) De positiva sive cossica Algebrae parte," reversed in position. The arrangement of the numbers on the rods
and concludes with the words, " There is no more of his algebra will be evident from fig. 2, which represents the four faces of the
orderlie sett
dpun." The transcripts are entirely in the handwriting fifth rod. The set of ten rods is thus equivalent to four sets of slips
of Robert Napier himself, and the two notes that have been quoted as described above, and by their means we may multiply every
prove that they were made from Napier's own papers. The title, number less than 11,111, and also any number (consisting of course
NAPIER, SIR W. F. P. 175
of not more than ten digits) which can be formed by the top digits The c'g^ynal point
defined on p. 6 of the Constructio in the
is
of the bars when placed side by side. Of course two sets of rods words: \- n>. /eris periodo sic in se distinctis, quicquid post
may be used, and by their means we may multiply every number periodum notatur fnctio est, cujus denominator est unitas cum tot
less than 1 11,111,1 1 1 and so on. It will be noticed that the rods sunt figurae post periodum. Ut 10000000-04
cyphris post se, quot
only give the multiples of the number which is to be multiplied, or valet idem, quod iooooooo T J B Item 25-803, idem quod 25 1 S5
.
Item 9999998-0005021, idem valet quod 9999998 nHHHiira. &
%
of the divisor, when they are used for division, and it is evident that sic de
they would be of little use to any one who On p. C 10-502 is multiplied by 3-216, and the resr.lt
'
caetens.
knew the multiplication table as far as 9X9. found to be 33-774432; and on pp. 23 and 24 occur decimals not
In multiplications or divisions of any length it attached to integers, viz. -4999712 and -0004950. These examples
is generally convenient to begin by forming a show that Napier was in possession of all the conventions and attri-
table of the first nine multiples of the multi- butes that enable the decimal point to complete so symmetrically
plicand or divisor, and Napier's bones at best our system of notation, viz. (l) he saw that a point or
separatrix was
merely provide such a table, and in an incom- quite enough to separate integers from decimals, and that no signs
plete form, for the additions of the two figures to indicate primes, seconds, &c., were required; (2) he used ciphers
in the same parallelogram have to be performed after the decimal point and preceding the first significant figure;
each time the rods are used. The Rabdologia and (3) he had no objection to a decimal standing by itself without
attracted more general attention than the loga- any integer.Napier thus had complete command over decimal
rithms, and as has been mentioned, there were fractionsand the use of the decimal point. Briggs also used deci-
several editions on the Continent. Nothing shows mals, but in a form not quite so convenient as Napier. Thus he
more clearly the rude state of arithmetical know- prints 63-0957379 as 630957379, viz. he prints a bar under the
ledge at the beginning of the I7th century than decimals; this notation first appears without
any explanation in
" "
the universal satisfaction with which Napier's his Lucubrationes appended to the Constructio. Briggs seems
invention was welcomed by all classes and re- to have used the notation all his life, but in writing it, as appears
garded as a real aid to calculation. Napier also from manuscripts of his, he added also a small vertical line just
8 describes in the Rabdologia two other larger rods high enough to fix distinctly which two figures it was intended to
to facilitate the extraction of square and cube separate thus he might have written 63_oojj7379. The vertical line
:
FIG. 2. roots. In the Rabdologia the rods are called was printed by Oughtred and some of Briggs's successors. It was a
"
virgulae," but in the passage quoted above long time before decimal arithmetic came into general use, and all
from the manuscript on arithmetic they are referred to as through the I7th century exponential marks were in common use.
" "
bones (ossa). There seems but little doubt that Napier was the first to make use of
Besides the logarithms and the calculating rods or bones, Napier's a decimal separator, and it is curious that the separator which he
name is attached to certain rules and formulae in spherical trigono-
used, the point, should be that which has been ultimately adopted,
"
metry. Napier's rules of circular parts," which include the com- and after a long period of partial disuse.
plete system of formulae for the solution of right-angled triangles, The hereditary office of king's poulterer (Pultrie Regis) was for
may be enunciated as follows. Leaving the right angle out of many generations in the family of Merchiston, and descended to
consideration, the sides including the right angle, the complement of John Napier. The office, Mark Napier states, is repeatedly men-
the hypotenuse, and the complements of the other angles are called " "
tioned in the family charters as appertaining to the pultre landis
the circular parts of the triangle. Thus there are five circular parts, near the village of Dene in the shire of Linlithgow. The duties
a, 6, 90 A, 90 c, 90 B, and these are supposed to be arranged were to be the possessor or his deputy; and the king
in this order (i.e. the order in which they occur in the triangle) performed by
was entitled to demand the yearly homage of a present of poultry
round a circle. Selecting any part and calling it the middle part, from the feudal holder. The pultrelands and the office were sold
the two parts next it are called the adjacent parts and the remaining by John Napier in 1610 for 1700 marks. With the exception of the
two parts the opposite parts. The rules then are pultrelands all the estates he inherited descended to his posterity.
sine of the middle part = product of tangents of adjacent parts With regard to the spelling of the name, Mark Napier states
= product of cosines of opposite parts. that among the family papers there exist a great many documents
"
These rules were published in the Canonis Descriptio (1614), and signed by John Napier. His usual signature was Jhone Neper,"
but in a letter written in 1608, and in all deeds signed after that date,
Napier has there given a figure, and indicated a method, by means he wrote
"
of which they may be proved directly. The rules are curious and Jhone Nepair."" His letter to the king prefixed to the
Plaine Discovery is signed John Napeir." His own children, who
interesting, but of very doubtful utility, as the formulae are best
remembered by the practical calculator in their unconnected form. sign deeds along with him, use every mode except Napier, the form
" " now adopted by the family, and which is comparatively modern.
Napier's analogies are the four formulae " " "
""- ^ In Latin he always wrote his name Neperus." The form Neper
tanHA-B)= "^-*X
si
is the oldest, as John, third Napier of Merchiston, so spelt it in the
*JC,
1 5th century.
"
Napier his name Jhone Neper, Fear of Mer-
" frequently" signed
chistc" He was Fear of Merchiston " because, more majorum,
he had been invested with the fee of his paternal barony during the
They were first published after his death in the Constructio among lifetime of his father, who retained the liferent. He has been some-
the formulae in spherical trigonometry, which were the results of "
times erroneously called Peer of Merchiston," and in the 1645
his latest work. Robert Napier says that these results would have
edition of the Plaine Discovery he is so styled (see Mark Napier's
been reduced to order and demonstrated consecutively but for
Memoirs, pp. 9 and 173, and Libri qui supersunt, p. xciv.).
Only one
his father's death. of the four analogies is actually
The bibliographv o f Napier's work attached to W. R. Macdonald's
given by Napier, the other three being added by Briggs in the
remarks which are appended to Napier's results. The work left
translation of the Canonis Constructio (1889) is
complete and valuable.
Napier's three mathematical works are reprinted by N. L. W. A.
by Napier is, however, rough and unfinished, and it is uncertain Gravelaar in Verhandelingen der Kon. Akad. van Wet te Amsterdam,
whether he knew of the other formulae or not. They are, however,
so simply deducible from the results he has given that all the four
i. sectie, deel 6 (1899). (J. W. L. G.)
analogies may be properly called by his name. An analysis of the
formulae contained in the Descriptio and Constructio is given by NAPIER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS PATRICK (1785-1860),
Delambre in vol. i. of his Histoire de V Astronomic moderne. British soldier and military historian, third son of Colonel
To Napier seems to be due the first use of the decimal point in George Napier (1751-1804), and brother of Sir Charles James
arithmetic. Decimal tractions were first introduced by Stevinus in
his tract La Disme, published in 1585, but he used cumbrous ex- Napier (see above), was born at Celbridge, near Dublin, on the
ponents (numbers enclosed in circles) to distinguish the different I7th of December 1785. He became an ensign in the Royal
denominations, primes, seconds, thirds, &c. Thus, for example, he Irish Artillery in 1800, but at once exchanged into the 62nd, and
would have written 123-456 as 123(0)4(1)5(2)6(3). In the Rab- was put on half-pay in 1802. He was afterwards made a cornet
" in the Blues by the influence of his uncle the duke of Richmond,
dologia Napier gives an Admonitio pro Decimal! Arithmetica," in
which he commends the fractions of Stevinus and gives an example and for the first time did actual military duty in this regiment,
of their use, the division of 861094 by 432. The quotient is written but he soon fell in with Sir John Moore's suggestion that he should
1993,273 in the work, and I993,2'7'3" in the text. This single
instance of the use of the decimal point in the midst of an arith- exchange into the 52nd, which was about to be trained in the
metical process, if it stood alone, would not suffice to establish a famous camp of Shorncliffe. Through Sir John Moore he soon
claim for its introduction, as the real introducer of the decimal obtained a company in the 43rd, joined that regiment at Shorn-
point is the person who first saw that a point or line as separator cliffe and became a great favourite with Moore. He served in
was all that was required to distinguish between the integers and
fractions, and used it as a permanent notation and not merely in the
Denmark, and was present at the engagement of Kioge, and,
course of performing an arithmetical his regiment being shortly afterwards sent to Spain, he bore
operation.
The decimal point
is, however, used systematically in the Constructio (1619), there himself nobly through the retreat to Corunna, the hardships of
being perhaps two hundred decimal points altogether in the book. which permanently impaired his health. In 1809 he became
NAPIER, SIR W. F. P.
aide-de-camp to the duke of Richmond, lord lie^ufjant of for political reform which was agitating England. The Radicals
Ireland, but joined the 43rd when that regiment was ordered of Bath and many other cities and towns pressed him to enter
again to Spain. With the light brigade (the 43rd, 52nd, and 95th), parliament, and Napier was actually invited to become the
under the command of General Crauf urd, he marched to Talavera military chief of a national guard to obtain reforms by force of
in the famous forced march which he has described in his History, arms. He refused the dangerous honour on the ground that he
and had a violent attack of pleurisy on the way. He, however, was in bad health and had a family of eight children. In 1830
refused to leave Spain, was wounded on the Coa, and shot near he had been promoted colonel, and in 1842 he was made a major-
the spine at Cazal Nova. His conduct was so conspicuous during general and given the lieutenant-governorship of Guernsey.
the pursuit of Massena after he left the lines of Torres Vedras Here he found plenty of occupation in controlling the relations
that he as well as his brother George was recommended for a between the soldiers and the inhabitants, and also in working
brevet majority. He became brigade major, was present at out proposals for a complete scheme of reform in the government
Fuentes d'Onor, but had so bad an attack of ague that he was of the island. While he was at Guernsey his brother Charles
obliged to return to England. In England he married Caroline had conquered Sind, and the attacks made on the policy of that
Amelia Fox, daughter of General Henry Fox and niece of the conquest brought William Napier again into the field of literature.
statesman Fox. Three weeks after his marriage he again started In 1845 he published his History of the Conquest of Scinde, and in
for Spain, and was present at the storming of Badajoz, where 1851 the corresponding History of the Administration of Scinde
his great friend Colonel M'Leod was killed. In the absence of the books which in style and vigour rivalled the great History, but
new lieutenant-colonel he took command of the 43rd regiment which, being written for controversial purposes, were not likely
(he was now a substantive major) and commanded it at the to maintain enduring popularity. In 1847 he resigned his
battle of Salamanca. After a short stay at home he again governorship, and in 1848 was made a K.C.B., and settled at
joined his regiment at the Pyrenees, and did his greatest military Scinde House, Clapham Park. In 1851 he was promoted lieu-
service at the battle of the Nivelle, where, with instinctive tenant-general. His time was fully occupied in defending his
military insight, he secured the most strongly fortified part of brother, in revising the numerous editions of his History which
Soult's position, practically without orders. He served with his were being called for, and in writing letters to The Times on every
regiment at the battles of the Nive, where he received two wounds, conceivable subject, whether military or literary. His energy
Orthes, and Toulouse. For his services he was made brevet is the more astonishing when it is remembered that he never
lieutenant-colonel, and one of the first C.B.'s. Like his brother recovered from the effects of the wound he had received at
Charles he then entered the military college at Farnham. He Cazal Nova, and that he often had to lie on his back for months
commanded his regiment in the invasion of France after Waterloo, together. His domestic life was shadowed by the incurable
and remained in France with the army of occupation until 1819, affliction of his only son, and when his brother Charles died in
when he retired on half-pay. As it was impossible for him to 1853 the world seemed to be darkening round him. He devoted
live on a major's half-pay with a wife and family, he determined himself to writing the life of that brother, which appeared in
to become an artist, and took a house in Sloane Street, where he 1857, and which is in many respects his most characteristic book.
studied with George Jones, the academician. In the end of 1853 his younger brother, Captain Henry Napier,
The years he had spent in France he had occupied in improving R.N., died, and in 1855 his brother Sir George (see below).
his general education, for, incredible as it seems, the author of the Inspired by his work, he lived on till the year 1860, when, broken
History of the War in the Peninsula could not spell or write by trouble, fatigue and ill-health, he died (February 12) at
respectable English till that time. But his career was to be great Clapham. Four months earlier he had been promoted to the
in literature, not in art. The tendency appeared in an able full rank of general.
review of Jomini's works (Edinburgh Rev.) in 1821, and in 1823 As a military historian Sir William Napier is incomparably
Mr Bickersteth (afterwards Lord Langdale) suggested to him superior to any other English writer, and his true compeers are
the expediency of writing a history of the Peninsular War. For Thucydides, Caesar and Davila. All four had been soldiers in the
wars they describe; all four possessed a peculiar insight into the
some time he did not take kindly to the suggestion, but at last mainsprings of action both in war and peace; and each possessed
determined to become an author in order to defend the memory a peculiar and inimitable style. Napier always wrote as if he was
of Sir John Moore, and to prevent the glory of his old chief being burrting with an inextinguishable desire to express what he was
overshadowed by that of Wellington. The duke of Wellington feeling, which gives his style a peculiar spontaneity, and yet he
rewrote the first volume of his History no less than six times. His
himself gave him much assistance, and handed over to him the descriptions of sieges and of battles are admirable by themselves,
whole of Joseph Bonaparte's correspondence which had been and his analyses of the peculiarly intricate Spanish intrigues are
taken at the battle of Vittoria; this was all in cipher, but Mrs even more remarkable, while the descriptions and analyses are
both lit up with flashes of political wisdom and military insight.
Napier, with great patience, discovered the keys. Marshal Soult It is to be noted that he displays the spirit of the partisan, even
also took an active interest hi the work and arranged for the when most impartial, and defends his opinions, even when most
French translation of Mathieu Dumas. In 1828 the first volume undoubtedly true, as if he were arguing some controverted question.
of the History appeared. The If his style was modelled on anything, it was on Caesar's comment-
publisher, John Murray, indeed,
aries, and a thorough knowledge of the writings of the Roman
was disappointed in the sale of the first volume and Napier
general will often explain allusions in Napier. The portraits of
published the remainder himself. But it was at once seen that Sir John Moore and Colonel M'Leod, and the last paragraphs de-
the great deeds of the Peninsular War were about to be fitly scriptive of the storming of Badajoz, may be taken as examples
commemorated. The excitement which followed the appearance of his great natural eloquence.
of each volume is proved by the innumerable pamphlets issued His brother, SIR GEORGE THOMAS NAPIER (i 784-1855), entered
by those who believed themselves to be attacked, and by personal the army in 1800, and served with distinction under Moore and
altercations with many distinguished officers. But the success Wellington in the Peninsula and lost his right arm at the
of the book was proved still more by the absence of competition storming of Badajoz. He became major-general in 1837, K.C.B.
than by these bitter controversies. The histories of Southey and in 1838 and lieutenant-general in 1846. He was governor and
Lord Londonderry fell still-born, and Sir George Murray, commander-in-chief at the Cape from 1839 to 1843, during which
Wellington's quartermaster-general, who had determined to pro- time the abolition of slavery and the expulsion of the Boers from
duce the history, gave up the attempt in despair. This success was Natal were the chief events. He was offered, but declined, the
due to a combination of qualities which have justly secured for chief command in India after Chillianwalla, and also that of the
Napier the title of being the greatest military historian England Sardinian army in 1849. He became full general in 1854. He
has produced. When in 1840 the last volume of the History was died at Geneva on the i6th of September 1855. His auto-
published, his fame not only in England but in France and biography, Passages in the Early Military Life of General Sir
Germany was safely established. G. T. Napier, was published by his surviving son, General
His during these years had been chiefly absorbed in his
life W. C. E. Napier (the author of an important work on outpost
History, but he had warmly sympathized with the movement duty), in 1885.
NAPIER AND ETTRICK NAPIER OF MAGDALA 177
The youngest brother, HENRY EDWARD NAPIER (1789-1853), Florence on the igth of December 1898, leaving a widow and
served in the navy during the Napoleonic wars, retired as a three sons, the eldest of whom, William John George (b. 1846),
captain, and wrote a learned Florentine History from the earliest succeeded to his titles.
authentic Records to the Accession of Ferdinand III. of Tuscany NAPIER OF MAGDALA, ROBERT CORNELIS NAPIER,
(1846-1847). IST BARON (1810-1890), British field-marshal, son of Major
For Sir William Napier's life, see his Life and Letters, edited by the Charles Frederick Napier, who was wounded at the storming of
Right Honourable H. A. Bruce (Lord Aberdare) (2 vols., 1862). Meester Cornells (Aug. 26, 1810) in Java and died some months
NAPIER AND ETTRICK, FRANCIS NAPIER, BARON (1819- later, was born at Colombo, Ceylon, on the 6th of December
1898), British diplomatist, was descended from the ancient 1810. He entered the Bengal Engineers from Addiscombe
Scottish family of Napier of Merchistoun, his ancestor Sir College in 1826, and after the usual course of instruction at
Alexander Napier (d. c. 1473) being the elder son of Alexander Chatham, arrived in India in November 1828. For some years
Napier (d. c. 1454), provost of Edinburgh, who obtained lands he was employed in the irrigation branch of the public works
at Merchistoun early in the isth century. Sir Alexander was department, and in 1838 he laid out the new hill station at
comptroller of the household of the king of Scotland, and was Darjeeling. Promoted captain in January 1841, he was ap-
often sent to England and elsewhere on public business. Of pointed to Sirhind, where he laid out cantonments on a new
his descendants one Napier of Merchistoun was killed at Sauchie- principle known as the Napier system for the troops returning
burn, another fell at Flodden and a third at Pinkie. The seventh from Afghanistan. In December 1845 he joined the army of
Napier of Merchistoun was Sir Archibald Napier (1534-1608), the Sutlej, and commanded the Engineers at the battle of Mudki,
master of the Scottish mint, and the eighth was John Napier where he had a horse shot under him. At the battle of Ferozeshah
(q.v.) John's eldest son, Sir Archibald
the inventor of logarithms. on the 3ist December he again had his horse shot under him, and,
Napier 1576-1645), was treasurer-depute of Scotland from
(c. joining the 3ist Regiment on foot, was severely wounded in
1622 to 1631, and was created Lord Napier of Merchistoun in storming the entrenched Sikh camp. He was present at the
1627. He married Margaret Graham, sister of the great marquess battle of Sobraon on loth February 1846, and in the advance to
of Montrose, whose cause he espoused, and he wrote some Lahore; was mentioned in despatches for his services in the
Memoirs which were published in Edinburgh in 1793. His son campaign, and received a brevet majority. He was chief engineer
Archibald, the 2nd lord (1625-1658), fought under Montrose at at the reduction of Kote-Kangra by Brigadier-General Wheeler
Auldearn, at Alford, at Kilsyth and at Philiphaugh, and was in May 1846, and received the thanks of government. He was
afterwards with his famous uncle on the continent of Europe. then appointed consulting engineer to the Punjab resident and
His son, Archibald, the 3rd lord (d. 1683), was succeeded by council of regency, but was again called to the field to direct the
special arrangement in the title, first by bis nephew, Thomas siege of Multan. He was wounded in the attack on the entrenched
Nicolson (1660-1686), a son of his sister Jean and her husband position in September 1848, but was present at the action of
Sir Thomas Nicolson, Bart. (d. 1670), and then by his sister Shujabad, the capture of the suburbs, the successful storm of
Margaret (d. 1706), the widow of John Brisbane (d. 1684). The Multan on 23rd January 1849, and the surrender of the fort of
6th lord was Margaret's grandson Francis Scott (c. 1702-1773), a Chiniot. He then joined Lord Gough, took part, as commanding
son of Sir William Scott, Bart., of Thirlestane (d. 1725). Francis engineer of the right wing, in the battle of Gujrat in February
Scott, who took the additional name of Napier, had a large 1849, accompanied Sir W. R. Gilbert in his pursuit of the Sikhs
family, his sons including William, the yth lord, and Colonel and Afghans, and was present at the passage of the Jhelum, the
George Napier (1751-1804). His famous grandsons are dealt surrender of the Sikh army, and the surprise of Attock. For his
with above. Another literary member of the family was Mark services he was mentioned in despatches and received a brevet
"
Napier (1798-1879), called by Mr Andrew Lang the impetuous lieutenant-colonelcy. At the close of the war Napier was
biographer of Montrose," who wrote Memoirs of John Napier appointed civil engineer to the board of administration of the
of Merchislon (1834), Montrose and the Covenanters (1838), annexed Punjab province, and carried out many important
Memoirs of Montrose (1856), Memorials of Graham of Claverhouse public works during his tenure of office. In December 1852 he
(1859-1862), and a valuable legal work, The Law of Prescription commanded a column in the first Hazara expedition, and in the
in Scotland (1839 and again 1854). William, 7th Lord Napier following year against the Boris; and for his services in these
(1730-1775), was succeeded as 8th lord by his son Francis (1758- campaigns was mentioned in despatches, received the special
1823), who, after serving in the English army during the American thanks of government and a brevet-colonelcy. He was
War of Independence, was lord high commissioner to the general appointed military secretary and adjutant-general to Sir James
assembly of the Church of Scotland, and compiled a genealogical Outram's force for the relief of Lucknow in the Indian Mutiny
account of his family which is still in manuscript. His son in 1857, and was engaged in the actions which culminated in the
William John, the 9th lord (1786-1834), who was present at the first relief Lucknow. He directed the defence of Lucknow until
of
battle of Trafalgar, was the father of Francis Napier, Lord Napier the second when he was severely wounded in crossing a
relief,
and Ettrick. very exposed space with Outram and Havelock to meet Sir Colin
Born on the isth of September 1819 Francis entered the Campbell. He was chief of the staff to Outram in the defence of
diplomatic service in 1840, and was employed in successive posts the Alambagh position, and drew up the plan of operations for
at Vienna, Constantinople, Naples, Washington and the Hague. the attack of Lucknow, which was approved by Sir Colin Camp-
During this time he earned the highest opinions both at home bell and carried out by Napier, as brigadier-general commanding
and abroad. In 1860 he became ambassador at St Petersburg, the Engineers, in March 1858. On the fall of Lucknow Napier
and in 1864 at Berlin. In 1866 he was appointed governor of was most favourably mentioned in despatches, and made C.B.
Madras, and was at once confronted with a serious famine in the He joined Sir Hugh Rose as second-in-command in his march on
northern districts. In dealing with this and other problems he Gwalior, and commanded the 2nd brigade at the action of Morar
showed great activity and practical sense, and he encouraged on the 1 6th June. On the fall of Gwalior he was entrusted with
public works, particularly irrigation. In 1872 he acted for a few the task of pursuing the enemy. With only 700 men he came up
months as Viceroy, after Lord Mayo's assassination; and on with Tantia Tppi and 1 2,000 men on the plains of Jaora Alipur, and
Lord Northbrook's appointment to the office he returned to completely defeated him, capturing all his guns (25), ammunition
England, being created a baron of the United Kingdom (Baron and baggage. On Sir Hugh Rose's departure he took command of
Ettrick of Ettrick) for his services. He continued, both in the Gwalior division, captured Paori in August, routed Ferozeshah,
England and in Scotland, to take great interest in social questions. a prince of the house of Delhi, at Ranode in December, and,
He was for a time a member of the London School Board, and in January 1859, succeeded in securing the surrender of Man
he was chairman of the Crofters' Commission in 1883, the result Singh and Tantia Topi, which ended the war. For his services
of which was the appointment of a permanent body to deal with Napier received the thanks of parliament and of the Indian
questions affecting the Scottish crofters and cottars. He died at government, and was made K.C.B.
i 78 NAPIER NAPLES
In January 1860 Napier was appointed to the command of commanding the tenth Army Corps and of the admiral com-
the 2nd division of the expedition to China under Sir Hope Grant, manding the second Naval Department of Italy; and it
and took part in the action of Sinho, the storm of the Peiho possesses also an ancient and important university.
forts, and the entry to Peking. For his services he received the Naples disputes with Constantinople the claim of occupying
thanks of parliament, and was promoted major-general for the most beautiful site in Europe. It is situated on the northern
distinguished service in the field. For the next four years Napier shore of the Bay of Naples (Sinus Cumanus), in 40 52' N.,
was military member of the council of the governor-general 14 15' 45" E., as taken from the lighthouse on the mole. By
of India and, on the sudden death of Lord Elgin, for a short rail it is distant 151 m. from Rome, but the line is circuitous,
time acted as governor-general, until the arrival of Sir W. T. and a direct electric line was contemplated in 1907, to run nearer
Denison from Madras. In January 1865 he was given the com- the coast and shorten the distance from the capital by more than
mand of the Bombay army, in March 1867 he was promoted 30 m. (For map, see ITALY.) The circuit of the bay is about
lieutenant-general, and, later in that year, appointed to command 35 m. from the capo di Miseno on the north-west to the Punta
the expedition to Abyssinia, selecting his own troops and making della Campanella on the south-east, or more than 52 m. if the
all the preparations for the campaign. He arrived at Annesley islands of Ischia, at the north-west, and of Capri, at the south
Bay in the Red Sea early in January 1868, reached Magdala, entrance, be included. At its opening between these two islands
420 m. from the coast, in April; stormed the stronghold, freed it is 14 m. broad; while another 4 m. separates Capri from the
the captives, razed the place to the ground, returned to the mainland at the Punta della Campanella, and from the opening
coast, and on the i8th June the last man of the expedition had to its head at Portici the distance is 15 m. It affords good
left Africa. He received for his services the thanks of parlia- anchorage, with nearly 7 fathoms of water, and is well sheltered,
ment, a pension, a peerage, the G.C.B. and the G.C.S.I. The except from winds which blow from points between south-east
freedom of the cities of London and Edinburgh was conferred and south-west. In the latter winds Sorrento should be especially
upon him, with presentation swords, and the universities avoided, as no safe anchorage can be found there at less than
bestowed upon him honorary degrees. In 1869 he was elected 15 fathoms, and the same remark applies to Capri with winds
a fellow of the Royal Society. He held the command-in-chief from S.W. to N.W. There isa perceptible tide of nearly 9 in.
in India for six years from 1870, during which he did much to On the north-east shore east of Naples is an extensive flat, forming
benefit the army and to encourage good shooting. He was part of the ancient Campania Felix, and watered by the small stream
promoted general in 1874, and appointed a colonel-commandant Sebeto and by the Sarno, which last in classical times formed the
of the Royal Engineers. In 1876 he was the guest of the German port of Pompeii. From this flat, between the sea and the range of the
Apennines, rises Mount Vesuvius, at the base of which, on or near the
crown prince at the military manoeuvres, and from that year sea-shore, are the populous villages of San Giovanni Teduccio,
until 1883 hdd the government and command of Gibraltar. Portici, Resina, Torre del Greco, Torre dell' Annunziata, &c., and the
In the critical state of affairs in 1877 he was nominated com- classic sites of Herculaneum and Pompeii. At the south-east
mander-in-chief of the force which it was proposed to send to extremity of the plain, 3 m. beyond the outlet of the Sarno, a great
offshoot of the Apennines, branching from the main range near Cava,
Constantinople. In 1879 he was a member of the royal com- and projecting as a peninsula more than 12 m. west, divides the
mission on army organization, and in November of that year Bay of Naples from the bay of Salerno (Sinus Paestanus), and ends
he represented Queen Victoria at Madrid as ambassador extra- in the bold promontory of the Punta della Campanella (Promon-
torium Minervae), which is separated by a strait of 4 m. from Capri.
ordinary on the occasion of the second marriage of the king of On the north slope of this peninsula, where the plain ends and the
Spain. On the ist of January 1883 he was promoted to be field- coast abruptly bends to the west, stands the town of Castellammare,
marshal, and in December 1886 appointed Constable of the near the site of Stabiae, at the foot of Monte Sant' Angelo, which
Tower of London. He died in London on the i4th of January rises suddenly from the sea to a height of 4722 ft. Farther west,
His remains received a state funeral, and were buried and nearly opposite to Naples across the bay, are Vico, Meta,
1890.
Sorrento, Massa and many villages.
in St Paul's Cathedral on the zist of January. He was twice The north-west shore to the west of Naples is more broken
married, and left a large family by each wife, his eldest son, and irregular. The promontory of Posilipo, which projects due south,
Robert William (b. 1845), succeeding to his barony. A statue divides this part of the bay into two smaller bays the eastern, with
of him on horseback by Boehm was erected at Calcutta when the city of Naples, and the western, or Bay of Baiae, which is sheltered
from all winds. A tunnel through the promontory, 2244 ft. long,
he left India, and a replica of it was afterwards set up to his 21 ft. broad, and in some places as much as 70 ft. high, possibly
memory in Waterloo Place, London. constructed by Marcus Agrippa in 27 B.C., forms the so-called grotto
NAPIER, a seaport on the east coast of North Island, New of Posilipo; at the Naples end stands the reputed tomb of Virgil.
Zealand, capital of the provincial district of Hawke's Bay, Beyond Posilipo is the small island of Nisida (Nesis) and at a short
;
distance inland are the extinct craters of Solfatara and Astroni and
200 m. by rail N.E. of Wellington. Pop. (1906) 9454. The the lake of Agnano. Farther west, on the coast, and provided with a
main portion of the town stretches along the flat shoreland of convenient harbour, stands Pozzuoli (Puteoli), a city containing
Hawke's Bay, while the suburbs extend over the hills to the north. many Roman remains, but now chiefly remarkable for the large gun-
The site consists ofa picturesque peninsula known as Scinde works erected by Messrs Armstrong & Co. and beyond it, round the
;
Island. The harbour (Port Ahuriri) is sheltered by a break- Bay of Baiae, are Monte Nuoyo, a hill thrown up in a single night
in September 1538; the classic site of Baiae; the Lucrine Lake;
water. The cathedral church of St John (1888) for the bishopric Lake Avernus; the Lake of Fusaro (Acherusia Palus); the Elysian
of Waiapu, is one of the finest ecclesiastical buildings in New Fields; and the port and promontory of Misenum. Still farther to
An the south-west lie the islands of Procida (Prochyta) and Ischia
Zealand, imitating the Early English style in brick.
(Pilhecusa, Aenaria or Inarime), which divide the Bay of Naples
athenaeum, a small hospital, a lunatic asylum, a philosophical from the extensive Bay of Gaeta. All this country was comprised
society and an acclimatization society are among the public in classical times under the title of the Phlegrean Fields, and was
institutions. The town (named after Sir Charles James Napier) certainly then more actively volcanic than it now is, although the
is under municipal government, and returns a member to the severe shock of earthquake which occurred in the island of Ischia in
New Zealand House of Representatives. The district is agri- 1883 completely destroyed Casamicciola, and did serious damage
to Forio, Lacco Ameno and Serrara Fontana, shows that there is
cultural,and large quantities of wool and tinned and frozen great seismic activity in the locality. The whole region abounds
meats are exported. There is railway communication with with fissures from which steam highly charged with hydrochloric
New acid is continually issuing, and in many places boiling water is found
Wellington, Plymouth, and the Wairarapa, Wanganui
at a very few feet below the surface.
and Manawatu districts.Numerous old native pas or fortified
villages are seen in the neighbourhood. The city of Naples built at the base and on the slopes of a
is
NAPLES Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis), formerly the capital
(Ital. range of volcanic hills,and, rising from the shore like an amphi-
of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and since 1860 the chief town theatre, is seen to best advantage from the sea. From the summit
of the province which bears its name, the smallest province occupied by the castle of St Elmo a transverse ridge runs south
in the kingdom of Italy. It is the largest city in the country, to form the promontory of Pizzofalcone, and divides the city into
containing 547,503 inhabitants in 1901. It is a prefecture; two natural crescents. The western crescent, known as the
the see of a cardinal archbishop; the residence of the general Chiaja ward, though merely a long narrow strip between the sea
NAPLES 179
and Vomero hill, is the fashionable quarter most frequented Naples is the see of a Roman Catholic archbishop, always a
by foreign residents and visitors. A fine broad street, the Riviera cardinal. The cathedral has a chapter of thirty canons, and of
di Chiaja, begun in the dose of the i6th century by Count the numerous religious houses formerly existing very few have
d'Olivares, and completed by the duke de Medina Celi (1695- in whole or in part survived the suppression in 1868. The
city is
1700), runs for a mile and a half from east to west, ending in divided into fifty parishes purely for ecclesiastical purposes, and
the quarter of Mergellina and Piedigrotta at the foot of the hill there are 237 Roman Catholic churches and 57 chapels.
of Posilipo. In front lie the Villa Communale (first called Reale Most of the churches are remarkable rather for richness in internal
and subsequently Nazionale) public gardens, the chief promenade decoration than for architectural beauty. The cathedral of St
of the city, which were first laid out in 1780, and have been Januarius, occupying the site of temples of Apollo and Neptune,
and still containing some of their original granite columns, was-
successively extended in 1807, in 1834, and again in recent years; designed by Nicola Pisano, and erected between 1272 and 1316.
and the whole edge of the bay from the Castel dell' Ovo to Owing to frequent restorations occasioned by earthquakes, it now
Mergellina is lined by a massive embankment and carriage- presents an incongruous mixture of different styles. The general
way, the Via Caracciolo, constructed in 1875-1881. The eastern plan is that of a basilica with a nave and two (Gothic vaulted)
aisles separated by pilasters. The western facade is of marble and
crescent includes by far the largest as well as the oldest portion
was completed in 1906. Beneath the high altar is a subterranean
of Naples the ports, the arsenal, the principal churches, &c. chapel containing the tomb of St Januarius (San Gcnnaro), the
The best-known thoroughfare is the historic Toledo (as it is patron saint of the city in the right aisle there is a chapel (Cappella
;
still popularly called, though the official name is Via Roma)
del Tespro) built between 1608 and 1637 in popular recognition of
"
his having saved Naples in 1527 from famine, war, plague and the
which runs almost due north from the Piazza (Largo) del fire of Vesuvius "; and in a silver tabernacle behind the high altar
Plebiscite in front of the Palazzo Reale, till, as Strada Nuova of this chapel are preserved the two phials partially filled with his
Di Capodimonte, crossing the Ponte della Sanita (constructed blood, the periodical liquefaction of which forms a prominent feature
in the religious life of the Accessible by a door in the left
by Murat across the valley between Santa Teresa and Capodi- city.
aisle of the cathedral is the church of Sta Restituta, a basilica of
monte), it reaches the gates of the Capodimonte palace. A the 7th century, and the original cathedral. Santa Chiara (i4th
drive, the Corso Vittorio Emmanucle, winds along the slopes century) is interesting for a fresco ascribed to Giotto (at one time
behind the city from the Str. di Piedigrotta (at the west end of there were many more), and monuments to Robert the Wise, his
the Riv. di Chiaja) till it reaches the museum by the Via Salvator queen Mary of Valois and his daughter Mary, empress of Constanti-
Rosa. The character of the shore of the eastern crescent has been nople. San Domenico Maggiore, founded by Charles II. in 1285,
but completely restored after 1445, has an effective interior particu-
much altered by the new harbour works, which with the wharves larly rich in Renaissance sculpture. In the neighbouring monastery
and warehouses have absorbed the Villa del Popolo, or People's is shown the cell of Thomas Aquinas. San Filippo Neri or dei
Park, originally constructed on land reclaimed from the bay. Gerolomini, erected in the close of the l6th century, has a white
marble facade and two campaniles, and contains the tombstone of
The streets of Naples are generally well-paved with large Giambattista Vico. Sta Maria del Parto, in the Chiaja, occupies
blocks of lava or volcanic basalt. In the older districts there is the site of the house of Sannazaro, and is named after his poem De
a countless variety of narrow gloomy streets, many of them Partu Virginis. San Francesco di Paolo, opposite the royal palace,
is an imitation of the Pantheon at Rome by Pietro Bianchi di
steep. The houses are mostly five or six storeys high, are Lugano
covered with stucco made of a kind of pozzolana which hardens (1815-1837), and its dome is one of the boldest in Europe. The
church of the Certosa (Carthusian monastery) of San Martino, on
by exposure, and have large balconies and flat roofs. The castle the hill below St Elmo's castle, has now become in name, as so
of S. Elmo (S. Ermo, S. Erasmus), which dominates the whole many of the churches are in reality, a museum. Dating from the
idth century, and restored by Fonsega in the J7th, it is a building
city, had its origin in a fort (Belforte) erected by King Robert
of extraordinary richness of decoration, with paintings and sculpture
the Wise in 1543. The present building, with its rock-hewn
fosses and massive ramparts, was constructed by Don Pedro de
by Guido Reni, Lanfranco, " Caravaggio, D'Arpino, Solimene, Luca
Giordano and notably a Descent from the Cross " by Ribera, con-
Toledo at the command of Charles V. in 1535, and was long considered the finest work of this master. The monastery has been
considered practically impregnable. Damaged by lightning in transformed into a medieval museum, where many specimens
illustrating the modern history of Naples may be studied, and some
1857, it was afterwards restored, and is now a military prison. fine specimens of majolica from the southern provinces can be
On a small island (I. del Salvatore, the Megaris of Pliny), now inspected. The view from the south-western balcony is incompar-
joined to the shore at the foot of the Pizzofalcone by an arch- able. The marble cloister by Fpnsega, though rather flamboyant in
supported causeway, stands the Castel dell' Ovo (so called from character, is one of the finest of its kind in existence. Other churches
with interesting monuments are Sant" Anna dei Lombardi, built
its shape, though medieval legend associates the name with the
in 1411 by Guerrello Origlia, which contains some splendid marble
enchanted egg on which the magician Virgil made the safety of "
sculpture, especially Rosellino's Nativity "in the Cappella Picco-
the city to depend), which dates from 1154. The walls of its lomini; Sant Angelo a Nilo, which contains the tomb of Cardinal
chapel were frescoed by Giotto; but the whole building was Brancaccio, the joint work of Donatello and Michelozzo; San
Giovanni a Carbonara, built in 1344 and enlarged by King Ladislaus
ruined by Ferdinand II. in 1495, and had to be restored in the
in 1400, which contains among much other remarkable sculpture the
1 6th century. Castel Nuovo, a very picturesque building con- tomb of the king, the masterpiece of Andrea Ciccione (1414), and
structed near the harbour in 1283 by Charles I. of Anjou, contains that of Sergiami Caracciolo, the favourite of Joanna II., who was
between the round towers of its facade the triumphal arch murdered in 1432 (the chapel in which it stands is paved with one
of the earliest majolica pavements in Italy); San Lorenzo (1324),
erected in 1470 to Alphonso I. and renovated in 1905. It
the Royal Church of the House of Anjou; and, for purely archaeo-
numbers among its chambers the Gothic hall of Giovanni Pisano logical interest, the Church of Sant' Aspreno, thought to be the oldest
in which Celestine V. abdicated the papal dignity. Castel del Christian church in Italy, in the of the new Borsa or exchange.
crypt
Persons interested in frescoes will admire those in the former monas-
Carmine, founded by Ferdinand I. in 1484, was occupied by the
tery at the back of the church of S. Maria Donna Regina and those in
populace in Masaniello's insurrection, was used as a prison for the cloister of S. Severino and Sossio. A more ancient Christian
the patriots of 1796, became municipal property in 1878, and is monument than any of the convents or churches is the catacombs,
now a prison. The royal palace, begun in 1600 by the Count de which extend a great distance underground and are in many respects
finer than those at Rome. The entrance is at the Ospizio dei Poveri
Lemos, from designs by Domenico Fontana, partly burned in
di San Gennaro (see Schulze's monograph, Jena, 1877).
1837, and since repaired and enlarged by Ferdinand II., is an
enormous building with a sea frontage of 800 ft. and a main Of the secular institutions in Naples none is more remarkable
facade 554 ft. long and 95 ft. high, exhibiting the Doric, Ionic than the National Museum, formerly known as the Museo
and Composite orders in its three storeys. The statues on the Borbonico. The building, begun in 1586 for vice-regal stables,
facade of the palace were erected by King Humbert I. in 1885, and remodelled in 1615 for the university, was put to its present
and represent the titular heads of the various dynasties which use in 1790, when Ferdinand IV. proclaimed it his private
have reigned at Naples, beginning with Ruggiero the Norman property independently of the crown, placed in it the Farnese
(1130); followed by Frederick II. of.Suabia (1197); Charles I. collection which he had inherited from his father, and all the
of Anjou (1266); Alfonso of Aragon (1442); Charles V. of Spain specimens from Herculaneum, Pompeii, Stabiae, Puteoli,
(1527); Charles III. (Bourbon) of Naples (1744); Gioacchino Paestum, &c., which till then had been housed in the palace at
Murat (1808); and Victor Emmanuel II. (1861). Portici, and gave it the name of Real Museo Borbonico. In 1860
i8o NAPLES
Garibaldi, when dictator at Naples, proclaimed the museum in 1861, and divided into three academies, namely: moral and
is
and the devoted to excavation to be the property of political; and mathematical; letters, archaeology and
physical
territory fine arts. The famous Accademia Ppntaniana, founded by Antonio
the nation, since which time it has been called the National Becardella (surnamed Panormita owing to his origin from Palermo)
Museum. Vast numbers of specimens have since been added to and J. J. Pontanus in 1442, was restored in 1808 and still exists.
it both by purchase and from excavations, and it is now unique The Royal School for Oriental Languages owes its existence to
as a treasure house of Italo-Greek and Roman antiquities,
Matteo Ripa.who in 1732 established a school for Chinese mission-
aries. The Royal Conservatory of Music in S. Pietro a
besides containing a fine library and an important collection of Majella has
existed in one form or other since 1760, and has had many famous
pictures. pupils.
A large additional space for exhibits was made in 1904, when the Elementary education has proceeded with great rapidity, and
western half of the second floor was added, and the building as now there are ninety public elementary shools in the city, twenty-three
arranged contains the large bronzes and statues on the ground ecclesiastical gratuitous schools and many evangelical schools at a
floor; a gallery of Pompeian frescoes in the entresol; the library, small payment. The higher grade schools are also numerous,
very
picture gallery and
small bronzes on the first floor; and the glass, and there are special foreign schools established by private enterprise
jewelry, arms, papyri, gems, and the unique collection of Italo- for the education of the children of foreign residents. There are three
Greek vases, on the second floor. The large bronzes are almost the schools for the blind and two for deaf-mutes.
only ones which have survived from classical times, the most famous Libraries The state archives in Vico San Severo e Sossio contain
of them being the seated Mercury and the dancing Faun; all. the records of past governments; the Notarial archives in Via
the marbles reckon among their vast number the Psyche, the San Paolo contain all the original notarial acts from 1450 onwards,
Capuan Venus, the portraits of Homer and Julius Caesar, as well to the number of 800,000. The Royal national library in the building
as the huge group called the Toro Farnese (Amphion and Zethus of the national museum contains 364,000 volumes and 7835 manu-
tying Dirce to its horns), the Farnese Hercules, the excellent scripts, many of which are of great value. The musical archives are
though late statues of the Balbi on horseback and a very fine kept here as a separate department. The Royal library of San
collection of ancient portrait busts. Giacomo (100,000 vols.) had its origin in the Palace library of the
Modern The Galleria Umberto I. is a large cruci- Bourbon times. There may also be mentioned the Royal University
Buildings.
library, the Royal Brancacciana library in Via Donnaromita, with
form arcade opened in 1890. It somewhat resembles the Milan
125,000 vols. and 2000 important MSS., the Gerolomini library,
arcade, and has an octagon in the centre, with a cupola. It is mainly of ecclesiastical books and codices, and the Provincial library
highly ornamented with gilt and stucco. A music-hall occupies in Via Duomo, consisting mainly of technical books. The Biblioteca
the basement. The Galleria Principe di Napoli is in a smaller Communale, and the rich collection of seismic and vulcanological
books made by the Italian Alpine Club, are both in charge of the
arcade opposite to the National Museum, mainly occupied by Societa di Storia Patria. This literary society was established in
shops where reproductions from the museum are sold. The 1875, by a committee of private gentlemen anxious to record all
Galleria Vittoria, opened in 1907, is a circular building with possible details of the history of the locality. It has a good though
handsome dome, situated near the main entrance of the Villa not perfect collection of the early Neapolitan newspapers, a complete
file of the principal modern ones and many interesting MSS. The
Communale. It is in great part occupied by offices and shops.
society is governed by a council of literary men, and issues publi-
The Anglican church in Vico San Pasquale was built in 1862 on cations from time to time. The Zoological Station or Aquarium
ground given to the British community by Garibaldi when has a very fine biological library.
and was the first Protestant church erected in Naples. Theatres. The San Carlo opera-house, with its area of 5157 sq.
dictator,
yds. and its pit capable of seating 1000 spectators, is one of the
Since the granting of religious liberty evangelical churches have
largest in Europe. It was originally built in 1737 under Charles III.,
been built by the Presbyterians, Wesleyans, French, Germans and but was destroyed by fire in 1816 and completely rebuilt. It was
Italians. A Greek church and a Jewish synagogue have also heavily subsidized in the Bourbon times, but now, except for giving
been opened. The Borsa (or exchange) is a fine building in the the house, which is the property of the municipality, no assistance
is granted from the public funds. The Mercadante is also a
Piazza of the same name, built over the remains of the very municipal
theatre, but has no subsidy. The Bellini is a fine opera-house near
ancient church of Sant' Aspreno, which are still preserved in the the museum, and the other chief theatres are the Sannazzaro,
crypt. In front of it is the fine 16th-century Fontana Medina. Politeama and Fiorentini. Numerous music halls have sprung up
Educational and Learned Institutions. The university of Naples of late years, of which the principal is the Salone Marghenta in the
is one of the oldest in Italy, having been founded by Frederick II. basement of the Galleria Umberto Primo.
in the first half of the I3th century. It had fallen to insignificance Charities. Charitable institutions are numerous in Naples. The
under the Bourbons, but since 1860 has rapidly recovered. It
it Reclusorio or poorhouse was founded in the l8th century, and besides
comprises five faculties (literature and philosophy, jurisprudence, being a refuge for the indigent poor has a series of industrial schools
mathematics, natural science and medicine), and is well equipped attached, at which foundling boys are educated and taught trades.
with zoological, mineralogical and geological museums, a physio- The principal hospitals are the Incurabili, Gesu e Maria, Santa Maria
logical institute, a cabinet of anthropology, and botanical gardens. della Pace and a hospital for poor priests, which are all under the
Originally erected in 1557 for the use of the Jesuits, the university same management. The Pellegrini is exclusively surgical; the Santa
buildings are regarded as the best work of Marco di Pino; the Maria di Loreto is especially for the inmates of the Reclusorio and
quadrangle, surrounded by a simple but effective peristyle, contains for street accidents; the
Qspedale Lina for children; and the
statues of Pietro della Vigna (Frederick's chancellor), Thomas Ospedale Cotugno for infectious diseases. There is also an Inter-
Aquinas and Giordano Bruno. The new building, the shell of which national hospital for the treatment of others than Italians, which
was completed in 1906, faces the Rettifilo, a new wide street which was built by Lady Harriet Bentinck and is managed by an inter-
leads from the Borsa in a straight line to the railway station; at national committee; a German hospital; and a hospital erected
the back it joins the former building, which is at a higher level. by the representatives of Baron Adolphe de Rothschild. There are
On the other or north side of the ancient building, and at the back of two public lunatic asylums in the city, and another at the neighbour-
the Strada Constantinopoli, very large annexes have been formed ing town of Aversa; and many private asylums, among which
for the medical school. The famous zoological station at Naples, Fleurent, Miano and Ponti Rossi may be mentioned.
whose aquarium is the principal building in the Villa Communale, Harbour. At a very early date the original harbour at Naples,
is not connected with the university. It was founded by Dr Dohrn now known in its greatly reduced state as Porto Piccolo, and fit only
in 1872; a large annexe was added to it a few years later on its for boats and lighters, became too small. In 1302 Charles II. of
western side, and a larger annexe on the eastern side was completed Anjou began the construction of the Porto Grande by forming the
in 1907. The aquarium was originally established at Naples because Molo Grande or San Gennaro, which stretched eastward into the
the flora and fauna of the neighbourhood are more varied than bay, and was terminated by a lighthouse in the I5th century. By
those of any district in Europe. Its Mittheilungen began to be pub- the addition of a new pier running north-east from the lighthouse,
lished in 1878, and portions of a great work on the flora and fauna and protected by a heavily armed battery, Charles III. in 1740
of Naples come out year by year. a'dded greatly to the of the harbour. In 1826 the open area
It is
justly considered the first safety
as well as the oldest of the zoological stations of the world, and the to the south of the Porto Grande was formed 'into the Porto Militare
chief universities pay 100 a year for tables to which they send
by the construction of the Molo San Vincenzo, 1200 ft. long. Shortly
-students. At these tables every necessary is provided, each student after the formation of the new kingdom of Italy attention was called
having his own tanks with salt water laid on for keeping his speci- to the insufficiency of the harbour for modern wants and new works
;
mens, and all necessary chemicals being provided. Of other scientific were begun in 1862. Besides the lengthening of the Molo San
institutions we .may mention the observatory on Vesuvius, which is Vincenzo to a total of more than 5000 ft., the scheme as now carried
'supported entirely by funds from the government, but is annexed out has completely revolutionized the harbour. A cross piece at the
informally to the university. Its object is to record earth-movements end of the Molo San Vincenzo has made the head of that structure
and volcanic phenomena. The Specola or astronomical observatory into the form of the Greek letter gamma, thus affording considerable
is also a government institution, and forms no official part of the protection to the anchorage. New quays have been made all the
university. It is situated on the hill of Capodimonte. way from the old Immacolatella landing-place to the new and
The Royal Society of Naples, dating from 1756, was reconstituted spacious Capitaneria di Porto, on the eastern side of which is a new
NAPLES 181
harbour used mainly for the coal trade, and piers such that the largest the erection of a large number of factories, for spinning silk,
linercan lie alongside the jetty. The outer mole of this harbour runs
cotton, jute and wool, and the making of railway plant, auto-
out from the Castel del Carmine towards the south for some 1500 ft.
and forms the inner side of the new steam basin, which when nearly mobiles, the building of ships, and in fact almost every kind of
completed in 1906 fell in on the farther side, and had to be re- industry. After the cholera epidemic of 1884, M. Depretis, then
constructed. The depth of this new harbour is from 25 to 30 ft. premier, visited Naples, and in the course of a public speech
There are two projecting moles, one to the inner harbour and the " "-
gave vent to the famous dictum Bisogna sventrare Napoli
second to the steam basin. In 1905 the total tonnage entering the " "
Naples must be disembowelled! Plans were at once made to
port amounted to 4,698,872 tons, of which the Italians (including
their coasting trade) carried 1,410,192 tons in 3687 vessels; the pull down all the worst slums, and as these lay between the
Germans 1,391,585 tons in 356 vessels; the British 1,136,345 tons centre of the town and the railway station, a wide street was
in 402 vessels; and the French 245,206 tons in 161 vessels. Naples constructed from the centre of the town to the eastward, and
is the principal
port for emigration, chiefly to North and
South
on each side of it wide strips of ground were cleared to afford
America; 281 emigrant ships sailed in 1905, carrying 216,103 emi-
grants. The total imports for that year reached the sum of 5,397,918, building sites for shops and offices. The funds for this vast
and the exports 3,367,805. The articles dealt in are wine, oil, undertaking were found partly by the state, which voted
spirits, drugs, tobacco, chemicals, hemp, cotton, wool, silk, timber, 3,000,000, and as to the rest by the Risanamento Company,
paper, leather and hides, metal, glass, cereals and live animals. which had a capital of 1,200,000. Before beginning operations
The largest export was to the United States (864,562), the next to
Great Britain (701,387), while the largest imports were from Great of demolition it was obviously necessary to provide homes for
Britain (1,233,410) and the United States (807,564). The speciali- the poor people who would be turned out, and a large working-
ties of Naples are the manufacture of coral, tortoise-shell, kid gloves class quarter was erected to the north and beyond the railway
and macaroni, but it has been growing also as an industrial centre.
station. This quarter has wide airy streets and lofty houses,
The port of Naples is second in the kingdom, and owns no rival save
Genoa. and though perhaps the houses were let at prices which were
Water Supply. Since 1884 Naples has had as fine a water supply beyond the purses of the lowest class, the result of their erection
as any city in Europe. It is derived from the hills in the neighbour- was to cause a number of the poorer houses in the old town to
hood of Avellino, and is thought to be the effluent of an underground
lake. It rushes out from the hillside and is received in a covered
be vacated, thus giving an opportunity to the lowest class to
masonry canal, whence it flows in large iron pipes till it reaches five be at any rate better housed than they were before. The quarter
enormous reservoirs constructed just opposite to the entrance gates described above is known as the Rione Vasto. There are also
of the royal palace at Capodimonte. Hence it comes by natural new middle-class quarters at Santa Lucia, Vomero Nuovo and
gravitation into the town at a pressure of five atmospheres, so that it Sant' Efremo, and better houses in the Via Sirignano, on the
supplies the highest parts of the town with abundant water. The
water is so cold that in the hottest summer perishable articles can be Riviera di Chiaja, Via Elena and Via Caracciolo at Mergellina,
preserved by merely securing them in a closed vessel and allowing Via Partenope near the Chiatamone, and an aristocratic quarter
the water to drip upon it. The supply was brought into the town in the large extensions made in the Rione Amedeo. The narrow
just after the terrible cholera outbreak of 1884, and as each new
alleys of Porto, Pendino and Mercato have nearly all disappeared,
standpipe was erected in the streets every well within 200 yds. of
it was closed, so that in a short time no well remained in the town; and old Naples has been vanishing day by day. One notable
and thus a fertile source of infection was eliminated. Every house result of the widening of the streets has been the spread of the
in the town and suburbs is now supplied with a constant supply of electric tramways, which traverse the town in various directions
pure water. The effect on the health of the city has been extra- and are admirably served by a Belgian company. The city is
ordinary. Cholera epidemics, which used to be frequent, have
become things of the past, and there is now abundant water for public mainly lighted by electricity, which has also found its way into
fountains, washing the streets and watering gardens both public all the public edifices and most private houses.
and private. The old sewers were found quite inadequate to carry The attention of antiquarians to the charms against
Folk-lore.
off the large increase of water, and besides they all led directly into
the Evil Eye used by the inhabitants of the Neapolitan provinces
the bay, causing a terrible odour and rendering the water near the
town unwholesome for bathing. This has been remedied by a
was first drawn in 1888, when it was shown that they were all
derived from the survival of ancient classical legends which had
system of sewers, which after passing by a tunnel through the hill of
sprung from various sources in connexion with classical sites in the
Posilipo cross the plain beyond and discharge their contents into the
neighbourhood. These may be divided into three classes: first,
open sea on the deserted coast of Cumae, 1 7 m. from the city of Naples. the sprig of rue in silver, with sundry emblems attached to it, all
The old aqueduct, which was constructed in the I7th century by_
of which refer to the worship of Diana, whose shrine at Capua was
Carnignanp and Criminelli and taps the Isclero at Sant" Agata dei of considerable importance; secondly, the serpent charms, which
Goti, is still available to a certain extent, but its water was never formed part of the worship of Aesculapius, and were no doubt derived
very wholesome, and as it was not laid on to houses but only supplied from the ancient eastern ophiolatry; and lastly charms
fountains and house cisterns which have since been filled up, no largely
derived from the legends of the Sirens. A special confirmation is
account need be taken of it. The solitary Leone fountain, a spring
which supplied drinking water to the west end of the town, has been given in this case, as the Siren is represented mounted on her sea-
dry for many years.
horse crossing the Styx
upon the vase of Pluto and Proserpine in the
collection of the Naples Museum. This vase dates about 250 B.C.,
Modern Growth. Naples, the most densely peopled city in and the Siren charms represent her in the same way, but usually
Europe, has increased in modern times at an enormous rate. mounted on two sea-horses. The sea-horse and the Siren alone are
On the large areas reclaimed from the sea, vast hotels and commonly found as charms; the Siren being sometimes in her
fishtail form and sometimes in the form of a harpy.
mansions let in flats have been erected. The gardens at the west
end of the town are all built over. The Vomero, once merely a History. All ancient writers agree in
representing Naples
as
scattered village, is now an important suburb, and a large a Greek settlement, though its is obscurely and
foundation
workmen's quarter has sprung up beyond the railway station to differently narrated. The Greek settlement in the
earliest
house the populace which was turned out from the centre of the neighbourhood was at Pithecusa (Ischia), but the colonists,
town when the works of the risanamento were undertaken. The being driven out of the island by the frequent earthquakes,
increase in population between the census of 1881, when it was settled on the mainland at Cumae, where they found a natural
461,962, and the census in 1901 was 85,521. The commune, acropolis of great strategic value. From Cumae they colonized
which includes not only the urban districts (sezioni) of San Dikearchia (Pozzuoli) and probably subsequently Palaeopolis.
Ferdinando, Chiaja, S. Giuseppe, Monte Calvario, Awocata, The site of Palaeopolis has given rise to much discussion, but the
Stella, San Carlo all' Arena, Vicaria, San Lorenzo, Mercato, researches by R. T. Giinther open completely new ground, and
Pendino and Porto, but also the suburban districts of Vomero, seem to be the correct solution of the problem. He places
Posilipo, Fuorigrotta, Miano and Piscinola, has been built over Palaeopolis at Gaiola Point and has discovered the remains of
in every direction, one great incentive being the creation of an the harbour, the town hall and various other rudiments of the
industrial zone to the eastward of the city. This zone has been ancient city. This site, moreover, corresponds with Livy's
set aside for the purpose of industrial development, and all persons testimony, and would account for his statement that the towns
or companies who set up industrial concerns on it have grants of Palaeopolis and Neapolis were near together and identical in
of land at a nominal price, are free of taxes for ten years and language and government. This opinion about the site of Palae-
have electric force supplied to them at a very low figure. The opolis has been based on the very considerable alterations which
law came into force in 1906, and was immediately followed by are known to have taken place in the level of the land, and the
182 NAPLES, KINGDOM OF
extensive submerged foundations of buildings off the southern ex- When the Lombards invaded Italy and pushed their conquests
tremity of Posilipo have been identified with those of the old city. in the southern provinces, the limits of the Neapolitan duchy
Parthenope, as well as Dikearchia, was formed as a new colony were considerably narrowed. In the beginning of the 8th century,
from Cumae, and was so called from a legendary connexion of at the time of the iconoclastic controversy, the emperor Leo
the locality with the siren of that name, whose tomb was still the Isaurian having forced compliance to his edict against the
shown in the time of Strabo. Parthenope was situated where worshipping of images, the Neapolitans, encouraged by Pope
Naples now stands, upon the splendid natural acropolis formed Gregory HI., threw off their allegiance to the Eastern emperors,
by the hill of Pizzofalcone, and defended on the land side by a and established a republican form of government under a duke
fossewhich is now the Strada di Chiaja, and a massive wall, of of theirown appointment. Under this regime Neapolis retained
which remains may still be traced at the back of the existing independence for nearly four hundred years, though constantly
houses. To the colonists of Parthenope there came afterwards struggling against the powerful Lombard dukes of Benevento, who
a considerable addition from Athens and Chalcis, and they twice unsuccessfully besieged it. In 1027, however, Pandulf IV'.,
"
built themselves a town which they called Neapolis, or the new a Lombard prince of Capua, succeeded in making himself
city," in contradistinction to the old settlement, which- in con- master of it; but he was expelled in 1030 by Duke Sergius,
"
sequence was styled Palaeopolis or the old city." The name chiefly through the aid of a few Norman adventurers. The
of Parthenope became lost, and the city of Palaeopolis fell into Normans, in their turn, gradually superseded all powers, whether
gradual decadence. Greek, Lombard or republican, which had previously divided
In 328 B.C. the Palaeopolitans having provoked the hostility the south of Italy, and furthermore checked the Saracens in the
of Rome by their incursions upon her Campanian allies, the advances they were making through Apulia.
consul Publilius Philo marched against them, and having taken From the date at which the south of Italy and Sicily were
his position between the old and the new city, laid regular siege subjugated by the Normans the history of Naples ceases to be
to Palaeopolis. By the aid of a strong Samnite garrison which the history of a republic or a city, and becomes that of a kingdom,
they received, the Palaeopolitans were long able to withstand the sometimes separate, sometimes merged, with the kingdom of
attacks of the consul; but at length the city was betrayed into Sicily, in that of the Two Sicilies. The city of Naples hence-
the hands of the Romans by two of her citizens. Neapolis forth formed the metropolis of the kingdom to which it gave its
possibly surrendered to the consul without any resistance, as it name, owing this pre-eminence to its advantageous position on
was received on favourable terms, had its liberties secured by the side of Italy towards Sicily, and to the favour of successive
'
a treaty, and obtained the chief authority, which previously princes (see NAPLES, KINGDOM OF).
seems to have been enjoyed by the older city. From that time BIBLIOGRAPHY. Ackerman, Naples and the Campagna Felice
Palaeopolis totally disappeared from history, and Neapolis (1816); Craven, Tour through the Southern Provinces of Naples
became an allied city (Joederata civitas) a dependency of Rome, (1821); R. T. Gunther, Earth Movements in the Bay of Naples
(Oxford, 1905); Rolfe and Ingleby, Naples in 1888 (London, 1888);
to whose alliance it remained constantly faithful, even in the
Black, Naples in the Nineties (1897); Arthur Norway, Naples, Past
most trying circumstances. In 280 B.C. Pyrrhus unsuccessfully and Present (London, 1901); Miss Jex Blake, The Elder Pliny's
attacked its walls; and in the Second Punic War Hannibal was Chapters on the History of Art (London, 1896). (E. N.-R.)
deterred by their strength from attempting to make himself NAPLES, KINGDOM OF, the name conventionally given to the
master of the town. During the civil wars of Marius and Sulla kingdom of Sicily on the Italian mainland (Sicily beyond the
a body of partisans of the latter, having entered it by treachery Pharos), to distinguish it from that of Sicily proper (Sicily on
(82 B.C.), made a general massacre of the inhabitants; but this side of the Pharos, i.e. Messina), the title of "King of
"
Neapolis soon recovered, as it was again a flourishing city in the Naples having only actually been borne by Philip II. of Spain
time of Cicero. It became a municipium after the passing of the in the i6th century (" King of England and Naples ") and by
lex Julia; under the empire it is noticed as a colonia, but the Joseph Bonaparte and Joachim Murat in the igth. The history
time when it first obtained that rank is uncertain possibly of the kingdom of Naples is inextricably interwoven with that of
under Claudius. Sicily, with which for long periods it was united as the kingdom
Though a municipal town, Neapolis long retained its Greek of the Two Sicilies.
culture and institutions; and even at the time of Strabo it For the earlier history of Naples and its territory, as a republic
had gymnasia and quinquennial games, and was divided into and a dukedom, see NAPLES above, and for the coming of the
phratriae after the Greek fashion. When the Romans became Normans see SICILY and NORMANS. It is sufficient here to state
masters of the world, many of their upper classes, both before that the leaders of the house of Hauteville, Robert Guiscard and
the close of the republic and under the empire, from a love of Richard of Aversa, in 1059 did homage to Pope Nicholas II. (<?..)
Greek manners and literature or from indolent and effeminate for all conquests they had made both in the island and upon the
habits, resorted to Neapolis, either for the education and the mainland, and that in 1130 Roger de Hauteville (Roger II. as
cultivation of gymnastic exercises or for the enjoyment of music " "
great count of Sicily) assumed the style of king as Roger I.
and of a soft and luxurious climate. Hence we find Neapolis In this way the south of Italy, together with the adjacent island
variously styled by Horace otiosa Neapolis, by Martial docta of Sicily, was converted into one political body, which, owing to
Parthenope, by Ovfd in otia natam Parthenopen. It was the the peculiar temper of its Norman rulers and their powerful
favourite residence of many of the emperors; Nero made his organization, assumed a more feudal character than any other
first appearance on the stage in one of its theatres; Titus assumed part of the peninsula. The regno, as it was called by the Italians,
the office of its archon; and Hadrian became its demarch. It constituted a state apart, differing in social institutions, foreign
was chiefly at Neapolis that Virgil composed his Georgia; and relations, and type of home government, from the commonwealths
he was buried on the hill of Pausilypus, the modern Posilipo, in and tyrannies of upper Italy. The indirect right acquired by
its neighbourhood. It was also the favourite residence of the the popes as lords paramount over this vast section of Italian
poets Statius (A.D. 61) and Silius Italicus (A.D. 25), the former territory gave occasion to all the most serious disturbances of
of whom was a Neapolitan by birth. Italy between the end of the I3th and the beginning of the i6th
After the fall of the Roman Empire, Neapolis suffered severely centuries, by the introduction of the house of Anjou into Naples
during the Gothic wars. Having espoused the Gothic cause in and the disputed succession of Angevin and Aragonese princes.
the year 536, it was taken, after a protracted siege, by Belisarius, Roger I. was succeeded in 1154 by William I. "the Bad,"
who turned aside an aqueduct, marched by surprise into the city who died in 1 166, being succeeded by his son William II. " the
through its channel, and put many of the inhabitants to the Good," on whose death in 1189 the crown passed to
sword. In 542 Totila besieged it and compelled it to surrender, his illegitimate son Tancred. After the death of
Hohea .
but being soon after recovered by Narses, it remained long a Tancred the emperor Henry VI., of the house of staufcas.
dependency of the exarchate of Ravenna, under the immediate Hohenstaufen, who by his marriage with Constance
government of a duke, appointed by the East Roman emperors. or Costanza d' Altavilla, daughter of Roger I. (d. 1154), was
NAPLES, KINGDOM OF 183
Tancred's rival for the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, de- the Ghibellines or Imperialists of Italy, and his position was
scended into Italy in 1194. He easily conquered both the strengthened by the marriage of his daughter Costanza to Peter,
mainland and the island, and Tancred's only son William III. son of King James of Aragon. But he met with opposition from
surrendered the crown to him. But with the excuse of a pre- the turbulent nobility and the clergy, who had been deprived
tended plot he put a number of the most conspicuous persons of many privileges, and he failed to conciliate the communes,
in the kingdoms to death, and had William himself blinded. which were oppressed by taxes and beginning to aspire to
He then returned to Germany, and during his absence an agita- autonomy. Innocent IV., in his determination to crush the
tion broke out, proyjaked by the cruelty of his lieutenants and Hohenstaufens, offered the kingdom in turn to Richard, earl
encouraged by his Norman wife. He hurried back to Italy, of Cornwall, to Edward, son of Henry III. of England, and to
and repressed the movement with his usual ferocity, but died Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX. of France. After long
The in 1197. Costanza then had her son Frederick negotiations -with successive popes, Charles was finally induced
emperor (b. 1194) proclaimed king, and obtained the support by Clement IV. to come to Italy in 1265, agreeing to accept
Frederick o f tne Holy See on condition that the kingdom should the kingdom of the Two Sicilies as a fief of the church, and
be once more recognized as a fief of the church. The in 1266 he marched southward with the privileges of -.. .
whole history of the ensuing period of south Italian history a crusader (see CHARLES I., king of Naples and Sicily).
turns on the claims of the papacy over the kingdoms of Naples The defection of many cities and nobles facilitated his task,
and Sicily, based on the recognition of papal suzerainty in 1053. and Manfred was forced to retire on Benevento, where, on the
The Hohenstaufen kings refused to admit this claim; hence the 26th of February, owing to the treachery of a part of his troops,
persistent hostility of the popes and the calling in of foreign he was defeated and killed. As a result of this victory Charles
potentates and armies. Costanza died in 1198, leaving Pope was soon master of almost the whole kingdom, and he entered
Innocent III. regent and tutor to her son; the pope's authority Naples, which now became the capital instead of Palermo.
was contested by various nobles, but in 1209 Frederick married He persecuted the nobles who had sided with Manfred, and
Costanza, daughter of the king of Aragon, with whose help he established a military despotism which proved more oppressive
succeeded in reducing a large part of Sicily to obedience. Two than that of the Hohenstaufens had ever been. Old laws,
years later he was elected king of the Romans at the diet customs "and immunities were ruthlessly swept away, the people
of Nuremberg in opposition to Otto IV., and in 1220 he was were ground down with taxes, and the highest positions and
crowned emperor in Rome by pope Honorius III., but continued finest estates conferred on French and Provencal nobles. Al-
to reside in Sicily. He quelled a rising of Sicilian barons and though the southern Italians had long been ruled by foreigners,
Saracens, and confined 60,000 of the latter at Lucera in Capi- it was the Angevin domination which thoroughly denationalized
tanata, where they ended by becoming a most loyal colony. them, and initiated that long period of corruption, decadence
After the death of Frederick's wife Pope Honorius III. arranged and foreign slavery which only ended in the igth century.
a marriage for him with Yolande, daughter of John of Brienne Invited by Sicilian malcontents and Ghibellines, Conradin
(1225). But in 1227 Gregory IX. excommunicated him because (Ital. Corradino), the last surviving Hohenstaufen, descended
he delayed the crusade which he had promised to undertake; into Italy in 1 267 at the head of a small army collected .,
'
.
, , Coaradla.
and although he sailed the following year, and concluded a in Germany, and he found many supporters; but
treaty with the sultan of Egypt whereby the kingdom of King Charles on hearing of his arrival abandoned the siege
Jerusalem was re-established, the pope was not satisfied and of Lucera and came to intercept him. A battle took place
sent an army into Neapolitan territory. On his return Frederick at Tagliacozzo (August 23rd, 1268), in which the Imperialists
defeated the pontificals, and in 1230 peace was made at San were defeated, and Conradin himself was subsequently caught
Germane and the excommunication withdrawn. In 1231 he and handed over to Charles, who had him tried for high treason
issued the celebrated Constitutions of the Sicilian kingdom at and beheaded (see CONRADIN). All who had assisted the un-
the parliament of Melfi. He had further quarrels with successive fortunate youth were cruelly persecuted, and the inhabitants
pontiffs, and was excommunicated more than once. In 1246 a of Agosta put to the sword. Thus ended the power of the
number of his own barons and officials of the mainland conspired Hohenstaufens. Although the picturesque figures of Manfred
against his rule, but were crushed with great ferocity, and even and Conradin awakened sympathy among the people of the
his faithful secretary, Pietro della Vigna, fell a victim to the kingdom, their authority was never really consolidated and their
emperor's suspicions. Frederick's last years were embittered German knights were hated; which facts rendered the enterprise
by the hostilities following on the crusade which the pope pro- of another foreigner like the Angevin comparatively easy.
claimed against him and by rebellions in Naples and Sicily. In Sicily, however, Charles's government soon made itself
He died in 1250. His policy was anti-feudal and fended to odious by its exactions, the insolence and cruelty of the king's
concentrate power into his own hands; hence the frequent French officials and favourites, the depreciation of
risings of the barons. His court at Palermo had been pne of the the currency, and the oppressive personal services,
Sicilian
most brilliant in Europe, and attracted learned men from all while the nobles were incensed at the violation of vespers.
over the then known world; his somewhat pagan philosophy their feudal constitution. Just as Charles was con-
was afterwards regarded as marking the beginnings of modern templating an expedition to the East, the Sicilians rose in revolt,
rationalism. He opened schools and universities, and he himself massacring the French throughout the island. The malcontents
wrote poetry in Sicilian dialect. were led by the Salernitan noble Giovanni da Procida, a friend
His son Conrad IV. succeeded to the empire, while to his of the emperor Frederick and of Manfred, who had taken refuge
illegitimate son Manfred he left the principality of Taranto at the court of Peter III. of Aragon, husband of Manfred's
Manfred
an<^ tne re g encv f tne southern kingdom, to be held daughter Costanza. He had induced Peter to make good his
in Conrad's name. By his political sagacity and somewhat shadowy claims to the crown of Sicily, but while
moderation Manfred won a strong party to his side and helped preparations were being made for the expedition, the popular
Conrad to subjugate the rebellious barons. The emperor died in rising known as the Sicilian Vespers, which resulted in the mass-
1254, leaving an infant son, Conradin (b. 1252), and Manfred was acre of nearly all the French in the island, broke out at Palermo
appointed vicar-general during the latter's minority. Manfred, on Easter Day 1282. Peter reached Palermo in September,
too, encountered the hostility of the popes, against whom he had and by the following month had captured Messina, the last
to wage war, generally with success, and of some of the barons French stronghold. Pope Martin IV. now proclaimed a crusade
whom the papacy encouraged to rebel; and in 1258, on a rumour against the Aragonese, and the war continued for many years.
of Conradin's death, he was offered and accepted the crown of The Sicilian fleet under Ruggiero di Lauria defeated that of
Naples and Sicily. The rumour proved false, but he retained the Angevins at Malta in 1283, and 1284 in the Bay of Naples,
the crown, promising to leave the kingdom to Conradin at his where the king's son, Charles the Lame, was captured. Charles I.
death and to defend his rights. He now became head of died in 1 286, and, his heir being a prisoner, his grandson, Charles
1 84 NAPLES, KINGDOM OF
Martel (d. assumed the regency. Peter died the same
1295), year. Louis, although assisted by Amadeus VI. of Savoy, failed
year, leavingAragon to his son Alphonso III. and Sicily to his to drive out Charles, and died in 1384. Charles III. died two
son James, who was consecrated king in spite of the interdict. years later and the kingdom was plunged into anarchy
The war went on uninterruptedly, for the 'popes prevented all once more, part of the barons siding with his seven- yyy"
attempts to arrive at an understanding, as they were determined year-old son Ladislas, and part with Louis II. of
that the rights of the church should be fully recognized. Charles Anjou. The latter was crowned by the antipope Clement,
t ^le Lame, wno had been liberated in 1288, having while Urban regarded both him and his rival as usurpers. On
Chariesli
renounced his rights on Sicily, was absolved from Urban's death in 1389 Boniface IX. crowned Ladislas .
adlslas
his oath by Pope Nicholas IV., who crowned him king of king of Naples, who by the year 1400 had expelled
the Two Sicilies and excommunicated Alphonso. The latter's Louis and made himself master of the kingdom. In 1407 he
successor James made peace with Boniface VIII. by renouncing occupied Rome, which Gregory XII. could not hold. But
Sicily (in exchange for Sardinia and Corsica and the hand of Alexander V., elected pope by the council of Pisa, turned against
Charles's daughter) and promising to help the Angevins to Ladislas and recognized Louis. Ladislas was defeated in 1411
reconquer the island. But the Sicilians, led by James's brother, and driven from Rome, but reoccupied the city on Louis's
Frederick III., 1 who had been governor of the island return to France. He died in 1414, and was succeeded by his
'
and was now proclaimed king, determined to resist. sister Joanna II. (q.v.), during whose reign the kingdom
Joaaaa u
The war went on with varying success, until Charles sank to the lowest depths of degradation. In 1415
of Valois, summoned by the pope to conduct the campaign, Joanna married James of Bourbon, who kept his wife in a state
landed in Sicily and, his army being decimated by disease, of semi-confinement, murdered her lover, Pandolfo Alopo, and
made peace with Frederick at Caltabellotta (1302). The imprisoned her chief captain, Sforza; but his arrogance drove
Angevins renounced Sicily in favour of Frederick, who was the barons to rebellion, and they made him renounce the royal
recognized as king of Trinacria (a name adopted so as not to dignity and abandon the kingdom. The history of the next
mention that of Sicily), and he was to marry Leonora, daughter few years is a maze of intrigues between Joanna, Sforza, Giovanni
of Charles of Valois; at his death the island would revert to Caracciolo, the queen's new lover, Alphonso of Aragon, whom
the Angevins, but his children would receive compensation else- she adopted as her heir, and Louis III. of Anjou, whom we find
where. In 1303 the pope unwillingly ratified the treaty. (See pitted against each other in every possible combination. Louis
CHARLES II., king of Naples and Sicily, and FREDERICK III., died in 1434 and Joanna in 1435 (see JOANNA II., queen of Naples).
king of Sicily.) The succession was disputed by Rene of Anjou and Alphonso,
Charles II. died in 1309 and was succeeded by his second son but the former eventually renounced his claims and Alphonso
Robert. (His eldest son had predeceased him, leaving a son, was recognized as king of Naples by Pope Eugenius IV. in 1443.
Charles Robert, or Caroberto, at this time king of Under Alphonso, surnamed "the Magnanimous," Sicily was
Robert.
Hungary.) Robert now became leader of the Guelphs once more united to Naples and a new era was inaugurated, for
in Italy, and war between Naples and Sicily broke out once more, the king was at once a brilliant ruler, a scholar and
when Frederick allied himself with the emperor Henry VII. a patron of letters. He died in 1458, leaving Naples
on his descent into Italy, and proclaimed his own son Peter to his illegitimate son Ferdinand I. (Don Ferrante),
heir to the throne. Robert led or sent many devastating expedi- and Sicily, Sardinia and Aragon to his brother John.
tions into Sicily, and hostilities continued under King Peter Ferdinand found, however, that Alphonso had not really con-
even after Frederick's death in 1337. Peter died in 1342, leaving solidated his power, and he had practically to reconquer the
an infant son Louis; but just as Robert was preparing for whole country. By 1464 he was master of the situa-
en
another expedition he too died_in the same year. Robert had tion, in spite of the attempt of Pope Calixtus III. y
been a capable ruler, a scholar and a friend of Petrarch, but he to enforce the claims of the papacy, and that of
lost influence as a Guelph leader owing to the rise of other power- John of Anjou to enter into the heritage of^his ancestors. In
ful princes and republics, while in Naples itself his authority alliance with Pope Sixtus IV. and the Milanese he waged war
was limited by the rights of a turbulent and rebellious baronage on Lorenzo de' Medici in 1479; but that astute ruler, by
(see ROBERT, king of Naples). His son Charles had died -in visiting Ferdinand in person, obtained peace on favourable
1328 and he was succeeded by his granddaughter Joanna, terms (1479). In 1485 the disaffection of the barons, due to
wife of Andrew of Hungary, but the princes of the blood the king's harshness and the arrogance and cruelty of his son,
an(^ tne Darons stirred up trouble, and in 1345 Andrew found vent in a revolt led by Roberto Sanseverino and Francesco
Joanna I
was assassinated by order of Catherine, widow of Coppola, which was crushed by means of craft and treachery.
Philip, son of Charles II., and of several nobles, not without Ferdinand died in 1494 full of forebodings as to the probable
suspicion of Joanna's complicity. effects of the in vasioTT of "Charles VIII. of France, and
Tlle
Andrew's brother Louis, king of Hungary, now came to Italy was succeeded by Alphonso (see FERDINAND I., king of invasion
to make good his claims on Naples and avenge the murder of Naples). The French king entered Italy in September of Charles
V7"'
Andrew. With the help of some of the barons he drove Joanna 1495, and conquered the Neapolitan kingdom without
and her second husband, Louis of Taranto, from the kingdom, much difficulty. Alphonso abdicated, his son Ferrandino and
and murdered Charles of Durazzo; but as Pope Clement refused his brother Frederick withdrew to Ischia, and only a few towns
to recognize his claims he went back to Hungary in 1348, and in Apulia still held out for the Aragonese. But when the pope,
the fickle barons recalled Joanna, who returned and carried on the emperor, Spain and Venice, alarmed at Charles's progress,
desultory warfare with the partisans of Louis of Hungary. formed a defensive league against him, he quitted Naples, and
Louis of Taranto and Joanna were crowned at Naples by the Ferrandino, with the help of Ferdinand II. of Spain, was able
pope's legate in 1352, but Niccolo Acciaiuoli, the seneschal, to reoccupy his dominions. He died much regretted in 1496
became the real master of the kingdom. In 1374 Joanna made and was succeeded by Frederick. The country was torn by
peace with Frederick of Sicily, recognizing him as king of civil war and brigandage, and the French continued to press
Trinacria on condition that he paid her tribute and recognized their claims; and although Louis XII. (who had succeeded
.
the pope's suzerainty. She nominated Louis of Anjou her Charles VIII.) concluded a treaty with Ferdinand of Spain for
heir, but while the latter was recognized by the antipope the partition of Naples, France and Spain fell out in 1502 over
Clement VII,, Pope Urban VI. declared Charles of Durazzo the division of the spoils., and with Gonzalo de Cordoba's victory
(great-grandson of Charles II.) king of Sicily ol di qua del on the Garigliano in December 1502, the whole kingdom was
Faro (i.e. of Naples). Charles conquered the kingdom and took in Spanish hands.
Joanna prisoner in 1381, and had her murdered the following On the death of Ferdinand in 1516, the Habsburg Charles
1
He was the second king of that name in Sicily, but was known as became king of Spain, and three years later was elected emperor
Frederick III. because he was the third son of King Peter. as Charles V.; in 1522 he appointed John de Lannoy viceroy of
NAPLES, KINGDOM OF 185
Naples, which became henceforth an integral part of the Spanish
between France, Spain and Savoy against Austria was signed.
dominions. The old divisions of nobility, clergy and people were Don Carlos of Bourbon, son of Philip V. of Spain, easily conquered
maintained and their mutual rivalry encouraged; the both Naples and Sicily, and in 1738 he was recognized as king
Na lesa
Spanish nobles were won over by titles and by the splendour of the Two Sicilies, Spain renouncing all her claims. Charles
posses- of the viceregal court, but many persons of low birth Charles was well received, for the country now was an 111.
sl
who showed talent were raised to high independent kingdom once more. With the Tuscan
-
positions.
The viceroy was assisted by the Collateral Council and the Sacred Bernardo Tanucci as his minister, he introduced many useful
College of Santa Chiara, composed of Spanish and Italian reforms, improved the army, which was thus able to repel an
members, and there was an armed force of the two nationalities. Austrian invasion in 1744, embellished the city of Naples and
Spanish rule on the whole was oppressive and tyrannical, and built roads. In 1759 Charles III., having succeeded to the
based solely on the idea that the dependencies must pay tribute Spanish crown, abdicated that of the Two Sicilies in favour of his
to the dominant kingdom. During the rule of Don Pedro de son Ferdinand, who became Ferdinand IV. of Naples and III.
Toledo (one of the best viceroys) Naples became the centre of of Sicily. Being only eight years old, a regency under Tanucci
a Protestant movement which spread to the rest of Italy, but was appointed, and the young king's education was
was ultimately crushed by the Inquisition. In Sicily Spanish purposely neglected by the minister, who wished to y v _
rule was less absolute, for the island had not been conquered, dominate him completely. The regency ended in 1767,
but had given itself over voluntarily to the Aragonese; and the and the following year Ferdinand married the masterful and
parliament, formed by the three breed or orders (the militare ambitious Maria Carolina, daughter of the empress Maria Theresa.
consisting of the nobility, the ecclesiastico, of the clergy, and the She had Tanucci dismissed and set herself to the task of making
demaniale, of the communes), imposed certain limitations on Naples a great power. With the help of John Acton, an English-
the viceroy, who had to play off the three bracci against each man whom she made minister in the place of Tanucci, she freed
other. But the oppressive character of the government provoked Naples from Spanish influence and secured a rapprochement
several rebellions, In 1598 an insurrection, headed with England and Austria.
Revolu-
tions. by the philosopher Tommaso Campanella, broke out On the outbreak of the French Revolution the king and queen
in Calabria, and was crushed with great severity. were not at first hostile to the new movement; but after the
In 1647, during the viceroyalty of the marquis de Los Leres in fall of the French monarchy they became violently opposed to
Sicily, bread riots in Palermo became a veritable revolution, it, and in 1793 joined the first coalition against France, instituting
and the people, led by the goldsmith Giovanni d' Alessio, drove severe persecutions against all who were remotely suspected of
the viceroy from the city; but the nobles, fearing for their French sympathies. Republicanism, however, gained ground,
privileges, took the viceroy's part and turned the people against especially among the aristocracy. In 1796 peace with France
d' Alessio, who was murdered, and Los Leres returned. On the was concluded, but in 1798, during Napoleon's absence in Egypt
7th of July 1647, tumults occurred at Naples in consequence of and after Nelson's victory at Aboukir, Maria Carolina induced
a new fruit tax, and the viceroy, Count d' Arcos, was forced Ferdinand to go to war with France once more. Nelson arrived
to take refuge in the Castelnuovo. The populace, led by an in Naples in September, where he was enthusiastically received.
Amalfi fisherman, known as Masaniello (g.v.), obtained The king, after a somewhat farcical occupation of Rome, which
Masaalello.
arms, erected barricades, and, while professing loyalty had been evacuated by the French, hurried back to Naples as
to the king of Spain, demanded the removal of the oppressive soon as the French attacked his troops, and although the lazzaroni
taxes and murdered many of the nobles. D' Arcos came to terms (the lowest class of the people) were devoted to the dynasty
with Masaniello; but in spite of this, and of the assassination and ready to defend it, he fled with the court to Palermo in a
of Masaniello, whose arrogance and ferocity had made him panic on board Nelson's ships. The wildest confusion prevailed,
unpopular, the disturbances continued, and again the viceroy and the lazzaroni jnassacred numbers of persons suspected of
had to retire to Castelnuovo and make concessions. Even the republican sympathies, while the nobility and the educated
arrival of reinforcements from Spain failed to restore order, and classes, finding themselves abandoned by their king in this
the new popular leader, Gennaro Annese, now sought assistance cowardly manner, began to contemplate a republic under French
from the French, and invited the duke of Guise to come to Naples. auspices as their only means of salvation from anarchy. In
The duke came with some soldiers and ships, but failed to effect January 1799 the French under Championnet reached
anything; and after the recall of d' Arcos the new viceroy, Naples, but the lazzaroni, ill-armed and ill-disciplined "$e ach la
Count d'Ognate, having come to an arrangement with Annese as they were, resisted the enemy with desperate Naples
and got Guise out of the city, proceeded to punish all who had courage, and it was not until the 2oth that the invaders ana the
taken part in the disturbances, and had Annese and a number were masters of the city. On the 23rd the Partheno-
of others beheaded. paean republic was proclaimed. The Republicans were
In 1670 disorders broke out at Messina. They began with a men of culture and high character, but doctrinaire and
riot between the nobles and the burghers, but ended in an anti- unpractical, and they knew very little of the lower classes of
Spanish movement; and while the inhabitants called their own country. The government soon found itself in financial
' n tne F renc h tne Spaniards, who could not crush the
at > owing to Championnet 's demands for money; it
difficulties,
Messina, rising, called in the Dutch. Louis XIV. sent a fleet failed to organize the army, and met with scant success in its
under the due de Vivonne to Sicily, which defeated "
attempts to "democratize the provinces. Meanwhile the court
the Dutch under de Ruyter in 1676. But at the peace of at Palermo sent Cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo, a wealthy
Nijmwegen (1679) Louis treacherously abandoned the Messinese, and influential prelate, to Calabria, to organize a
who suffered cruel persecution at the hands of the Spaniards counter-revolution. He succeeded beyond expectation, ana the
and lost all their privileges. An anti-Spanish conspiracy of and with his " Christian army of the Holy Faith " Sa " m
Neapolitan nobles, led by Macchia, with the object of proclaiming (Esercito Cristiano della Santa Fede), consisting of
the archduke Charles of Austria king of Naples, was discovered; brigands, convicts, peasants and some soldiers, marched through
but in 1707 an Austrian army conquered the kingdom, and the kingdom plundering, burning and massacring. An English
Spanish rule came to an end after 203 years, during which it had squadron approached Naples and occupied the island of Procida,
succeeded in thoroughly demoralizing the people. but after a few engagements with the Republican fleet com-
In Sicily the Spaniards held their own until the peace of manded by Caracciolo, an ex-officer in the Bourbon navy, it was
Utrecht in 1 7 1 3 when the island was given over to Duke
,
recalled to Palermo, as the Franco-Spanish fleet was expected.
Victor of Savoy, who assumed the title of king. In Ruffo, with the addition of some Russian and Turkish allies,
Matter
Savoy. 1718 he had to hand back his new possession to now marched on the capital, whence the French, save for a
Spain, who, in 1720, surrendered it to Austria and gave small force under Mejean, withdrew. The scattered Republican
Sardinia to Victor Amadeus. In 1733 the treaty of the Escurial detachments were defeated, only Naples and Pescara holding
i86 NAPLES, KINGDOM OF
out. On the I3th of June Ruffo and his hordes reached Naples, and many conspirators in Naples were tried by the French
and after a desperate battle at the Ponte della Maddalena, state courts and shot.
entered the city. For weeks the Calabresi and lazzaroni continued In 1808 Napoleon conferred the crown of Spain on Joseph,
to pillage and massacre, and Ruffo was unable, even if willing, and appointed Joachim Murat king of Naples. Murat continued
to restrain them. But the Royalists were not masters of the city, Joseph's reforms, swept away many old abuses and
for the French in Castel Sant' Elmo and the Republicans in reorganized the army; and although he introduced
Castelnuovo and Castel dell' Uovo still held out and bombarded the French codes and conferred many appointments
the streets, while the Franco-Spanish fleet might arrive at any and estates on Frenchmen, his administration was more or less
moment. Consequently Ruffo was desperately anxious to come native, and he favoured the abler Neapolitans. His attempts
to terms with the Republicans for the evacuation of the castles, to attack the English in Sicily ended disastrously, but he succeeded
in spite of the queen's orders to make no terms with the rebels. in crushing brigandage in Calabria by means of General Manhes,
After some negotiation an armistice was concluded and a capitu- who, however, had to resort to methods of ferocity in order to
lation agreed upon, whereby the castles were to be evacuated, do so. The king, owing to his charm of manner, his handsome
the hostages liberated and the garrisons free to remain in Naples face, and his brilliant personality, gained many sympathies,
unmolested or to sail for Toulon. and began to aspire to absolute independence. He gradually
While the vessels were being prepared for the voyage to became estranged from Napoleon, and although he followed
Toulon all the hostages in the castles were liberated save four; him to Russia and afterwards took part in the German campaign,
but on the 24th of June Nelson arrived with his fleet, he secretly opened negotiations with Austria and Great Britain.
a
ano< on hearing of the capitulation he refused to In January 1814 he signed a treaty with Austria, each power
/Vap/es.
recognize it save in so far as it concerned the French. guaranteeing the dominions of the other, while Sicily was to
Ruffo indignantly declared that once the treaty was signed, be left to Ferdinand. The following month he proclaimed
not only by himself but by the Russian and Turkish commandants his separation from Napoleon and marched against Eugene
and by the British captain Foote, it must be respected, and on Beauharnais, the French viceroy of Lombardy. But no important
Nelson's refusal he said that he would not help him to capture engagements took place, and when Napoleon escaped from Elba,
the castles. On the 26th Nelson changed his attitude and Murat suddenly returned to the allegiance of his old chief. He
authorized Sir William Hamilton, the British minister, to inform marched at the head of 35,000 men into northern Italy, and
the cardinal that he (Nelson) would do nothing to break the from Rimini issued his famous proclamation in favour of Italian
armistice; while Captains Bell and Troubridge wrote that they independence, which at the time fell on deaf ears (March 3Oth,
had Nelson's authority to state that the latter would not oppose 1815). He was subsequently defeated by the Austrians several
the embarcation of the Republicans. Although these expressions times and forced to retreat, and on the i8th of May he sailed from
were equivocal, the Republicans were satisfied and embarked Naples for France (see MURAT, JOACHIM). Generals Guglielmo
on the vessels prepared for them. But on the 28th Nelson Pepe and Carrascosa now concluded a treaty with the Austrians
received despatches from the court (in reply to his own), in conse- at Casalanza on favourable terms, and on the 23rd the Austrians
quence of which he had the vessels brought under the guns of his entered Naples to restore Bourbon rule.
ships, and many of the Republicans were arrested. Caracciolo, Ferdinand and Maria Carolina had continued to reign in Sicily,
who had been caught whilst attempting to escape from Naples, where the extravagance of the court and the odious Neapolitan
was tried by a court-martial of Royalist officers under Nelson's system of police espionage rendered their presence
auspices on board the admiral's flagship, condemned to death a burden instead of a blessing to the island. The king ao u r6ons
and hanged at the yard arm. For the part played by Nelson obtained a subsidy from Great Britain and allowed in Sicily.
in these transactions see the articles CARACCIOLO and NELSON. British troops to occupy Messina and Agosta, so that
On the 8th of July, King Ferdinand arrived from Palermo, they might operate against the French on the mainland. A
and the state trials, conducted in the most arbitrary fashion, bitter conflict broke out between the court and the parliament,
resulted in wholesale butchery; hundreds of persons and the British minister, Lord William Bentinck, favoured the
were executed, including some of the best men in the opposition, forced Ferdinand to resign his authority and appoint
vengeance.
country, such as the philosopher Mario Pagano. the his son regent and introduced many valuable reforms. The
scientist Cirillo, Manthone, the minister of war under the re- queen perpetually intrigued against Bentinck, and jj>e
public, Massa, the defender of Castel dell' Uovo, and Ettore even negotiated with the French, but in 1812 a more English
constitu~
Caraffa, the defender of Pescara, who had been captured by liberal constitution on British lines was introduced, and
treachery, while thousands of others were immured in horrible a Liberal ministry under the princes of Castelnuovo
dungeons or exiled. and Belmonte appointed, while the queen was exiled in the
War with France continued until March 1801, when peace following year.But after the fall of Napoleon Sicily ceased to
was made, and after the peace of Amiens in 1802 the court have any importance for Great Britain, and Bentinck, whose
returned to Naples, where it was well received. But when the memory is still cherished in the island, departed in 1814.
European war broke out again in the following year, Napoleon Ferdinand succeeded in getting a reactionary ministry appointed,
(then first consul) became very exacting in his demands on and dissolved parliament in May 1815, after concluding a treaty
King Ferdinand, who consequently played a double game, with Austria now freed by Murat's defection from her engage-
appearing to accede to these demands while negotiating with ments with him for the recovery of his mainland dominions
England. After Austerlitz Napoleon revenged himself by de- by means of an Austrian army paid for by himself. On the
"
claring that the Bourbon dynasty had ceased to reign," and 9th of June Ferdinand re-entered Naples and bound fae
sent an army under his brother Joseph to occupy the kingdom. himself in a second treaty with Austria not to introduce restora-
1
Ferdinand and Maria Carolina fled to Palermo in January a constitutional government; but at first he abstained
1805; in February 1806 Joseph Bonaparte entered Naples from persecution and received many of Murat's old
as king. Acultivated, well-meaning, not very in- officers into his army in accordance with the treaty of Casalanza.
he introduced many useful reforms on In October 1815 Murat, believing that he still had a strong
Booaparte. telligent man,
a basis of benevolent despotism, abolished feudalism party in the kingdom, landed with a few companions at Pizzo
and built roads, but the taxes and forced contributions which 1
The secret article of the treaty of June 12, 1815, runs as follows:
he levied proved very burdensome. Joseph's authority did not "
H.M. the King of the Two Sicilies, in re-establishing the govern-
exist throughout a large part of the kingdom, where royalist ment of the kingdom, will not agree to any changes irreconcilable
risings, led by brigand chiefs, maintained a state of anarchy, either with the ancient institutions of the monarchy or with the
and a British force under Sir John Stuart, which landed in principles adopted by H.I. and R. Austrian Majesty for the internal
regime of his Italian provinces." It is to be noted that this did not
Calabria from Sicily, defeated the French at Maida (July 6th, involve the obligation of interfering with the ancient constitution of
1806). Both the French and the royalists committed atrocities, Sicily, which Metternich desired to see remain undisturbed.
NAPLES, KINGDOM OF 187
di Calabria, but was immediately captured by the police and the ministry appointed, and the inevitable state trials instituted
peasantry, court-martialled and shot. with the usual harvest of executions and imprisonment. Pepe
Ferdinand to some extent maintained French legislation, saved himself by flight. (See FERDINAND IV., king of Naples.)
but otherwise reorganized the state with Metternich's approval Ferdinand died in 1825, and his son and successor, Francis I.,
on Bourbon lines; he proclaimed himself king of the Two Sicilies an unbridled libertine, at once threw off the mask of Liberalism;
at the congress of Vienna, incorporating Naples and Sicily into the corruption of the administration under Medici
one state, and abolished the Sicilian constitution (December assumed unheard-of proportions, and every office was
1816). In 1818 he concluded a Concordat with the Church, openly sold. The Austrian occupation lasted until 1827, having
by which the latter renounced its suzerainty over the kingdom, cost the state 310,000,000 lire; but in the meanwhile the
but was given control over education, the censorship and many Swiss Guard had been established as a further protection for
other privileges. But there was much disaffection throughout autocracy, and the revolutionary outbreak at Bosco on the
the country, and the Carbonarist lodges, founded in Cilento was suppressed with the usual cruelty. (See FRANCIS
The Murat's time with the object of freeing the country I., king of the Two Sicilies.)
from foreign
rule and obtaining a constitution, had Francis died in 1830 and was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand
made much
progress (see CARBONARI). The army II., who at first awoke hopes that the conditions of the country
indeed was honeycombed with Carbonari, and General Pepe, would be improved. He was not devoid of good
himself a member of the society, organized them on a military qualities, and took an interest in the material welfare Wi
basis. In July 1820 a military mutiny broke out at Caserta, of the country, but he was narrow-minded, ignorant
led by two officers and a priest, the mutineers demanding a and bigoted; he made the administration more efficient, and re-
constitution although professing loyalty to the king. Ferdinand, organized the army which became purged of Carbonarism, and
feeling himself helpless to resist, acceded to the demand, appointed such Carbonarist plots as there were in the 'thirties were not
a ministry composed of Murat's old adherents, and entrusted severely punished. Ferdinand was impatient of Austrian in-
his authority to his son. The ultra-democratic single-chamber fluence, but on the death of his first wife, Cristina of Savoy, he
Spanish constitution of 1812 was introduced, but proved utterly married Maria Theresa of Austria, who encouraged him in his
unworkable. The new government's first difficulty was Sicily, reactionary tendencies and brought him closer to Austria. An
where the people had risen in rebellion demanding their own outbreak of cholera in 1837 led to disorders in Sicily, which,
charter of 1812, and although the Neapolitan troops quelled having assumed a political character, were repressed by Del
the outbreak with much bloodshed the division proved fatal Caretto with great severity. The government tended to become
to the prospects of'liberty. more and more autocratic and to rely wholly on the all-powerful
The outbreak of the military rising in Naples, following so police, the spies and the priests; and, although the king showed
shortly on that in Spain, seriously alarmed the powers responsible some independence in foreign affairs, his popularity waned; the
for the preservation of the peace in Europe. The position was desire for a constitution was by no means dead, and the survivors
complicated by the somewhat enigmatic attitude of Russia; of the old Carbonari gathered round Carlo Poerio, while the
for the Neapolitan Liberals, with many of whom Count Capo Giovane Italia society (independent of Mazzini) led by Benedetto
,
"
d' Istria, the Russian minister of foreign affairs, had been on Musolino, took as its motto Unity, Liberty and Independence."
" "
friendly terms, proclaimed that they had the moral support But as yet the idea of unity made but little headway, for southern
of the tsar. This idea, above all, it was necessary for Austria Italy was too widely separated by geographical conditions,
to destroy once for all. The diplomatic negotiations are discussed history, tradition and custom from the rest of the peninsula,
in the article on the history of Europe (q.v.). Here it suffices to and the majority of the Liberals themselves a minority of the
say that these issued in the congress of Troppau (October 1820) population merely aspired to a constitutional Neapolitan
and the proclamation of the famous Troppau protocol affirming monarchy, possibly forming part of a confederation of Italian
"
the right of collective/' Europe to interfere to crush dangerous states. The attempt of the Giovane Italia to bring about a
internal revolutions. Both France and Great Britain protested general revolution in 1843 only resulted in a few sporadic out-
against the general principle laid down in this instrument; but breaks easily crushed. The following year the Venetian brothers
neither of them approved of the Neapolitan revolution, and Bandiera, acting in concert with Mazzini, landed in
them was opposed to an intervention in Naples, '*
neither of Calabria, believing the whole country to be in a state
provided this were carried out, not on the ground of a supposed of revolt; they met with little local support and were a umpi"
right of Europe to interfere, but by Austria for Austrian ends. quickly captured and shot, but their death aroused
By general consent King Ferdinand was invited to attend the much sympathy, and the whole episode was highly significant
adjourned congress, fixed to meet at Laibach in the spring of as being the first attempt made by north Italians to promote
the following year. Under the new constitution, the permission revolution in the south. In 1847 a pamphlet by L. Settembrini,
"
of parliament was necessary before the king could leave Neapolitan entitled A Protest of the People of the Two Sicilies," appeared
territory; but this was weakly granted, after Ferdinand had anonymously and created a deep impression as a most scathing
sworn the most solemn oaths to maintain the constitution. He indictment of the government; and at the same time the
was scarcely beyond the frontiers, however, before he repudiated election of Pius IX., a pope who was believed to be a Liberal,
his engagements, as exacted by force. A cynicism so unblushing caused widespread excitement throughout Italy. Conspiracy
shocked even the seasoned diplomats of the congress, who would was now rife both in Naples and Sicily, but as yet there was no
have preferred that the king should have made a decent show idea of deposing the king. Many persons were arrested, including
of yielding to force. The result was, however, that the powers Carlo Poerio, who, however, continued to direct the agitation.
authorized Austria to march an army into Naples to restore On the I2th of January 1848 a revolution under the leadership
This decision was notified to the of Ruggiero Settimo broke out at Palermo to the cry of
" in-
the autocratic monarchy.
Neapolitan government by Russia, Prussia and Austria Great dependence or the 1812 constitution," and by the end
Britain and France maintaining a strict neutrality. Meanwhile of February the whole island, with the exception of The
the regent, in spite of his declaration that he would lead the Messina, was in the hands of the revolutionists. These ^ giciiy.
Neapolitan army against the invader, was secretly undermining events were followed by demonstrations at Naples;
the position of the government, and there were divisions of opinion the king summoned a meeting of generals and members of his
in the ranks of the Liberals themselves. General Pepe family on the 27th of January, and on the advice of Filangieri
Austrians
was sent to t ^le f ron ti er at the head of 8000 men, but (q.v.), who said that the army was not to be relied upon, he
la Naples, was completely defeated by the Austrians at Rieti dismissed the Pietracatella ministry and Del Caretto, and
on the 7th of March. On the 23rd the Austrians summoned the duke of Serracapriola to form another administra-
entered Naples, followed soon afterwards by the king; every tion. On the 28th he granted the constitution, and the Liberals
vestige of freedom was suppressed, the reactionary Medici Bozzelli and Carlo Poerio afterwards joined the cabinet. The
NAPLES, KINGDOM OF
popular demand was now that Naples should assist the Lombards ditions of the prisons in which the best men of the kingdom were
in their revolt against Austria, for a feeling of Italian solidarity immured, linked to the vilest common criminals, was made
was growing up. The ministry of Carlo Troya suc- known to the world by the famous letters of W. E. Gladstone,
Tlle
constitu- ceeded to that of Serracapriola, and after the parlia- which branded the Bourbon regime as " the negation of God
tion of
mentary elections, in which many extreme Radicals erected into a system of government." The merest suspicion of
*'
were elected, Ferdinand declared war against Austria unorthodox opinions, the possession of foreign newspapers, the
(April 7th, 1848). After considerable delay a Neapolitan army wearing of a beard or an anonymous denunciation, sufficed for
under General Pepe marched towards Lombardy in May, while the arrest and condemnation of a man to years of imprisonment,
the fleet sailed for Venice. But a dispute between the king and while the attendibili, or persons under police surveillance liable
the parliament concerning the form of the royal oath having to imprisonment without trial at any moment, numbered 50,000.
arisen, a group of demagogues with criminal folly provoked The remonstrances of Great Britain and France met with no
disturbances and erected barricades (May I4th). The king success. Ferdinand strongly resented foreign interference, and
refused to open parliament unless the barricades were removed, even rejected the Austrian proposal for a league of the Italian
and while the moderate elements attempted to bring about despots for mutual defence against external attacks and internal
conciliation, the ministry acted with great weakness. A few disorder. In 1856 his life was unsuccessfully attempted by a
shots were fired it is not known who fired first on soldier, and the same year Baron Bentivegna organized a revolt
The 15th
of May. the 1 5th, the Swiss regiments stormed the barricades near Palermo, which was quickly suppressed. In 1857 Carlo
and street fighting lasted all day. By the evening the Pisacane, an ex-Neapolitan officer who had taken part
*
Swiss and the royalists were masters of the situation. A new in the defence of Rome, fitted out an expedition, with a tt
*mj>t.
ministry under Prince Cariati was appointed. Parliament was Mazzini's approval, from Genoa, and landed at Sapri
dissolved, the National Guard disbanded and the army recalled in Calabria, where he hoped to raise the flag of revolution; but
from the Po. Fresh elections were held and the new parliament the local police assisted by the peasantry attacked the band,
met on the isth of July, but it had the king, the army and the killing many, including Pisacane himself, and capturing most of
mob against it, and anti-constitutionalist demonstrations became the rest. The following year, at the instance of Great Britain
frequent. After a brief session it was prorogued to the ist of and France, Ferdinand commuted the sentences of some of the
February 1849, and when it met on that date a deadlock between political prisoners to exile. (See FERDINAND II., king of the Two
king and parliament occurred. The Austrian victories in Lom- Sicilies).
bardy had strengthened the court party, or Camarilla as it was In May 1859 Ferdinand died, and was succeeded by his son,
called, and on the I3th of March the assembly was again dissolved, Francis who came to the throne just as the Franco-Sardinian
II.,
and never summoned again. The king was at Gaeta, whither victories in Lombardy were sounding the death-knell
Praacls n
the grand-duke of Tuscany and Pius IX. had also repaired to of Austrian predominance and domestic despotism in
escape from their rebellious subjects, and the city became the Italy (see ITALY: History). But although there was much
headquarters of Italian reaction. activity and plotting among the Liberals, there was as yet no
In Sicily the revolutionists were purely insular in their aspira- revolution. Victor Emmanuel, king of Sardinia, wrote to the
tions and bitterly hostile to the Neapolitans, and the attempts new king proposing an alliance for the division of Italy, but
at conciliation, although favoured by Lord Minto, Francis refused. In June part of the Swiss Guard mutinied
Skily.
failed, for Naples wanted one constitution and one because the Bernese government not having renewed the conven-
parliament, whereas Sicily wanted two, with only the king in tion with Naples the troops were deprived of their cantonal flag.
common. The Sicilian assembly met in March 1848, and Settimo The mutinous regiments, however, were surrounded by loyal
in his inaugural speech declared that the Bourbon dynasty had troops and shot down; and this affair resulted in the disbanding
ceased to reign, that the throne was vacant and that Sicily united of the whole force the last support of the autocracy. Political
her destinies to those of Italy. Settimo was elected president of amnesties were now decreed, and in September 1859 Filangieri was
the government, but the administration was lacking in states- made prime minister. The latter favoured the Sardinian alliance
manship, the treasury was empty, and nothing was done to raise and the granting of the constitution, and so did the king's uncle,
an army. After the Austrian victories King Ferdinand sent a Leopold, count of Syracuse. But Francis rejected both proposals
Neapolitan army of 20,000 men under Filangieri to subjugate and Filangieri resigned and was succeeded by A. Statella. In
the island. The troops landed at Messina, of which the citadel April 1860 Victor Emmanuel again proposed an alliance whereby
had been held by the royalists throughout, and after three days' Naples, in return for help in expelling the Austrians from
desperate fighting the city itself was captured and sacked. Venetia, was to receive the Marche, while Sardinia would annex
The British and French admirals imposed a truce with a view to all the rest of Italy except Rome. But Francis again refused,
conciliation, and the king offered the Sicilians the Neapolitan and in fact was negotiating with Austria and the pope for a
constitution and a separate parliament, which they refused. simultaneous invasion of Modena, Lombardy and Romagna.
Sicilian troops were now levied throughout the islandand the In the meantime, however, events in Sicily were reaching a
chief command given to the Pole Mieroslawski, but it was too crisis destined to subvert the Bourbon dynasty. The Sicilians,
late. Filangieri marched forward taking town after town, and unlike the Neapolitans, were thoroughly alienated from
committing many atrocities. In April he reached Palermo while the Bourbons, whom they detested, and after the
the fleet appeared in the bay; tumults having broken out within peace of Villafranca (July 1859) Mazzini's emissaries, Thousand.
the city, the government surrendered on terms which granted F. Crispi and R. Pilo, had been trying to organize a
amnesty for all except Settimo and forty-two others. rising in favour of Italian unity; and although they merely
For a few months after the dissolution of the Neapolitan succeeded in raising a few squadre, or armed bands, in the
parliament the government abstained from persecution, but mountainous districts, they persuaded Garibaldi (q.v.), without
with the crushing of the Sicilian revolution its hands the magic of whose personal prestige they knew nothing im-
were ^ ree; an(* wnen tne commission oh the affair of portant could be achieved, that the revolution which he knew
Neapolitan
prisons. the 1 5th of May had completed its labours the state to be imminent had broken out. The authorities at Palermo,
trials and arrests began. The arrest of S. Faucitano learning of a projected rising, attacked the convent of La Gangia,
for a demonstration at Gaeta led to the discovery of the UnilA the headquarters of the rebels, and killed most of the inmates;
Itoliana society, whose object was to free Italy from domestic but in the meanwhile Garibaldi, whose hesitation had been
tyranny and foreign domination. Thousands of respectable overcome, embarked on the 5th of May 1860, at Quarto, near
citizens were thrown into prison, such as L. Settembrini, Carlo Genoa, with 1000 picked followers on board two steamers, and
Poerio and Silvio Spaventa. The trials were conducted with the sailed for Sicily. On the nth the expedition reached Marsala
most scandalous contempt of justice, and moral and physical and landed without opposition. Garibaldi was somewhat coldly
torture was applied to extort confessions. The abominable con- received by the astonished population; but he set forth at once for
NAPLES, KINGDOM OF 189
Salemi, whence he issued a proclamation assuming the dictator- 40,000 Bourbon troops between Salerno and Avellino fell back
ship of Sicily in the name of Victor Emmanuel, with Crispi as panic-stricken, and on the 7th Garibaldi entered Naples alone,
secretary of state. He continued his march towards Palermo, although the city was still full of soldiers, and was received with
where the bulk of the 30,000 Bourbon troops were concentrated, delirious enthusiasm. On the nth a part of the royalists
gathering numerous followers on the way. On the isth he capitulated and the rest retired on Capua. Cavour now decided
attacked and defeated 3000 of the enemy under General Landi that Sardinia must take part in the liberation of southern Italy,
at Calatafimi; the news of this brilliant victory revived the for he feared that Garibaldi's followers might induce him to
revolutionary agitation throughout the island, and Garibaldi proclaim the republic and attack Rome, which would have
was joined by Pilo and his bands. By a cleverly devised ruse he provoked French hostility; consequently a Piedmontese army
avoided General Colonna's force, which expected him on the occupied the Marche and Umbria, and entered Neapolitan
j
Monreale road, and entering Palermo from Misilmeri territory with Victor Emmanuel at its head. On the ist and 2nd
received an enthusiastic welcome. The Bourbonists, of October 1860 a battle was fought on the Volturno victor
although they bombarded the city from the citadel and the between 20,000 Garibaldians, many of them raw Emmanuel
warships in the harbour, gradually lost ground, and after three levies, and 35,000 Bourbon troops, and although at**"'
aartbttUI -
days' street fighting their commander, General Lanza, not first a Garibaldian division under Turr was repulsed,
knowing that the Garibaldians had scarcely a cartridge left, Garibaldi himself arrived in time to turn defeat into victory.
asked for arid obtained a twenty-four hours' armistice (May 3oth). On the 26th he met Victor Emmanuel at Teano and hailed him
Garibaldi went on board the British flagship to confer with the king of Italy, and subsequently handed over his conquests to
Neapolitan generals Letizia and Chretien; Letizia's proposal him. On the 3rd of November a plebiscite was taken, which
that the municipality should make a humble petition to the resulted in an overwhelming majority in favour of union with
king was indignantly rejected by Garibaldi, who merely agreed Sardinia under Victor Emmanuel. Garibaldi departed for his
to the extension of the armistice until next day. Then he island home at Caprera, while L.C. Farini was appointed viceroy
informed the citizens by means of a proclamation of what he had of Naples and M. Cordero viceroy of Sicily. The last remnant of
done, and declared that, knowing them to be ready to die in the the Bourbon army was concentrated at Gaeta, the siege of which
ruins of their city, he would renew hostilities on the expiration was begun by Cialdinion the 5th of November; on the
of the armistice. Although unarmed, the people rallied to him roth of January 1861 the French fleet, which Napoleon
as one man, and Lanza became so alarmed that he asked for III. had sent to Gaeta to delay the inevitable fall of the
an unconditional extension of the armistice, which 'Garibaldi dynasty, was withdrawn at the instance of Great Britain; and
granted. The dictator now had time to collect ammunition, and although the garrison fought bravely and the king and queen
the Neapolitan government having given Lanza full powers to showed considerable courage, the fortress surrendered on the
treat with him, 15,000 Bourbon troops embarked for Naples on 1 3th of
February and the royal family departed by sea. (See
the yth of June, leaving the revolutionists masters of the situation. FRANCIS II., King of the Two Sicilies.) The citadel of Messina
The Sardinian Admiral Persano's salute of nineteen guns on the capitulated a month later, and Civitella del Tronto on the 2ist
occasion of Garibaldi's official call constituted a practical recogni- of March. On the i8th of February the first Italian parliament
tion of his dictatorship by the Sardinian (Piedmontese) govern- met at Turin and proclaimed Victor Emmanuel king of Italy.
ment. In July further reinforcements of volunteers under Cosenz Thus Naples and Sicily ceased to be a separate political entity
and Medici, assisted by Cavour, arrived at Palermo with a good and were absorbed into the united Italian kingdom.
supply of arms furnished by subscription in northern Italy. Gari- BIBLIOGRAPHY. General works: F. Carta, Storia del regno delle
baldi's forces were now raised to 12,000 men, besides the Sicilian Due Sicilie (Naples, 1848); F. Pagano, Istoria del regno di Napoli
squadre. Cavour's attempt to bring about the annexation of (Naples
and Palermo, 1832, &c.) J. Albini, De gestis regum Neapplit.
;
ab Aragonia (Naples, 1588); several chapters in the Storia politica
Sicily to Sardinia failed, for Garibaldi wished to use the island as d' Italia (Milan, 1875-1882); F. Lanzani, Storia dei comuni Italiani
a basis for an invasion of the mainland. Most of the island had . . .
fino al 1313; C. Cipolla, Storia delle signorie Italiane dal 1313
now been evacuated by the Bourbonists, but Messina and a few al 1530; Cosci, L' Italia durante le preponderant straniere, 1530-
other points still held out, and when the Garibaldians advanced 1780; A. Franchetti, Storia d' Italia dal 1789 al 1799; G. de Castro,
Storia d' Italia dal 1799 al 1814; F. Bertolini, Storia d' Italia dal
eastward they encountered a force of 4000 of the enemy under
1814 al 1878. For the more recent history P. Colletta's Storia del
Colonel Bosco at Milazzo; on the 2Oth of July a desperate rearm di Napoli (Florence, 1848) will be found very useful, though
battle took place resulting in a hard-won Garibaldian victory. not without bias, and G. Pepe's Memorie (Paris, 1847) are also im-
The Neapolitan government then decided on the evacuation of portant, both authors having played an important part in the events
of 1809-1815 and 1820-1821; N. Nisco, Gli ultimi 36 anni del
the whole of Sicily except the citadel of Messina, which did not
reame di Napoli (Naples, 1889). On the subject of the revolution
surrender until the following year. of 1799 and the Nelson episode there is quite a library. The docu-
The news of Garibaldi's astonishing successes entirely changed ments are mostly to be found in Nelson and the Neapolitan Jacobins
the situation in the capital, and on the 25th of June 1860 the (Navy Records Society, London, 1903), edited by H. C. Gutteridge,
with an introduction, where Nelson's action is defended, and a
The king, after consulting the ministers and the royal
bibliography. A. T. Mahan in his Life of Nelson (2nd ed., London,
Neapolitan family, granted a constitution, and appointed A.
coastitu- 1899), and in the English Historical Review for July 1899 and October
Spinelliprime minister. Disorders having taken 1900, takes the same view; for the other side see C. Giglioli, Naples
place between Liberals and reactionaries, Liberio in 1799 (London, 1903), which is impartial and well written; F. P.
"
Romano was made minister of police in the place of Aiossa. Badham, Nelson at Naples (London, "1900); P. Villari, Nelson,
Caracciolo e la Repubblica Napolitana (Nuova Antologia, February
Sicily being lost, theking directed all his efforts to save Naples; 16, 1899); A. Maresca, Gli avvenimenti di Napoli dal jj giugno al
he appealed to Great Britain and France to prevent Garibaldi 12 lugho, 1799 (Naples, 1900) B. Croce, Studii storici sulla rivo-
;
from crossing the Straits of Messina, and only just failed (for this luzione Napoletana del 1799 (Rome, 1897); Freiherr von Helfert has
episode see under LACAITA, G.). Victor Emmanuel himself attempted the impossible task of whitewashing Queen Mary Caroline
in his Konigin Karolina von Neapel und Sicilien (Vienna, 1878) and
wrote to Garibaldi urging him to abstain from an attack on Maria Karolina von Osterreich (Vienna, 1884), while in his Fabrizio
Naples, but Garibaldi refused to obey, and on the ipth of August Ruffo (Italian edition, Florence, 1885) he gives a rose-coloured
he crossed with 4500 men and took Reggio by storm. He was portrait of that prelate and his brigand bands; see also H. Buffer's
soon joined by the rest of his troops, 15,000 in all, and although Die neapolitanische Republik des Jahres 1799
(Leipzig, 1884).
For a.
the Neapolitan government had 30,000 men in Calabria alone, the general account of the French period see C. Auriol, La France,
I' Angleterre, et Naples (Paris, 1906), and R. M.
Johnston, The Napole-
army collapsed before Garibaldi's advance, and the onic Empire in South Italy (London, 1904), both based on documents.
/<H
on7fte P e P' e rose i n his favour almost everywhere. Francis For the latest period see N. Nisco, Gli ultimi 36 anni del reame di
mainland, offered Garibaldi a large sum of money if he would Napoli (Naples, 1889) H. R. Whitehouse, The Collapse of the Kingdom
;
abstain from advancing farther, and 50,000 men to of Naples (New York, 1899), and R. de Cesare, La Fine d' un regno
(Citti di Castello.'igoo), which contains much information but is not
fight the Austrians and the pope; but it was too late, and on the For the British occupation of Sicily see G. Bianco,
always accurate.
6th of September the king and queen sailed for Gaeta. The La Sicilia durante I' occupazione Inglese (Palermo, 1902); and for
NAPOLEON I.
Sicilyfrom 1830 to 1861, Francesco Guardione's II Dominio dei The pupils at Brienne, far from receiving a military education,
Borboni in Sicilia (Turin, 1908) will be found useful. The best were grounded in ordinary subjects, and in no very efficient
account of Garibaldi's expedition is G. Trevelyan's Garibaldi and the
Thousand (London, 1909). (L. V.*) manner, by brethren of the order, or society, of Minims. The
moral tone of the school was low; and Napoleon afterwards
"
NAPOLEON I. (1769-1821), Emperor of the French. Napoleon spoke with contempt of the training of the monks " and the
Bonaparte (or Buonaparte, as he almost always spelt the name manner of life of the scholars. Perhaps his impressions were too
down the year 1796) was born at Ajaccio in Corsica on the gloomy; his whole enthusiasm had been for the Corsicans, who
iSth of August 1769. The date of his birth has been disputed, still maintained an unequal struggle against the French; he
and certain curious facts have been cited in proof of the assertion deeply resented his father's espousal of the French cause; and
that he was born on the 7th of January 1768, and that his brother dislike of the conquerors of his native island made him morose
Joseph, who passed as the eldest surviving son, was in reality and solitary. Apart from decided signs of proficiency in mathe-
his junior. Recent research has, however, explained how it came matics, he showed no special ability. Languages he disliked, but
about that a son born on the earlier date received the name he spent much of his spare time in reading history, especially
Nabulione (Napoleon). The father, Carlo Maria da Buonaparte Plutarch. The firmness of character which he displayed caused
(Charles Marie de Bonaparte), had resolved to call his three first him to be recommended in 1782 for the navy by one of the
sons by the names given by his great-grandfather to his sons, inspectors of the school; but a new inspector, who was appointed
namely Joseph, Napoleon and Lucien. This was done; but on in 1783, frustrated this plan. In October 1784 Bonaparte and
the death of the eldest (Joseph) the child first baptized Nabulion three other Briennois were authorized, by a letter signed by
received the name Joseph; while the third son (the second Louis XVI., to proceed as gentlemen cadets to the military school
surviving son) was called Napoleon. The baptismal register of at Paris. There the education was more thorough, and the
Ajaccio leaves no doubt as to the date of his birth as given above. discipline stricter, than at Brienne. Napoleon applied himself
For his parents and family see BONAPARTE. The father's with more zest to his studies, in the hope of speedily qualifying
literary tastes, general inquisitiveness, and powers of intrigue himself for the artillery. In this he succeeded. As the result of
reappeared in Napoleon, who, however, derived from his mother an examination conducted in September 1785 by Laplace, Bona-
Letizia (a descendant of the Ramolino and Pietra Santa families) parte was included among those who entered the army without
the force of will, the power of forming a quick decision and of going through an intermediate stage.
maintaining it against all odds, which made him so terrible an At the end of October 1785 he closed a scholastic career which
opponent both in war and in diplomacy. The sterner strain in had beefKcreditable but not brilliant. He now entered the
the mother's nature may be traced to intermarriage with the artillery regiment, La Fere, quartered at Valence, and went
families of the wild interior of Corsica, where the vendetta was through allthe duties imposed on privates, and thereafter those
the unwritten but omnipotent law of the land. The Bonapartes, of a corporal and a sergeant. Not until January 1786 did he
on the other hand", had long concernetl themselves with legal actually serve as junior lieutenant. Atime of furlough in Corsica
affairs at Ajaccio or in the coast towns of the island. They from September 1786 to September 1787 served to strengthen his
traced their descent to ancestors who had achieved distinction affection for his mother, and for the island which he still hoped
in the political life of medieval Florence and Sarzana; Francesco to free from the French yoke. The father having died of cancer
Buonaparte of Sarzana migrated to Corsica early in the i6th at Montpellier in 1785, Napoleon felt added responsibilites, which
century. What is equally noteworthy, as explaining the he zealously discharged. In order to push forward a claim which
characteristics of Napoleon, is that his descent was on both Letizia urged on the French government, he proceeded to Paris
sides distinctly patrician. He once remarked that the house of in September 1787, and toyed for a time with the pleasures of the
Bonaparte dated from the coup d'etat of Brumaire (November Palais Royal, but failed to make good the family claim. After
1799); but it is certain the de Buonapartes had received the gaining a further extension of leave of absence from his regiment
title of nobility from the senate of the republic of Genoa which, he returned to Ajaccio and spent six months more in the midst
during the i8th century, claimed to exercise sovereignty over of family and political affairs. Rejoining his regiment, then in
Corsica. the garrison at Auxonne, after a furlough of twenty-one months,
It was in the midst of the strifes resulting from those claims the young officer went through a time of much privation,
that Napoleon Bonaparte saw the light in 1769. His compatriots brightened only by the study of history and cognate subjects.
had already freed themselves from the yoke of Genoa, thanks to Many of the notes and essays written by him at Auxonne bear
Pasquale Paoli; but in 1764 that republic appealed to Louis XV. witness to his indomitable resolve to master all the details of his
of France for aid, and in 1 768 a bargain was struck by which the profession and the chief facts relating to peoples who had struggled
French government succeeded to the nearly bankrupt sovereignty successfully to achieve their liberation. Enthusiasm for Corsica
of Genoa. In the campaigns of 1768-69 the French gradually was a leading motive prompting him to this prolonged exertion.
overcame the fierce resistance of the islanders; and Paoli, after His notes on English history (down to the time of the revolution
sustaining a defeat at Ponte-Novo (gth of May 1769), fled to the of 1688) were especially detailed. Of Cromwell he wrote:
"
mainland, and ultimately to England. Napoleon's father at first Courageous, clever, deceitful, dissimulating, his early principles
sided with Paoli, but after the disaster of Ponte-Novo he went of lofty republicanism yielded to the devouring flames of his
over to the conquerors, and thereafter solicited places for himself ambition; and, having tasted the sweets of power, he aspired to
and for his sons with a skill and persistence which led to a close the pleasure of reigning alone." At Auxonne, as previously at
union between the Bonapartes and France. From the French Valence, Napoleon commanded a small detachment of troops
governor of Corsica, the comte de Marbeuf, he procured many sent to put down disturbances in neighbouring towns, and carried
favours, among them being the nomination of the young Napoleon out his orders unflinchingly. To this period belongs his first
to the military school at Brienne in the east of France. crude literary effort, a polemic against a Genevese pastor who
Already the boy had avowed his resolve to be a soldier. In had criticized Rousseau.
the large playroom of the house at Ajaccio, while the others In the latter part of his stay at Auxonne (June 1788-
amused themselves with ordinary games, Napoleon delighted September 1 789) occurred the first events of the Revolution which
most in beating a drum and wielding a sword. His elder brother, was destined to mould anew his ideas and his career. But his
Joseph, a mild and dreamy boy, had to give way before him; preoccupation about Corsica, the privations to which he and his
and it was a perception of this difference of temperament which family were then exposed, and his bad health, left him little
decided the father to send Joseph into the church and Napoleon energy to expend on purely French affairs. He read much of the
into the army. Seeing that the younger boy was almost entirely pamphlet literature then flooding the country, but he still pre-
ignorant of French, he took him with Joseph to the college at ferred the more general studies in history and literature, Plutarch,
Autun at the close of the year 1778. After spending four months Caesar, Corneille, Voltaire and Rousseau being his favourite
at Autun, Napoleon entered the school at Brienne in May 1779. authors. The plea of the last named on behalf of Corsica served
NAPOLEON I.
191
to enlist thesympathy of Napoleon in his wider speculations, crimes of ambitious men. The judges at Lyons placed 'it
and so helped to bring about that mental transformation which fifteenth in order of merit among the sixteen
essays sent in.
merged Buonaparte the Corsican in Bonaparte the Jacobin Thanks to the friendly intervention of the marechal du camp,
and Napoleon the First Consul and Emperor. baron Duteil, Bonaparte once more gained leave of absence
Family influences also played their part in this transformation. for three months and reached Corsica in September 1791. Opinion
On proceeding to Ajaccio in September 1789 for another furlough, there was in an excited state, the priests and the populace being
he found his brother Joseph enthusiastic in the democratic inflamed against the anti-clerical decrees of the National Assembly
cause and acting as secretary of the local political club. Napoleon of France. Paoli did little to help on the Bonapartes; and
seconded his efforts, and soon they had the help of the third the advancement of Joseph Bonaparte was slow. Napoleon's
brother, Lucien, who proved to be most eager and eloquent. admiration for the dictator also began to cool, and events began
Thanks to the exertions of Saliceti, one of the two deputies sent to point to a rupture. The death of Archdeacon Lucien Bona-
by the tiers etat of Corsica to the National Assembly of France, parte, the recognized head of the family, having placed property
that body, on the 3Oth of November 1789, declared the island to at the disposal of the sons, they bought a house, which became
be an integral part of the kingdom with right to participate in the rendezvous of the democrats and of a band of volunteers
all the reforms then being decreed. This event decided Napoleon whom they raised. In the intrigues for the command of this
to give his adhesion to the French or democratic party; and body Napoleon had his rival, Morati, carried off by force
when, in July 1790, Paoli returned from exile in England (receiv- his first coup d'etat. The incident led to a feud with the supporters
ing on his way the honours of the sitting by the National of Morati, among whom was Pozzo di Borgo (destined to be his
Assembly) the claims of nationality and democracy seemed to life-long enemy), and opened a breach between the Bonapartes
be identical, though the future course of events disappointed and Paoli. Bonaparte's imperious nature also showed itself
these hopes. Shortly before returning to his regiment in the in family matters, which he ruled with a high hand. No one,
early weeks of 1791 he indited a letter inveighing in violent said his younger brother Lucien, liked to thwart him.
terms against Matteo Buttafuoco, deputy for the Corsican Further discords naturally arose between so masterful a
noblesse in the National Assembly of France, as having betrayed lieutenant as Bonaparte and so autocratic a chief as Paoli.
the cause of insular liberty in 1768 and as plotting against it The beginnings of this rupture, as well as a sharp affray between
again. his volunteers and the townsfolk of Ajaccio, may have quickened
The experiences of Bonaparte at Auxonne during his second Bonaparte's resolve to return to France in May 1792, but there
stay in garrison were again depressing. With him in his poorly were also personal and family reasons for this step. Having
furnished lodgings was Louis Bonaparte, the fourth surviving again exceeded his time of furlough, he was liable to the severe
son, whom he carefully educated and for whom he predicted a penalties attaching to a deserter and an emigre; but he saw
brilliant future. For the present their means were very scanty, that the circumstances of the time would help to enforce the
and, as the ardent royalism of his brother officers limited his appeal for reinstatement which he resolved to make at Paris.
social circle, he plunged into work with the same ardour as before, His surmise was correct. The Girondin ministry then in power
frequently studying fourteen or fifteen hours a day. Then it had brought Louis XVI. to declare war against Austria (2oth
was, or perhaps at a slightly later date, that he became interested of April 1792) and against Sardinia (isth of May 1792). The
in the relations subsisting between political science and war. From lack of trained officers was such as to render the employment
L' Esprit des lois of Montesquieu he learnt suggestive thoughts and advancement of Bonaparte probable in the near future,
"
like the following: L'objet def la guerre, c'est la victoire; and on the 3oth of August, Servan, the minister for war, issued
celui de conquete; celui de la conquete, 1'occupa-
la victoire, la an order appointing him to be captain in his regiment and to
tion." MachiaveUi taught him the need of speed, decision receive arrears of pay. During this stay at Paris he witnessed
and unity of command, in war. From the Traite de tactique some of the great " days " of the Revolution; but the sad
(1772) of Guibert he caught a glimpse of the power which a plight of his sister, Marianna Elisa, on the dissolution of the
patriotic and fully armed nation might gain amidst the feeble convent of St Cyr, where she was being educated, compelled
and ill-organized governments of that age. him to escort her back to Corsica shortly after the September
External events served to unite him more closely to France. massacres.
The reorganization of the artillery, which took place in the spring His last time of furlough in Corsica is remarkable for the
of 1791, brought Bonaparte to the rank of lieutenant in the failure of the expedition in which he and his volunteers took
regiment of Grenoble, then stationed at Valence. He left the part, against la Maddalena, a small island off the coast of
regiment La Fere with regret on the i4th of June 1791; but at Sardinia. The breach between Paoli and the Bonapartes now
Valence he renewed former friendships and plunged into politics rapidly widened, the latter having now definitely espoused the
with greater ardour. Most of his colleagues refused to take cause of the French republic, while Paoli, especially after the
the oath of obedience to the Constituent Assembly, after the execution of Louis XVI., repudiated all thought of political
attempted escape of Louis XVI. to the eastern frontier at mid- connexion with the regicides. Ultimately the Bonapartes had
summer. Bonaparte took the oath on the 4th of July, but said to flee from Corsica (nth of June 1793), an event which clinched
later that the Assembly ought to have banished the king and Napoleon's decision to identify his fortunes with those of the
proclaimed a regency for Louis XVII. In general, however, French republic. His ardent democratic opinions rendered
his views at that time were republican; he belonged to the club the change natural when Paoli and his compatriots declared for
of Friends of the Constitution at Valence, spoke there with much an alliance with England.
acceptance, and was appointed librarian to the club. The arrival of the Bonapartes at Toulon coincided with a time
At Valence also he wrote an essay for a prize instituted by of acute crisis in the fortunes of the republic. Having declared
his friend and literary adviser, Raynal, at the war on England and Holland
academy of (ist of February 1793), and against
"
Lyons. The subject was What truths and sentiments is it Spain (9th of March), France was soon girdled by foes; and the
most important to inculcate to men for their happiness? " forces of the first coalition invaded her territory at several points.
Bonaparte's essay bore signs of study of Rousseau and of the At first the utmost efforts of the republic failed to avert disaster;
cult of Lycurgus which was coming into vogue. The Spartans for the intensely royalist district of la Vendee, together with
were happy, said the writer, because they had plenty of good, most of Brittany, burst into revolt, and several of the northern,
suitable clothing and lodging, robust women, and were able to central and southern departments rose against the Jacobin rule.
meet their requirements both physical and mental. Men should The struggle which the constitutionalists and royalists of
live according to the laws and dictates of nature, not Marseilles made against the central government furnished
forgetting
the claims of reason and sentiment. The latter part of the Bonaparte with an occasion for writing his first important
"
essay is remarkable for its fervid presentment of the charms of political pamphlet, entitled Le Souper de Beaucaire." It
scenery and for vigorous declamation against the follies and purports to be a conversation at the little town of Beaucaire
192 NAPOLEON I.
between a soldier (obviously the writer himself) and three men, enemy's line, which he had advocated at Toulon and which he
Nimes and Montpellier, who oppose the
citizens of Marseilles, everywhere put in force in his campaigns.
Jacobinical government and hope for victory over its forces. On or about the 2oth of March 1794 he arrived at the head-
The officer points out the folly of such a course, and the quarters of the army of Italy. At Colmars, on the 2ist of May
certainty that the republic, whose troops had triumphed over 1794, he drew up the first draft of his Italian plan of campaign
those of Prussia and Austria, will speedily disperse the untrained for severing the Piedmontese from their Austrian allies and for
levies of Provence. The pamphlet closes with a passionate driving the latter out of their Italian provinces. A secret mission
plea for national unity. to Genoa enabled him to inspect the pass north of Savona, and
He was now to further the cause of the republic one and the knowledge of the peculiarities of that district certainly helped
indivisible in the sphere of action. The royalists of Toulon had him in maturing his plan for an invasion of Italy, which he put
admitted British and Spanish forces to share in the defence of into execution in 1796. For the present he experienced a sharp
that stronghold (29th of August 1793). The blow to the re- rebuff of fortune, which he met with his usual fortitude. He
publican cause was most serious: for from Toulon as a centre was suddenly placed under arrest owing to intrigues or suspicions
the royalists threatened to raise a general revolt throughout the of the men raised to power by the coup d'etat of Thermidorg-io
south of France, and Pitt cherished hopes of dealing a death-blow (July 27-28) 1794. The commissioners sent by the Convention,
to the Jacobins in that quarter. But fortune now brought Albitte, Laporte and Saliceti, suspected him of having divulged
Bonaparte to blight those hopes. Told off to serve in the army the plan of campaign, and on the 6th of August ordered his
"
of Nice, he was detained by a special order of the commissioners arrest as being the maker of plans " for the younger Robes-
of the Convention, Saliceti and Gasparin, who, hearing of the pierre. On a slighter accusation than this many had perished;
severe wound sustained by Dommartin, the commander of the but an examination into the details of the mission of Bonaparte
artillery of the republican forces before Toulon, ordered Bona- to Genoa and the new instructions which arrived from Carnot,
parte to take his place. He arrived at the republican head- availed to procure his release on the 2oth of August. It came in
quarters, then at Ollioules on the north-west of Toulon, on the time to enable him to share in the operations of the French army
i6th of September; and it .is noteworthy that as early as Sep- against the Austrians that led to the battle of Dego, north of
tember loth the commissioners had seen the need of attacking Savona (2ist of September), a success largely due to his skilful
the allied fleet and had paid some attention to the headland combinations. But the decline in the energies of the central
behind 1'Eguillette, which commanded both the outer and the government at Paris and the appointment of Scherer as com-
inner harbour. But there is no doubt that Bonaparte brought mander-in-chief of the army of Italy frustrated the plans of a
to bear on the execution of this as yet vague and general proposal vigorous offensive which Bonaparte continued to develop and
powers of concentration and organization which ensured its advocate.
success. In particular he soon put the artillery of the besiegers Meanwhile he took part in an expedition fitted out in the
in good order. Carteaux, an ex-artist, at first held the supreme southern ports to drive the English from Corsica. It was a
command, but was superseded on the 23rd of October. Doppet, complete failure, and for a time his prospects were overclouded.
the next commander, was little better fitted for the task; but In the spring of 1795 he received an order from Paris to proceed
his successor, Dugommier, was a brave and experienced soldier to la Vendee in command of an infantry brigade. He declined
who appreciated the merits of Bonaparte. Under their direction on the score of ill-health, but set out for Paris in May, along with
steady advance was made on the side which Bonaparte saw to Marmont, Junot and Louis Bonaparte. At the capital he found
be all important; a sortie of part of the British, Spanish and affairs quickly falling back into the old ways of pleasure and
" "
Neapolitan forces on the 3oth of November was beaten back luxury. People," he wrote, remember the Terror only as a
with loss, General O'Hara, their commander, being severely dream." That he still pursued his studies of military affairs is
wounded and taken prisoner. On the night of the i6th-i7th shown by the compilation of further plans for the Italian cam-
December, Dugommier, Bonaparte, Victor and Muiron headed paign. The news of the ratification of peace with Spain brought
the storming column which forced its way into the chief battery at once the thought that an offensive plan of campaign in Pied-
thrown up by the besieged on the height behind 1'Eguillette; mont was thenceforth inevitable. Probably these plans gained
and on the next day Hood and Langara set sail, leaving the for him an appointment (2oth of August) in the topographical
royalists to the vengeance of the Jacobins. General du Teil, bureau of the committee of Public Safety. But, either from
the younger, who took part in the siege, thus commented on weariness of the life at Paris, or from disgust at clerical work,
"
Bonaparte's services: I have no words in which to describe he sought permission to go to Turkey in order to reorganize the
the merit of Bonaparte: much science, as much intelligence and artillery of the Sultan. But an inspection of his antecedents
too much bravery. ... It is for you, Ministers, to consecrate showed the many irregularities of his conduct as officer and led
him to the glory of the republic." At Toulon Bonaparte made to his name being erased from the list of general officers (Sep-
the acquaintance of men who were to win renown under his tember isth).
leadership) Desaix, Junot, Marmont, Muiron, Suchet and Again the difficulty of the republic was to be his opportunity.
Victor. The action of the Convention in perpetuating its influence by
It often assumed that the fortunes of Bonaparte were made
is the imposition of two-thirds of its members on the next popularly
at Toulon. This is an exaggeration. True, on the 22nd of elected councils, aroused a storm of indignation in Paris, where
moderate " and royalist reaction was already making
"
December 1793 he was made general of brigade for his services; the
and in February 1794 he gained the command of the artillery headway. The result was the massing of some 30,000 National
in the French army about to invade Italy; but during the Guards to coerce the Convention. Confronted by this serious
preliminary work of fortification along the coast he was placed danger, the Convention entrusted its defence to Barras, who
under arrest for a time owing to his reconstruction of an old fort appointed the young officer to be one of the generals assisting
at Marseilles which had been destroyed during the Revolution. him. The vigour and tactical skill of Bonaparte contributed
He was soon released owing to the interposition of the younger very largely to the success of the troops of the Convention over
Robespierre and of Saliceti. Thereafter he resided successively the Parisian malcontents on the famous day of 13 Vendemiaire
at Toulon, St Tropez and Antibes, doing useful work in fortifying (October 5th, 1795), when the defenders of the Convention,
the coast and using his spare time in arduous study of the science sweeping the quays and streets near the Tuilleries by artillery
of war. This he had already begun at Auxonne under the in- and musketry, soon paralysed the movement at its headquarters,
spiring guidance of the baron du Teil. General du Teil, younger the church of St Roch. The results of this day were out of all
brother of the baron, had recently published a work, L' Usage de proportion to the comparatively small number of casualties.
I'artiUerie noitvelle; and it is now known that Bonaparte derived With the cost of about 200 killed on either side, the Convention
from this work and from those of Guibert and Bourcet that lead- crushed the royalist or malcontent reaction, and imposed on
ing principle, concentration of effort against one point of the France a form of government which ensured the perpetuation of
NAPOLEON I.
193
democracy though in a bureaucratic form the first of those The men of Lombardy, emboldened by his tacit encouragement,
changes which paved the way to power for Bonaparte. For the prepared at the close of the year to form a republic, which
constitution of the year 1795 which inaugurated the period of assumed the name of Transpadane, and thereafter that of
the Directory (1795-1799) see FRENCH REVOLUTION. Here we Cisalpine. Its constitution was drawn up in the spring of
may notice that the perpetuation of the republic by means of 1797 by committees appointed, and to some extent supervised,
the armed forces tended to exalt the army at the expense of the by him; and he appointed the first directors, deputies and chief
civil authorities. The repetition of the same tactics by Bonaparte administrators of the new state (July 1797). The union of these
in Fructidor, 1797, served still more decidedly to tilt the balance republics took place on the isth of July 1797. The bounds
in favour of the sword,with results which were to be seen at the of the thus enlarged Cisalpine Republic were afterwards ex-
coup Brumaire 1799.
d'ftat of tended eastwards to the banks of the Adige by the terms of
The events which helped the disgraced officer of August 1795 the treaty of Campo Formio; and in November 1797 Bonaparte
to impose his will on France in November 1799 now claim our added the formerly Swiss district of the Valtelline, north-east
attention. The services which he rendered to the republic at of Lake Como, to its territory. Much of this work of reorganiza-
Vendemiaire brought as their reward the hand of Josephine tion was carried on at the castle of Montebello, or Mombello,
de Beauharnais. The influence of Barras with this fashionable near Milan, where he lived in almost viceregal pomp (May-July,
lady helped on the match. At the outset she felt some repugnance 1797). Taking advantage of an outbreak at Genoa, he over-
for the thin sallow-faced young officer, and was certainly terrified threw that ancient oligarchy, replaced it by a form of government
by his ardour and by the imperious egoism of his nature; but modelled on that of France (June 6th); and subsequently it
she consented to the union, especially when he received the adopted the name of the Ligurian Republic.
promise of the command of the French army of Italy. The story Concurrently with these undertakings, he steadily prepared to
that he owed this promotion solely to the influence of Barras strengthen his position in the political life of France; and it will
and Josephine is, however, an exaggeration. It is now known that be well to notice the steps by which he ensured the defeat of the
the plans of campaign which he had drawn up for that army royalists in France and the propping up of the directorial system
had enlisted the far more influential support of Carnot on his in the coup d'etat of Fructidor 1797. The unrest in France in the
behalf. In January 1796 he drew up another plan for the years 1795-1797 resulted mainly from the harshness, incom-
conquest of Italy, which gained the assent of the Directory. petence and notorious corruption of the five Directors who,
Vendemiaire and the marriage with Josephine (gth of March after the i3th of Vendemiaire 1795, practically governed France.
1796) were but stepping-stones to the attainment of the end All those who wished for peace and orderly government came by
which he had kept steadily in sight since the spring of the year degrees to oppose the Directors; and, seeing that the latter clung
1794. For the events of this campaign in Italy see FRENCH to Jacobinical catchwords and methods, public opinion tended
"
REVOLUTIONARY WARS. The success at the bridge of Lodi ( toth of to become moderate " or even royalist. This was seen in the
May) seems first to have inspired in the young general dreams of a elections for one-third of the 750 members composing the two
grander career than that of a successful general of the Revolution; councils of the nation (the Anciens and the Council of Five
while his narrow escape at the bridge of Arcola in November Hundred); they gave the moderates a majority alike in that
strengthened his conviction that he was destined for a great of the older deputies and in that of the younger deputies (April
future. The means whereby he engaged the energies of the 1797), and that majority elected Barthelemy, a well-known
Italians on behalf of the French Republic and yet refrained moderate, as the fifth member of the Directory. Carnot, the
from persecuting the Roman Catholic Church in the way only ablest administrator, but not the strongest man, soon joined
too common among revolutionary generals, bespoke political Barthelemy in opposing their Jacobinical colleagues Barras,
insight of no ordinary kind. From every dispute which he had Rewbell and Larevelliere-Lepeaux. Time was on the side of
with the central authorities at Paris he emerged victorious; the moderates; they succeeded in placing General Pichegru,
and he took care to assure his ascendancy by sending presents already known for his tendencies towards constitutional monarchy,
to the Directors, large sums to the nearly bankrupt treasury in the presidential chair of the Council of Five Hundred; and
and works of art to the museums of Paris. Thus when, after the they proceeded to agitate, chiefly through the medium of a
crowning victory of Rivoli (i4th of January 1797), Mantua powerful club founded at Clichy, for the repeal of the revolu-
surrendered and the Austrian rule in Italy for the time collapsed, tionary and persecuting laws. The three Jacobinical Directors
Bonaparte was virtually the idol of the French nation, the thereupon intrigued to bring to Paris General Lazarre Hoche
master of the Directory and potentially the protector of the and his army destined for the invasion of Ireland for the purpose
Holy See. of coercing their opponents; but these, perceiving the danger,
It may be well to point out here the salient features in Bona- ordered Hoche to Paris, rebuked him for bringing his army
parte's conduct towards the states of northern Italy. While nearer to the capital than was allowed by law, and dismissed
arousing the enthusiasm of their inhabitants on behalf of France, him in disgrace.
he in private spoke contemptuously of them, mercilessly sup- The Hoche led the three Directors to fix their hopes
failure of
pressed all outbreaks caused by the exactions and plundering on Bonaparte. The commander of the ever-victorious army of
of his army, and carefully curbed the factions which the new Italy had recently been attacked by one of the moderates in the
political life soon developed. On his first entry into Milan councils for proposing to hand over Venice to Austria. This
(iSth of May 1796) he received a rapturous welcome as the cession was based on political motives, which Bonaparte judged
liberator of Italy from the Austrian yoke; but the instructions to be of overwhelming force; and he now decided to support
of the Directory allowed him at the outset to do little more than the Directors and overthrow the moderates. Prefacing his action
effect the organization of consultative committees and national by a violent tirade against the royalist conspirators of Clichy,
guards in the chief towns of Lombardy. The successful course he sent to Paris General Augereau, well known for his brusque
of the campaign and the large sums which he sent from Italy to behaviour and demagogic Jacobinism. This officer rushed to
the French exchequer served to strengthen his hold over' the Paris, breathing out threats of slaughter against all royalists,
Directors, and his constructive policy grew more decided. and entered into close relations with Barras. In order to dis-
Thus, when the men of Reggio and Modena overthrew the rule count the chances of failure, Bonaparte warned the three Directors
of their duke, he at once accorded to that Augereau was a turbulent politician, not to be trusted over-
protection to them, as also
the inhabitants of the cities of
Bologna and Ferrara when they much. Events, indeed, might readily have gone in favour of
broke away from the moderates had Carnot acted with decision; but he relapsed
papa) authority. He even allowed the
latter
to send with the at Modena, into strange inactivity, while Barras and his military tool
delegates to confer those of duchy
with the result that a
political union was decreed
in a state prepared to coerce the majority. Before dawn of September
called the Cispadane Republic (i6th of October 1706). This the 4th (18 Fructidor) Augereau with 2000 soldiers marched
action was due in large measure to the protection of Bonaparte, against the Tuileries, where the councils were sitting, dispersed
xix. 7
NAPOLEON I.
their military guards, arrested several deputies and seized was fain to make peace with the general rather than expose itself
Barthelemy in his bed. Carnot, on receiving timely warning, to harder terms at the hands of the Directory.
fled from the Luxemburg palace and made his way to Switzer- The
treaty of Campo Formic, signed on the I7th of October
land. The remembrance of the fatal day of Vendemiaire 1795 1797, was therefore pre-eminently the work of Bonaparte.
perhaps helped to paralyse the majority. In any case exile, and Already at Cherasco and Leoben he had dictated the preliminaries
death in the prisons of Cayenne, now awaited the timid champions of peace to the courts of Turin and Vienna quite independently
of law and order; while parliamentary rule sustained a shock of the French Directory. At Campo Formio he showed himself
from which it never recovered. The Councils allowed the elec- the first diplomatist of the age, and the arbiter of the destinies
tions to be annulled in forty-nine departments of France, and of Europe. The terms were on the whole unexpectedly favour-
re-enacted some of the laws of the period of the Terror, notably able to Austria. In Italy she was to acquire the Venetian lands
those against non-juring priests and returned emigres. The already named, along with Dalmatia and Venetian Istria. The
election of Merlin of Douay and Francois of Neufchatel as rest of the Venetian mainland (the districts between the rivers
Directors, in place of Carnot and Barth61emy, gave to that body Adige and Ticino) went to the newly constituted Cisalpine
a compactness which enabled it to carry matters with a high republic, France gaining the Ionian Isles and the Venetian fleet.
hand, until the hatred felt by Frenchmen for this soulless revival The Emperor Francis renounced all claims to his former Nether-
of a moribund Jacobinism gradually endowed the Chambers land provinces, which had been occupied by the French since
with life and strength sufficient to provoke a renewal of strife the summer of 1794; he further ceded the Breisgau to the dis-
with the Directory. These violent oscillations not only weakened possessed duke of Modena, agreed to summon a congress at
the fabric of the Republic, but brought about a situation in Rastatt for the settlement of German affairs, and recognized the
which Bonaparte easily paralysed both the executive and the independence of the Cisalpine republic. In secret articles the
legislative powers so ill co-ordinated by the constitution of the emperor bound himself to use his influence at the congress of
year 1795. Rastatt in order to procure the cession to France of the Germanic
In the sphere of European diplomacy, no less than in that lands west of the Rhine, while France promised to help him to
of French politics, the results of the coup d'ttat of Fructidor acquire the archbishopric of Salzburg and a strip of land on the
were momentous. The Fructidorian Directors contemptuously eastern frontier of Bavaria.
rejected the overtures for peace which Pitt had recently made After acting for a brief space as one of the French envoys to the
through the medium of Lord Malmesbury at Lille; and they congress of Rastatt, Napoleon returned to Paris early in December
further illustrated their desire for war and plunder by initiating and received the homage of the Directors and the acclaim of the
a forward policy in central Italy and Switzerland which opened populace. The former sought to busy him by appointing him
up a new cycle of war. The coup d'Stat was favourable to Bona- commander-in-chief of the Army of England, the island power
parte; it ensured his hold over the Directors and enabled him being now the only one which contested French supremacy in
to impose his own terms of peace on Austria; above all it left Europe. In February 1 798 he inspected the preparations for the
him free for the prosecution of his designs in a field of action invasion of England then proceeding at the northern ports.
which now held the first place in his thoughts the Orient. He found that they were wholly inadequate, and summed up his
Having rivalled the exploits of Caesar, he now longed to follow views in a remarkable letter to the Directory (23rd of February),
in the steps of Alexander the Great. wherein he pointed out two possible alternatives to an invasion of
At the time of his first view of the Adriatic (February 1797) England, namely, a conquest of the coast of the north-west of
he noted the importance of the port of Ancona for intercourse Germany, for the cutting off of British commerte with central
with the Sultan's dominions; and at that city fortune placed Europe, or the undertaking of an expedition to the Orient which
in his hands Russian despatches relative to the designs of the would be equally ruinous to British trade. The inference was
Tsar Paul on Malta. The incident reawakened the interest inevitable that, as German affairs were about to be profitably
which had early been aroused in the young Corsican by converse exploited by France in the bargains then beginning at Rastatt,
with the savant Volney, author of Les Ruines, ou meditation sur she must throw her chief energies into the Egyptian expedition.
les revolutions des empires. The intercourse which he had with One of the needful preliminaries of this enterprise' had already
Monge, the physicist and ex-minister of marine, during the received his attention. In November 1797 he sent to Malta
negotiations with Austria, served to emphasize the orientation Poussielgue, secretary of the French legation at Genoa, on busi-
of his thoughts. This explains the eagerness with which he now ness which was ostensibly commercial but (as he informed the
"
insisted on the acquisition of the Ionian Isles by France and the Directory) in reality to put the last touch to the design that
political extinction of their present possessor, Venice. That city we have on that island." The intrigues of the French envoy
had given him cause for complaint, of which he made the most in corrupting the knights of the order of St John were completely
unscrupulous use. Thanks to the blind complaisance of its successful. It remained, however, to find the funds needful
democrats and the timid subserviency of its once haughty for the equipment of a great expedition. Here the difficulties
oligarchs, he became master of its fleet and arsenal (i6th of May were great. The Directory, after the coup d'etat of Fructidor,
1797). Already, as may be seen by his letters to the Directory, had acknowledged a state of bankruptcy by writing off two-
he had laid his plans for the bartering away of the Queen of the thirds of the national debt in a form which soon proved to be a
Adriatic to Austria; and throughout the lengthy negotiations of thin disguise for repudiation. The return of a large part of the
the summer and early autumn of 1797 which he conducted with armed forces from Italy and Germany, where they had lived on
little interference from Paris, he adhered to his plan of gaining the liberated inhabitants, also threw new burdens on the Republic;
the fleet and the Ionian Isles; while the house of Habsburg and it was clear that French money alone would not suffice to
was itself, together with all the mainland
to acquire the city fitout an armada. Again, however, the financial situation was
territories of the Republic as far west as the River Adige. In improved by conquest. The occupation of Rome in February
vain did the Austrian envoy, Cobenzl, resist the cession of the 1798 enabled Berthier to send a considerable sum to Paris and
Ionian Isles to France; in vain did the Directors intervene in the "
to style himself treasurer to the chest of the Army of England."
middle of September with an express order that Venice must The invasion of Switzerland, which Bonaparte had of late
not be ceded to Austria, but must, along with Friuli, be included persistently pressed on the Directory, proved to be an equally
ia the Cisalpine Republic. To the subtle tenacity of Cobenzl he lucrative device, the funds in several of the cantonal treasuries
opposed a masterful violence: he checkmated the Directors, being transferred straightway to Paris or Toulon. The conquest
when they sought to thwart him in this and in other directions, of north and central Italy also placed great naval resources at
by sending in once more his resignation with a letter hi which he the disposal of France, Venice alone providing nine sail of the
"
accused them of horrible ingratitude." He was successful line and twelve frigates (see Bonaparte's letter of the isth of
at all points. The Directors feared a rupture with the man November 1797), Genoa, Spezzia, Leghorn, Civita Vecchia
to whom they owed their existence; and the house of Austria and Ancona also supplied their quota in warships, transports,
NAPOLEON I.
'95
stores and sailors, with the result that the armada was ready The effects of the expedition in the sphere of world-politics
for sea by the middle of May 1798. The secrecy maintained as were equally remarkable and more immediate. The British
to its destination was equally remarkable. The British govern- government, alarmed by Bonaparte's attempt to intrigue with
ment inclined to the belief that it was destined either for Ireland Tippoo Sahib, put forth all its strength in India and destroyed
or for Naples. As the British fleet had abandoned the Mediter- the power of that ambitious ruler. Nelson's capture of Malta
ranean since November 1 796 and had recently been disorganized (5th of September 1800) also secured for the time a sure base
by two serious mutinies, Bonaparte's plan of conquering Egypt for British fleets in the Mediterranean. A Russo-Turkish fleet
was by no means so rash as has sometimes been represented. wrested Corfu from the French; and the Neapolitan Bourbons,
The ostensible aims of the expedition, as drawn up by him, emboldened by the news of the battle of the Nile, began hostilities
and countersigned by the Directory on the I2th of April, were with France which preluded the war of the Second Coalition.
the seizure of Egypt, the driving of the British from all their In the domain of science the results of the expedition were of
possessions in the East and the cutting of the Suez canal. But unique interest. The discovery of the Rosetta Stone furnished
apart from these public aims there were private motives which the key to Egyptian hieroglyphics; and archaeology, no less
weighed with Bonaparte. His relations to the Directors were than the more practical sciences, acknowledges its debt of grati-
most strained. They feared his ability and ambition; while tude to the man who first brought the valley of the Nile into close
he credited them with the design of poisoning him. Shortly touch with the thought of the West.
before his starting, an open rupture was scarcely averted; Finally, it should be noted that, amid the failure of the national
and he and his brothers allowed the idea to get abroad that he aims which the Directory and Bonaparte set forth, his own
was being virtually banished from France. It is certain, however, desires received a startlingly complete fulfilment. The war of
that his whole heart was in the expedition, which appealed to the Second Coalition having brought about the expulsion of
his love of romance and of the gigantic. His words to Joseph the French from Italy, the Directors were exposed to a storm
"
Bonaparte shortly before sailing are significant: Our dreams of indignation in France, not unmixed with contempt; and this
of a republic were youthful illusions. Since the 9th of Thermidor, state of public opinion enabled the young conqueror within a
the republican instinct has grown weaker every day. To-day month of his landing at Frejus (gth of October 1799) easily to
all eyes are on me: to-morrow they may be on another. ... I prevail over the Directory and the elective councils of the nation.
depart for the Orient with all the means of success at my disposal. In the spring of 1798 he had judged the pear to be not ripe;
If my country needs me, if there are additions to the number in Brumaire 1799 it came off almost at a touch.
of those who share the opinion of Talleyrand, Sieyes and Roederer, In order to understand the sharp swing of the political pendulum
that war will break out again and that it will be unsuccessful back from republicanism to autocracy which took place at
for France, I will return, more sure of the feeling of the nation." Brumaire, it is needful to remember that the virtual failure of
He added, however, that if France waged a successful war, he the Egyptian Expedition was then unknown. The news of
would remain in the East, and do more damage to England Bonaparte's signal victory over the Turkish army at Aboukir
there than by mere demonstrations in the English Channel. aroused general rejoicings undimmed by any save the vaguest
The Toulon fleet set sail on the igih of May; and when the rumours of his reverse at Acre. In the popular imagination he
other contingents from the ports of France and Italy joined the seemed to be the only possible guarantor of victory abroad and
flag, the armada comprised thirteen sail of the line, fourteen order at home. This was unjust to the many men who were
frigates,many smaller warships and some three hundred trans- working, not without success, to raise the Republic out of its
ports. An interesting feature of the expedition was the presence many difficulties. Massena's triumph at Zurich (September
on board of several savants who were charged to examine the 25th-26th, 1799) paralysed the Second Coalition; and, though
antiquities and develop the resources of Egypt. The chief had the Austrians continued to make progress along the Italian
lately become a member of the Institute, and did his utmost riviera, the French Republic was in little danger on that side
to inflame in France that love of art and science which he had so long as it held Switzerland.
helped to kindle by enriching the museums of Paris with the The internal condition of France was also not so desperate
treasures of Italy. By good fortune the armada evaded Nelson as has often been represented. True, the Directory seemed on
and arrived safely off Malta. Thanks to French intrigues, the the point of collapse; it had been overcome by the popularly
Knights of Malta offered the tamest defence of their capital. elected Chambers in the insignificant coup d'etat of 30 Prairial
During the week which he spent there, Bonaparte displayed (i8th of June) 1799; when Larevelliere-Lepeaux and Merlin
marvellous energy in endowing the city with modern institutions; were compelled to resign. The retirement of Rewbell a short
he even arranged the course of studies to be followed in the time previously also rid France of a turbulent and corrupt
university. Setting sail for Egypt on the I9th of June, he administrator. His place was now filled by Sieyes. This ex-
again had the good fortune to elude Nelson and arrived off priest, this disillusioned Jacobin and skilful spinner of cobweb
Alexandria on the 2nd of July. For an account of the Egyptian constitutions, enjoyed for a time the chief reputation in France.
and Syrian campaigns see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS. His oracular reserve, personal honesty and consistency of aim
But here we may point out the influence of the expedition on had gained him the suffrages of all who hoped to save France
Egypt, on European politics and on the fortunes of Bonaparte. from the harpies of the Directory and the violent rhetoricians
The chief direct result in the life of the Egyptian people was the of the now reconstituted Jacobin Club. He was known to dis-
virtual destruction of the governing caste of the Mamelukes, approve of the Directory both as an institution in the making of
the Turks finding it easy to rid themselves of their surviving which he had had no hand, and of its personnel, with one excep-
chiefs and to re-establish the authority of the Sultan. As for the tion. This was natural. The new Directors, Gohier and Moulin,
benefits which Bonaparte and his savants helped to confer on were honest but incapable and narrow-minded. As for Barras,
Egypt, they soon vanished. The great canal was not begun ;
his venality and vices outweighed even his capacity for successful
irrigation works were started but were soon given up. The intrigue. The fifth Director, Ducos, an ex-Girondin, was sure to
letters of Kleber and Menou (the successors of Bonaparte) swim with the stream. Clearly, then, the Directory was doomed.
show that the expenditure on public works had been so reckless It was far otherwise with the Councils. A majority of the
that the colony was virtually bankrupt at the time of Bonaparte's Ancients was ready to support Sieyes and make drastic changes
departure; and William Hamilton, who travelled through Egypt in the constitution; but in the Council of Five Hundred the
in 1802, found few
traces, other than military, of the French prevalent feeling was democratic or even Jacobinical. The
occupation. The indirect results, however, were incalculably aim of Sieyes was to perpetuate the republic, but in a bureau-
great. Though for the present the Sultan regained his hold cratic or autocratic form. With this aim in view he sought to
upon Egypt, yet in reality Bonaparte set in motion forces which find a man possessing ability in war and probity in civil affairs,
could not be stayed until the ascendancy of one or other of the who would act as figure-head to his long projected constitution.
western maritime powers in that land was definitely decided. For a time affairs moved as he wished. The Jacobin Club was
NAPOLEON I.
closed, thanks to the ability of Fouch6, the new minister of The Parisians received the news of the event with joy, be-
Police; but the hopes of Sieyes were dashed by the death of lieving that freedom was now at last to be established on a firm
General Joubert, commander of the Army of Italy, at the basis by the man whose name was the synonym for victory in the
"
disastrous battle of Novi (isth of August). The dearth of ability field and disinterestedness in dvil affairs. People are full of
"
among the generals left in France (Kleber and Desaix were in mirth (wrote Madame Reinhard, wife of the minister for
"
Egypt) was now painfully apparent. Moreau was notoriously Foreign Affairs, four days later) believing that they have
lethargic in civil affairs. Bernadotte, Jourdan and Augereau regained liberty." She added that all the parties except the
had compromised themselves by close association with the Jacobins were full of confidence; and that the nobles now
Jacobins. The soldiery had never forgiven Massena his pecula- cherished hopes of a reaction, seeing that the reduction of the
tions after the capture of Rome. One name, and one alone, number of rulers from five to three pointed towards monarchy.
leaped to men's thoughts, that of Bonaparte. Her comment on this delusion is instructive. Three consuls
He arrived from Egypt at the psychological moment,and his had been appointed, she remarked, precisely in order that power
journey from Frejus to Paris resembled a triumphant procession. might not be vested in the hands of one man.
Nevertheless he acted with the utmost caution. A fortnight Only by degrees did the events of the ipth of Brumaire stand
passed before he decided to support Sieyes in effecting a change out in their real significance; for the new consuls, installed at
in the constitution; and by then he had captivated all men the Luxemburg palace, and somewhat later at the Tuileries,
except Bernadotte and a few intransigeant Jacobins. Talleyrand, took care that the new constitution, which they along with the
Roederer, Cambaceres and Real were among his special con- two commissions were now secretly drawing up, should not be
fidants, his brothers Joseph and Lucien also giving useful promulgated until Paris and France had settled down to the
advice. Of the generals, Murat, Berthier, Lannes and Leclerc ordinary life of pleasure and toil. In the meantime they won
were those who prepared the way for the coup d'etat. Fouche, credit by popular measures such as the abolition of forced loans
pulling the wires through the police, was an invaluable helper. and of the objectionable habit of seizing hostages from the
The conduct of Barras was known to depend on material districts of the west where the royalist ferment was still strongly
considerations. working.
All being ready, the Ancients on the 18 Brumaire (pth of The feelings of suprise at the clemency and moderation
November) decreed the transference both
of the sessions of with which the victors used their powers predisposed men every-
Councils to St Cloud, on the plea of a Jacobin plot which where to accept their constitution. Sieyes now sketched its out-
threatened the peace of Paris. They also placed the troops in lines in vaguely republican forms; thereupon Bonaparte freely
Paris and its neighbourhood under the cpmmand of Bonaparte. altered them and gave them strongly personal touches. The
Thereupon Sieyes and Ducos resigned Barras, after a cal-
office. theorist laid before the joint commission his projet, the result of
culating delay, followed suit. Gohier and Moulin, on refusing five years of cogitation, only to have it ridiculed by the great
to retire, were placed under a military guard; and General soldier. In one respect alone did it suit him. While restoring
Moreau showed his political incapacity by discharging this duty, the principle of universal suffrage, which had been partially
for the benefit of Bonaparte. abrogated in 1795, Sieyes rendered this system of election
Nevertheless the proceedings of St Cloud on the day following practically a nullity. The voters were to choose one-tenth of
bade fair to upset the best-laid schemes of Bonaparte and his their number (notabilities of the commune) one-tenth of these
;
coadjutors. The Five Hundred, meeting in the Orangerie of would form the notabilities of the department; while by a
the palace, had by this time seen through the plot and, on the
;
similar decimal sifting, the notabilities of the nation were selected.
entrance of the general with four grenadiers, several deputies The final and all-important act of selection from among these
rushed at him, shook him violently, while others vehemently men was, however, to be made by a personage, styled the pro-
demanded a decree of outlawry against the new Cromwell. He clamateur-electeur who chose all the important functionaries, and
, ,
himself lost his nerve, stammered, nearly fainted, and was dragged conjointly with the notabilities of the nation, chose the members
out by the soldiers in a state of mental and physical collapse. for the Council of State (wielding the chief executive powers),
The situation was saved solely by the skill of his brother Lucien, the Tribunate and the Senate. The latter body would, however,
then president of the Council. He refused to put the vote of have the power to " absorb " the head of the state if he showed
outlawry, uttered a few passionate words, cast off his official signs of ambition. Against this power of absorption Bonaparte
robes, declared the session at an end, and made his way out under declaimed vehemently, asserting also that the prodamateur-
protection of a squad of grenadiers. The coup d'etat seemed to electeur would be a mere cochon a I'engrais. In vain did Sieyes
have failed. In reality matters now rested with the troops out- modify his scheme so as to provide for two consuls, one holding
side. Stung to action by some words of Sieyes, Bonaparte the chief executive powers for war, the other for peace. This
appealed to the troops of the line in terms which provoked a division of powers was equally distasteful to Bonaparte: he
ready response. Imprecations uttered by Lucien against formed a kind of cabal within the joint commission, and there
the brigands and traitors in the pay of England decided the intimidated the theorist, with the result already foreseen by the
grenadiers of the Council to march against the deputies whom latter. Sieyes, conscious that his political mechanism would
itwas their special duty to protect. Drums beat the charge, merely winnow the air, until the profoundly able and forceful
Murat led the way through the corridors of the palace to the man at his side adapted it to the w6rk of government, relapsed
Orangerie, and levelled bayonets ended the existence of the into silence; and his resignation of the office of consul, together
Council. Within the space of ten and a half years from the with that of Ducos, was announced as imminent. Bonaparte
summoning of the States-General at Versailles (May 1789), further brushed aside a frankly democratic constitution pro-
parliamentary government fell beneath the sword. posed by Daunou, and intimidated his opponents in the joint
Lucien now consolidated the work of the soldiery by procuring commission by a threat that he would himself draft a constitution
from the Ancients a decree which named Bonaparte, Sieyes and and propose it to the people in a mass vote.
Ducos as provisional consuls, while a legislative commission was This was what really happened. They looked on helplessly
appointed to report on necessary changes in the constitution. while he refashioned the scheme of Sieyes. Keeping the electoral
Lucien also gathered together a small group of the younger machinery almost unchanged (save that the lists of notables
deputies to throw the cloak of legality over the events of the were to be permanent) Bonaparte entirely altered the upper parts
day. The Rump proceeded to expel sixty-one Jacobins from of the constitutional pyramid reared by the philosopher. Improv-
the Council of Five Hundred, adjourned its sessions until the ipth ing upon the procedure of the Convention in Vendemiaire 1795,
of February 1800, and appointed a commission of twenty-five Bonaparte procured the nomination of three consuls in an
members with power to act in the meantime. Clearly the success article of the new constitution; they were Bonaparte (First
of the coup d'etat of Brumaire was due in the last resort to Lucien Consul), Cambac6res and Lebrun. The latter two, uniting with
Bonaparte. the two retiring consuls, Sieyes and Ducos, were to form the
NAPOLEON I.
197
nucleus of the senate and choose the majority among its full lax in the collection of the national taxes unwisely entrusted to them.
Lack of central control over the virtually independent communes
complement of sixty members, the minority being thereafter (over forty thousand in number) led to a sharp rebound under the
chosen by co-optation. To the senate, thus chosen " from Convention, when all matters of importance were disposed of by
above," was allotted the important task of supervising the commissioners appointed by that body. The relations between
national and local authorities fluctuated considerably during the
constitution, and of selecting, from among the notabilities of
the nation, the members of the Corps Ligislalij'and the Tribunate. Directory; and it is noteworthy that the constitution of December
1
799 placed local administration merely under the control of ministers
These two bodies nominally formed the legislature, the Tribunate at Paris. Everything, therefore, portended a change in this sphere,
merely discussing the bills sent to it by an important body, the but few persons expected a change so drastic as that which Bonaparte
Council of State; while the Corps LSgislalif, sitting in silence, now brought about in the measure of 28 Pluvi&se, year VIII. (i6th
of February 1800). Certainly no measure marked more clearly the
heard them defended by councillors of state and criticized by
abandonment of democratic ideals. The powers formerly vested in
members of the Tribunate; thereupon it passed or rejected elective bodies were now to be wielded by prefects and sub-prefects,
such proposals by secret voting. Thus, the initiative in law- nominated by the First Consul and responsible to him. The elective
councils for the department and for the arrondissement (a new area
making lay with the Council of State; but, as its members were " "
which replaced the districts of the year 1795) continued to exist,
all chosen by the First Consul, it is clear that that important
but they sat only for a fortnight in the year and had to deal mainly
duty was vested really in him. The executive powers were with the assessment of taxes for their respective areas. They might
placed almost entirely in his hands, as will be seen by the terms of be consulted by the prefect or sub-prefect; but they had no hold
" over him. The municipal councils had slightly larger powers,
article 41 which defined his functions: The First Consul
the he and dismisses at will the relating to loans, octrois, &c. But the chief municipal officer, the
promulgates laws; appoints
mayor, was chosen by the prefect. The police of all towns containing
members of the Council of State, the ministers, the ambassadors more than 100,000 inhabitants was controlled by the central
and other leading agents serving abroad, the officers of the army government.
and navy, the members of local administrative bodies and the It is significant that Bonaparte proposed this bill (drafted in the
commissioners of government attached to the tribunals. He Council of State) to the Tribunate and the Corps Legislatif on the
very day on which it was first certainly known that France had
names all the judges for criminal and civil cases, other than the
accepted the new constitution. The opposition in the Tribunate
juges de paix (magistrates) and the judges of the Cour de cassation, was sharp, but was paralysed by the knowledge of the fact just
without having the power to discharge them." As for the second named and by the lack of a free press. The bill passed there by
and third consuls, their functions were almost entirely con- 71 votes to 25; and in the Corps Ltgislatif by 217 to 68. The
and formal, their opposition being recorded, but acquiescence of these bodies in the transition to despotic methods
sultative
predisposed the public to a similar attitude of rr.ind. At first the
having no further significance against the fiat of the First Consul. sharpness of the change was not fully apparent owing to the tactful
Bonaparte's powers were subsequently extended in the years choice of prefects made by the First Consul; but before long their
1802, 1804 and 1807; but it is clear that autocracy was prac- very extensive powers were seen to form an important part of the
new machinery of autocracy. In this connexion we may note that
tically established by his own action in the secret commission the disturbances, mainly royalist but sometimes Jacobinical, in
of 1799. The new constitution was promulgated on the isth of several districts of France enabled Bonaparte to propose the estab-
December 1799 and in a plebiscite held during January 1800 it lishment in the troubled districts of special tribunals for the trial of
received the support of 3,011,007 voters, only 1562 persons all offences tending to disturb the general peace. Here again the
Tribunate offered a vehement opposition to the measure, and in
voting against it. The fact that the three new consuls had
spite of official pressure passed the bill only by a majority of eight.
entered upon office and set the constitutional machinery in Becoming law on 18 Pluvi&se, year IX. (6th of February 1801), it
motion fully six weeks before the completion of the plebiscite, enabled the government to supersede the ordinary judicial machinery
detracts somewhat from the impressiveness of the vox populi for political offences in no fewer than thirty-two departments.
on that occasion. Bonaparte signalized his tenure of power by no very important
developments in the sphere of elementary education. This was left
Bonaparte selected his ministers with much skill. They were to the local authorities, and led to little result. The more advanced
Talleyrand, Foreign Affairs; Berthier, War; Abrial, Justice; schools, known as Scales centrales, were reconstituted either as ecoles
Lucien Bonaparte, Interior; Gaudin, Finance; Forfait, Navy secondaires or as lycees by the law of the 3oth of April 1802. The
former of these were designed for the completion of the training of
and Colonies. Maret became secretary of state to the consuls.
the most in the communal elementary schools,
promising pupils
Bonaparte's selection gave general satisfaction, as also did the and were left to local control or even to management by private
personnel of the Council of State (divided into five sections for individuals. Far more important, however, were the lycees, where
the chief spheres of government) and of the other organs of state. an excellent education was imparted, semi-military in form and
under the control of government. It gained valuable powers of
Many of the furious Terrorists now became quiet and active patronage by founding 6400 exhibitions (bourses) in connexion with
councillors or administrators, the First Consul adopting the plan the lycees; 2400 of which were reserved for the sons of soldiers and
"
of multiplying places," of overwhelming all officials with work, government officials. The same centralizing tendency is strongly
and of busying the watch-dogs of the Jacobinical party by marked in the organization of the university of France, the general
" principle of which was set forth in May 1806, while the details were
throwing them bones to gnaw."
arranged by that of March the I7th, 1808. It was designed to control
In our survey of the career of Napoleon, we have now reached all the educational institutions of France, both public and private;
the time of the Consulate (November i799-May 1804), which and it did so with two exceptions, the Museum and the College de
marks the zenith of his mental powers and creative activity. France. The discipline was strict. Fidelity to the emperor and to
the teaching of the Roman Catholic doctrine formed part of the aims
Externally, and in a personal sense, the period falls into two of this comprehensive corporation. Its officers were required to
parts. The former of these extends to August 1802, when the "
obey the statutes of the teaching body, which have for their object
powers of the First Consul, which had been decreed for ten years, uniformity of instruction, and which tend to form for the state
were prolonged to the duration of his life. But in another and citizens attached to their religion, their prince, their country and
wider sense the Consulate has a well-defined unity; it is the their family." These words sufficiently illustrate the essentially
political character of the institution. Its organization was com-
time when France gained most of her institutions and the essentials the decree of the 15th of November 1811.
pleted by Napoleon's
of her machinery of government. ideas on the education of girls may be judged by this extract from
The "
reader is referred to the article FRANCE (Law and Institutions) his speech at the Council of State on the 1st of March 1806: I
for the information respecting the various codes dating from this do not think that we need trouble ourselves with any plan of in-
period, and to the article CONCORDAT for the famous measure struction for young females: they cannot be better brought up than
whereby Napoleon re-established official relations between the state by their mothers. Public education is not suitable for them, because
and the church in France. More pressing even than that question they are never called upon to act in public. Manners are all in all
was the regulation of local government. to them, and marriage is all they look to."
Bonaparte's action in this
matter was so characteristic as to deserve close attention. Un- Returning to the period of the Consulate, we notice the founding
doubtedly the question was one of great importance; for local affairs of an institution which also had its complete development during
had fallen into chaos. The aim of the constituent assembly in its the Empire, namely, the Legion of Honour (igth of May 1802).
departmental system (1789-1790) had been to vest local affairs Napoleon intended it as a protest against the spirit of equality
ultimately in councils elected by universal suffrage, alike in the which pervaded revolutionary thought. In one respect the new
department and in the three smaller areas within it. These councils institution marked an enormous advance on titles of nobility, which
3 executive officers dependent on them soon proved to be un- had been granted nearly always for warlike exploits, or merely
ui
able to manage even local affairs as a mark of the favour of the sovereign. The First Consul, on the
efficiently, while they were very
198 NAPOLEON I.
other hand, sought to recognize and reward merit in all walks of life. his demands only in a few questions relating to India and New-
Nevertheless his proposal met with strong opposition in the Corps foundland.
Legislatif and Tribunate, where members
saw that it portended
The terms of the treaty of Amiens may be thus summarized:
a revival of the older distinction. This was so: abolished in 1790
Great Britain restored to France the colonial possessions (almost
by the constituent assembly, titles of nobility were virtually restored
by Napoleon in 1806 and legally in 1808. Side by side with them the whole of the French colonial empire) conquered in the late
there continued to exist the Legion of Honour. It was organized war. Of their many maritime conquests the British retained
in fifteen cohorts, each comprising seven grand officers, twenty com-
manders, thirty officers and 350 legionaries. A stipend, ranging only the Spanish island of Trinidad and the Dutch settlements
from 5000 francs a year to 250 francs, was attached to each grade of in Ceylon. Their other conquests at the expense of these allies
the institution. The benefits attaching to membership and the of France were restored to them, including the Cape of Good
number of the members were increased during the Empire, when the Hope to the Dutch. France recognized the integrity of the
average number somewhat exceeded thirty thousand. Napoleon's Turkish Empire and promised an indemnity to the House of
aim of bidding for the support of all able men is disagreeably promi-
nent in all details of this institution, which may be looked upon as Orange exiled from the Batavian (Dutch) Republic since 1704.
the tangible outcome of the conviction which he thus frankly ex- She further agreed to evacuate the papal states, Taranto and
"
pressed: In ambition is to be found the chief motive-force of other towns in the Mediterranean coasts which she had occupied.
humanity; and a man puts forth his best powers in proportion to The independence of the Ionian Isles (now reconstituted as the
his hopes of advancement."
The success of Bonaparte in reorganizing France may be ascribed Republic of the Seven Islands) was guaranteed. As to Malta,
to his determined practicality and to his perception of the needs the United Kingdom was to restore it to the order of St John
of the average man. Since the death of Mirabeau no one had had
(its possessors previous to 1798) when the Great Powers
appeared who could strike the happy mean and enforce his will on its independence. It was to receive a Neapolitan
the extremes on either side. Bonaparte did so with a forcefulness guaranteed
rarely possessed by that usually mediocre creature, the moderate garrison for a year, and, if necessary, for a longer time.
man. No event in the life of Bonaparte was more auspicious than the
It is time now to notice the chief events which ensured the conclusion of this highly advantageous bargain. By retaining
ascendancy of Bonaparte. Military, diplomatic and police affairs nearly all the continental conquests of France, and by recovering
were skilfully made to conduce to that result. In the first of every one of those which the British had made at her expense
these spheres the victory of Marengo (i4th of June 1800) was of beyond the seas, he achieved a feat which was far beyond the
special importance, as it consolidated the reputation of Bonaparte powers even of Louis XIV. The gratitude of the French for
at a timewhen republican opposition was gathering strength. As this triumph found expression in a proposal, emanating from the
Lucien Bonaparte remarked, if Marengo had been lost and it Tribunate, that the First Consul should receive a pledge of the
was saved only by Desaix and Kellermann the Bonaparte gratitude of the nation. When referred to the senate, the
family would have been proscribed. Negotiations for peace now matter underwent secret manipulation, largely through the in-
followed; but they led to nothing, until Moreau's triumph at fluence of Cambaceres; but the republican instinct even in the
Hohenlinden (December and, 1800) brought the court of Vienna senate was sufficiently strong to thwart the intrigues of the second
to a state of despair. By the treaty with Austria, signed by consul; and that body on the 8th of May merely re-elected
Joseph Bonaparte at Luneville on the Qth of February 1801, Bonaparte for a second term of ten years after the expiration
France regained all that she had won at Campo Forrnio, much of the first decennial term for which he was chosen. This fell
of which had been lost for a time in the war of the Second Coali- far short of his desires, and he now dexterously referred the
tion. True, she now agreed to recognise the independence of the whole question to the nation at large. The Council of State,
Cisalpine, Ligurian, Helvetic and Batavian (Dutch) republics; acting on a suggestion made by Cambaceres, now intervened with
but the masterful acquisitiveness of the First Consul and the telling effect. It altered the wording of the senatorial proposal
weak conduct of Austrian and British affairs at that time soon in such a way that the nation was asked to vote on the question:
" "
made that clause of the treaty a dead letter. Bonaparte mean- Is Napoleon Bonaparte to be made Consul for Life ? France
while, by dexterous behaviour to Paul I. of Russia, had won responded by an overwhelming affirmative, 3,568,885 votes being
the friendship of that potentate, whose resentment against his cast for the proposal and only 8374 against it.
former allies, Austria and England, facilitated a re-grouping of Napoleon (who now used his Christian name instead of the
the Powers. The new Franco-Russian entente helped on the surname Bonaparte) thereupon sent proposals for various changes
formation of the Armed Neutrality League and led to the con- in the constitution, which were at once registered by the obsequious
coction of schemes for the driving of the British from India. Council of State and the Senate on the 4th of August (16 Ther-
But these undertakings were thwarted in March-April 1801 by midor) 1802. Besides holding his powers for life, he now gained
the murder of the tsar Paul and by Nelson's victory at Copen- the right of nominating his successor. He alone could ratify
hagen. The advent of the more peaceful and Anglophile tsar, treaties of peace and aUiance, and on his nomination fifty-four
Alexander I. (q.v.), brought about the dissolution of the League, senators were added to the senate, which thereafter numbered
and the abandonment of the oriental schemes which Bonaparte one hundred and twenty members appointed by him alone.
had so closely at heart. Another disappointment befel him in the This body received the right of deciding by senatus consulla all
same quarter, the surrender of the French forces in Egypt to questions not provided for by the constitution; the Corps
the British expedition commanded first by General Abercromby Ligislatif and Tribunate might also thenceforth be dissolved at
and afterwards by General John Hely-Hutchinson (soth of its bidding. In short, the First Consul now became the irre-
August 1801). sponsible ruler of France, governing the country through the
These events disposed both Bonaparte and the British cabinet ministry, the Council of State and the Senate. As for the
towards peace. He was all powerful on land, they on the sea; chambers, based avowedly on universal suffrage, their existence
and for the present each was powerless to harm the other. thenceforth was ornamental or sepulchral. The constitutional
Bonaparte in particular discerned the advantages which peace changes of August 1802, initiated solely by Bonaparte, made
would bring in the consolidation of his position. The beginning France an absolute monarchy. The name of Empire was not
of negotiations had been somewhat facilitated by the resignation adopted until nearly two years later; but the change then
. of Pitt (4th of February 1801) and the advent to office of Henry brought about was scarcely more than titular.
Addington. Bonaparte, perceiving the weakness of Addington,
In order to understand the utter inability of the old republican
both as a man and as a minister, pressed him hard; and both the'
party to withstand these changes, it is needful to retrace our steps
Preliminaries of Peace, concluded at London on the ist of October and consider the skilful use made by Bonaparte of plots and disturb-
1801, and the terms of the treaty of Amiens (27th of March i8oa) ances as they occurred. As was natural, when he sought to steer a
were such as to spread through the United Kingdom a feeling of middle course between the Scylla of royalism and the Charybdis of
Jacobinism, disturbances were to be expected on both sides of the
annoyance. In everything which related to the continent of consular ship of state. The first of these was an unimportant affair,
Europe and to the resumption of trade relations between Great probably nursed by the agents provocateurs of Fouche's ubiquitous
Britain and France, Bonaparte had his way; and he abated police. It purported to be an undertaking entered into by a few
NAPOLEON I.
199
Jacobins, among them Arena, a Corsican, for the
murder of Bona- signature of the_peace of Amiens (2;th of March 1802), he had
parte at the opera. Arena and his supposed accomplice
were arrested effected changes in the constitution of the Batavian (Dutch)
(loth of October 1800); and that was virtually the beginning and
the end of the plot. Far more serious was the danger to be appre- republic, which placed power in the hands of the French party
hended from the royalists. Enraged by Bonaparte's contemptuous and enabled him to keep French troops in the chief Dutch
refusal to encourage the return of" Louis XVIII." to his own, the fortresses, despite the recently signed treaty of Luneville which
royalists began to compass the death of the man whom they
had at
guaranteed the independence of that republic. His treatment
first naively looked on as a potential General Monk to their Charles 1 1
.
of the Italians was equally high-handed. In September 1801 he
Their chief man of action was a sturdy Breton peasant, Georges
Cadoudal, whose zeal and courage served to bring to a head plans bestowed on the Cisalpine republic a constitution modelled on
long talked over by the confidants of the Comte d'Artois (the future that of France. Next, he summoned the chief men of the Franco-
Charles X. of France) in London. The outcome of it was the des-
phile party in that republic to Lyons in the early days of 1802,
patch of some five or six Chouan desperadoes to Paris, three of whom in order to arrange with them the appointment of the chiefs of
exploded an infernal machine close to Bonaparte's carriage in the
narrow streets near the Tuileries (3rd Niv6se [24th of December] the executive. It soon appeared that the real aim of the meeting
1800). Bonaparte and Josephine escaped uninjured, but several was to make Bonaparte president. He let it be known that
bystanders were killed or wounded. Napoleon's vengeance at once he strongly disapproved of their proposal to elect Count Melzi,
took a strongly practical turn. Despite the evidence which Fouche
the Italian statesman most suitable for the post; and a hint
and others brought forward to incriminate the royalists, the First
Consul persisted in attributing the outrage to the Jacobins, had a given by Talleyrand showed the reason for his disapproval.
list of suspects drawn up, and caused the Council of State to declare The deputies thereupon elected Bonaparte. As for the neighbour-
that a special precautionary measure was necessary. The measure
ing land, Piedmont, it was already French in all but name. On
proved to be the deportation of the leading Jacobins; and a cloak the 2ist of April 1801 he issued a decree which constituted
of legality was cast over this extraordinary proceeding by a special
decree of the senate (avowedly the guardian of the constitution) Piedmont as a military district dependent on France; for
"
that this act of the government was a measure tending to preserve various reasons he postponed the final act of incorporation to
"
the constitution (5th of January 1801). The body charged with the 2tst of September 1802. The Genoese republic a little earlier
the guarding of the constitution was thus brought by Bonaparte
underwent at his hand changes which made its doge all-powerful
to justify its violation; and a way was thus opened for the legalizing
of further irregularities. For the present the connivance of the in local affairs, but a mere puppet in the hands of Bonaparte.
senate at his coup d'etat of Nivdse led to the deportation of one In central Italy the influence of the First Consul was paramount;
hundred and thirty Jacobins; some were interned in the islands of for in 1801 he transformed the grand duchy of Tuscany into the
the Bay of Biscay, while fifty were sent to the tropical colonies of
France, whence few of them ever returned. It is to be observed that,
kingdom of Etruria for the duke of Parma; and, seeing that that
before the punishment was inflicted, evidence was forthcoming which promotion added lustre to the fortunes of the duchess of Parma
brought home the outrage of Niv6se to the royalists; but this was (a Spanish infanta), Spain consented lamely enough to the cession
all one to Bonaparte; his aim was to destroy the Jacobin party, of Louisiana to France. The effect of these extraordinary
and it never recovered from the blow. The party which had set up
the Committee of Public Safety was now struck down by the very changes, then, was the carrying out of Napoleonic satrapies in
man who through the Directory inherited by direct lineal descent the north and centre of Italy in a way utterly inconsistent with
the dictatorial powers instituted in the spring of 1793 for the salva- the treaty of Luneville; and the weakness with which the courts
tion of the republic. It remains to add that the suspects in the plot of London and Vienna looked on at these singular events con-
of October 1800 were now guillotined (3ist of January 1801), and
firmed Bonaparte in the belief that he could do what he would
that two of the plotters closely connected with the affair of Niv6se
were also executed (2ist of April). The institution of the special with neighbouring states. The policy of the French revolutionists
tribunals (already referred to), which enabled Bonaparte to supersede had been to surround France with free and allied republics. The
local government in thirty-two of the departments, was another
policy of the First Consul was to transform them into tributaries
outcome of the bomb conspiracy. which copied with chameleonic fidelity the political fashions he
Far more lenient was Bonaparte's conduct towards a knot of dis-
contented officers who, in April-May 1802, framed a clumsy plot, himself set at Paris.
"
known as the Plot of the Placards," for arousing the soldiery Of all these interventions the most justifiable and beneficent,
against him. He disgraced or imprisoned the ringleaders, ordered perhaps, was that which related to the Swiss cantons. Whether
Bernadotte (perhaps the fountain head of the whole affair) to take his agents did, or did not, pour oil on the flames of civil strife,
the waters at Plombieres and drove from office Fouchd, who had
which he thereupon quenched by his Act of Mediation, igth of
sought to screen the real offenders by impugning the royalists.
Bonaparte's action in the years 1800-1802 showed that he feared February 1803, is a complex question. The settlement which
the old republican party far more than the royalists. In April 1802 he thereby imposed was in many ways excellent; but it was
he procured the passing of a senatus consultum granting increased
dearly purchased by the complete ascendancy of Bonaparte
facilities for the return of the
emigres; with few exceptions they were in all important affairs, and by the claim for the services of a
allowed to return, provided that it was before the 23rd of September
1802, and, after swearing to obey the new constitution, they entered considerable contingent of Swiss troops which he thereafter
into possession of their lands which had not been alienated; but rigorously enforced.
barriers were raised against the recovery of their confiscated lands. The re-occupation of Switzerland by French troops in October
Very many accepted these terms, rallied to the First Consul with 1802 wrought English opinion to a state of indignation against
more or less sincerity; and their return to France to strengthen
the conservative elements in French society. The promulgation of the autocrat who was making conquests more quickly in time
the Concordat (i8th of April 1802) and the institution of what was of peace than he had done by his sword; and the irritation
in all but name a state religion tended strongly in the same direction,
increased when, on the 2pth of January 1803, he publicly stated:
the authority of the priests being generally used in support of the "
man to whom Chateaubriand applied the epithet " restorer of the It is recognized by Europe that Italy and Holland, as well as
altars." Nevertheless, despite Bonaparte's marvellous skill in Switzerland, are at the disposal of France." Another act of
rallying moderate men of all parties to his side, there remained his at that time made still more strongly for war. On the 3oth
an unconvinced and desperate minority, whose clumsy procedure of January he caused the official French paper, the Monileur,
enabled the great engineer to hoist them with their own petard
and to raise himself to the imperial dignity. But before referring to publish in exlenso a confidential report sent by Colonel
to this last proof of the Machiavellian skill of the great Corsican in Sebastiani describing his so-called commercial mission to the
"
dealing with plots, it is needful to notice the events which brought Levant. In it there occurred the threatening phrase: Six
him into collision with the British nation. thousand French would at present be enough to conquer Egypt."
The Amiens had contained germs which ensured its
treaty of An equally significant hint, that the Ionian Isles might easily
dissolution at no distant date; but even more serious was the be regained by France, further helped to open the eyes of the
conduct of Bonaparte after the conclusion of peace. He carried purblind Addington ministry to the resolve of Napoleon to make
matters with so high a hand in the affairs of Holland, Switzerland the Mediterranean a French lake. Ministers were also deeply
and Italy as seriously to diminish the outlets for British trade in concerned at the continued occupation of Holland by French
Europe. His action in the matters just named, as also in the troops, which made that country and, therefore, the Cape of
complex affair of the secularizations of clerical domains in Good Hope, absolutely dependent on France. They accordingly
Germany (February 1803), belongs properly to the history of resolved not to give up Malta unless Lord Whitworth, the British
those countries; but we may here note that, even before the " "
ambassador at Paris, received a satisfactory explanation
2OO NAPOLEON I.
relative to the Sebastiani report. Napoleon's refusal to give this, positions in the south-east of the kingdom of Naples. Exactions
and his complaint that Great Britain had neglected to comply at the expense of Hanover and Naples helped to lighten the
with some of the provisions of the treaty of Amiens, brought burdens of French finance; Napoleon's sale of Louisiana to
Anglo-French relations to an acute phase. By great dexterity the United States early in 1803 for 60,000,000 francs brought
he succeeded in turning public attention almost solely to the further relief to the French treasury; and by pressing hard on
fact that Britain had not evacuated Malta. This is probably his ally, Spain, he compelled her to exchange the armed help
the sense in which we may interpret his tirade against Lord which he had a right to claim, for an annual subsidy of 2,880,000.
Whitworth at the diplomatic circle on the i3th of March. While Through Spain he then threatened Portugal with extinction
not using threats of personal violence, as was generally reported unless she too paid a heavy subsidy, a demand with which the
at the time, his language was threatening and offensive. Annoyed court of Lisbon was fain to comply.
by Whitworth's imperturbable demeanour, he ended with these Thus the first months of the war served to differentiate the
"
words: You must respect treaties, then: woe to those who do two belligerents. England made short work of the French
not respect treaties. They shall answer for it to all Europe." squadrons and colonies, particularly in the West Indies, while
The news of the strengthening of the British army and navy Napoleon became more than ever the master of central and
lately announced in the king's speech had perhaps annoyed him; southern Europe. The whole course of the war was to emphasize
but seeing that his outbursts of passion were nearly always the this distinction between the Sea Power and the Land Power;
result of calculation he once stated, pointing to his chin, that and in this fact lay the source of Napoleon's ascendancy in France
temper only mounted that high with him his design, doubtless, and neighbouring lands, as also of his final overthrow.
was to set men everywhere talking about the perfidy of Albion. Napoleon's utter disregard of the neutrality of neighbouring
If so, he succeeded. His own violations of the treaties of Luneville states was soon to be revealed in the course of a royalist plot
and Amiens were overlooked; and in particular men forgot which helped him to the imperial title. Georges Cadoudal,
that the weakening of the Knights of St John by the recent General Pichegru and other devoted royalists had concocted
confiscation of their lands in France and Spain, and the pro- with the comte d'Artois (afterwards Charles X. of France) in
tracted delay of Russia and Prussia to guarantee their tenure London a scheme for the kidnapping (or more probably the
of power in Malta, furnished England with good reasons for murder) of the First Consul. The French police certainly knew
keeping her hold on that island. On the 4th of April the of the plot, allowed the conspirators to come to Paris, arrested
Addington cabinet made proposals with a view to compensation. them there, and also on the i6th of February 1804 General
In return for the great accessions of power to France since the Moreau, with whom Pichegru had two or three secret conferences.
treaty of Amiens (Elba, it may be noted, was annexed in August This was much; for Moreau, though indolent and incapable in
1802) Great Britain was to retain Malta for ten years and to political affairs, was still immensely popular in the army (always
acquire the small island of Lampedusa in perpetuity. French more republican than the civilians) and might conceivably head
troops were also required to withdraw from Holland and Switzer- a republican movement against the autocrat. But far more was
land, and thus fulfil the terms of the treaty of Luneville. Despite to follow. Failing through his police to lure the comte d'Artois
the urgent efforts of Joseph Bonaparte and Talleyrand to bend to land in Normandy, Napoleon pounced on a scion of the House
the First Consul, he refused to listen to these proposals. Finally, of Bourbon who was within his reach. The young due d'Enghien
on the 7th of May, the British government sent a secret offer was then residing at Ettenheim in Baden near the bank of the
to withdraw from Malta as soon as the French evacuated Holland. Rhine. He had served in the army of his grandfather, the prince
To this also Napoleon demurred. The rupture, therefore, took of Conde, during the recent war; and Bonaparte believed for
place in the middle of May; and on a flimsy pretext the First a time that he was an accomplice to the Cadoudal- Pichegru plot.
Consul ordered the detention in France of all English persons. He therefore sent orders to have him seized by French soldiers
The reasons for his annoyance are now well known. It is and brought to Vincennes near Paris. The order was skilfully
certain that he was preparing to renew the struggle for the obeyed, and the prince was hurried before a court-martial hastily
mastery of the seas and of the Orient, which must break out summoned at that castle. Before they passed the verdict,
if he held to his present resolve to found a great colonial empire. Napoleon came to see that his victim was innocent of any
But he needed time in order to build a navy and to prepare for participation in the plot. Nevertheless he was executed (2ist
the execution of the schemes for the overthrow of the British of March 1804). It is noteworthy that though Napoleon at
power in India, which he had lately outlined to General Decaen, times sought to shift the responsibility for this deed on Talleyrand
the new governor of the French possessions in that land. The or Savary, yet during his voyage to St Helena, as also in his will,
sailing of Decaen's squadron early in March 1803 had alarmed he frankly avowed his responsibility for it and asserted that in
the British ministers and doubtless confirmed their resolve to the like circumstances he would do the same again.
have the question of peace or war settled speedily. Whitworth The horror aroused by this crime did not long deaden the feeling,
"
also warned them on the 2oth of April that the chief motives at least in official circles, that something must be done to intro-
for delay are that they (the French) are totally unprepared for a duce the principle of heredity, as the surest means of counteract-
naval war." This was quite correct. Napoleon wished to post- ing the aims of conspirators. The senate, as usual, took the
pone the rupture for fully eighteen months, as is shown by his lead in suggesting some such change in the constitution; and
"
secret instructions to Decaen. The British government did not it besought Napoleon to complete his work by rendering it, like
know the whole truth; but, knowing the character of Napoleon, his glory, immortal." Other official addresses of the same
it saw that peace was as dangerous as war. In any case, it sent general tenour flowed in; and even the tribunate showed its
the proposals of the 4th of April in order to test the sincerity of docility by proposing that the imperial dignity should be declared
his recent offer ofcompensation to England. He refused them, hereditary in the family of Bonaparte (3rd of May). Napoleon
"
mainly, would seem, because he could not believe that the
it thereupon invited the senate to make known to him its thoughts
Addington ministry could be firm; and in his rage at the dis- completely." The senate and the tribunate each appointed a
covery of his error he revenged himself ignobly on British commission to deal with the matter, with the result which every
tourists and traders in France. one foresaw. Carnot alone in the tribunate protested against
. He now threw all his energies into the task of marshalling the the measure. The other councils adopted it almost unanimously.
forces of France and his vassal states for the overthrow of The Senatus Consultant of the i8th of May 1804 awarded to
"
perfidious Albion."Naval preparations went on apace at Napoleon the title of emperor, the succession (in case he had no
all the dockyards, and numbers of flat-bottomed boats were heir) devolving in turn upon the descendants of Joseph and
built or repaired at the northern harbours. Disregarding the Louis Bonaparte (Lucien and Jerome were for the present ex-
neutrality of the Germanic System, Napoleon sent a strong cluded from the succession owing to their having contracted
French corps to overrun Hanover, while he despatched General marriages displeasing to Napoleon). In a plebiscite taken on the
Gouvion St Cyr to occupy Taranto and other dominating subject of the imperial title and the law of succession, there were
NAPOLEON I. 20 1
this vote At first Napoleon desired to endow Joseph, or, on his refusal,
3,572,329 affirmative votes and only 2569 negatives. In
lay the justification of the acts of the First Consul and
the pledge Louis, with the crown of the new kingdom. They, however,
for the greatness of the emperor Napoleon. The republicans refused to place themselves out of the line of direct succession
in nearly every case voted for him: and it is significant of the in France, as Napoleon required, in case they accepted this new
curious trend of French thought that the new imperial con- dignity. Finally, he resolved to take the title himself. The
stitution of the 1 8th of May 1804 opened with the words: obsequious authorities at Milan at once furthered his design bv
"
The government of the Republic is confided to an emperor, sending an address to him, by requesting the establishment of
who takes the title Emperor of the French." royalty, and on the 15th of March 1805 by offering the crown to
The changes brought about by this constitution were mainly him. On the 26th of May he crowned himself in the cathedral
titular. Napoleon's powers as First Consul for Life were so wide at Milan with the iron crown of the old Lombard kings, amidst
as to render much extension both superfluous and impossible; but
we may note here that the senate now gained a further accession surroundings of the utmost splendour. On the 7th of June
ot authority at the expense of the two legislative bodies: and he issued a decree conferring the dignity of viceroy on Eugene de
practically legislation rested with the emperor, who sent
his decrees
Beauharnais, his stepson but everything showed that Napoleon's
;
to the senate to be registered as senatus consulta. Napoleon's chief will was to be law; and the great powers at once saw that
aversion, the tribunate, was also divided into three sections, dealing
with legislation, home affairs and finance a division which preluded Napoleon's promise to keep the crowns of France and Italy separate
its entire suppression in 1807. More important were the titular was meaningless. The matter was of international importance;
changes Napoleon, as we have seen, did not venture to create an for by the treaty of Luneville (February 1801) he had bound
order of nobility until 1808, but he at once established an imperial himself to respect the independence of the two republics of North
hierarchy. First came the French princes, namely, the brothers of The defiance to Austria
the emperor; six grand imperial dignities were also instituted, viz. Italy, the Cisalpine and the Ligurian.
those of the grand elector (Joseph Bonaparte), arch-chancel'or of the was emphasized when, on the 4th of June, he promised a deputa-
empire (CambacSres), arch-chancellor of state (Eugene de Beau- tion from Genoa that he would grant their request (prompted
harnais). arch-treasurer (Lebrun), constable (Louis Bonaparte),
by his agents) of incorporating the Genoese (or Ligurian) republic
grand admiral (Murat). These six formed the emperor's grand in the French empire. In the same month he erected the re-
council. Next came the marshals, namely, Berthier, Murat, Masse'na,
Augereau, Lannes, Jourdan, Ney, Soult, Brune, Davout, Bessieres, public of Lucca into a principality for Bacciochi and his consort,
Moncey, Mortier and Bernadotte. Four generals Kellermann, Elisa Bonaparte.
Lefebvre, PeVignon, Serrurier received the titles of honorary These actions proclaimed so unmistakably Napoleon's in-
marshals. Next came dignities of a slightly lower rank, such as
tention of making Italy an annexe of France as to convince
those of grand almoner (Fesch), grand marshal of the palace (Duroc),
Francis of Austria and Alexander of Russia that war with him
grand chamberlain (Talleyrand), grand master of the horse (Caulain-
court), grand huntsman (Berthier), grand master of ceremonies was inevitable. The tsar, as protector of the Germanic System,
(S6gur). These with a host of lesser dignities built up the imperial had already been so annoyed by the seizure of the due d'Enghien
hierarchy and enabled the court quickly to develop on the lines of on German territory, and by other high-handed actions against
the old monarchy, so far as rules of etiquette and self-conscious
efforts could reproduce the courtly graces of the ancien regime, the Hanse cities, as to recall his ambassador from Paris.
Meanwhile Napoleon was triumphing over the last of the republican Napoleon showed his indifference to the opinion of the tsar by
Moreau's trial for treason promised to end with an ac-
generals. ordering the seizure of the British envoy at Hamburg, Sir George
quittal; but the emperor brought severe pressure to bear on the Rumbold (24th of October) but set him free on the remonstrance
judges (one of whom he dismissed), with the result that the general
;
was declared guilty of participating in the royalist plot. Thereupon of the king of Prussia, with whom he then desired to remain on
Napoleon, in order to grace the new regime by an act of clemency, friendly terms. Nevertheless, the general trend of his policy
that he must leave France.
pardoned Moreau, it being understood was such as powerfully to help on the formation of the Third
He left immediately for the United States. Sentence of death was Coalition against France a compact which Pitt (who returned
passed on the royalist conspirators. On Josephine's entreaties, the
to power in May 1804) had found it very difficult to arrange.
emperor commuted the sentence for eight of the well-connected men
among them Cadoudal and others of lower extraction were executed
; Disputes with Russia respecting Malta and the British maritime
on the 24th of June. The brave Breton peasant thus summed up code kept the two states apart for nearly a year; and Austria
"
the results of his plot: We meant to give France a king and we was too timid to move. But Napoleon's actions, especially the
have given her an emperor." The mot was literally true. Victories
in the field were not more effective in consolidating Napoleon's annexation of Genoa, at last brought the three powers to accord,
power than were his own coups d'etat and the supremely skilful use with the general aim of re-establishing the status quo ante in Ger-
which he made of conspiracies directed against him. He showed his
many, Holland, Switzerland and Italy, or, in short, of restoring
sense of the value of Fouch<'s services in exploiting the royalist
the balance of power which Napoleon had completely upset.
of 1 803-1 804 by reconstituting the ministry of police and bestow-
plot
ing it upon him. Thenceforth plots were few. Would-be plotters Military affairs in this period are dealt with under NAPOLEONIC
remained quiet from sheer terror of his power and ability, or from a CAMPAIGNS; but it may be noted here that during the anxious
conviction that conspiracies redounded to his advantage.
days which Napoleon spent at the camp of Boulogne in the
Napcleon was now able by degrees to dispense with all re- second and third weeks of August 1805, uncertain whether to
publican forms (the last to go was the Republican Calendar, risk all in an attack on England in case Villeneuve should arrive,
which ceased on the ist of January 1806), and the scene at the or to turn the Grand Army against Austria, the only step which
coronation in Notre Dame on the 2nd of December 1804 was he took to avert a continental war was the despatch of General
frankly imperial in splendour and in the egotism which led Duroc to Berlin to offer Hanover to Prussia on consideration of
Napoleon to wave aside the pope, Pius VII., at the supreme her framing a close alliance with France. It was very unlikely
moment and crown himself. It is worthy of note that Josephine that that peace-loving Court would take up arms against its
then won a triumph over Joseph Bonaparte and his sisters, powerful neighbours on behalf of Napoleon, and his proceedings
who had been intriguing to effect a divorce. Napoleon, though in the previous months had been so recklessly provocative as
he did not bar the door absolutely against such a proceeding, to arouse doubts whether he intended to invade England and
granted her her heart's desire by secretly going through a religious did not welcome the outbreak of a continental war. But in the
ceremony on the evening before the coronation. It was performed case of a man so intensely ambitious, determined and egoistic as
by Fesch, now a cardinal; but Napoleon could afterwards urge Napoleon, a decision on this interesting question is hazardous.
the claim that all the legal formalities had not teen complied Little reliance can be placed on his subsequent statements (as,
with; and the motive for the marriage may probably be found for instance, to Metternich in 1810) that the huge preparations
in the refusal of the pope to appear at the coronation unless the at Boulogne and the long naval campaign of Villeneuve were a
former civil contract was replaced by the religious rite. mere ruse whereby to lure the Austrians into a premature
As happened at every stage of Napoleon's advancement, declaration of war. It is, however, highly probable that he meant
the states tributary to France underwent changes corresponding to strike at London if naval affairs went well, but that he was
to those occurring at Paris. The most important of these was glad to have at hand an alternative which would shroud a
the erection of monarchy in North Italy. The Italian republic maritime failure under military laurels. If so, he succeeded.
(formerly the Cisalpine republic) became the kingdom of Italy. His habit was, as he said, faire son thlme en deux fafons, and he
202 NAPOLEON I.
now took the second alternative. On or about the 2Sth-27th But it was on the banks of the Rhine that the Napoleonic
of August he resolved to strike at Austria. He did so with system received its most signal developments. The duchy of
masterly skill and swiftness, and the triumphs of Ulm and Berg, along with the eastern part of Cleves and other annexes,
Austerlitz hid from view the disaster of Trafalgar; and the only now went to Murat, brother-in-law of Napoleon (March 1806);
official reference to that crushing defeat was couched in these and that melodramatic soldier at once began to round off his
"
terms: Storms caused us to lose some ships of the line after a eastern boundary in a way highly offensive to Prussia. She was
"
fight imprudently engaged (speech to the Legislature, and of equally concerned by Napoleon's behaviour in the Dutch Nether-
March 1806). lands, where her influence used to be supreme. On the $th of
The glamour of Austerlitz had very naturally dazzled all June 1806 the Batavian republic completed its chrysalis-like
Frenchmen. Its results indeed were not only astounding at the transformations by becoming a kingdom for Louis Bonaparte.
"
time, but were such as to lead up to a new cycle of wars. By Never cease to be a Frenchman " was the pregnant advice
the peace of Presburg (26th of December 1805) Napoleon com- which he gave to his younger brother in announcing the new
pelled Austria to recognize all the recent changes in Italy, and dignity to him. In that sentence lay the secret of all the dis-
further to cede Venetia, Istria and Dalmatia to the new kingdom agreements between the two brothers. Louis resolved to govern
of Italy. The Swabian lands of the Habsburgs went to the South for the good of his subjects. Napoleon determined that he, like
German states (allies of Napoleon), while Bavaria also received all the Bonapartist rulers, should act merely as a Napoleonic
Tirol and Vorarlberg. The Electors of Bavaria and Wiirttem- satrap. They were to be to him what the counts of the marches
berg were recognized as kings. were to Charlemagne, warlike feudatories defending the empire
Nor was this all. Napoleon pressed almost equally hard upon or overawing its prospective foes.
Prussia. That power had been on the point of offering her Far more was to follow. On the 1 7th of July Napoleon signed
armed mediation in revenge for his violation of her territory of at Paris a decree that reduced to subservience the Germanic
Anspach; but she was fain to accept the terms which he offered System, the chaotic weakness of which he had in 1797 foreseen
at the sword's point. When modified in February 1806, after to be highly favourable to France. He now grouped together the
Prussia's demobilization, they comprised the occupation of princes of south and central Germany in the Confederation of
Hanover by Prussia, with the proviso, however, that she should the Rhine, of which he was the protector and practically the ruler
exclude British ships and goods from the whole of the north- in all important affairs. The logical outcome of this proceeding
west coast of Germany. To this demand (the real commence- appeared on the ist of August, when Napoleon declared that he
ment of the " Continental System ") the Berlin government had no longer recognized the existence of the Holy Roman Empire.
to accede, though at the cost of a naval war with England, and the The head of that venerable organism, the emperor Francis II.,
ruin of its maritime trade. Anspach and Bayreuth were also bowed to the inevitable and announced that he thenceforth
to be handed over to Bavaria, it now being the aim of Napoleon confined himself to his functions as Francis hereditary emperor
I.,
to aggrandize the South German princes who had fought on his of Austria, a title which he had taken justtwo years previously.
side in the late war. In order to strengthen this compact, he This tame acquiescence of the House of Habsburg in the re-
arranged a marriage between the daughter of the king of Bavaria organization of Germany seemed to set the seal on Napoleon's
and Eugene Beauharnais; and he united the daughter of the work. He controlled all the lands from the Elbe to the Pyrenees,
Elector of Wiirttemberg in marriage to Jerome Bonaparte, who and had Spain and Italy at his beck and call. Power such as this
had now divorced his wife, formerly Miss Paterson of Baltimore, was never wielded by his prototype, Charlemagne.
at his brother's behests. Stephanie de Beauharnais, niece of But now came a series of events which transcended all that
Josephine, was also betrothed to the son of the duke (now grand the mind of man had conceived. As the summer of 1806 wore
duke) of Baden. By these alliances the new Charlemagne on, his policy perceptibly hardened. Negotiations with England
seemed to have founded his supremacy in South Germany on and Russia served to show the extent of his ambition. Sicily
sure foundations. he was determined to have, and that too despite of all the efforts
Equally striking was his success in Italy. The Bourbons of of the Fox-Grenville cabinet to satisfy him in every other direc-
Naples had broken their treaty engagements with Napoleon, tion. In his belief that he could ensnare the courts of London
though in this matter they were perhaps as much sinned against and St Petersburg into separate and proportionately disadvan-
as sinning. After Austerlitz the conqueror fulminated against tageous treaties, he overreached himself. The tsar indignantly
them, and sent southwards a strong column which compelled repudiated a treaty which his envoy, Oubril, had been tricked
an Anglo-Russian force to sail away and brought about the flight into signing at Paris; and the Fox-Grenville cabinet (as also
of the Bourbons to Sicily (February 1806). This event opened its successor) refused to bargain
away Sicily. War, therefore,
a new and curious chapter in the history of Europe, that of the went on. What was more, Prussia, finding that Napoleon had
fortunes of the Napoleonides. True to his Corsican instinct of secretly offered to the British Hanover (that gilded hook by
attachment to the family, and contempt for legal and dynastic which he caught her early in the year), now resolved to avenge
claims, he now began to plant his brothers and other relatives this, the last of several insults. Napoleon was surprised by the
in what had been republics established by the French Jacobins. news of Prussia's mobilization; he had come to regard her as
Eugene Beauharnais had been established at Milan. Joseph a negligible quantity, and now he found that her unexpected
Bonaparte was now advised to take the throne of Naples, and sensitiveness on points of honour was about to revivify the
without any undue haggling as to terms, for "those who will Third Coalition against France.
not rise with me shall no longer be of my family. I am making The war which broke out early in October 1806 (sometimes
a family of kings attached to my federative system." At the known as the war of the Fourth Coalition) ran a course curiously
end of March 1806 Joseph became king of the Two Sicilies. A like that of 1805 in its main outlines. For Austria we may
little later the emperor bestowed the two papal enclaves of read Prussia; for Ulm, Jena-Auerstadt for the occupation of
;
Benevento and Ponte-Corvo on Talleyrand and Bernadotte Vienna, that of Berlin; for Austerlitz, Friedland, which again
respectively, an act which emphasized the hostility which had disposed of the belated succour given by Russia. The parallel
been growing between Napoleon and the papacy. Because extends even to the secret negotiations; for, if Austria could
Pius VII. declined to exclude British goods from the Papal have been induced in May 1807 to send an army against Napoleon's
States, Napoleon threatened to reduce the pope to the level communications, his position would have been fully as dangerous
merely of bishop of Rome. He occupied Ancona and seemed as before Austerlitz if Prussia had taken a similar step. Once
about to annex the Papal States outright. That doom was more he triumphed owing to the timidity of the central power
postponed; but Catholics everywhere saw with pain the harsh which had the game in its hands; and the folly which marked
treatment accorded to a defenceless old man. The prestige the Russian tactics at Friedland (i4th of June 1807), as at
which the First Consul had gained by the Concordat was now lost Austerlitz, enabled him to close the campaign in a blaze of
by the overweening emperor. glory and shiver the coalition in pieces.
NAPOLEON I. 203
Now came an opportunity far greater than that which occurred make war on, Great Britain.Napoleon also promised to mediate
after Austerlitz. The Peace of Presburg was merely continental. between Russia and Turkey in the interests of the former,
That of Tilsit was of world-wide importance. But before refer- and (in case the Porte refused to accept the proffered terms)
ring to its terms we must note an event which indicated the lines to help Russia to drive the Turks from Europe, "the city of
on which Napoleon's policy would advance. After occupying Constantinople and the province of Rumelia alone excepted."
the Prussian capital he launched against England the famous This enterprise and the acquisition of Finland from Sweden,
Berlin Decree (2ist of November 1806), declaring her coasts which Napoleon also dangled before the eyes of the tsar, formed
to be in a state of blockade, and prohibiting all commerce with the bait which brought that potentate into Napoleon's Continental
them. No ship coming thence was to be admitted into French System. Both Russia and Prussia now agreed rigorously to
or allied harbours; ships transgressing the decree were to be exclude British ships and goods from their dominions.
good prize of war; and British subjects were liable to imprison- The terms last named indicate the nature of the aims which
ment if found in French or allied territories. This decree is Napoleon had in view at Tilsit. That compact was not, as has
often called the basis of the Continental System, whereby often been assumed, merely the means of assuring to Napoleon
Napoleon proposed to ruin England by ruining her commerce. the mastery of the continent and the control of a cohort of kings.
But even before Trafalgar he had begun to strike at that most That eminence he enjoyed before the collision with Prussia
vulnerable form of wealth, as the Jacobins had done before him. in the autumn of 1806; and he frequently, and no doubt sincerely,
Nelson's crowning triumph rendered impossible for the present expressed contempt of conquests dans cette vieille Europe.
all other means of attack on those elusive foes; and Napoleon's The three coalitions against France had not produced a single
sense of the importance of that battle may be gauged, not by warrior worthy of his steel. The treaty of Tilsit may more
his public utterances on the subject, but by his persistence in reasonably be looked on as an expedient for piling up enormous
forcing Prussia to close Hanover and the whole coastline of political resources with a view to the coercion of Great Britain.
north-west Germany against British goods. That proceeding, If that end could not be achieved by massing the continental
in February 1806, constitutes the basis of the Continental states against her in a solid phalanx of commercial war, then
System. The Berlin Decree gave it a wide extension. By Napoleon intended to ensure her ruin by that other enterprise
the mighty blow of Friedland and the astonishing diplomatic which he had in view early in 1798 (see his letter of the 23rd of
triumph of Tilsit, the conqueror hoped speedily to overwhelm February 1798), namely the conquest of the Orient. An expedi-
the islanders beneath the mass of the world's opposition. tion against India had recently occupied his thoughts, as may
Napoleon at Tilsit resembles Polyphemus seeking to destroy be seen by the instructions which he issued on the loth of May
Ulysses. The crags which he flung at Britannia did indeed 1807 to General Gardane for his mission to Persia. The Orient
graze the stern and graze the prow of her craft. was, indeed, ever the magnet which attracted him most and his
;
The triumph won at Friedland marks in several respects the hostility to England may be attributed to his perception that
climax of Napoleon's career. The opportunity was unique; she alone stood in the way of his most cherished schemes. The
and he now put forth his utmost endeavours to win over to his treaty of Tilsit, then, far from being merely a European event,
side the conquered but still formidable tsar. In their first inter- was an event of the first importance in what may be termed
view, held on a raft in the middle of the river Niemen at Tilsit the Welt-politik of Napoleon. His confidence that his vastly
on the 25th of June, the French emperor, by his mingled strength enhanced powers would enable him first to coerce, and there-
and suppleness of intellect, gained an easy mastery over the after to overthrow, the British empire may be illustrated by his
impressionable young potentate. Partly from fear of a national allowing the appearance in 1807 of an official atlas of Australia
Polish rising which Napoleon held in reserve as a last means of in which about one-third of that continent figures as "Terre
coercion, and partly from a subtle resolve to use the French Napoleon."
alliance as a means of securing rich domains at the expense of As usually happened in this strife of the land power and the
Turkey, Prussia, Sweden and England, Alexander decided to sea power, Napoleon's continental policy attained an almost
throw over his allies, Prussia and England, and to seize the complete success, while the naval and oriental schemes which
spoils to which the conqueror pointed as the natural sequel of he had more nearly at heart utterly miscarried. The continent
a Franco-Russian alliance. Napoleon, therefore, had Prussia accepted the new development of his System. After some
completely at his mercy; and his conditions to that power bore diplomatic fencing Russia and Prussia broke with England
witness to the fact. The prayers of Queen Louisa of Prussia and entered upon what was, officially at least, a state of war
failed to bend him from his resolve. He refused even to grant with her. Further, owing to the carelessness of the Prussian
her tearful request for Magdeburg. At a later time he reproached negotiator, Napoleon was able to require the exaction of im-
himself for not having dethroned the Hohenzollerns outright; possibly large sums from that exhausted land, and therefore
but it is now known that Alexander would have forbidden this to keep his troops in her chief fortresses. The duchy of Warsaw
step, and that he dissuaded Napoleon from withdrawing Silesia and the fortress of Danzig formed new outworks of his power
from the control of the House of Hohenzollern. Even so, Prussia and enabled him to overawe Russia. In home affairs as in
was bereft of half of her territories; those west of the river foreign affairs his actions bespoke the master. On returning
Elbe went to swell the domains of Napoleon's vassals or to form from Tilsit to Paris he relieved Talleyrand of the ministry of
the new kingdom of Westphalia for Jerome Bonaparte; while foreign affairs, softening the fall by creating him a grand
the spoils which the House of Hohenzollern had won from Poland dignitary of the empire. The more subservient Champagny
in the second and third partitions were now to form the duchy now became what was virtually the chief clerk in the French
of Warsaw, ruled over by Napoleon's ally, the elector (now foreign office; and other changes placed in high station men
king) of Saxony. Danzig became nominally a free city, but was who were remarkable for docility rather than originality and
to be occupied by a French garrison until the peace. The tsar power. Napoleon also suppressed the Tribunate; and in the
acquired a frontier district from Prussia, recognized the changes year 1808 instituted an order of nobility. During the course
brought about by Napoleon in Germany and Italy, and agreed of a tour in Italy in December 1807 he gave a sharp turn to that
by a secret article that the Cattaro district on the east coast of world-compelling screw, the Continental System. By the Milan
the Adriatic should go to France. Equally important was the Decree of the I7th of December 1807, he ordained that every
secret treaty of alliance between France and Russia signed on ship which submitted to the right of search now claimed by
thatsame day. By it Napoleon brought the tsar to agree to Great Britain would be considered a lawful prize. The imperious
make war on England in case that power did not accept the terms in which this decree was couched and its misleading
tsar'smediation for the conclusion of a general peace. Failing reference to the British maritime code showed that Napoleon
the arrival of a favourable reply from London by the ist of believed in the imminent collapse of his sole remaining enemy.
December 1807, the tsar would help Napoleon to compel This was natural. Britain, it was true, acting on the initiative
Denmark, Sweden and Portugal to close their ports against, and of George Canning, had seized the Danish fleet, thus forestalling
204 NAPOLEON I.
an action which Napoleon certainly contemplated; but on the the emperor would clear up the situation. The same prospect
other hand Denmark now allied herself with him; and while was held out to Charles IV., the queen and Godoy, with the
in Lombardy he heard of the triumphant entry of his troops result that the rivals for the throne proceeded to the north of
into Lisbon an event which seemed to prelude his domination Spain to meet the arbiter of their destinies. Napoleon journeyed
in the Iberian Peninsula and thereafter in the Mediterranean. to Bayonne and remained there. The claimants, each not know-
The occupation of Lisbon, which led on to Napoleon's inter- ing of the movements of the other, crossed the Pyrenees, and
vention in Spanish affairs, resulted naturally from the treaty Ferdinand on his arrival at Bayonne found himself to be virtually
of Tilsit. The coercion of England's oldest ally had long been a prisoner in the hands of the emperor. Napoleon had little
one of Napoleon's most cherished aims, and was expressly pro- difficulty in disposing of the father, whose rage against his son
vided for in that compact. To this scheme he turned with a blunted his senses in every other direction. As for Ferdinand,
zeal whetted by consciousness of his failure respecting the Danish the emperor, on hearing the news of a rising in Madrid on the
fleet. On the 27th of October 1807 he signed with a Spanish 2nd of May, overwhelmed him with threats, until he resigned
envoy at Fontainebleau a secret convention with a view to the the crown into the hands of his father, who had already bargained
partitioning of Portugal between France and Spain. Another it away to Napoleon in return for a pension (sth of May 1808).
convention of the same date allowed him to send 28,00x3 French Princely abodes in France and annuities (the latter to be paid
troops into Spain for the occupation of Portugal, an enterprise by Spain) such was the price at which Napoleon bought the
in which a large Spanish force was to help them; 40,000 French crown of Spain and the Indies. Naturally nothing more was
troops were to be cantonned at Bayonne to support the first heard of the partition of Portugal. According to outward ap-
corps. Seeing that Godoy, the all-powerful minister at Madrid, pearance nothing was wanting to complete the emperor's
had given mortal offence to Napoleon early in the Prussian triumph. He is said to have remarked with an oath after Jena
campaign of 1806 by calling on Spain to arm on behalf of her that he would make the Spanish Bourbons pay for their recent
independence, it passes belief how he could have placed his bellicose proclamation. If the story is correct, his acts at
country at the mercy of Napoleon at the end of the year 1807. Bayonne showed once more his custom of biding his time in
The emperor, however, successfully gilded the hook by awarding order to take an overwhelming revenge. That the son of a
Algarve, the southern province of Portugal, to Godoy. The north Corsican notary should have been able to dispose of the Spanish
of Portugal was to go to the widow of the king of Etruria (a Bourbons in this contemptuously easy way is one of the marvels
Spanish Infanta); her realm now passing into the hands of of history.
Napoleon. Thus Portugal in 1807, like Venice in 1797, was to But even in this crowning triumph the cramping egotism
provide the means for widely extending the operations of his of his nature a mental vice which now grew on him rapidly
statecraft. fatally narrowed his outlook and led him to commit an irre-
The natural result followed. Portugal was easily overrun trievable blunder. In his contempt for the rulers of Spain he
by the allies; but Junot's utmost efforts failed to secure the forgot the Spanish people. In all the genuine letters of the
Portuguese fleet, which, under the protection of a British spring of 1808 that of March 29th to Murat, no. 13,696 of the
squadron, sailed away to Brazil with the royal family, the Correspondence, is acknowledged to be a forgery there is not a
ministers and chief grandees of the realm. In other respects sign that he regarded the Spaniards as of any account. On the
all went well. The French reinforcements which entered 27th of March he offered the crown of Spain to his brother Louis,
"
Spain managed to secure some of the strongholds of the northern king of Holland, in these terms: The climate of Holland does
provinces; and the disgraceful feuds in the royal family left not suit you; besides Holland can never rise from its ruins.
the country practically at the emperor's mercy. I think of you for the throne of Spain. You will be the sovereign
The situation was such as to tempt Napoleon on to an under- of a generous nation of eleven millions of men and of important
taking on which he had probably set his heart in the autumn colonies." On Louis declining the honour, it devolved on
of 1806, that of dethroning the Spanish Bourbons and of replacing Joseph, king of Naples, who vacated that throne for the benefit
them by a Bonaparte. Looking at the surface of the life of of Murat a source of disappointment and annoyance to both.
Spain, he might well believe in its decay. The king, Charles IV., The emperor pushed on his schemes regardless of everything.
looked on helplessly at the ruin wrought by the subservience of The first signs of the rising ferment in Spain were wasted on him.
his kingdom to France since 1796, and he was seemingly blind He believed that the arrival of so benevolent a king as Joseph,
to the criminal intrigues between his queen and the prime minister and the promulgation of a number of useful reforms based on
Godoy. His senile spite vented itself on his son Ferdinand, those of the French Revolution, would soothe any passing
whose opposition to the all-powerful favourite procured for him irritation. If not, then his troops could deal with it as Murat
hatred at the palace and esteem everywhere else. Latterly had dealt with the men of Madrid on the 2nd of May. He,
the prince had fallen into disgrace for proposing, without the therefore, pressed on the march of a corps of French and Swiss
knowledge of Charles IV., to ally himself with a Bonaparte troops under Dupont towards Cadiz, in order to take possession
princess. Here, then, were all the conditions which favoured of the French sail of the line, five in number, which had been
Napoleon's intervention. He allowed the prince to hope for in that harbour since Trafalgar. The importance which he
such a union, and thus enhanced the popularity of the French then assigned to naval appears in many letters of the
affairs
party at Madrid. Godoy, having the prospect of the Algarve months May to June 1808. He
intended that Spain should
"
before him, likewise offered no opposition to the advance of very soon have ready twenty-eight sail of the line ce qui est
"
Napoleon's troops to the capital; and so it came about that certes bien peu de chose so as to drive away the British
" "
Murat, named by Napoleon his Lieutenant in Spain, was able squadrons, and then he would strike de grands coups in
to enter Madrid in force and without opposition from that the autumn. Evidently then the Spanish dockyards and warships
usually clannish populace. The course of events, and especially (when vigorously organized) were to count for much in the
the anger of the people, now began to terrify Charles IV., the schemes for assuring complete supremacy in the Mediterranean
queen and Godoy. They prepared for flight to America a and the ultimate overthrow of the British and Turkish empires,
step which Napoleon took care to prevent; and a popular which he then had closely at heart.
outbreak at Aranjuez decided the king then and there to abdicate The Spanish rising of May-June 1808 ruined these plans
(ipth of March 1808). Murat, now acting very warily in the irretrievably. The men of Cadiz compelled the French warships
hope of gaining the crown of Spain for himself, refused to to surrender, and the levies of Andalusia, closing around Dupont,
recognize this act as binding, still more so the accession of compelled him and some 23,000 men to lay down their arms
Ferdinand VII. Charles thereupon declared his abdication to at Baylen (23rd of July). This disaster, the most serious suffered
have been made under duress and therefore null and void. by the French since Rossbach, sent a thrill through the Napoleonic
The young king, still hoping for Napoleon's favour, now responded vassal states and aroused in Napoleon transports of anger
to the suggestion, forwarded by Savary, that an interview with
"
against Dupont. Everything is connected with this event,"
NAPOLEON I. 205
"
he wrote on the 2nd of August, Germany, Poland, Italy." Napoleon, on the other hand, had utterly failed in his Spanish
Indeed, along with other serious checks in Spain, which involved enterprise; and the tsar felt sure that his rival must soon with-
the conquest of that land, it cut through the wide meshes of his draw French garrisons from the fortresses of the Oder to the
and commercial frontier of Spain. These facts, and not, as has often been
policy both in Levantine, Central European
affairs. The partition of Turkey had to be postponed; the assumed, the treachery of Talleyrand, decided Alexander to
financial collapse of England could not be expected now that assume at Erfurt an attitude of jealous reserve. He refused to
she framed an alliance with the Spanish patriots and had their join Napoleon in any proposal for the coercion of Austria or the
markets and those of their colonies opened to her ; and the limitation of her armaments. Finally he agreed to join his ally if
discussions with the tsar Alexander, which had not gone quite he (Napoleon) were attacked by the Habsburg power. Napoleon
smoothly, now took a decidedly unfavourable turn. The tsar on his side succeeded in adjourning the question of the partition
saw his chance of improving on the terms arranged at Tilsit; of Turkey; but he awarded the Danubian provinces and Finland
and obviously Napoleon could not begin the conquest of Spain to his ally and agreed to withdraw the French garrisons from
until he felt sure of the conduct of his nominal ally. Still worse the Prussian fortresses on the Oder. On the I2th of October
was the prospect when Sir Arthur Wellesley with a British force both potentates addressed an appeal to George III. to accord
landed in Portugal, gained the battle of Vimiero (2ist of August), peace to the world on the basis of uti possidetis. Canning
and brought the French commander, Junot, by the so-called assented, provided that envoys of all the states and peoples
convention of Cintra, to agree to the evacuation of the country concerned took part in the negotiations. Whereupon a reply
by all the French troops. The sea power thus gained what had came from Paris (a8th of November) that the French emperor
"
all along been wanting, a sure basis for the exercise of its force refused to admit the envoys of the king who reigns in Brazil,
against the land power, Napoleon. Still more important, perhaps, the king who reigns in Sicily or the king who reigns in Sweden."
was the change in moral which the Spanish rising brought about. The " Spanish insurgents " were equally placed out of court.
Napoleon's perfidy at Bayonne was so flagrant as to strip from Clearly, then, Napoleon's desire for peace was conditional
him the mask of a champion of popular liberty which had on his being allowed to dictateterms to the rulers and peoples
previously been of priceless worth. Now he stood forth to the concerned.
world as an unscrupulous aggressor; moral force, previously Already he had shown that the sword must decide affairs in
marshalled on the side of France, now began to pass to the side of Spain. After spending a short time in Paris in order to supervise
his opponents. The value of that unseen ally he well knew: the transfer of his forces from Germany to the Pyrenees, he
"
Once again, let me tell you," he wrote to General Clarke on journeyed swiftly southwards, burst upon the Spaniards, and
"
the loth of October 1809, in war moral and opinion are more on the 3rd of December received the surrender of Madrid. There,
than half of the reality." on the ilth of December, he issued a decree (omitted from the
Such were the discouraging conditions which weighed him officialCorrespondence) declaring le nommS Stein an enemy of
down at the time of the interview with the tsar at Erfurt France and confiscating his property in the lands allied to France.
(September 27th-October lath, 1808). That event was so The great statesman barely succeeded in escaping to Austria, a
important as to require some preliminary explanation. For land in which the hopes of German patriots now centred. En-
some five months past the two emperors had been exchanging couraged by the sympathy of all patriotic Germans and the newly
their views as to the future of the world. Stated briefly they found energy of its own subjects, the House of Habsburg now
were these. Napoleon desired to press on the partition of Prussia, began to prepare for war. Napoleon was then in the midst of
Alexander that of Turkey. The tsar, however, was determined operations against Sir John Moore, whose masterly march on
to save Prussia if he could; and Napoleon after the first disasters Sahagun (near Valladolid) had thwarted the emperor's plans for
a general " drive
"
in Spain saw it to be impossible to uproot the Hohenzollerns; on to Lisbon. Hoping to punish Moore for
while it was clearly to his interest to postpone the partition of his boldness, Napoleon struck quickly north at Astorga, but found
Turkey until he had conquered Spain and Sicily. Austria that he was too late to catch his foe. At that town he also heard
meanwhile had begun to arm as a precautionary measure; news on the ist of January 1809, which portended trouble in
and Napoleon, shortly after his return from Bayonne to Paris, Germany and perhaps also at Paris. Austria was continuing to
publicly declared that, if her preparations went on, he would arm; and the emperor perceived that the diplomatic failure at
wage against her a war of extermination. The threat naturally Erfurt was now about to entail on him another and more serious
did not tend to reassure statesmen at Vienna; and the tsar struggle. His anxiety was increased by news of sinister import
now resolved to prevent the total wreck of the European system respecting frequent interviews between those former rivals,
by screening the House of Habsburg from the wrath of his ally. Talleyrand and Fouche, in which Murat was said to be concerned.
For the present Napoleon's ire fell upon Prussia. A letter written Handing over the command to Soult, he hurried back to Paris
by the Prussian statesman, Baron vom Stein, had fallen into the to trample on the seeds of sedition and to overwhelm Austria by
hands of the French and revealed to the emperor the ferment the blows which he showered upon her in the valley of the
produced in Germany by news of the French reverses in Spain. Danube. Sir John Moore and the statesmen of Austria the
In that letter Stein urged the need of a national rising of the heroic Stadion at their head failed in their enterprise; but at
Germans similar to that of the Spaniards, when the inevitable least they frustrated the determined effort of Napoleon to stamp
struggle ensued between Napoleon and Austria. The revenge of out the national movement in the Iberian Peninsula. Thereafter
the autocrat was characteristic. Besides driving Stein from he never entered Spain; and the French operations suffered
office, he compelled Prussia to sign a convention(8th of September) incalculably from the want of one able commander-in-chief.
for the payment to France of a sum of 140,000,000 francs, and In the Danubian campaign of 1809 he succeeded; but the
for the limitation of the Prussian army to 42,000 men. stubborn defence of Austria, the heroic efforts of the Tirolese
Apart from this advantage, placed in his hands by the imprud- and the spasmodic efforts which foreboded a national rising in
ence of Stein, Napoleon was heavily handicapped at the Erfurt Germany, showed that the whole aspect of affairs was changing;
interview. In vain did he seek to dazzle the tsar by assembling even in central Europe, where rulers and peoples had hitherto
about him the vassal kings and princes of Germany; in vain did been as wax under the impress of his will. The peoples, formerly
he exercise all the intellectual gifts which had captivated the so apathetic, were now the centre of resistance, and their efforts
tsar at Tilsit; in vain did he conjure up visions of the future failed owing to the timidity or sluggishness of governments
conquest of the Orient; external display, diplomatic finesse, and the incompetence of some of their military leaders. The
varied by one or two outbursts of calculated violence all was failure of the archduke John to arrive in time at Wagram (sth
useless. The situation now was utterly different from that of July), the lack of support accorded by the Spaniards to
which obtained at Tilsit. Alexander had succeeded in pacifying Wellesley before and after the battle of Talavera (28th of July),
Finland, and his troops held the Danubian provinces of Turkey and the slowness with which the British government sent forth
a pledge, asit seemed, for the future
conquest of Constantinople. its great armada. against Flushing and Antwerp, a fortnight after
206 NAPOLEON I.
Austria sued for an armistice from Napoleon, enabled that superb not expect to have an heir. Accordingly, on his return to Paris
organizer to emerge victorious from a most precarious situation. he caused the news to be broken to her that reasons of state of
The hatred felt for him by Germans found expression in a the most urgent kind compelled him to divorce her. An affecting
daring attempt to murder him made by a well-bred youth named scene took place between them on the 3oth of November 1809;
Staps on the 1 2th of October. but Napoleon, though moved by her distress, remained firm;
Two days later Napoleon, by means of unworthy artifices, and though the clerics made a difficulty about dissolving the
hurried the Austrian plenipotentiaries into signing the treaty of religious marriage of the ist of December 1804, the formalities of
peace at Schonbrunn. The House of Habsburg now ceded which were complete save that the parish priest was absent, yet
Salzburg and the Inn-Viertel to Napoleon (for his ally, the king the emperor instituted a chancery for the archbishop of Paris,
of Bavaria) a great portion of the spoils which Austria had torn
;
with the result that that body pronounced the divorce (January
from Poland in 1795 went to the grand duchy of Warsaw, or 1 8 1 o)
.
Josephine retired to her private abode, Malmaison, where
Russia; and the cession of her provinces Carinthia, Carniola her patience and serenity won the admiration of all who saw her.
and Istria to the French empire cut her off from all access to the Meanwhile the deliberations respecting the choice of her
sea. After imposing these harsh terms on his enemy, the con- successor had already begun. Opinions were divided in the
queror might naturally have shown clemency to the Tirolese emperor's circle between a Russian and an Austrian princess;
leader, Andreas Hofer; but that brave mountaineer, when but the marked coolness with which overtures for the hand of
betrayed by a friend, was sentenced to death at Mantua owing the tsar's sister were received at St Petersburg, and the skill
to the arrival of a special message to that effect from Napoleon. with which Count Metternich, the Austrian chancellor, let it be
In other quarters he achieved for the present a signal success. known that a union with the archduchess, Marie Louise, would be
It was important decrees from the capitals of
his habit to issue welcomed at Schonbrunn, helped to decide the matter. The
his enemies; and on the I7th of May 1809 he signed at Vienna reasons why the emperor Francis acquiesced in the marriage
an edict abolishing the temporalpower of the pope and annexing alliance are well known. Only so could his empire survive.
the Papal States, which the French troops had occupied early A marriage between Napoleon and a Russian princess would have
in the previous year. On the 6th of July 1809 Pius VII. was implied the permanent subjection of Austria. By the proposed
arrested at Rome for presuming to excommunicate the successor step she would weaken the Franco-Russian alliance. But why
of Charlemagne, and was deported to Grenoble and later on to did Napoleon fix his choice on Vienna rather than St Petersburg?
Savona. The same year witnessed the downfall of Napoleon's Mainly, it would seem, because he desired hurriedly to screen
persistent enemy, Gustavus IV. of Sweden, who was dethroned the refusal, which might at any time be expected from the Russian
by a military movement (29th of March 1809). His successor, court, under the appearance of a voluntary choice of an Austrian
Charles XIII., made peace with France on the 6th of January archduchess. Further, an alliance with the House of Habsburg
1810, and agreed to adopt the provisions of the Continental might be expected to wean the Germans from all thought of
System. The aim in all these changes, it will be observed, was gaining succour from that quarter. The wedding was celebrated
to acquire control over the seaboard, or, failing that, the com- first at Vienna by proxy, and at Notre Dame by the emperor in
merce of all European states. person on the 2nd of April. Though based on merely political
As happened in the years 1802-1803, Napoleon extended his grounds, the union was for the time a happy one. He advised
" " "
System as rapidly in time of peace as during war. The year his courtiers to marry Germans they are the best wives in the
1810 saw the crown set to that edifice by the annexations of world, good, naive and fresh as roses." Metternich, on visiting
Holland and of the north-west coast of Germany. In both cases Compiegne and Paris, found the emperor thoroughly devoted to
the operative cause was the same. Neither Louis Bonaparte nor his bride. Napoleon told him that he was now beginning to live,
German douaniers could be trusted to carry out in all their that he had always longed for a home and now at last had one.
stringency the decrees for the entire exclusion of British commerce Metternich thereupon wrote to his master: " He (Napoleon)
from those important regions. In the case of King Louis, family has possibly more weaknesses than many other men, and if the
quarrels embittered the relations between the two brothers; empress continues to play upon them, as she begins to realize
but it is clear from Napoleon's letters of November-December the possibility of doing, she can render the greatest services to her-
1809 that he had even then resolved to annex Holland in order self and all Europe." The surmise was too hopeful. Napoleon,
to gain complete control of its customs and of its naval resources. though he never again worked as he had done, soon freed himself
The negotiations which he allowed to go on with England in from complete dependence on Marie Louise; and he never allowed
the spring of 1810, mainly respecting the independence of her to intrude into political affairs, for which, indeed, she had not
Holland, are now known to have been insincere. Fouche, for the least aptitude. His real concern for her was evinced shortly
meddling in the negotiations through an agent of his own, was before the birth of their son, the king of Rome, when he gave orders
promptly disgraced; and, when neither England was moved by that if the h'fe of both mother and child could not be saved, that
diplomatic cajolery nor Louis Bonaparte by threats, French of the mother should be saved if possible ( 2oth of March 1811).
troops were sent against the Dutch capital. Louis fled from his This event seemed to place Napoleon's fortunes on a sure
kingdom, and on the 9th of July 1810 Holland became part of basis; but already theywere being undermined by events. The
the French empire. In the next months Napoleon promulgated marriage negotiations of 1800-1810 had somewhat offended the
a series of decrees for effecting the ruin of British commerce, emperor Alexander; his resentment increased when, at the close
and in December 1810 he decreed the annexation of the north- of 1810, Napoleon dethroned the duke of Oldenburg, brother-in-
west coast of Germany, as also of Canton Valais, to the French law of the tsar; and the breach in the Franco-Russian alliance
empire. This now stretched from Liibeck to the Pyrenees, widened when the French emperor refused to award fit com-
from Brest to Rome; while another arm (only nominally severed pensation to the duke or to give to the Russian government an
from the empire by the Napoleonic kingdom of Italy) extended assurance that the kingdom of Poland would never be re-
down the eastern shore of the Adriatic to Ragusa and Cattaro, constituted. The addition of large territories to the grand
threatening the Turkish empire with schemes of partition always duchy of Warsaw after the war of 1809 aroused the fears of the
imminent but never achieved. tsar respecting the Poles; and he regarded all Napoleon's
. It is time now to notice two important events in the life of the actions as inspired by hostility to Russia. He, therefore, despite
emperor, namely his divorce of Josephine and his union with Napoleon's repeated demands, refused to subject his empire
Marie Louise of Austria. The former of these had long been to the hardships imposed by the Continental System; at the
foreseen. The Bonapartes had intrigued for it with their usual close of the year 1810 he virtually allowed the entry of colonial
persistence, and Napoleon was careful never to make it im- goods (all of which were really British borne) and little by little
possible. His triumph over Austria in 1809, and especially the broke away from Napoleon's system. These actions implied war
attempt of Staps to murder him, clinched his determination to between France and Russia, unless Napoleon allowed such
found a dynasty in his own direct line. From Josephine he could modifications of his rules (e.g. under the license system) as would
NAPOLEON I.
207
avert ruin from the trade and finance of Russia; and this he work. His rapid return from Spain early in 1809, and now again
refused to do. from Lithuania at the close of 1812, gives an instructive glimpse
The campaign of 1812 may, therefore, be considered as result- into the anxiety which haunted the mind of the autocrat. He
ing, firstly,from the complex and cramping effects of the Conti- believed that, imposing as his position was, it rested on the prestige
nental System on a northern land which could not deprive itself won by matchless triumphs. Witness his illuminating state-
of colonial goods; secondly, from Napoleon's refusal to mitigate ment to Volney during the Consulate: " Why should France
the anxiety of Alexander on the Polish question; and thirdly, fear my ambition? I am but the magistrate of the republic.
from the annoyance felt by the tsar at the family matters I merely act upon the imagination of the nation. When that
noticed above. Napoleon undoubtedly entered on the struggle me I shall be nothing, and another will succeed me."
fails
with reluctance. He spoke about it as one that lay in the course To this cause we may ascribe his constant efforts to dazzle
of destiny. In one sense he was right. If the Continental France by grandiose adventures and by swift, unexpected
System was inevitable the war with Russia was inevitable. But movements. But she had now come profoundly to distrust
that struggle may more reasonably be ascribed to the rigidity him. Her thirst for glory had long since been slaked, and she
with which he carried out his commercial decrees and his diplo- longed for peaceful enjoyment of the civic boons which he had
macy. He often prided himself on his absolute consistency, conferred upon her in that greatest period of his life, the Con-
and we have Chaptal's warrant for the statement that, after the sulate. That the Russian campaign of 1812 was the last device
time of the Consulate, his habit of following his own opinions for assuring the success of the Continental System and the ruin
and rejecting all advice, even when he had asked for it, became of England was nothing to the great mass of Frenchmen. They
more and more pronounced. It was so now. He took no heed were weary of a means of pacification which produced endless
of the warnings uttered by those sage counsellors, Cambaceres wars abroad and misery at home. True, England had suffered,
and Talleyrand, against an invasion of Russia, while "the but she was mistress of the seas and had won a score of new
"
Spanish ulcer was sapping the strength of the empire at the colonies. France had subjected half the continent; but her
other extremity. He encased himself in fatalism, with the result hold on Spain was weakened by Wellington's blow at Salamanca;
that in two years the mightiest empire reared by man broke under and now Frenchmen heard that their army in Russia was " dead."
the twofold strain. His diplomacy before the war of 1812 was At home many industries were suffering from the lack of tropical
less successful than that of Alexander, who skilfully ended his and colonial produce: cane sugar sold at five, and coffee at
quarrel with Turkey and gained over to his side Sweden. That seven, shillings the pound. The constant use of chicory for
state, where Bernadotte had latterly been chosen as crown coffee, and of woad for indigo, was apt to produce a reaction
prince, decided to throw off the yoke of the Continental System in favour of a humdrum peaceful policy; and yet, by a recent
and join England and Russia, gaining from the latter power the imperial decree, Frenchmen had the prospect of seeing the use
promise of Norway at the expense of Denmark. of the new and imperfectly made beet sugar enforced from the
Napoleon on his side coerced Prussia into an offensive alliance ist of January 1813, after which date all cane sugar was_
and had the support of Austria and the states of the Rhenish excluded as being of British origin. Shortly before starting
Confederation. At Dresden he held court for a few days in May for the Russian expedition Napoleon vainly tried to reassure the
1812 with Marie Louise: the emperor Francis, the king of merchants and financiers of France then face to face with a
Prussia and a host of lesser dignitaries were present a sign of sharp financial crisis. Now at the close of 1812 matters were
the power of the modern Charlemagne. It was the last time that worse, and Napoleon, on reaching Paris, found the nation
he figured as master of the continent. preoccupied with the task of finding out how many Frenchmen
The military events of the years 1812-1814 are described under had survived the Russian campaign.
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS; and we need therefore note here only Yet, despite the discontent seething in many quarters, France
a few details personal to Napoleon or some considerations which responded to his appeal for troops; but she did so mechanically
influenced his policy. Firstly we may remark that the Austrian and without hope. Early in January 1813 the senate promised
alliance furnished one of the motives which led him to refrain that 350,000 conscripts should be enrolled; but 150,000 of them
during the campaign of 1812 from reconstituting the Polish realm were under twenty years of age, and mobile columns had to be
in its ancient extent. To have done so would have been a mortal used to sweep in the recruits, especially in Brittany, the Nether-
affront to his ally, Austria. Certainly he needed her support lands and the newly annexed lands of North Germany.
during that campaign; but many good judges have inclined In the old provinces of France Napoleon's indomitable will over-
to the belief that the whole-hearted support of Poles and Lithu- came all difficulties of a material kind. Forces, inexperienced but
anians would have been of still greater value, and that the organi- devoted, were soon on foot; and he informed his German allies
zation of their resources might well have occupied him during the that he would allow the Russians to advance into Central
" "
winter of 1812-1813, and would have furnished him with a new Germany so as to ensure their destruction. As for the treason
and advanced base from which to strike at the heart of Russia of General York, who had come to terms with the Russians, it
in the early summer of 1813. If the Austrian alliance was chiefly moved him merely to scorn and contempt. He altogether
responsible for his rejection of that statesmanlike plan, which underrated the importance of the national movement in Prussia.
"
he had before him at Smolensk, it certainly deserves all the hard If Prussian towns " behaved badly (he wrote on the 4th of
things said of it by the champions of Josephine. March), they were to be burnt; Eugene was not to spare even
Another consideration which largely conduced to the disasters Berlin. Prussia (he wrote on the I4th of March) was a weak
of the retreat was Napoleon's postponement of any movement country. She could not put more than 40,000 men in the field
back from Moscow to the date of October ipth, and this is known (the number to which he had limited her hi September 1808).
to have resulted from his conviction that the tsar would give He therefore heard without dismay at the end of March that
way as he had done at Tilsit. Napoleon's habit of dinging to his Prussia had joined Russia in a league in which Sweden was now
own preconceptions never received so strange and disastrous an an active participant.
illustration as it did during the month spent at Moscow. - On the It was clear that the spiritual forces of the time were also
other hand, his desertion of the army on the 5th of December, slipping out of his grasp. Early in January he sought to come
not long after the crossing of the river Beresina, is a thoroughly to terms with the pope (then virtually a captive at Fontainebleau)
defensible act. He had recently heard of the attempt of a French respecting various questions then in debate concerning the
republican general, Malet, to seize the public offices at Paris, a Concordat. At first the emperor succeeded in persuading the
quixotic adventure which had come surprisingly near to success aged pontiff to sign the preliminaries of an agreement, known
" "
owing to the assurance with which that officer proclaimed the as the Fontainebleau Concordat (25th of January 1813);
news of the emperor's death in Russia. In such a case, the best but, on its insidious character becoming apparent, Pius VII.
retort was to return in all haste in order to put more energy into revoked his consent, as having been given under constraint.
the huge centralized organism which the emperor alone could Nevertheless Napoleon ordered the preliminary agreement to be
208 NAPOLEON I.
considered as a definitive treaty, and on the 2nd of April gave longer worked clearly: it was a victim to his egotism and
passion.
instructions that one of the refractory cardinals should be July and the firstdecade of August came and went, but brought
carried off secretly by night from Fontainebleau, while the pontiff no sign of pacification. The emperor Francis made a last effort
was to be guarded more closely than before. On these facts to influence his son-in-law through Marie Louise. It was in vain.
becoming known, a feeling of pity for the pope became wide- Nothing could bend that cast iron will. Nothing remained but
spread; and the opinion of the Roman Catholic world gradually to break it. On the expiration of the armistice at midnight of
turned against the emperor while he was fighting to preserve August loth-nth Austria declared war.
"
his supremacy in Germany. I am following the course of After the disastrous defeat of Leipzig (i7th-i9th October
events: I have always marched with them." Such were his 1813), when French domination in Germany and Italy vanished
words uttered shortly before his departure from Paris (isth of like an exhalation, the allies gave Napoleon another opportunity
April). They proved that he misread events and misunderstood to come to terms. The overtures known as the Frankfort terms
hisown position. were ostensibly an answer to the request for information which
The course of the ensuing campaigns was to reveal the harden- Napoleon made at the field of Leipzig. Metternich persuaded
ing of his mental powers. Early in April he sought to gain the the tsar and the king of Prussia to make a declaration that the
" "
help of 100,000 Austrian troops by holding out to Francis of allies would leave to Napoleon the natural boundaries of
Austria the prospect of acquiring Silesia from Prussia. The offer France the Rhine, Alps, Pyrenees and Ocean. The main object
met with no response, Austria having received from the allies of the Austrian chancellor probably was to let Napoleon once
vaguely alluring offers that she might arrange matters as she more show to the world his perverse obstinacy. If this was his
desired in Italy and South Germany. Napoleon began to suspect aim, he succeeded. Napoleon on his return to St Cloud inveighed
his father-in-law, and still more the Austrian chancellor, against his ministers for talking so much about peace and declared
Metternich; but instead of humouring them, he resolved to that he would never give up Holland; France must remain a
stand firm. The Austrian demands, first presented to him great empire, and not sink to the level of a mere kingdom. He
on the i6th of May, shortly after his victory of Liitzen, were would never give up Holland; rather than do that, he would
(i) the dissolution of the grand duchy of Warsaw, (2) the with- cut the dykes and give back that land to the sea. Accordingly
drawal of France from the lands of north-west Germany annexed on the i6th of November he sent a vague and unsatisfactory
in 1810 and (3) the cession to Austria of the Illyrian provinces reply to the allies; and though Caulaincourt (who now replaced
wrested from her in 1809. Other terms were held in reserve Maret as foreign minister) was on the 2nd of December charged
to be pressed if occasion admitted; but these were all that were to give a general assent to their terms, yet that assent came
put forward at the moment. On this basis Austria was ready to too late. The allies had now withdrawn their offer. Napoleon
offer her armed mediation to the combatants. Napoleon would certainly believed that the offer was insincere. Perhaps he was
"
not hear of the terms. I will not have your armed mediation. right; but even in that case he should surely have accepted
You are only confusing the whole question. You say you cannot the offer so as to expose their insincerity. As it was, they were
act for me; you are strong, then, only against me." This out- able to contrast their moderation with his wrongheadedness,
burst of temper was a grave blunder. His threats alarmed the and thereby seek to separate his cause from that of France.
Austrian court. At bottom the emperor Francis, perhaps also In this they only partially succeeded. Murat now joined the
Metternich, wanted peace, but on terms which the exhaustion allies; Germany, Switzerland and Holland were lost to Napoleon;
of the combatants would enable them to dictate. Yet during the but when the allies began to invade Alsace and Lorraine, they
armistice which ensued (June 4th-July 2oth; afterwards pro- found the French staunch in his support. He was still the
longed to August toth) Napoleon did nothing to soothe the peasants' emperor. The feelings of the year 1792 began to revive.
Viennese government, and that, too, despite the encouragement Never did Napoleon and France appear more united than in
which the allies received from the news of Wellington's victory the campaign of 1814.
at Vittoria and the entry of Bernadotte with a Swedish con- Nevertheless it led to his abdication. Once more the allies
tingent on the scene. Austria now proposed the terms named consented to discuss the terms of a general pacification; but
above with the addition that the Confederation of the Rhine the discussions at the congress of Chatillon (sth of February-
must be dissolved, and that Prussia should be placed in a position igth of March) had no result except to bring to light a proof
as good as that which she held in 1805, that is, before the Thereupon the allies resolved to have
of Napoleon's insincerity.
campaign of Jena. On the 27th of June she promised to join no more dealings with him. As his chances of success became
the allies in case Napoleon should not accept these terms. more and more desperate, he ventured on a step whereby he
He was now at the crisis of his career. Events had shown hoped to work potently on the pacific desires of the emperor
that, even after losing half a million of men in Russia, he was Francis. Leaving Paris for the time to its own resources, he
a match for her and Prussia combined. Would he now accept struck eastwards in the hope of terrifying that potentate and of
the Austrian terms and gain a not disadvantageous peace, for detaching him from the coalition. The move not only failed,
which France was yearning? These terms, it should be noted, but it had the fatal effect of uncovering Paris to the northern
would have kept Napoleon's empire intact except in Illyria; forces of the allies. The surrender of the capital, where he had
while the peace would have enabled him to reorganize his army centralized all the governing powers, was a grave disaster.
and recover a host of French prisoners from Russia. His Equally fatal was the blow struck at him by the senate, his own
signing of the armistice seemed to promise as much. To give favoured creation. Convoked by Talleyrand on the ist of
his enemies a breathing space when they were hard pressed was an April, it pronounced the word abdication on the morrow. For this
insane proceeding unless he meant to make^peace. But there is Napoleon cared little, provided that he had the army behind
nothing in his words or actions at this time to show that he him. But now the marshals and generals joined the civilians.
desired peace except on terms which were clearly antiquated. The defection of Marshal Marmont and his soldiery on the 4th
His letters breathe the deepest resentment against Austria, of April rendered further thoughts of resistance futile. To
and show that he burned to chastise her for her " perfidy " continue the strife when Wellington was firmly established on
as soon as his cavalry was reorganized. His actions at this time the line of the Garonne, and Lyons and Bordeaux had hoisted
have been ascribed to righteous indignation against Metternich's the Bourbon flew de lys, was seen by all but Napoleon to be sheer
double-dealing; and in a long interview at the Marcolini palace madness; but it needed the pressure of his marshals in painful
at Dresden on the 26th of June he asked the chancellor point interviews at Fontainebleau to bring him to reason.
blank how much money England had given him for his present At last, on the nth of April, he wrote the deed of abdication.
conduct. As for himself he cared little for the life of a million On that night he is said to have tried to end his life by poison.
of men. He had married the daughter of the emperor: it The evidence is not convincing; and certainly his recovery
was a mistake, but he would bury the world under the ruins. was very speedy. On the 2oth he bade farewell to his guard
Talk in this Ossian-like vein showed that Napoleon's brain no and set forth from Fontainebleau for Elba, which the powers
NAPOLEON I.
209
had very reluctantly, and owing to the pressure of the tsar, which brought about the manifest constraint of the emperor
awarded to him as a possession. He was to keep the title of in the Hundred Days. His words to Benjamin Constant " I
emperor. Marie Louise was to have the duchy of Parma for am growing old. The repose of a constitutional king may suit
herself and her son. She did not go with her consort. Following me. It will more surely suit my son " show that his mind
the advice of her father, she repaired to Vienna along with the seized the salient facts of the situation; but his instincts struggled
little king of Rome. As for France, she received the Bourbons, against them. Hence the malaise both of mind and body.
along with the old frontiers. The attempts of the royalists gave him little concern: the due
Meanwhile Napoleon, after narrow escapes from royalist d'Angouleme raised a small force for Louis XVIII. in the south,
"
mobs in Provence, was conducted in the British cruiser Un- but at Valence it melted away in front of Grouchy 's command;
" months and the duke, on the gth of April, signed a convention whereby
daunted to Elba. There he spent eleven in uneasy
retirement, watching with close interest the course of events in they received a free pardon from the emperor. The royalists
France. As he foresaw, the shrinkage of the great empire into of la Vend6e were later in moving and caused more trouble.
the realm of old France caused infinite disgust, a feeling fed But the chief problem centred in the constitution. At Lyons,
every day by stories of the tactless way in which the Bourbon on the I3th of March, Napoleon had issued an edict dissolving the
princes treated veterans of the Grand Army. Equally threaten- existing chambers and ordering the convocation of a national
ing was the general situation in Europe. The demands of the mass meeting, or Champ de Mai, for the purpose of modifying the
tsar Alexander were for a time so exorbitant as to bring the powers constitution of the Napoleonic empire. That work was carried
at the congress of Vienna to the verge of war. Thus, everything out by Benjamin Constant in concert with the emperor. The
portended a renewal of Napoleon's activity. The return of resulting Acle addilionel (supplementary to the constitutions
French prisoners from Russia, Germany, England and Spain of the empire) bestowed on France an hereditary chamber of
"
would furnish him with an army far larger than that .which peers and a chamber of representatives elected by the electoral
"
had won renown in 1814. So threatening were the symptoms colleges of the empire, which comprised scarcely one hundredth
that the royalists at Paris and the plenipotentiaries at Vienna part of the citizens of France. As Chateaubriand remarked, in
talked of deporting him to the Azores, while others more than reference to Louis XVIII. 's constitutional charter, the new
hinted at assassination. constitution La Benjamine, it was dubbed was merely a
He solved the problem in characteristic fashion. On the 26th slightly improved charter. Its incompleteness displeased the
of February 1815, when the English and French guardships liberals; only 1,532,527 votes were given for it in the plebiscite,
were absent, he slipped away from Porto Ferrajo with some a total less than half of those of the plebiscites of the Consulate.
1000 men and landed near Antibes on the ist of March. Except Not all the gorgeous display of the Champ de Mai (held on the
in royalist Provence he received everywhere a welcome which ist of June) could hide the discontent at the meagre fulfilment
attested the attractive power of his personality and the nullity of the promises given at Lyons. Napoleon ended his speech with
"
of the Bourbons. Firing no shot in his defence, his little troop the words: My will is that of the people: my rights are its
swelled until it became an army. Ney, who had said that Napoleon rights." The words rang hollow, as was seen when, on the 3rd
ought to be brought to Paris in an iron cage, joined him with of June, the deputies chose, as president of their chamber,
6000 men on the I4th of March; and five days later the emperor Lanjuinais, the staunch liberal who had so often opposed the
entered the capital, whence Louis XVIII. had recently fled. emperor. The latter was with difficulty dissuaded from quashing
Napoleon was not misled by the enthusiasm of the provinces the election. Other causes of offence arose, and Napoleon in
and Paris. He knew that love of novelty and contempt for the his last communication to them warned them not to imitate the
gouty old king and his greedy courtiers had brought about this Greeks of the later Empire, who engaged in subtle discussions
bloodless triumph; and he felt instinctively that he had to deal when the ram was battering at their gates. On the morrow
with a new France, which would not tolerate despotism. On (i2th of June) he set out for the northern frontier. His spirits
his way to Paris he had been profuse in promises of reform and rose at the prospect of rejoining the army. At St Helena he told
constitutional rule. It remained to make good those promises Gourgaud that he intended in 1815 to dissolve the chambers
and to disarm the fear and jealousy of the great powers. This as soon as he had won a great victory.
was the work which he set before himself in the Hundred Days In point of fact, the sword alone could decide his fate, both in
( 1 9th of March to22ndofjunei8is). Were his powers, physical internal and international affairs. Neither France nor Europe
as well as mental, equal to the task ? This is doubtful. Certainly took seriously his rather vague declaration of his contentment
the evidence as to his health is somewhat conflicting. Some with the r61e of constitutional monarch of the France of 1815.
persons (as, for instance, Carnot, Pasquier, Lavalette and No one believed that he would be content with the " ancient
Thiebault) thought him prematurely aged and enfeebled. Others limits." So often had he declared that the Rhine and Holland
again saw no marked change in him; while Mollien, who knew were necessary to France that every one looked on his present
the emperor well, attributed the lassitude which now and then assertions as a mere device to gain time. So far back as the I3th
came over him to a feeling of perplexity caused by his changed of March, six days before he reached Paris, the powers at Vienna
circumstances. This explanation seems to furnish a correct declared him an outlaw; and four days later Great Britain,
clue. The autocrat felt cramped and chafed on all sides by the Russia, Austria and Prussia bound themselves to put 150,000
necessity of posing as a constitutional sovereign; and, while men into the field to end his rule. Their recollection of his
losing something of the old rigidity, he lost very much of the old conduct during the congress of Chatillon was the determining
energy, both in thought and action. His was a mind that worked fact at this crisis; his professions at Lyons or Paris had not the
wonders in well-worn grooves and on facts that were well under- slightest effect; his efforts to detach Austria from the coalition,
stood. The necessity of devising compromises with men who as also the feelers put forth tentatively by Fouche at Vienna,
had formerly been his tools fretted him both in mind and body. were fruitless. The coalitions, once so brittle as to break at the
But when he left parliamentary affairs behind, and took the field, first strain, had now been hammered into solidity by his blows.
he showed nearly all the power both of initiative and of endurance If ever a man was condemned by his past, Napoleon was so in
which marked his masterpiece, the campaign of 1814. To date 1815.
his decline, as Chaptal does, from the cold of the Moscow campaign On arriving at Paris three days after Waterloo he still clung
is clearly incorrect. The time of lethargy at Elba seems to to the hope of concerting national resistance; but the temper
have been more unfavourable to his powers than the cold of of the chambers and of the public generally forbade any such
Russia. At Elba, as Sir Neil Campbell noted, he became in- attempt. The autocrat and Lucien Bonaparte were almost alone
active and proportionately corpulent. There, too, as sometimes in believing that by dissolving the chambers and declaring
in 1815, he began to suffer
intermittently from ischury, but to himself dictator, he could save France from the armies of the
no serious extent. On the whole it seems safe to assert that it powers now converging on Paris. Even Davout, minister of
was the change in France far more than the change in his health war, advised him that the destinies of France rested solely with
2IO NAPOLEON I.
the chambers. That was true. The career of Napoleon, which (iv. 451-454) in which Napoleon reflects on the ruin wrought
had lured France far away from the principles of 1789, now to his cause by the war in Spain, or that (iii. 130) dealing with
brought her back to that starting-point; just as, in the physical his fatal mistake in not dismembering Austria after Wagram, and
"
sphere, his campaigns from 1796-1814 had at first enormously in marrying an Austrian princess There I stepped on to an
swollen her bulk and then subjected her to a shrinkage still more abyss covered with flowers "; or that again (iii. 79) where he
portentous. Clearly it was time to safeguard what remained; represented himself as the natural arbiter in the immense
and that could best be done under Talleyrand's shield of legiti- struggle of the present against the past, and asserted that in ten
macy. Napoleon himself at last divined that truth. When years' time Europe would be either Cossack or republican. It is
" "
Lucien pressed him to dare," he replied Alas, I have dared noteworthy that in Gourgaud's Journal de Ste. Hettne there are
only too much already." On the 22nd of June he abdicated in very few reflections of this kind and the emperor appears in a guise
favour of his son, well knowing that that was a mere form, as far more life-like. But in the works edited by Montholon and
his son was in Austria. On the 2Sth of June he received from Las Cases, where the political aim constantly obtrudes itself,
Fouche, the president of the newly appointed provisional the emperor is made again and again to embroider on the -theme
government, an intimation that he must leave Paris. He retired that he had always been the true champion of ordered freedom.
to Malmaison, the home of Josephine, where she had died shortly This was the mot d'ordre at Longwood to his companions, who
after his first abdication. On the 29th of June the near approach set themselves deliberately to propagate it. The folly of the
of the Prussians (who had orders to seize him, dead or alive), monarchs of the Holy Alliance in Europe gained for the writings
caused him to retire westwards towards Rochefort, whence he of Montholon and Las Cases (that of Gourgaud was not published
hoped to reach the United States. But the passports which the till 1899) a ready reception, with the result that Napoleon
provisional government asked from Wellington were refused, reappeared in the literature of the ensuing decades wielding
and as the country was declaring for the Bourbons, his position an influence scarcely less potent than that of the grey-coated
soon became precarious. On his arrival at Rochefort (3rd of figure into whose arms France flung herself on his return from
July) he found that British cruisers cut off his hope of escape. Elba. All that he had done for her in the days of the Consulate
On the 9th of July he received an order from the provisional was remembered; his subsequent proceedings his tyranny,
government at Paris to leave France within twenty-four hours. his shockingwaste of human life, his deliberate persistence in
After wavering between various plans, he decided on the i3th war when France and Europe called for a reasonable and lasting
of July to cast himself on the generosity of the British govern- peace all this was forgotten; and the great warrior,
ment, and dictated a letter to the prince regent in which he com- r fa*tt**fSn f hp 5th of May 1821, was thereafter enshrouded in
^
pared himself to Themistocles seating himself at the hearth of his mitts of legend through which nis form loomed as that of a
enemy. His counsellor, Las Cases, strongly urged that step and Prometheus condemned to a lingering agony for his devotion
"
made overtures to Captain Maitland of H.M.S. Bellerophon." to the cause of humanity. It was this perversion of fact which
That officer, however, was on his guard, and, while offering to rendered possible the career of Napoleon III.
convey the emperor to England declined to pledge himself in BIBLIOGRAPHY. In the following list only the most helpful and
accessible works can be enumerated. Asterisks are placed against
any way as to his reception. It was on this understanding (which those works which have been translated into English.
Las Cases afterwards misrepresented) that Napoleon on the A. General: Histories and Biographies. *A. Thiers, Histoire de
"
1 5th of July mounted the deck of the Bellerophon." No other la Revolution franfaise, du Consulat et de V Empire (many editions
course remained. Further delay after the isth of July would in French and English); *P. Lanfrey, Histoire de NapoUon I. (5
vols.,Paris, 1867-1875) (incomplete) Sir A. Alison, History of
have led to his capture by the royalists, who were now every- ',
Europe, 1789-1815 (14 vols., London, 1833-1842); J. Holland Rose,
where in the ascendant. In all but name he was a prisoner of The Life of Napoleon I. (2 vols., London; 3rd ed., 1905) A. Fournier,
;
Great Britain, and he knew it. Napoleon der erste (3 vols., Prague and Vienna, 1889); W. M.
The rest of the story must be told very briefly. The British Sloane, Napoleon: a History (4 vols., London, 1896-1897); O'Connor
Morris, Napoleon (New York, 1893) E." Lavisse and A. N. Rambaud,
government, on hearing of his arrival at Plymouth, decided to
;
"
La Revolution francaise, 1789-1799 and " Napoleon," vols. viii.
send him to St Helena, the formation of that island being such and ix. of the Histoire ginirale; The Cambridge Modern History, vol.
as to admit of a certain freedom of movement for the august viii. (" The French Revolution ") and vol. ix. (" Napoleon ")
captive, with none of the perils for the world at large which the (Cambridge, 1904. and 1006); W. Oncken, Das Zeitalter der Revolu-
tsar's choice, Elba, had involved. To St Helena, then, he pro- tion, des Kaiserreichs, und der Befreiungskriege (2 vols., Berlin, 1880) ;
" A. T. Mahan, Influence of Sea Power on the French Revolution and
ceeded on board of H.M.S. Northumberland." The title of
Empire (2 vols., London, 1892); A. Sorel, L'Europe et la Revolution
emperor, which he enjoyed at Elba, had been forfeited by the fransaise (parts v.-viii. refer to Napoleon) (Paris, 1903-1904);
adventure of 1815, and he was now treated officially as a general. F. Masson, Napoleon et sa famitte (4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900).
The great source for Napoleon's life is the Correspondence de
Nevertheless, during his last voyage he enjoyed excellent health
Napoleon I. (32 vols., Paris, 1858-1869). Though garbled in several
even in the tropics, and seemed less depressed than his associates,
places by the imperial commission appointed by Napoleon III. to
Bertrand, Gourgaud, Las Cases and Montholon. He landed at edit the letters and despatches, it is invaluable. It has been supple-
"
St Helena on the I7th of October. He resided first at The mented by the *Lettres inedites de NapoUon I", edited by L. Lecestre
with the Balcombes, and thereafter at Longwood, (2 vols., Paris, 1897; Eng. ed. I vol., London, 1898), and Lettres
"
Briars
intdites de Napoleon I", edited by L. de Brotonne (Paris, 1898)
when that residence was ready for him. The first governor of
(with supplement, 1903).
the island, General Wilks, was soon superseded, it being judged B. Works dealing mainly with particular periods.
that he was too amenable to influence from Napoleon; his I. Early years (1769-1795). NapoUon inconnu (1786-1793),
successor was Sir Hudson Lowe. edited by F. Masson (2 vols., Paris, 1895); A. Chuquet, La Jeunesse
de NapoUon I. (3 vols., Paris, 1897-1899); T. Nasica, Mempires
Napoleon's chief relaxations at St Helena were found in the
dictation of his memoirs to Montholon, and the compilation of
monographs on military and political topics. The memoirs
1793 (Paris, 1898) H. F. T. Jung, Bonaparte et son temps, 1769^1799
(which may be accepted as mainly Napoleon's, though Montholon
;
(3 vols., Paris, 1880-1881); O. Browning, Napoleon: the first
undoubtedly touched them up) range over most of the events Phase (London, 1905); H. F. Hall, Napoleon's Notes on English
of his life from Toulon to Marengo. The military and historical History (London, 1905) ; C. J. Fox, Napoleon Bonaparte and the
works comprise precis of the wars of Julius Caesar, Turenne and Siege of Toulon (Washington, 1902) H. Zivy, Le Treize Vendemiaire
;
Trederick the Great. He began other accounts of the campaigns (Paris, 1898).
II. The Period 1796-1799. (For the campaigns of 1796-1800,
of his own age; but they are marred by his having had few FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS and
1805-7, 1808-9, 1812-15, see
trustworthy documents and statistics at hand. On a lower NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.) The chief works on civil, diplomatic and
are:
level as regards credibility stands the Memorial de Sainte- personal affairs in the life of Napoleon for the period 1796-1799
P. Gaffarel, Bonaparte et Its republiques italiennes, 1796^1799 (Paris,
Helene, compiled by Las Cases from Napoleon's conversations
1895); C. Tivaroni, Storia cntica del risorgimento italiano (3 vols.,
with the obvious aim of creating a Napoleonic legend. Never- Turin, 1899 (in progress)) E. Bonnal de Ganges, La Chute d'une
;
theless the Memorial is of great interest e.g. the passage republique (Venise) (Paris, 1885); E. Quinet, Les Revolutions d'ltalie
NAPOLEON II.-NAPOLEON III. 211
(Paris, du Teil, Rome, Naples et le directcire; armistices
1842); J. be read with great caution. The same remark applies to Mrs L. A.
et Iraites,96-1797 (Paris, 1902) A. Sorel, Bonaparte et Hoche en 1797
i', ; ; Abell's Recollections of the Emperor Napoleon" (London, 1844),
L. Sciout, Le Directoire (3 vpls., Paris, 1895); F. A. Aulard, Paris W. Warden's Letters written on Board H.M.S. Northumberland "
pendant la reaction thermtdorienne et sous le directoire (5 vols., Paris, (London, 1816) and J. Stokoe's With Napoleon at St Helena (Eng.
1898-1902); Comte A. J. C. J. Boulay de la Meurthe, Le Directoire ed., London, 1902). Santini's Appeal to the British Nation (London,
et I' expedition d'Egypte (Paris, 1885); E. Driault, La Question 1817) and the Manuscrit venu de Ste Helene d'une manure inconnue
d' Orient (Paris, 1898) D. Lacroix, Bonaparte en Egypte (Paris,
; (London, 1817) are forgeries. (J. HL. R.)
1899); A. Vandal, L'Avenement de Bonaparte (Paris, 1902-1903);
F. Rocquain, fiat de France au 18 Brumaire (Paris, 1874); Bona-
NAPOLEON II., emperor of the French, the style given by
parte d St Cloud (anonymous) (Paris, 1814).
III. The Consulate and Empire (December 1799-April 1814). the Bonapartists to the son of Napoleon I., Napoleon Francis
(a) Family and personal affairs: *F. Masson, NapoUon chez lui (2
*
Joseph Charles, duke of Reichstadt (?..) . The fact that in
vols., Paris, 1893- ), NapoUon et lesfemmes (3 vols., Paris, 1893- 1814, by Napoleon I.'s abdication in his favour, the king of
1902), NapoUon et son fils (Paris, 1904) M. F. A. de Lescure,
;
Rome (as he was then styled) became for a few days titular
NapoUon et safamille (Paris, 1867) *Lettres de NapoUon a Josephine
; "
(Paris, 1895) A. Guillois, Napoleon, I'homme, le politique, I'orateur
;
emperor by the will of the people," was held 'by Prince Louis
(2 vols., Paris, 1889); *A. Levy, Napoleon inlime (Paris, 1893); Napoleon to justify his own assumption of the style of Napoleon
Baron C. F. de Meneval, Napoleon et Marie Louise (3 vols., Paris, III. which, as seeming to involve a dynastic claim, gave such
1843-1845) Baron A. du Casse, Les Rois, freres de Napolton (Paris,
;
offence to the legitimist powers, notably the emperor Nicholas I.
1883) H. Welschinger, Le Divorce de NapoUon (Paris, 1889).
;
of Russia.
(6) Plots against Napoleon: E. Daudet, Histoire de Immigration
(3 vols., Paris, 1886-1890 and 1904-1905), and La Police et les NAPOLEON HI. [CHARLES Lotus NAPOLEON BONAPARTE]
chouans sous le consulat et I' empire (Paris, 1895); G. de Cadoudal, (1808-1873), emperor of the French, was born on the 20th of
Georges Cadoudal et la Chouannerie (Paris, 1887) E. Guillen, Les
April 1808 in Paris at 8 rue Cerutti (now rue Laffitte), and not
;
Complots militaires sous le consulat et I' empire (Paris, 1894); *G. A.
at the Tuileries, as the official historians state. He was the third
Thierry, Le Complot des Libelles, 1802 (Paris, 1903); Memoires
historiques sur la catastrophe du due d'Enghien (Paris, 1824) H. Wel- ;
son of Louis Bonaparte (see BONAPARTE), brother of Napoleon I.,
schinger, Le due d'Enghien (Paris, 1888); E. Hamel, Histoire des and from 1806 to 1810 king of Holland, and of Hortense de
deux conspirations du General Malet (Paris, 1873).
Beauharnais, daughter of General (de) Beauharnais and Josephine
(c) Administration, Finance, Education. (For the Code NapoUon
* Tascher de la Pagerie, afterwards the empress Josephine; hence
see CODE.) J. Pelet de la Lozere, Opinions de Napoleon sur divers
sujets de politique et d' administration (Paris, 1833); Damas-Hinard, he was at the same time the nephew and the adopted grandson,
Napoleon, ses opinions et jugements sur les hommes et sur les chases of the great emperor. Of the two other sons of Louis Bonaparte
(2 vols., Paris, 1838); L. Aucoc, Le Conseil d'etat avant et depuis and Hortense, the elder, Napoleon Charles (1802-1807), died
1789 (Paris, 1876) E. Monnet, Histoire de V administration pro-
;
of croup at The Hague; the second, Napoleon Louis (1804-1831),
vinciale, departmental et communale en France (Paris, 1885); F. A.
Aulard, Paris sous le Consulat (Paris, 1903, seq.) L. de Lanzac de ;
died in the insurrection of the Romagna, leaving no children.
Laborie, Paris sous NapoUon (Paris, 1905, seq.) A. Edmond- ;
Doubts have been cast on the legitimacy of Louis Napoleon; for
Blanc, Napoleon I., ses institutions civiles et administratives (Paris, the discord between Louis Bonaparte, who was ill, restless and
1880); H. Welschinger, La Censure sous le premier Empire (Paris,
1882) C. van Schopr, La Presse sous le consulat et Vempire (Brussels,
;
suspicious, and his pretty and capricious wife was so violent
1899) M. C. Gaudin (Due de Gaete), Notice historique sur les finances
;
and open as to justify all conjectures. But definite evidence,
de la France, 1800-1814 (Paris, 1818); R. Stourm, Les Finances du in the shape of letters and references in memoirs, enables us
consulat (Paris, 1902); J. B. G. Fabry, Le Genie de la revolution to deny that the Dutch Admiral Verhuell was the father of Louis
consider^ dans I'education (3 vols., Paris, 1817-1818); F. Guizot,
Essai sur I'histoire et I'etat actuel de I'instruction publique (Paris, Napoleon,and there is strong evidence of resemblance in character
1816); C. Schmidt, La Reforme de I'Universite imperiale en 1811 between King Louis and his third son. He early gave signs of a
(Paris, 1905). The memoirs of Chaptal, Meneval, Mollien, Ouvrard grave and dreamy character. Many stories have been told about
and Pasquier deal largely with these subjects. Those of Bourrienne his childhood, for example the remark which Napoleon I. is said
and Fouchfi are of doubtful authority ; the latter are certainly not "
to have made about him: Who knows whether the future
genuine.
of my race may not lie in this child." It is certain that, after
(d) Diplomacy and General Policy: Besides the works named
under A, the following may be named as more especially applicable the abdication and exile of Louis, Hortense lived in France with
to this section A. Lefebvre, Histoire des cabinets de I' Europe pendant
:
her two children, in close relation with the imperial court.
le consulat et Vempire (3 vols., Paris,
1845-1847); C. Auriol, La During the Hundred Days, Louis Napoleon, then a child of
France, V Angleterre, et Napoleon, 1803-1806 (Paris, 1905) B. Bailleu, ;
Preussen und Frankreich von 1795-1807; Diplomatische Corre- seven, witnessed the presentation of the eagles to 50,000 soldiers;
spondenzen (2 vols., Leipzig, 1881-1887); Comte D. de Barral, but a few weeks later, before his departure for Rochefort, the
Etude sur I'histoire diplomatique de I' Europe (2nd part), 1789-1815, defeated Napoleon embraced him for the last time, and his
vol. i. (Paris, 1885) O. Browning, England and Napoleon in 1803
;
mother had to receive Frederick William III. of Prussia and his
(London, 1887); H. M. Bowman, Preliminary Stages of the Peace of
Amiens (Toronto, 1900) ;*Coquelle, NapoUonetl'Angleterre,i8o3-i8i5 two sons at the chateau of Saint-Leu; here the victor and the
(Paris, 1904); A. Vandal, Napoleon et Alexandre I" (3 vols., Paris, vanquished of Sedan met for the first time, and probably played
1891-1893); W. Oncken, Oesterreich und Preussen im Befreiungs- together.
kriege (2 vols., Berlin, 1876); H. A. L. Fisher, Napoleonic Statesman- After Waterloo, Hortense, suspected by the Bourbons of having
ship: Germany (Oxford, (1903); A. Rambaud, La Domination
franchise en Allemagne (2 vols., Paris, 1873-1874); G. Roloff, Die arranged the return from Elba, had to go into exile. The ex-
Kolonialpolitik Napoleons I. (Munich, 1899) and Politik und Krieg- king Louis, who now lived at Florence, had compelled her by a
fiihrung wahrend des Feldzuges von 1814 (Berlin, 1891); A. Fournier, scandalous law-suit to give up to him the elder of her two children.
Der Congress von Ch&tillon (Vienna and Prague, 1900) P. Gruyer, ; With her remaining child she wandered, under the name of
*
Napoleon, roi de Vile d'Elbe (Paris, 1906) H. Houssaye, 1815 [(3
;
duchesse de Saint-Leu, from Geneva to Aix, Carlsruhe and
vols., Paris, 1898-1905); C. M.
Talleyrand (Prince de Benevento),
Lettres inedites a Napoleon, 1800-1809 (Paris,
1889). Augsburg. In 1817 she bought the castle of Arenenberg, in the
IV. Closing Years (from the second abdication, June 22nd
1815, canton of Turgau, on a wooded hill looking over the Lake of
to death). Captain F. L. Maitland, Narrative of the Surrender of Constance. Hortense supervised her son's education in person,
Bonaparte (London, 1826; new ed., 1904); Sir T. Ussher, Napoleon's and tried to form his character. His tutor was Philippe Le Bas,
Last Voyages (London, 1895; new ed., 1906); G.
Gourgaud, Sainte- son of the well-known member of the Convention and follower
Htlene: Journal inedite^de 1815 a 1818 (2 vols., Paris,
1899);
Marquis C. J. de Montholon, Recits de la captivite de I'empereur of Robespierre, an able man, imbued with the ideas of the
NapoUon a Ste HUene (2 vols., Paris, 1847) Comte E. P. D. de ;
Revolution, while Vieillard, who instructed him in the rudiments,
Las Cases, Memorial de Ste Helene (4 vols., London and Paris,
1823) ;
was a democratic imperialist also inspired with the ideal of
Lady Malcolm, A Diary of St Helena (London, 1899); W. Forsyth,
History of the Captivity of Napoleon at St Helena (3 vols., London nationalism. The young prince also studied at the gymnasium
!853) R. C. Seaton, Napoleon's Captivity in Relation to Sir Hudson
; at Augsburg, where his love of work and his mental qualities were
Lowe (London, 1903) Basil Jackson, Notes and Reminiscences
;
of a gradually revealed; he was less successful in mathematics than
Staff Officer (London, 1903) Earl of Rosebery, Napoleon: the Last
;
in literary subjects, and he became an adept at physical exercises,
Phase (1900) J. H. Rose, Napoleonic Studies (London,
;
1904). such as fencing, riding and swimming. It was at this time that
Many of the works relating to Napoleon's detention at St Helena
are perversions of the truth, e.g. O'Meara's A Voice
from St Helena he acquired the slight German accent which he never lost.
(London, 1822). The works of Las Cases and Montholon should also Those who educated him never lost sight of the future; but it
212 NAPOLEON III.
was above all his mother, fully confident of the future destiny of La Rochelle, seemed feasible to Napoleon. A new friend of
of the Bonapartes, who impressed on him the idea that he would formerly a non-commissioned officer and a journalist,
his, Fialin,
be king, or at any rate, that he would accomplish some great an energetic and astute man and a born conspirator, spurred
"
works. With your name," she said, " you will always count for him on to action.
something, whether in the old world of Europe or in the new." With the aid of Fialin and Eleonore Gordon, a singer, who
If we may believe Mme Cornu, he already at the age of twelve issupposed to have been his mistress, and with the co-operation
had dreams of empire. of certain officers, such as Colonel Vaudrey, an old soldier of
In 1823 he accompanied his mother to Italy, visiting his father the Empire, commanding the 4th regiment of artillery, and
at Florence, and his grandmother Letitia at Rome, and dreaming Lieutenant Laity, he tried to bring about a revolt of the garrison
with Le Bas on the banks of the Rubicon. He returned to of Strassburg (October 30, 1836). The conspiracy was a failure,
Arenenburg to complete his military education under Colonel and Louis Philippe, fearing lest he might make the pretender
Armandi and Colonel Dufour, who instructed him in artillery popular either by the glory of an acquittal or the aureole of
and military engineering. At the age of twenty he was a martyrdom, had him taken to Lorient and put on board a ship
"
Liberal," an enemy of the Bourbons and of the treaties of 1815; bound for America, while his accomplices were brought before
but he was dominated by the cult of the emperor, and for him the court of assizesand acquitted (February 1837). The prince
the liberal ideal was confused with the Napoleonic. was set free in New York in April; by the aid of a false passport
The July revolution of 1830, of which he heard in Italy, he returned to Switzerland in August, in time to see his mother
roused all his young hopes. He could not return to France, for before her death on the 3rd of October 1837.
the law of 1816 banishing all his family had not been abrogated. At any other time this attempt would have covered its author
But the liberal revolution knew no frontiers. Italy shared in with ridicule. Such, at least, was the opinion of the whole of the
the agitation. He had already met some of the conspirators family of Bonaparte. But his confidence was unshaken, and
at Arenenberg, and it is practically established that he now in the woods of Arenenberg the romantic-minded friends who
joined the associations of the Carbonari. Following the advice remained faithful to him still honoured him as emperor. And
of his friend the Count Arese and of Menotti, he and his brother now the government of Louis Philippe, by an evil inspiration,
were among the revolutionaries who in February 1831 attempted began to act in such a way as to make him popular. In 1838
a rising in Romagna and the expulsion of the pope from Rome. it caused his partisan Lieutenant Laity to be condemned by the
They distinguished themselves at Civita Castellana, a little Court of Peers to five years' imprisonment for a pamphlet which
town which they took; but the Austrians arrived in force, and he had written to justify the Strassburg affair; then it demanded
during the retreat Napoleon Louis, the elder son, took cold, the expulsion of the prince from Switzerland, and when the Swiss
followed by measles, of which he died. Hortense hurried to government resisted, threatened war. Having allowed the July
the spot and took steps which enabled her to save her second son monarch to commit himself, Louis Napoleon at the last moment
from the Austrian prisons. He escaped into France, where his leftSwitzerland voluntarily. All this served to encourage the
mother, on the plea of his illness, obtained permission from mystical adventurer. In London, where he had taken up his
Louis Philippe for him to stay in Paris. But he intrigued with abode, together with Arese, Fialin (says Persigny), Doctor
the republicans, and Casimir-Perier insisted on the departure Conneau and Vaudrey, he was at first well received in society,
of both mother and son. In May 1831 they went to London, being on friendly terms with Count d'Orsay and Disraeli, and
and afterwards returned to Arenenberg. frequenting the salon of Lady Blessington. He met with various
For a time he thought of responding to the appeal of some of adventures, being present at the famous tournament given by
the Polish revolutionaries, but Warsaw succumbed (September Lord Eglinton, and yielded to the charm of his passionate
1831) before he could set out. Moreover the plans of this young admirer Miss Howard. But it was a studious life, as well as the
and visionary enfant du siecle were becoming more definite. life of a dandy, that he led at Carlton House Terrace. Not for
The duke of Reichstadt died in 1832. His uncle, Joseph, and a minute did he forget his mission: " Would you believe it,"
"
his father, Louis, showing no desire to claim the inheritance the duke of Wellington wrote of him, this young man will not
promised them by the constitution of the year XII., Louis have it said that he is not going to be emperor of the French.
Napoleon henceforth considered himself as the accredited The unfortunate affair of Strassburg has in no way shaken this
representative of the family. Those who came in contact with strange conviction, and his chief thoughts are of what he will
him noticed a transformation in his character; he tried to hide do when he is on the throne." He was in fact evolving his
his natural sensibility under an impassive exterior, and concealed programme of government, and in 1839 wrote and published
" "
his ambitions.
political He became indeed doux entete his book: Des Id&es napoUoniennes, a curious mixture of Bona-
(gentle but obstinate) as his mother called him, persistent in partism, socialism and pacificism, which he represented as the
his ideas and always ready to return to them, though at the tradition of the First Empire. He also followed attentively
same time yielding and drawing back before the force of circum- the fluctuations of French opinion.
stances. He endeavoured to define his ideas, and in 1833 published Since 1838 the Napoleonic propaganda had made enormous
his Reveries poliiiques, suivies d'un projet de constitution, and progress. Not only did certain newspapers, such as the Capilole
Considerations politigues et militaires sur la Suisse; in 1836, and the Journal du Commerce, and clubs, such as the Culottes
as a captain, in the Swiss service, he published a Manuel de peau carry it on zealously; but the diplomatic humiliation
d'artillerie, in order to win popularity with the French army. of France in the affair of Mehemet Ali (q.v.) in 1840, with the
A phrase of Montesquieu, placed at the head of this work, sums outburst of patriotism which accompanied it, followed by the
"
up the views of the young theorist: The people, possessing concessions made by the government to public opinion, such as,
the supreme power, should do for itself all that it is able to do; for example, the bringing back of the ashes of Napoleon I.,
what it cannot do well, it must do through its elected repre- all helped to revive revolutionary and Napoleonic memories.
sentatives." The supreme authority entrusted to the elect of The pretender, again thinking that the moment had come,
the people was always his essential idea. But the problem was formed a fresh conspiracy. With a little band of fifty-six followers
how to realize it. Louis Napoleon could feel vaguely the state he attempted to provoke a rising of the 4znd regiment of the
of public opinion in France, the longing for glory from which line at Boulogne, hoping afterwards to draw General Magnan
it and the deep-rooted discord between the nation and
suffered, to Lille and march upon Paris. The attempt was made on the
the king, Louis Philippe, who though sprung from the national 6th of August 1840, but failed; he saw several of his supporters
revolution against the treaties of 1815, was yet a partisan of fall on the shore of Boulogne, and was arrested together with
peace at any price. Both Chateaubriand and Carrel had praised Montholon, Persigny and Conneau. This time he was brought
the prince's first writings. Bonapartists and republicans found before the Court of Peers with his accomplices; he entrusted
common ground in the glorious tradition sung by Beranger. his defence to Berryer and Marie, and took advantage of his
A military conspiracy like those of Berton or the sergeants trial to appeal to the supremacy of the people, which he alleged,
NAPOLEON III. 213
"
had been disregarded, even after 1830. He was condemned ing this appeal: If the people impose duties on me, I shall
to detention for life in a fortress, his friend Aladenize being know how to them." This time events worked in his favour;
fulfil
deported, and Montholon, Parquin, Lombard and Fialin being the industrial insurrection of June made the middle classes and
each condemned to detention for twenty years. On the isth of the mass of the rural population look for a saviour, while it
December, the very day that Napoleon's ashes were deposited at turned the industrial population towards Bonapartism, out of
the Invalides, he was taken to the fortress of Ham. The country hatred for the republican bourgeois. The Legitimists seemed im-
seemed to forget him Lamartine alone foretold that the honours
; possible, and the people turned instinctively towards a Bonaparte.
paid to Napoleon I. would shed lustre on his nephew. His prison On the 26th of September he was re-elected by the same
at Ham was unhealthy, and physical inactivity was painful departments; on the nth of October the law decreeing the
to the prince, but on the whole the regime imposed upon him banishment of the Bonapartes was abrogated; on the 26th he
was mild, and his captivity was lightened by Alexandrine made a speech in the Assembly defending his position as a
"
Vergeot, la belle sabotiere," or Mdlle Badinguet (he was later pretender, and cut such a sorry figure that Antony Thouret
nicknamed Badinguet by the republicans). His more intel- contemptuously withdrew the amendment by which he had
lectual friends, such as Mme Cornu, also came to visit him and intended to bar him from rising to the presidency. Thus he was
assisted him in his studies. He corresponded with Louis Blanc, able to be a candidate for this formidable power, which had just
George Sand and Proudhon, and collaborated with the journalists been defined by the Constituent Assembly and entrusted to the
of the Left, Degeorge, Peauger and Souplet. For six years "
choice of the people, to Providence," as Lamartine said.
"
he worked very hard at this University of Ham," as he said. In contrast to Cavaignac he was the candidate of the advanced
He wrote some Fragments historiques, studies on the sugar- parties, but also of the monarchists, who reckoned on doing
question, on the construction of a canal through Nicaragua, what they liked with him, and of the Catholics, who gave him
and on the recruiting of the army, and finally, in the Progres their votes on condition of his restoring the temporal power
du Pas-de-Calais, a series of articles on social questions which to Rome and handing over education to the Church. The former
were later embodied in his Extinction du pauperisme (1844). rebel of the Romagna, the Liberal Carbonaro, was henceforth to
But the same persistent idea underlay all his efforts. " The be the tool of the In his
very triumph appeared the
priests.
more closely the body is confined," he wrote, " the more the mind ultimate cause On the loth of December he
of his downfall.
is disposed to indulge in flights of imagination, and to consider was elected president of the Republic by 5,434,226 votes against
the possibility of executing projects of which a more active 1,448,107 given to Cavaignac. On the 2oth of December he
existence would never perhaps have left it the leisure to think." took the oath "to remain faithful to the democratic Republic
On the 25th of May 1846 he escaped to London, giving as the ... to regard as enemies of the nation all those who may attempt
reason' for his decision the dangerous illness of his father. On by illegal means to change the form of the established govern-
the 27th of July his father died, before he could accomplish ment." From this time onward his history is inseparable from
a journey undertaken in spite of the refusal of a passport by that of France. But, having attained to power, he still en-
the representative of Tuscany. deavoured to realize his cherished project. All his efforts, from
He was again well received in London, and he " made up for the loth of December 1848 to the and of December 1852 tended
his six years of isolation by a furious pursuit of pleasure." The towards the acquisition of absolute authority, which he wished
duke of Brunswick and the banker Ferrere interested them- to obtain, in appearance, at any rate, from the people.
selves in his future, and gave him money, as did also Miss Howard, It was with this end in view that he co-operated with the
whom he later made comtesse de Beauregard, after restoring to party of order in the expedition to Rome for the destruction of
her several millions. He was still full of plans and new ideas, the Roman republic and the restoration of the pope (March 31,
always with the same end in view; and for this reason, in spite of 1849), and afterwards in all the reactionary measures against the
his various enterprises, which were sometimes ridiculous, some- press and the clubs, and for the destruction of the Reds. But in
times unpleasant in their consequences, and his unscrupulous- opposition to the party of order, he defined his own personal
ness as to the men and means he employed, he always had a policy, as in his letter to Edgard Ney (August 16, 1849), which
kind of greatness. He always retained his faith in his star. was not deliberated upon at the council of ministers, and asserted
" "
They will come to me without any effort of my own," he said his intention of not stifling Italian liberty," or by the change
to Taglioni the dancer; and again to Lady Douglas, who was of ministry on the 3ist of October 1849, when, " in order to
"
counselling resignation, he replied, Though fortune has twice dominate parties," he substituted for the men coming from
all
betrayed me, yet my destiny will none the less surely be fulfilled. the Assembly, such as Odilon Barrot, creatures of his own, such
I wait." He was not to wait much longer. as Rouher and de Parieu, the Auvergne avocats, and Achille
As he well perceived, the popularity of his name, the vague "
Fould, the banker. The name of Napoleon," he said on this
" " "
legend of a Napoleon who was at once a democrat, a soldier occasion, is in itself a programme; it stands for order, authority,
and a revolutionary hero, was his only strength. But by his religion and the welfare of the people in internal affairs, and in
abortive efforts he had not yet been able to win over this immense foreign affairs for the national dignity."
force of tradition and turn it to his own purposes. The events In spite of this alarming assertion of his personal policy, he
which occurred from 1848 to 1852 enabled him to do so. He still remained in harmony with the Assembly (the Legislative
behaved with extraordinary skill, displaying in the heat of the Assembly, elected on the 28th of May 1849) in order to carry
"
conflict all the abilities of an experienced conspirator, knowing, out a Roman
expedition at home," i.e. to clear the administra-
"
like the snail, how to draw in his horns as soon as he met with tion of republicans, put down the press, suspend the right of
all
an obstacle " (Thiers), but supple, resourceful and unscrupulous holding meetings and, above all, to hand over education to the
as to the choice of men and means in his obstinate struggle for Church (law of the ijth of March 1850). But the machiavellian
power. pretender, daily growing more skilful at manoeuvring between
At the first symptoms of revolutionary disturbance he returned different classes and parties, knew where
to stop and how to
to France; on the zsth of February he offered his services to the keep up a show of democracy. When
the Assembly, by the law
Provisional Government, but, on being requested by it to depart of the 3ist of May 1850, restricted universal suffrage and reduced
at once, resigned himself to this course. But Persigny, Mocquard the number of the electors from 9 to 6 millions, he was able to
and all his friends devoted themselves to an energetic propaganda throw upon it the whole responsibility for this coup d'etat bour-
"
in the press, by pictures and by songs. After the isth of May geois. I cannot understand how you, the offspring of universal
had already shaken the strength of the young republic, he was suffrage, can defend the restricted suffrage," said his friend Mme
elected in June 1848 by four
departments, Seine, Yonne, Charente- Cornu. " You do not understand," he replied, " I am preparing
Inf6rieure and Corsica. In spite of the opposition of the executive "
the ruin of the Assembly." But you will perish with it," she
"
committee, the Assembly ratified his election. But he had learnt answered. On the contrary, when the Assembly is hanging
to wait. He sent in his resignation from over the precipice, I shall cut the rope."
London, merely hazard-
214 NAPOLEON III.
In while trying to compass the destruction of the
fact, of the whole social order " (constitution of the I4th of January
republican movement of the Left, he was taking careful steps to 1852; administrative centralization; subordination of the
"
gain over all classes. Prince, altesse, monsieur, monseigneur, elected assemblies; control of the machinery of universal suffrage)
" "
citoyen (he was called by all these names indifferently at the to unite all classes in one great national party " attached to the
Elysee), he appeared as the candidate of the most incompatible dynasty. His success, from 1852 to 1856, was almost complete.
interests, flattering the clergy by his compliments and formal The nation was submissive, and a few scattered- plots alone
visits, distributing cigars and sausages to the soldiers, promising showed that republican ideas persisted among the masses.
" "
the prosperous bourgeoisie order in the street and business, As " restorer of the overthrown altars," he won over the " men
"
while he posed as the father of the workers," and won the hearts in black," among them Veuillot, editor-in-chief of I'Univers, and
of the peasants. At his side were his accomplices, men ready for allowed them to get the University into their hands. By the aid
anything, whose only hopes were bound up with his fortunes, of former Orleanists, such as Billault, Fould and Morny, and
such as Morny and Rouher; his paid publicists, such as Romieu Saint-Simonians such as Talabot and the Pereires, he satisfied
"
the originator of the red spectre "; his cudgel-bearers, the the industrial classes, extended credit, developed means of
" "
Ratapoils immortalized by Daumier, who terrorized the communication, and gave a strong impetus to the business of
republicans. From the Elysee by means of the mass of officials the nation. By various measures, such as subsidies, charitable
whom they had at their command, the conspirators extended their gifts and foundations, he endeavoured to show that " the idea
activities throughout the whole country. of improving the lot of those who suffer and struggle against the
He next entered upon that struggle with the Assembly, now difficulties of life was constantly present in his mind." His was
discredited, which was to reveal to all the necessity for a change, the government of cheap bread, great public works and holidays.
and a change in his favour. In January 1851 he deprived The imperial court was brilliant. The emperor, having failed to
"
Changarnier of his command of the garrison of Paris. The obtain the hand of a Vasa or Hohenzollern, married, on the 2gth
Empire has come," said Thiers. The pretender would have pre- of January 1853, EugSnie de Montijo, comtesse de Teba, aged
ferred, however, that it should be brought about' legally, the first twenty-six and at the height of her beauty.
" "
step being his re-election in 1852. The Constitution forbade his France was satisfied in the midst of order, prosperity and
re-election; therefore the Constitution must be revised. On the peace. But a glorious peace was required; it must not be said
"
igth of July the Assembly threw out the proposal for revision, that France is bored," as Lamartine had said when the
thus signing its own death-warrant, and the coup d'etat was Napoleonic legend began to spread. The foreign policy of the
resolved upon. He prepared for it systematically. The cabinet Catholic party, by the question of the Holy Places and the
of the a6th of October 1851 gave the ministry for war to his Crimean War (1853-1856), gave him the opportunity of winning
creature Saint-Arnaud. All the conspirators were at their the glory which he desired, and the British alliance enabled him
posts Maupas at the prefecture of police, Magnan at the to take advantage of it. In the spring of 1855, as a definite success
head of the troops in Paris. At the Elysee, Morny, adulterine son was still slow to come, he contemplated for a time taking the
of Hortense, a hero of the Bourse and successful gambler, lead of the expedition in person, but his advisers dissuaded him
supported his half-brother by his energy and counsels. The from doing so, for fear of a revolution. In January 1856 he had
ministry proposed to abrogate the electoral law of 1850, and the good fortune to win a diplomatic triumph over the new tsar,
restore universal suffrage; theAssembly by refusing made itself Alexander II. It was at Paris (February 25~March 30) that the
stillmore unpopular. By proposing to allow the president conditions of peace were settled.
of the Assembly to call in armed force, the questors revealed The emperor was now at the height of his power. He appeared
the Assembly's plans for defence, and gave the Elysee a weapon to the people as the avenger of 1840 and 1815, and the birth to
against it (" donnent barre contre elle a 1'Elysee "). The propo- him of a son, Eugene Louis Jean Joseph, on the i6th of March
sition was rejected (November 17), but Louis-Napoleon saw that 1856, assured the future of the dynasty. It was then that,
"
it was time to act. On the 2nd of December he carried out his strong in the esteem and admiration with which he was sur-
"
coup d'ttat. rounded," and foreseeing a future full of hope for France," he
But affairs developed in a way which
disappointed him. By dreamed of realizing the Napoleonic ideal in its entirety. This
"
dismissing the Assembly, by the people
offering a strong disciple of the German philologists, this crowned Carbonaro,
"
government," and re-establishing a France regenerated by the the friend of the archaeologists and historians who were to help
Revolution of '89 and organized by the emperor," he had hoped him to write the Histoire de Cisar, dreamed of developing the
for universal applause. But both in Paris and the provinces policy of nationalism, and of assisting the peoples of all countries
he met with the resistance of the Republicans, who had re- to enfranchise themselves.
organized in view of the elections of 1852. He struck at them From 1856 to 1858 he devoted his attention to the Rumanian
by mixed commissions, deportations and the whole range of nationality, and supported Alexander Cuza. But it was above
police measures. The decrets-lois of the year 1852 enabled him all the deliverance of Italy which haunted his imagination.
to prepare the way for the new institutions. On the ist of By this enterprise, which his whole tradition imposed upon him,
December 1852 he became in name what he was already in deed, he reckoned to flatter the amour-propre of his subjects, and rally
and was proclaimed Emperor of the French. He was then 44 to him the liberals and even the republicans, with their passion
years old.
"
The impassibility of his face and his lifeless glance " for propagandism. But the Catholics feared that the Italian
showed observers that he was still the obstinate dreamer that national movement, when once started, would entail the downfall
he had been in youth, absorbed in his Idea. His unshaken of the papacy; and in opposition to the emperor's Italian
conviction of his mission made him conscious of the responsibility advisers, Arese and Prince Jerome Napoleon, they pitted the
which rested on him, but hid from him the hopeless defect in the empress, who was frivolous and capricious, but an ardent Catholic.
coup d'itat. To carry out his conviction, he had still only a Napoleon III. was under his wife's influence, and could not openly
timid will, working through petty expedients; but here again combat her resistance. It was the Italian Orsini who, by
his confidence in the future made him bold. In a people politically attempting to assassinate him as a traitor to the Italian nation
decimated and wearied, he was able to develop freely all the on the I4th of January 1858, gave him an opportunity to impose
Napoleonic ideals. Rarely has a man been able to carry out his will indirectly by convincing his wife that in the interests
his system so completely, though perhaps in these first years he of his own security he must
"
do something for Italy." Events
had to take more disciplinary measures than he had intended followed each other in quick succession, and now began the
against the Reds, and granted more favours than was fitting difficulties in which the Empire was to be irrevocably involved.
to the Catholics, his allies in December 1848 and December Not only did the Italian enterprise lead to strained relations with
1858. Great Britain, the alliance with whom had been the emperor's
The aim which the emperor had in view was, by a concentration chief support in Europe, and compromised its credit; but the
"
of power which should make him the beneficent motive force claims of parties and classes again began to be heard at home.
NAPOLEON III. 215
The Italian war aroused the opposition of the Catholics. his bladder complaint. He knew, moreover, the insufficiency
After Magenta (June 4, 1859), it was the fears of the Catholics of his troops. After days of terrible suffering, he resigned
and the messages of the empress which, even more than the himself to the annexation by Prussia of northern Germany.
threats of Prussia, checked him in his triumph and forced him
"
Now," said M
Drouin de Lhuys, " we have nothing left but to
into the armistice of Villafranca (July n, 1859). But the spread weep."
of the Italian revolution and the movement for annexation Henceforth the brilliant dream, a moment realized, the realiza-
forced him again to intervene. He appealed to the Left against tion of which he had thought durable, was at an end. The
the Catholics, by the amnesty of the i7th of April 1859. His Empire had still an uncertain and troubled brilliancy at the
consent to the annexation of the Central Italian states, in Exhibition of 1867. But Berezowski's pistol shot, which accen-
exchange for Savoy and Nice (Treaty of Turin, March 24, 1860) tuated the estrangement from the tsar, and the news of the death
exposed him to violent attacks on the part of the ultramontanes, of Maximilian at Queretaro, cast a gloom over the later fetes.
whose slave he had practically been since 1848. At the same In the interior the industrial and socialist movement, born of
time, the free-trade treaty with Great Britain (January 5, the new industrial development, added fresh strength to the
1860) aroused a movement against him among the industrial Republican and Liberal opposition. The moderate Imperialists
bourgeoisie. felt that some concessions must be made to public opinion. In
" "
Thus at the end of 1860, the very time when he had hoped that opposition to the absolutist vice-emperor Rouher, whose
his personal policy was to rally round him once for all the whole influence over Napoleon had become stronger and stronger since
of France, and assure the future of his dynasty, he saw, on the the death of Morny, Emile Ollivier grouped the Third Party.
contrary, that it was turning against him his strongest sup- Anxious, changeable and distraught, the emperor made the
porters. He became alarmed at the responsibilities which he saw Liberal concessions of the igth of January 1867 (right of inter-
would fall upon him, and imagined that by an appearance of pellation), and then, when Ollivier thought that his triumph
reform he would be able to shift on to others the responsibility was near, he exalted Rouher (July) and did not grant the promised
for any errors he might commit. Hence the decrees of the 24th of laws concerning the press and public meetings till 1868. The
November 1860 (right of address, ministers without portfoh'o) opposition gave him no credit for these tardy concessions. There
and the letter of the i4th of November 1861 (financial reform). was an epidemic of violent attacks on the emperor; the publica-
From this time onward, in face of a growing opposition, anxiety tion of the Lanterne and the Baudin trial, conducted by Gam-
for the future of his regime occupied the first place in the betta, were so many death-blows to the regime. The Inter-
emperor's thoughts, and paralysed his initiative. Placed nationale developed its propaganda. The election cf May 1869
between his Italian counsellors and the empress, he was ever of resulted in 4,438,000 votes given for the government, and
two minds. His plans for remodelling Europe had a certain 3,355,000 for the opposition, who also gained 90 representatives.
generosity and grandeur; but internal difficulties forced him into The emperor, disappointed and hesitating, was slow to return to
endless manoeuvre and temporization, which led to his ruin. a parliamentary regime. It was not till December that he
"
Thus in October 1862, after Garibaldi's attack on Rome, the instructed Ollivier to form a homogeneous cabinet representing
clerical coterie of the Tuileries triumphed. But the replacing the majority of the Corps L6gislatif " (ministry of the 2nd of
of M. Thouvenel by M. Drouin de Lhuys did not satisfy the more January 1870). But, embarrassed between the Arcadiens,
violent Catholics, who in May 1863 joined the united opposition. the partisans of the absolute regime, and the republicans,
Thirty-five opposers of the government were appointed, Re- Ollivier was unable to guide the Empire in a constitutional
publicans, Orleanists, Legitimists or Catholics. The emperor course. At the Tuileries Rouher's counsel still triumphed. It
dismissed Persigny, and summoned moderate reformers such as was he who inspired the ill and wearied emperor, now without
Duruy and Behic. But he was still possessed with the idea of confidence or energy, with the idea of resorting to the plibiscite.
"
settling his throne on a firm basis, and uniting all France in some To do away with the risk of a Revolution," " to place order
glorious enterprisewhich should appeal to all parties equally, and and liberty upon a firm footing," " to ensure the transmission of
"
group them under the mantle of imperial glory." From the crown to his son," Napoleon III. again sought the approba-
January to June 1863 he sought this appearance of glory in tion of the nation. He obtained it with brilliant success, for the
Poland, but only succeeded in embroiling himself with Russia. last time, by 7,358,786 votes against 1,571,939, and his work
"
Then, after Syria and China, it was the great inspiration of his now seemed to be consolidated.
reign," the establishment of a Catholic and Latin empire in A few weeks later it crumbled irrevocably. Since 1866 he had
Mexico, enthusiasm for which he tried in vain from 1863 to 1867 been pursuing an elusive appearance of glory. Since 1866 France
to communicate to the French. was calling for " revenge." He felt that he could only rally the
But while the strength of France was wasting away at Puebla people to him by procuring them the satisfaction of their national
or Mexico, Bismarck was founding German unity. In August pride. Hence the mishaps and imprudences of which Bismarck
1864 the emperor, held back by French public opinion, which made such an insulting use. Hence the negotiations of Nikols-
was favourable to Prussia, and by his idea of nationality, allowed " "
burg, the note d'aubergiste (innkeeper's bill) claiming the
Prussia and Austria to seize the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. left bank of the Rhine, which was so scornfully rejected; hence
After his failure in Poland and Mexico and in face of the alarming the plan for the invasion of Belgium (August 1866), the Luxem-
presence of Germany, only one alliance remained possible for burg affair (March 1867), from which M. de Moustier's diplomacy
Napoleon III., namely with Italy. He obtained this by the effected such a skilful retreat; hence the final folly which led
convention of the isth of September 1864 (involving the with- this government into the war with Prussia (July 1870).
drawal of the French troops from Rome). But the Catholic The war was from the first doomed to disaster. It might
party redoubled its violence, and the pope sent out the encyclical perhaps have been averted if France had had any allies. But
Quanta Cura and the Syllabus, especially directed against France. Austria, a possible ally, could only join France if satisfied as
In vain the emperor sought in German affairs a definitive solution regards Italy; and since Garibaldi had threatened Rome
of the Italian question. At Biarritz he prepared with Bismarck (Mentana, 1867), Napoleon III., yielding to the anger of the
the Franco-Prussian alliance of April 1866; and hoped to become, Catholics, had again sent troops to Rome. Negotiations had
to his greater glory, arbiter in the tremendous conflict which was taken place in 1869. The emperor, bound by the Catholics, had
about to begin. But suddenly, while he was trying to rouse refused to withdraw his troops. It was as a distant but inevitable
public opinion against the treaties of 1815, the news of the battle consequence of his agreement of December 1848 with the Catholic
of Koniggratz came as a bolt from the blue to ruin his hopes. party that in 1870 the emperor found himself without an ally.
French interests called for an immediate intervention. But the His energy was now completely exhausted. Successive
emperor was ill, weary and aged by the life of pleasure which he attacks of stone in the bladder had ruined his physique; while
led side by side with his life of work (as is proved by the letters his hesitation and timidity increased with age. The influence
to Mdlle Bellanger); he was suffering from a first attack of of the empress over him became supreme. On leaving the
2l6 NAPOLEON NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
" " "
council in which the war was decided upon the emperor threw Wellington." In these cases the caller of Wellington
himself, weeping, into the arms of Princess Mathilde. The wins four times the stake and loses twice the stake, the caller
" "
empress was delighted at this war, which she thought would of Blucher receives six times and loses three times the stake.
secure her son's inheritance. Sometimes a player is allowed to declare misere, i.e. no tricks.
On the 28th of July father and son set out for the army. This ranks, as a declaration, between three and four, but the
They found it in a state of utter disorder, and added to the player pays a double stake on three, if he wins a trick, and receives
by their presence. The emperor was suffering from
difficulties a single on three if he takes none.
stone and could hardly sit his horse. After the defeat of Reichs- NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS. i. The era of the Revolutionary
hoffen, when Bazaine was thrown back upon Metz, he wished to and Napoleonic Wars falls into two main divisions, the first
retreat upon Paris. But the empress represented to him that of which (1792-1801) is dealt with under the heading FRENCH
if he retreated it would mean a revolution. An advance was REVOLUTIONARY WARS. In the present article are described
decided upon which ended in Sedan. On the and of September, the campaigns in central and eastern Europe, directed by
Napoleon III. surrendered with 80,000 men, and on the 4th of Napoleon no longer one amongst many French generals,
" "
September the Empire fell. He was taken as a prisoner to the nor even a simple primus inter pares, but Emperor in the
castle of Wilhelmshohe, near Cassel, where he stayed till the fullest sense between the years 1805 and 1814. Napoleon's
end of the war. After the intrigues of Bazaine, of Bismarck, short Spanish Campaign of 1809 is dealt with under PENINSULAR
and of the empress, the Germans having held negotiations WAR (this article covering the campaigns in Spain, Portugal and
with the Republic, he was de facto deposed. On the ist of March southern France 1808-1814), and for the final drama of Waterloo
the assembly of Bordeaux confirmed this deposition, and declared the reader is referred to WATERLOO CAMPAIGN.
him " responsible for the ruin, invasion and dismemberment The campaigns described below are therefore
of France." (a) The Austrian War of 1805 (Ulm and Austerlitz).
Restored to liberty,he retired with his wife and son to (6) The Conquest of Prussia and the Polish Campaign (Jena,
Auerstadt, Eylau and Friedland).
Chislehurst in England. Unwilling even now to despair of the
(c) The Austrian War of 1809 (Eckmtihl, Aspern and Wagram).
future, he still sought to rally his friends for a fresh propaganda. (d) The Russian War of 1812 (Borodino and the retreat from
He had at his service publicists such as Cassagnac, J. Amigues Moscow). "
and Hugelmann. He himself also wrote unsigned pamphlets (e) The German War of Liberation," culminating in the Battle
of the Nationsaround Leipzig.
justifying the campaign of 1870. It may be noted that, true to
(/) The last campaign in France, 1814.
his ideas, he did not attempt to throw upon others the responsi-
The naval history of 1803-1815 includes the culmination and the
bility which he had always claimed for himself. He dreamed sequel of the struggle for command of the sea which began in 1793
of his son's future. But he no longer occupied himself with any and reached its maximum intensity on the day of Trafalgar.
definite plans. He interested himself in pensions for workmen 2. The Campaign of 1805 may be regarded as a measure of
and economical stoves. At the end of 1872 his disease became self-defence forced upon Napoleon by the alliance of Russia
more acute, and a surgical operation became necessary. He (April nth), Austria (August 9th) and other powers with Great
died on the pth of January 1873, leaving his son in the charge Britain. The possibility had long been before the emperor, and
of the empress and of Rouher. The young prince was educated his intention in that event to march straight on Vienna by the
at Woolwich from 1872 to 1875, and in 1879 took part in the
valley of the Danube is clearly indicated in his reply (November
English expedition against the Zulus in South Africa, in which 27th, 1803) to a Prussian proposal for the neutralization of the
he was killed. By his death vanished all hope of renewing the South German states. In this he says, "It is on the road from
extraordinary fortune which for twenty years placed the Strassburg to Vienna that the French must force peace on
descendant of the great emperor, the Carbonaro and dreamer, Austria, and it is this road which you wish us to renounce."
at once obstinate and hesitating, on the throne of France.
When, therefore, on the 2Sth of August 1805, he learnt definitely
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The (Euvres of Napoleon 1 1 1. have been published
that Villeneuve (see Naval operations below) had failed in his
in four volumes (1854-1857) and his Histoire de Jules Cesar in two
volumes (1865-1869); this latter work has been translated into purpose of securing the command of the Channel, which was
English by T. Wright. See also Ebeling, Napoleon III. und sein the necessary preliminary to the invasion of England, it was but
Hoi (1891-1894); H. Thirria, Napoleon III. atant I'Empire (1895); the affair of a few hours to dictate the dispositions necessary to
Sylyain-Blot, Napoleon III. (1899); Giraudeau, Napoleon III. transfer his whole army to the Rhine frontier as the first step
intime (1895); Sir W. A. Eraser, Napoleon III. (London, 1895);
A. Forbes, Life of Napoleon III. (1898) ;
A. Lebey, Les Trois coups in its march to the Danube. On this date the army actually
d'etat de Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (1906); Louis Napoleon Bona- lay in the following positions:
parte et la revolution de 1848 (1908)
; and F. A. Simpson, The Rise of I. Corps Bernadotte Hanover (Gottingen)
Louis Napoleon (1909). General works which may be consulted II. Marmont Holland
are Taxile-Delord, Histoire du second Empire (1868-1875); P- de III. Davout
La Gorce, Histoire du second Empire (1894-1905); A. Thomas, Le IV. Soult I
Camp of Boulogne and
Second Empire (1907); and E. Ollivier, L Empire lileral (14 vols., V. Lannes other points on the
|
1895-1909). (A. Ts.) VI. Ney J English Channel
NAPOLEON, a round game of cards (known colloquially as VII. Augereau
" Guard
Nap "). Any number may play. The cards rank as at whist, Bessieres Paris.
and five are dealt to each player. The deal being completed, The corps were, however, by no means fit for immediate service.
the player to the dealer's left looks at his hand and declares Bernadotte's corps in Hanover was almost in the position of a
how many tricks he would play to win against all the rest, the beleaguered garrison, and the marshal could only obtain his
usual rule being that more than one must be declared; in default transport by giving out that he was ordered to withdraw to
"
of declaring he says I pass," and the next player has a similar France. Marmont and Davout were deficient in horses for
option of either declaring to make more tricks or passing, and cavalry and artillery, and the troops in Boulogne, having been
so on all round. A declaration of five tricks is called
"
going drawn together for the invasion of England, had hardly any
Nap." The player who declares to make most has to try to transport at all, as it was considered this want could be readily
make them, and the others, but without consultation, to prevent supplied on landing. The composition of the army, however, was
him. The declaring hand has the first lead, and the first card excellent. The generals were in the prime of life, had not yet
he leads makes the trump suit. The players, in rotation, must learnt to distrust one another, and were accustomed to work
follow suit if able. If the declarer succeeds in making at least under the emperor and with one another. The regimental
the number of tricks he stood for he wins whatever stakes are officers had all acquired their rank before the enemy and knew
played for; if not he loses. If the player declaring Nap wins how to manage their men, and of the men themselves nearly
he receives double stakes all round; if he loses he only pays two-thirds had seen active service. The strength of the army
single stakes all round. Sometimes, however, a player is allowed lay in its infantry, for both cavalry and artillery were short of
to go "Wellington" over "Nap," and even "Blucher" over horses, and the latter had not yet acquired mobility and skill
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 217
in manoeuvring. Napoleon's determination to undertake the army the anvil. But these views obviously could not be pub-
invasion of England has often been disputed, but it is hard to army orders, hence the discontent and opposition he was
lished in
imagine what other operation he contemplated, for the outbreak destined to encounter.
of hostilities with his continental enemies found him ill-supplied 5. Movements of the French. It was on the 2ist that Napoleon
with intelligence as to the resources of the country he had then learnt of Mack's presence in Ulm. On that date his army had
to traverse. To remedy this, Murat and other general officers crossed the Rhine and was entering the defiles of the Black
as well as minor agents were sent ahead and instructed to travel Forest. It was already beginning to suffer. Boots were worn out,
through South Germany with a view to collecting
in plain clothes greatcoats deficient, transport almost unattainable and, accord-
information and mastering the topography. The emperor ing to modern ideas, the army would have been considered
was, moreover, imperfectly acquainted with the degree of pre- incapable of action.
paration of his adversaries' designs, and when he dictated his
preliminary orders he was still unaware of the direction that
the allies' advance would assume. That he foresaw the march
of events which ultimately drew Mack to Ulm is inconceivable.
On the z6th of August, however, he learnt that 100,000 Russians
were about to enter Bohemia thence to unite with an Austrian
army of 80,000 near the junction of the Inn and Danube, and
this information compelled him to alter the general direction
of his advance so as to traverse the defiles of the Black Forest
north of the Neckar, cavalry only observing the passes to the
south.
3. Austrian Army.-r-The Austrians after the defeats of 1800
had endeavoured to reorganize their forces on the French model,
but they were soon to learn that in matters of organization the
spirit is everything, the letter very little. They had copied
the organization of the French corps, but could find no corps
commanders fit to assume the responsibility for these commands.
As always in such conditions, the actual control of the smallest
movements was still centralized in the hands of the army com-
manders, and thus the rate of marching was incredibly slow.
They had decided that in future their troops in the field should
live by requisition, and had handed over to the artillery, which
needed them badly, a large number of horses thus set free from
the transport service, but they had not realized that men
accustomed to a regular distribution of rations cannot be trans-
formed into successful marauders and pillagers by a stroke of
the pen; and they had sent away the bulk of their army, 120,000
under their best general, the archduke Charles, into Italy, leaving
Lieut. Field Marshal Mack von Leiberich in Germany, nominally
as chief of the staff to the young Prince Ferdinand, but virtually
in command, to meet the onset of Napoleon at the head of his
veterans. Mack was a man of unusual attainments. He had
risen from the ranks in the most caste-ridden army in Europe,
and against untold opposition had carried through army reforms
which were correct in principle, and needed only time to develop.
It was his fate to be made the scapegoat for the disasters which
followed, though they need no further explanation than that,
at the head of 80,000 men and exercising only restricted powers
of command, he was pitted against the greatest strategist of all
ages who was responsible to no overlord and commanded, in the
fullest sense of the term, an army considerably more than twice
as strong.
4. The March on Ulm. The outbreak of the campaign was
hastened by the desire of the Austrian government to feed their
own army and leave a bare country for Napoleon by securing the
resources of Bavaria. It was also hoped that the Bavarians
with their army of 25,000 men would join the allies. In the latter
hope they were deceived, and the Bavarians under General
Wrede slipped away to Bamberg in time. In the former, how-
ever, they were successful, and the destitution they left in their
wake almost wrecked Napoleon's subsequent combinations.
Mack's march to Ulm was therefore a necessity of the situation,
and his continuance in this exposed position, if foolhardy against
such an adversary, was at any rate the outcome of the high
resolve that even if beaten he would inflict crippling losses upon
the enemy. Mack knew that the Russians would be late at the
rendezvous on the Inn. By constructing an entrenched camp
at Ulm and concentrating all the available food within it, he
expected to compel Napoleon to invest and besiege him, and
he anticipated that in the devastated country his adversary
would be compelled to separate and thus fall an easy prey to the
Russians. For that blow he had determined to make his own
2l8 NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
in Germany
'Campaigns
1796-1809
Scale. 1:2.000.000
English Miles
o to ) 30 46
\
H "u\ <,
")
I/
yp r
Geislingea^Pgx.-h,
.,,,
enburg
Rottenbur
bFreudensudt
brought over the river. Mack on the 8th had determined to but a few road-bearers, had been destroyed, but now the French
commence his withdrawal, but fortune now favoured the French. gave an example of that individual gallantry which was char-
The weather during the whole of October had been unusually acteristic of the old revolutionary armies. Running along the
wet, the swollen Danube overflowed the low ground and the beams under a close fire a few gallant men forced their way
roads had become quagmires. On the south bank, owing to across. The floor of the bridge was rapidly relaid, and presently
better natural drainage and a drier subsoil, movement was fairly the whole of the VI. corps was deploying with unexampled
easy, but the Austrians found almost impossible. On the nth
it rapidity on the farther side. The Austrians, still in their quag-
of October, when they began march, the road along the
their mire, could not push up reinforcements fast enough, and though
Danube was swept into the river, carrying with it several guns Mack subsequently alleged deliberate obstruction and dis-
and teams, and hours were consumed in passing the shortest obedience on the part of his subordinates, the state of the roads
distances. At length in the afternoon they suddenly fell upon alone suffices to explain their defeat. Only the right column of
Dupont's isolated division at Albeck, which was completely the Austrians was, however, involved; the left under General
surprised and severely handled. The road now lay completely Werneck, to whom some cavalry and the archduke Ferdinand
open, but the Austrian columns had so opened out owing to attached themselves, did indeed succeed in getting away, but
the state of the roads that the leading troops could not pursue without trains or supplies. They continued their march, famished
their advantage Dupcnt rallied and the Austrians had actually but unmolested, until near Heidenheim they suddenly found
to fall back towards Ulm to procure food. themselves confronted by what from the diversity of uniforms
8. Elchingen. For three more days Mack struggled with an they took to be an overwhelming force; at the same time the
unwilling staff and despondent men to arrange a further advance. French cavalry sent in pursuit appeared in their rear. Utterly
During these very three days, through a succession of staff exhausted by fatigue, Werneck with his infantry, some 8000
blunders, the French failed to close the gap, and on the morning strong, surrendered to what was really a force of dismounted
of the i4th of October both armies, each renewing their advance, dragoons and foot-sore stragglers improvised by the commanding
came in contact at the bridge of Elchingen. This bridge, all officer on the spot to protect the French treasure chests, which at
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 219
that moment lay actually in the path of the Austrians. The Austerlitz began early next morning and closed in the evening
young archduke with some cavalry escaped. with the thorough and decisive defeat of the allies.
9. Mack surrounded. The defeat at Elchingen on the I4th of 12. Jena, 1806. Around the Prussian army, and particularly
October sealed the fate of the Austrians, though Mack was still the cavalry, the prestige of Frederick the Great's glory still
determined to endure a siege. As the French columns coming lingered; but the younger generation had little
up from the south and west gradually surrounded him, he drew experience of actual warfare, and the higher com-
in his troops under shelter of the fortress and its improvised manders were quite unable to grasp the changes in
entrenched camp, and on the isth he found himself completely tactics and in the conduct of operations which had grown out
surrounded. On the i6th the French field-guns fired into the of the necessities of the French Revolution. The individual
town, and Mack realized that his troops were no longer under officers of the executive staff were the most highly trained in
sufficient control to endure a siege. When, therefore, next Europe, but there was no great leader to co-ordinate their
morning, negotiations were opened by the French, Mack, still energies. The total number of men assigned to the field army
feeling certain that the Russians were at hand, agreed to an was 110,000 Prussians and Saxons. They were organized in
armistice and undertook to lay down his arms if within the next corps, but their leaders were corps commanders only in name,
twenty-one days no relief should arrive. To this Napoleon for none were allowed any latitude for individual initiative.
consented, but hardly had the agreement been signed than he Ill-judged economies had undermined the whole efficiency of
succeeded in introducing a number of individual French soldiers the Prussian army. Two-thirds of the infantry and one-half of
into the fortress, who began rioting with the Austrian soldiery. the cavalry were allowed furlough for from ten to eleven months
Then, sending in armed parties to restore order and protect the in the year. The men were unprovided with greatcoats. Most
inhabitants, he caused the guards at the gates to be overpowered, of the muskets had actually seen service in the Seven Years' War,
and Mack was thus forced into an unconditional surrender. and their barrels had worn so thin with constant polishing that
On the 22nd of October, the day after Trafalgar, the remnant the use of full charges at target practice had been forbidden.
of the Austrian army, 23,000 strong, laid down its arms. About Above all, the army had drifted entirely out of touch with the
5000 men under Jellachich had escaped to Tirol, 2000 cuirassiers civil population. The latter, ground down by feudal tradition and
with Prince Ferdinand to Eger in Bohemia, and about 10,000 law, and at the same time permeated by the political doctrines
men under Werneck, had surrendered at Heidenheim. The of the late i8th century, believed that war concerned the govern-
losses in battle having been insignificant, there remain some ments only, and formed no part of the business of the " honest
30,000 to account for most of whom probably escaped individu- citizen." In this idea they were supported by the law itself,
ally by the help of the inhabitants, who were bitterly hostile to which protected the civilian against the soldier, and forbade
the French. even in war-time the requisitioning of horses, provisions and
10. Napoleon's Advance to Vienna. Napoleon now hastened transport, without payment. Up to the night of the battle of
to rejoin the group of corps he had left under Bernadotte in Jena itself, the Prussian troops lay starving in the midst of plenty,
observation towards the Russians, for the latter were nearer whilst the French everywhere took what they wanted. This
at hand than even Mack had assumed. But hearing of his alone was a sufficient cause for all the misfortunes which followed.
misfortune they retreated before Napoleon's advance along the 13. Outbreak of the War. During the campaign of Austerlitz
right bank of the Danube to Krems, where they crossed the river Prussia, furious at the violation of her territory of Aaspach,
and withdrew to an entrenched camp near Olmtitz to pick up had mobilized, and had sent Haugwitz as ambassador to
fresh Austrian reinforcements. The severe actions of Diirrenstein Napoleon's headquarters. He arrived on the 3Oth of November,
(near Krems) on the nth, and of Hollabriinn on the i6th of and Napoleon, pleading business, put off his official reception
November, in which Napoleon's marshals learned the tenacity till after the battle of Austerlitz. Of course the ultimatum was
of their new opponents, and the surprise of the Vienna bridge never presented, as may be imagined; Haugwitz returned and
(November 14) by the French, were the chief incidents of the king of Prussia demobilized at once. But Napoleon, well
this period in the campaign. knowing the man he had to deal with, had determined to force
11. Campaign of Austerlitz. Napoleon continued down the a quarrel upon Prussia at the earliest convenient opportunity.
right bank to Vienna, where he was compelled by the con- His troops therefore, when withdrawn from Austria, were can-
dition of his troops to call a halt to refit his army. toned in south Germany in such a way that, whilst suspicion
Austerilt
After this was done he continued his movement to was not aroused in minds unacquainted with Napoleonic methods,
Briinn. Thither he succeeded in bringing only 55,000 men. they could be concentrated by a few marches behind the
He was again forced to give his army rest and shelter, under Thuringian forest and the upper waters of the Main. Here the
cover of Murat's cavalry. The allies now confronted him with Grand Army was left to itself to recuperate and assimilate its
upwards of 86,000 men, including 16,000 cavalry. About the recruits,and it is characteristic of the man and his methods
zoth of November this force commenced its advance, and that he did not trouble his corps commanders with a single
Napoleon concentrated in such a manner that within three days order during the whole of the spring and summer.
he could bring over 80,000 French troops into action around As the diplomatic crisis approached, spies were sent into
Briinn, besides 17,000 or more Bavarians under Wrede. On Prussia, and simultaneously with the orders for preliminary con-
the 28th Murat was driven in by the allied columns. That night centration the marshals received private instructions, the pith
orders were despatched for a concentration on Briinn in expecta- of which cannot be better expressed than in the following two
tion of a collision on the following day; but hearing that the quotations from Napoleon's correspondence:
"
whole allied force was moving towards him he decided to con- Mon intention est de concentrer toutes mes forces sur I'extr6mit
de ma droite en laissant tout 1'espace entre le Rhin et Bamberg
centrate south-east of Briinn, covering his front by cavalry on
entiArement degarni, de manure a avoir pres de 200,000 hommes
the Pratzen heights. Meanwhile he had also prepared a fresh r^unis sur un mSme champ de bataille; mes premieres marches
"
line of retreat towards Bohemia, and, certain now of having 'menacent le coeur de la monarchic prussienne (No. 10,920).
"
his men in hand for the coming battle, he quietly awaited Avec cette immense sup^rioritd de forces re'unis sur un espace si
<5troit, vous sentez que je suis dans la volont6 de ne rien hasarder et
events.
d'attaquer 1'ennemi partout oft il voudra tenir. Vous pensez bien
The allies were aware of his position, and
still adhering to the
que ce serait une belle affaire que de se porter sur cette place (Dresden)
" " "
old system, marched to turn his right flank (see
linear en un bataillon carre de 200,000 hommes (Soult, No. 10,941).
AUSTERLITZ). As soon as their strategic purpose of cutting him 14. Advance of the Grande Armee. On the vth of October
off from Vienna became apparent, the emperor moved his troops the Grande Armee lay in three parallel columns along the roads
into position, and in the afternoon issued his famous proclamation leading over the mountains to Hof, Schleiz and Kronach;
to his troops, pointing out the enemy's mistakes and his plan for on the right lay the IV. corps (Soult) about Bayreuth; with his
defeating them. At the same time he issued his orders for his cavalry in rear, and behind these the VI. corps (Ney) at Pegnitz;
first great battle as a supreme commander. The battle of in the centre, Bernadotte 's I. corps from Nordhalben, with the
220 NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
III. (Davout) Lichtenfels; Guard and headquarters, the emperor was still unaware of the position of his principal
corps
Bamberg. The left column was composed of the V. (Lannes) foe, and Murat with Bernadotte behind him was directed on
Gera for the nth, the remainder of the army con-
Halle
along the roads previously assigned to
JENA CAMPAIGN
Scale,
tinuing
them.
In the meanwhile, however, the Saxons had been
moving from Naumburg through Gera on Jena,
Hohenlohe was near Weimar, and all the other
divisions of the army had closed in a march
eastwards, the idea of an offensive to the south-
ward which Napoleon had himself attributed to
them having already disappeared.
Reaching Gera at 9 A.M. Murat reported the
movement of the Saxons on the previous day,
but omitted to send a strong detachment in
pursuit. The traces of the Saxons were lost, and
Napoleon, little satisfied with his cavalry, author-
ized Lasalle to offer up to 6000 frs. reward for
information of the Prussian point of concentration.
At i A.M. of the 1 2th Napoleon issued his orders.
Murat and Bernadotte via Zeitz to Naumburg;
Davout (III. corps and a dragoon division) also to
Naumburg; Lannes to Jena, Augereau following;
Soult to Gera.
15. Prussian Movements. In the meantime
the Prussians were effecting their concentration.
Riichel, who with 15,000 men had been sent into
the mountains as an advanced guard for the pro-
jected offensive, was recalled to Weimar, which
he reached on the I3th. The main body were
between Weimar and Apolda during the i2th, and
the Saxons duly effected their junction with
Hohenlohe in the vicinity of Vierzehnheiligen,
whilst the latter had withdrawn his troops all but
some outposts from Jena to the plateau about
Capellendorf, some 4 m. to the N.W. The whole
army, upwards of 120,000 men, could therefore have
been concentrated against Lannes and Augereau by
Emery Walker, sc.
the afternoon of the i3th, whilst Soult could only
at Hemmendorf, with the VII. (Augereau) extending south to have intervened very late in the day, and Davout and Berna-
the Main at Burgebrach. dotte were still too distant to reach the battlefield before the
Napoleon's object being surprise, all the cavalry except a 1 4th. All the French corps, moreover, were so exhausted by
few vedettes were kept back behind the leading infantry columns their rapid marches over bad roads that the emperor actually
and these latter were ordered to advance, on the signal being ordered (at i A.M. on the I3th) a day of rest for all except
" "
given, in masses of manoeuvre, so as to crush at once any Davout, Bernadotte, Lannes and Murat.
outpost resistance which was calculated upon the time required The Prussian headquarters, however, spent the I2th and I3th
for the deployment of ordinary marching columns. This order in idle discussion, whilst the troop commanders exerted them-
has never since found an imitator, but deserves attentive study selves to obtain some alleviation for the suffering of their
as a masterpiece (see H. Bonnal, Manoeuvre d'ltna). starving men. The defeats undergone by their outpost detach-
To meet the impending blow the Prussians had been extended ment had profoundly affected the nerves of the troops, and
in a cordon along the great road leading from Mainz to Dresden, on the afternoon of the nth, on the false alarm of a French
Bliicher was at Erfurt, Rtichel at Gotha, Hohenlohe at Weimar, approach, a panic broke out in the streets of Jena, and it took
Saxons in Dresden, with outposts along the frontier. An all the energy of Hohenlohe and his staff to restore order. On
offensive move into Franconia was under discussion, and for the morning of the I2th the Saxon commanding officers
this purpose the Prussian staff had commenced a lateral con- approached Hohenlohe with a statement of the famishing
centration about Weimar, Jena and Naumburg when the storm condition of their men, and threatened to withdraw them
burst upon them. The emperor gathered little from the confused again to Saxony. Hohenlohe pointed out that the Prussians
reports of their purposeless manoeuvres, but, secure in the midst were equally badly off, but promised to do his best to help
" "
of his battalion square of 200,000 men, he remained quite his allies. Urgent messages were sent off to the Commissary
indifferent, well knowing that an advance straight on Berlin von Goethe (the poet), at Weimar for permission to requisition
must force his enemy to concentrate and fight, and as they food and firewood. These requests, however, remained
would bring at most 127,000 men on to the battlefield the unanswered, and the Prussians and Saxons spent the night
result could hardly be doubtful. On the gth of October the cloud before the battle shivering in their miserable bivouacs.
burst. Out of the forests which clothe the northern slopes of 16. The ijth of October. During the early morning of the I3th
the Thuringer Wald the French streamed forth, easily over- the reports brought to Napoleon at Gera partially cleared up
powering the resistance of the Prussian outposts on the upper the situation, though the real truth was very different from
1
Saale, and once the open country was reached the cavalry under what he supposed. However, it was evident that the bulk of
Murat trotted to the front, closely followed by Bernadotte's the Prussians lay to his left, and instructions were at once
"
corps as general advance guard." The result of the cavalry despatched to Davout to turn westward from Naumburg towards
scouting was however unsatisfactory. On the night of the loth, Kosen and to bring Bernadotte with him if the two were still
"
1
At the action of Saalfeld on the loth, the young and gallant together. The letter, however, ended with the words but I
Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia was killed. hope he is already on his way to Dornburg." Now Bernadotte
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 221
had neglected to keep the emperor informed as to his where- battalions were sent forward, and these, delaying their advance
abouts. He was still with Davout, but, concluding that he had the fog had sufficiently lifted, were met by French skirmishers,
till
missed an order directing him to Dornburg, he thought to conceal and small columns, who rapidly overlapped their flanks and
his error by assuming the receipt of the order evidently alluded drove them back in confusion. Hohenlohe now brought up the
to in the last words, and as a result he marched towards Dorn- remainder of his command, but in the meanwhile the French
burg, and his whole corps was lost to the emperor at the crisis had poured across the neck between the Landgrafenberg and the
of the next day's battle. main plateau, and the troops of Soult and Augereau were working
On the road from Gera to Jena Napoleon was met by up the ravines on either hand. In view of these troops the
intelligencefrom Lannes announcing his occupation of Jena and Prussian line, which had advanced faultlessly as if on parade,
the discovery of Prussian troops to the northward. Knowing the halted to prepare its bayonet attack by fire, and, once halted, it
emperor's methods, he wisely restrained the ardour of his sub- was found impossible to get them to go on again. The French
ordinates and asked for instructions whether to attack or wait. who had thrown themselves into houses, copses, &c., picked off
The emperor rode forward rapidly, reached Jena about 3 P.M., the officers, and the flanks of the long Prussian lines swayed and
and with Lannes proceeded to the Landgrafenberg to reconnoitre. got into confusion. The rival artilleries held each other too
From this point his view was, however, restricted to the im- thoroughly to be able to spare attention to the infantry, whilst
mediate foreground, and he only saw the camps of Hohenlohe's the Prussian cavalry, which had forgotten how to charge in
left wing. At this moment the Prussians were actually on masses of eighty or more squadrons, frittered away their strength
"
parade and ready to move off to attack, but just then the evil in isolated efforts. By 10 A.M. the fourteen battalions which had
"
genius of the Prussian army, von Massenbach, an officer of the initiated this attack were outnumbered by three to one, and
Headquarter Staff, rode up and claiming to speak with the drifted away from the battlefield. Their places were taken by
authority of the king and commander-in-chief, induced Hohen- a fresh body, but this was soon outnumbered and outflanked
lohe to order his troops back to camp. Of all this Napoleon in its turn. By 2 P.M. the psychic moment had come, and
saw nothing, but from all reports he came to the conclusion that Napoleon launched his guards and the cavalry to complete the
the whole Prussian army was actually in front of him, and at victory and initiate the pursuit. Ruchel's division now arrived
once issued orders for his whole army to concentrate towards and made a most gallant effort to cover the retreat, but their
Jena, marching all night if need be. Six hours earlier his con- order being broken by the 'torrent of fugitives, they were soon
clusion would have been correct, but early that morning the overwhelmed by the tide of the French victory and all organized
Prussian headquarters, alarmed for the safety of their line of resistance had ceased by 4 P.M.
retreat on Berlin by the presence of the French in Naumburg, Briefly summarized, the battle came to this in four successive
decided to leave Hohenlohe and Rtichel to act as rear-guard, efforts the Prussians failed because they were locally out-
and with the main body to commence their retreat towards numbered. This was the fault of their leaders solely, for, except
the river Unstrutt and the Eckhardtsberge where Massenbach for the last attack, local superiority was in each case attainable.
" "
had previously reconnoitred an ideal battlefield. This belief Organization and tactics did not affect the issue directly, for the
in positions was the cardinal principle of Prussian strategy conduct of the men and their junior officers gave abundant proof
" "
in those days. The troops had accordingly commenced their that in the hands of a competent leader the linear principle of
march on the morning of the I3th, and now at 3 P.M. were settling delivering one shattering blow would have proved superior to that
down into bivouac; they were still but a short march from the of a gradual attrition of the enemy here, as on the battlefields of
decisive field. the Peninsula and at Waterloo, and this in spite of other defects
17. Battle of Jena. On the French side, Lannes' men were in the training of the Prussian infantry which simultaneously
working their hardest, under Napoleon's personal supervision, caused its defeat on the neighbouring field of Auerstadt.
to make a practicable road up to the Landgrafenberg, and all 18. Battle of Auerstadt. Here the superiority of French
night long the remaining corps struggled through darkness mobility, a consequence of their training and not necessarily of
towards the rendezvous. By daybreak on the T4th, the anni- their system, showed its value most conclusively. Davout in
versary of Elchingen, upwards of 60,000 men stood densely obedience to his orders of the previous morning was marching
AUERSTADT
Scale, i: 140,000
English Mites
JENA
Scale, 1:125,000
English Miles
packed on the narrow plateau of the mountain, whilst, below over the Saale at Kosen, when his advanced guard came in
in the ravines on either flank, Soult on the right, and Augereau contact with that of the Prussian main army. The latter with
on the left, were getting into position. Fortunately a dense at least 50,000 men was marching in two columns, and ought
fog hid the helpless masses on the Landgrafenberg from sight of therefore to have delivered its men into line of battle twice as
the Prussian gunners. Hohenlohe had determined to drive the fast as the French, who had to deploy from a single issue, and
French into the ravine at daybreak, but had no idea as to the whose columns had opened out in the passage of the Kosen
numbers in front of him. For want of room, only a few Prussian defile and the long ascent of the plateau above. But the Prussians
222 NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
attacked at the old regulation speed of seventy-five paces to advice which the prince accepted, though as a fact Murat's
the minute, and the French manoeuvred at the quick or double horses were completely exhausted and he had no infantry what-
of 120 or 150. The consequence was that the French always ever within call. Only Bliicher now remained in the field, and he
succeeded in reinforcing their fighting line in time to avert too was driven at length into Liibeck with his back to the sea.
disaster. Nevertheless by mid-day their strength was well-nigh 20. Campaigns in Poland and East Prussia. Hitherto the
exhausted, whilst the Prussian reserve, eighteen battalions French had been operating in a rich country, untouched for
of guards under Kalckreuth, stood intact and ready to engage. half a century past by the ravages of war, but as the necessity
But at the critical moment the duke of Brunswick fell mortally for a campaign against the Russians confronted the emperor,
wounded, and Scharnhorst, his chief of the staff, was at the he realized that his whole supply and transport service must
time absent on another part of the field. Meanwhile rumours be put on a different footing. After the wants of the cavalry
from the battle-field at Jena, magnified as usual, began to and artillery had been provided for, there remained but little
reach the staff, and these may possibly have influenced material for transport work. Exhaustive orders to organize
Kalckreuth, for when appealed to to attack with his eighteen the necessary trains were duly issued, but the emperor seems to
battalions and win the day, he declined to move without the have had no conception of the difficulties the tracks there were
direct order of the commander-in-chief to do so, alleging that no metalled roads of Poland were about to present to him.
it was the duty of a reserve to cover the retreat and he Moreover, it was one thing to issue orders, but quite another
considered himself personally responsible to the king for the to ensure that they were obeyed, for they entailed a complete
guards entrusted to his care. Even then the day might have transformation in the mental attitude of the French soldier
been saved had Bliicher been able to find even twenty squadrons towards all that he had been taught to consider his duties in
accustomed to gallop together, but the Prussian cavalry had the field. Experience only can teach the art of packing wagons
been dispersed amongst the infantry commands, and at the and the care of draught animals, and throughout the campaign
critical moment it proved impossible for them to deliver a the small ponies of Poland and East Prussia broke down by
united and decisive attack. thousands from over loading and unskilful packing.
Seeing further efforts hopeless, Scharnhorst in the duke's 21. The Russian Army formed the most complete contrast
name initiated the retreat and the troops withdrew N.W. to the French that it is possible to imagine. Though clad,
towards Buttelstedt, almost unmolested by the French, who armed and organized in European fashion, the soldiers retained
this day had put forth all that was in them, and withstood in a marked degree the traditions of their Mongolian forerunners,
victoriously the highest average punishment any troops of the their transport wagons were in type the survival of ages of
new age of warfare had as yet endured. So desperate had been experience, and their care for their animals equally the result
their resistance that the Prussians unanimously stated Davout's of hereditary habit. The intelligence of the men and regimental
strength at double the actual figure. Probably no man but officers was very low, but on the other hand service was practically
Davout could have got so much out of his men, but why was he for life, and the regiment the only home the great majority had
left unsupported? ever known. Hence obedience was instinctive and initiative
Bernadotte, we have seen, had marched to Dornburg, or almost undreamt of. Moreover, they were essentially a war-
rather to a point overlooking the ford across the Saale at the trained army, for even in peace time their long marches to and
village of that name, and reached there in ample time to intervene fro within the empire had most thoroughly inured them to hard-
on either field. But with the struggle raging before him he ship and privation. Napoleon might have remembered his own
"
remained undecided, until at Jena the decision had clearly saying, La misere est 1'ecole du bon soldat." In cavalry they
fallen, and then he crossed the river and arrived with fresh were weak, for the Russian does not take kindly to equitation
troops too late for their services to be required. and the horses were not equal to the accepted European standard
19. Prussian Retreat. During the night the Prussians con- of weight, while the Cossack was only formidable to stragglers
tinued their retreat, the bulk of the main body to Sommerda, and wounded. Their artillery was numerous and for the most
Hohenlohe's corps towards Nordhausen. The troops had got part of heavy 18- and 24-pounders were common
calibre but
much mixed up, but as the French did not immediately press the strength of the army lay in its infantry, with its incomparable
the pursuit home, order was soon re-established and a combined tenacity in defence and its blind confidence in the bayonet in
retreat was begun towards the mouth of the Elbe and Liibeck. attack. The traditions of Suvarov and his victories in Italy
Here help was expected to arrive from England, and the tide (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS) were still fresh, but there
might yet have turned, for the Russian armies were gathering was no longer a Suvarov to lead them.
in the east. It was now that the results of a divorce of the army 22. Advance to the Vistula. Napoleon had from the first been
from the nation began to be felt. Instead of seizing all provisions aware of the secret alliance between Prussia and Russia, sworn
and burning what they could not remove, the Prussian generals by their respective sovereigns over the grave of Frederick the
enforced on their men the utmost forbearance towards the Great, and this knowledge had been his principal reason for
inhabitants, and the fact that they were obeyed, in spite of the precipitating hostilities with the former. He remained, however,
inhumanity the people showed to their sick and wounded country- in complete ignorance of the degree of preparation attained on
men, proves that discipline was by no means so far gone as has the Russian side, and since the seizure of Warsaw together with
generally been believed. The French marching in pursuit were the control of the resources of Poland in men and material its
received with open arms, the people even turning their own occupation would afford, was the chief factor in his calculation,
wounded out of doors to make room for their French guests. he turned at once to the eastward as soon as all further organized
Their servility awakened the bitterest contempt of their con- resistance in Prussia was ended by the surrender of Prenzlau
querors and forms the best excuse for the unparalleled severity and Liibeck. Scarcely leaving his troops time to restore their
of the French yoke. On the 26th of October Davout reached worn-out footgear, or for the cavalry to replace their jaded
Berlin, having marched 166 m. in twelve days including two horses from captured Prussian resources, he set Davout in motion
sharp rearguard actions, Bernadotte with his fresh troops having towards Warsaw on the 2nd of November, and the remainder of
fallen behind. The inhabitants of Berlin, headed by their mayor, the army followed in successive echelons as rapidly as they could
came out to meet him, and the newspapers lavished adulation be despatched.
on the victors and abuse on the beaten army. On the 28th The cavalry, moving well in advance, dispersed the Prussian
Murat's cavalry overtook the remnant of Prince Hohenlohe's dep&ts and captured their horses, as far as the line of the Vistula,
army near Prenzlau (N. of Berlin) and invited its capitulation. where at last they encountered organized resistance from the
Unfortunately the prince sent Massenbach to discuss the situa- outposts of Lestocq's little corps of 15,000 men all that was
tion, and the latter completely lost his head. Murat boasted left of Frederick the Great's army. These, however, gave way
that he had 100,000 men behind him, and on his return Massen- before the threat of the advancing French and after a few
bach implored his chief to submit to an unconditional surrender, trifling skirmishes. Davout entered Warsaw on the 3oth of
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 223
November, being followed by the V., IV. and Guard corps during of remaining there, for a fresh army was already gathering in
the succeeding fortnight, whilst the VI. and VII. weie echeloned Russia, the ist corps of which had reached Nur about 50 m.
to their left, and the VIII. (Mortier) and IX. (Jerome Napoleon) distant from the French right.
and X. (Lefebvre), all new formations since the outbreak of Unfortunately, Ney with his VI. corps about Gilgenberg had
the war, followed some marches in the rear. Jerome's corps was received the most poverty-stricken district in the whole region,
composed of the Bavarians, Wurttembergers and Badensers. and to secure some alleviation for the sufferings of his men he
Behind these all Prussia was overrun by newly formed units, incautiously extended his cantonments till they came in contact
(3rd and 4th battalions) raised from depot companies, conscripts with the Russian outposts. Apparently seeing in this movement
for 1807, and old soldiers rejoining after sickness or wounds. a recommencement of hostilities, Bennigsen concentrated his
Napoleon caused these to be despatched to the front immediately troops towards his right and commenced an advance westwards
after their formation. He had much territory to occupy, and towards Danzig, which was still in Prussian hands. Before his
in the long march on an average 85 days, he considered that
of advance both Ney and Bernadotte (the latter, between Ney and
they could be organized, equipped and drilled en route. the Baltic, covering the siege of Danzig) were compelled to fall
23. Pultusk. The Russians meanwhile had been moving slowly back. It then became necessary to disturb the repose of the
forward in two bodies, one under Bennigsen (50,000), the other whole army to counter the enemy's intentions. The latter by
under Buxhowden (25,000), and the French being at this time this movement, however, uncovered his own communication
in Warsaw, they took up threatening positions about Pultusk, with Russia, and the emperor was quick to seize his opportunity.
Flock and Prassnitz. From this triangle they harried the French He received the information on the 28th of January. His orders
communications with Berlin, and to secure a winter's rest for were at once issued and complied with with such celerity that
his men Napoleon determined to bring them to action. On the by the 3ist he stood prepared to advance with the corps of Soult,
23rd of December operations were commenced, but the difficulties Ney, Davout and Augereau, the Guard and the reserve cavalry
of securing information and maintaining communication between (80,000 men on a front of 60 m.) from Myszienec through
the respective columns, so unlike what any of the French had Wollenberg to Gilgenberg; whilst Lannes on his right towards
previously encountered, led to a very partial success. The idea Ostrolenka and Lefebvre (X.) at Thorn covered his outer
had been to induce the Russians to concentrate about Pultusk flanks.
and, turning their position from its left, ultimately to cut them Bernadotte, however, was missing, and this time through
off from Russia, and if possible to surround them. But in this no fault of his own. His orders and the despatch conveying
new and difficult country the emperor found it impossible to time Napoleon's instructions fell into the hands of the Cossacks, and
his marches. The troops arrived late at their appointed positions, just in time Bennigsen's eyes were opened. Rapidly renouncing
and after a stubborn rearguard action at Pultusk itself and his previous intentions, he issued orders to concentrate on
undecisive fighting elsewhere (Soldau-Golymin) the Russians Allenstein; but -this point was chosen too far in advance and he
succeeded in retreating beyond the jaws of the French attack, was antkipated by Murat and Soult at that place on the 2nd of
and Napoleon for the first time found that he had exceeded the February. He then determined to unite his forces at Joukendorf ,
limit of endurance of his men. Indeed, the rank and file bluntly but again he was too late. Soult and Murat attacked his rear-
told him as much as he rode with the marching columns. Yield- guard on the 3rd, and learning from his Cossacks that the French
ing to the inevitable, but not forgetting to announce a brilliant corps were being directed so as to swing round and enclose him,
victory in a bulletin, he sent his troops into winter quarters he withdrew by a night march and ultimately succeeded in
along the Passarge and down the Baltic, enjoining on his corps getting his whole army, with the exception of von Lestocq's
commanders most strictly to do nothing to disturb their Prussians, together in the strong position along the Alle, the
adversary. centre of which is marked by Preussisch-Eylau. The oppor-
24. Campaign of Eylau. Bennigsen, now commanding the tunity for this concentration he owed to the time gained for him
whole Russian army which with Lestocq's Prussians amounted by his rearguard at Joukendorf, for this had stood just long
enough to induce the French columns to swing in to surround
him, and the next day was thus lost to the emperor as his corps
had to extend again to their manoeuvring intervals. The truth
is that the days were too short and the roads too bad for Napoleon
to carry out the full purpose his "general advanced guard"
was intended to fulfil. It was designed to hold the -enemy in
position by the vigour of its attack, thus neutralizing his inde-
pendent will power and compelling him to expend his reserves in
the effort to rescue the troops engaged. But in forests and
snowdrifts the French made such slow progress that no sufficient
CAMPAIQN OF deployment could be made until darkness put a stop to the
1807 fighting. Thus, when late on the 7th of February 1807 Murat
IN POLAND and Soult overtook the enemy near Eylau (q.v.) the fighting was
AND PRUSSIA severe but not prolonged. This time, however, Bennigsen, with
over 60,000 men in position and r 5,000 Prussians expected to
arrive next morning, had no desire to avoid a battle, and deployed
for action, his front protected by great batteries of guns, many
of them of heavy calibre, numbering some 200 in all.
During the night Augereau and the Guards had arrived, and
Ney and Davout were expected on either flank in the fore-
noon. This time the emperor was determined his enemy should
not escape him, and about 8 A.M. ordered Soult and Augereau
on the left and right respectively to assail the enemy, Murat
and the Guards remaining in the centre as reserve. Napoleon's
own forces thus became the " general advanced guard " for Ney
and Davout, who were to close in on either side and deliver the
decisive stroke. But here too the weather and the state of the
roads operated adversely, for Ney came up too late, while Davout,
to 100,000, also moved into winter quarters in the triangle in the full tide of his victorious advance, was checked by the
Deutsch-Eylau-Osterode-Allenstein, and had every intention arrival of Lestocq, whose corps Ney had failed to intercept,
224 NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
and the attack of Augereau's corps (VII.), made in a blinding i3th were taking up a strong position on the river Alle with
snowstorm, failed with the appalling loss of over 40% killed Friedland as a centre.
and wounded. Augereau himself was severely wounded, and the What followed presents perhaps the finest instance of the
remnant of his corps was subsequently distributed amongst the Napoleonic method. The enemy lay direct to his right, and
other corps. Bennigsen, however, drew off on Key's arrival, Murat, the IV. and III. corps had well overshot the mark.
and the French were too much exhausted to pursue him. Again Lannes's reserve corps (cavalry), to whom Latour Maubourg
the emperor had to admit that his troops could do no more, and reported, lay at Domnau some 10 m. to the right. The latter at
bowing to necessity, he distributed them into winter quarters, once assumed ther61e of advanced guard cavalry and was ordered
where, however, the enterprise of the Cossacks, who were no to observe the enemy at Friedland, Ney following in close
strangers to snow and to forests, left the outposts but little support. Davout was turned about and directed on the enemy's
repose. right, and the VIII. corps (Mortier), the Guards and the reserve
A protracted period of rest
followed, during which the emperor cavalry followed as main body. On the i4th (the anniversary
exerted himself unremittingly to re-equip, reinforce and supply of Marengo) Lannes carried out his r&le of fighting advanced
his troops. Hitherto he had been based on the entrenched camp guard or screen, the emperor's main body gradually came up,
of Warsaw, but he had already taken steps to organize a new line and the battle of Friedland (q.v.), notable chiefly for the first
of supply and retreat via Thorn, and this was now completed. display of the new artillery tactics of the French, ended with
At the same time Lefebvre was ordered to press the siege of a general attack about 5 P.M. and the retreat of the Russians,
Danzig with all vigour, and on the sth of May, after a most after severe losses, over the Alle. Lestocq was, meanwhile,
gallant resistance, Kalckreuth, who redeemed here his failure of driven through Konigsberg (which surrendered on the isth)
Auerstadt, surrendered. English assistance came too late. on Tilsit, and now that he was no longer supported by the
By the beginning of June the French had more than made good Russians, the Prussian commander gave up the struggle.
their losses and 210,000 men were available for field service. 26. The Austrian Army in i8oQ. Ever since Austerlitz the
25. Heilsberg and Friedland. Meanwhile Bennigsen had Austrian officers had been labouring to reconstitute and reform
prepared for a fresh undertaking, and leaving Lestocq with their army. The archduke Charles was the foremost amongst
20,000 Prussians and Russians to contain Bernadotte, who lay many workers who had realized that numbers were absolutely
between Braunsberg and Spandau on the Passarge, he moved needed to confront the new French methods. With these
southwards on the 2nd, and on the 3rd and 4th of June he fell numbers it was impossible to attain the high degree of individual
upon Ney, driving him back towards Guttstadt, whilst with the efficiency required for the old line tactics, hence they were com-
bulk of his force he moved towards Heilsberg, where he threw pelled to adopt the French methods of skirmishers and columns,
up an entrenched position. It was not till the sth that Napoleon but as yet they had hardly realized the increased density
received tidings of his advance, and for the moment these were necessary to be given to a line of battle to enable it to endure the
so vague that he contented himself by warning the remainder of prolonged nervous strain the new system of tactics entailed.
his forces to be prepared to move on the 6th. Next day, however, Where formerly 15,000 men to the mile of front had been con-
all doubts were set at rest, and as the Russians advanced south sidered ample for the occupation of a position or the execution
of Heilsberg, he decided to wheel his whole force to the right, of an attack, double that number now often proved insufficient,
pivoting on the III. corps, arid cut Bennigsen off from Konigsberg and their front was broken before reinforcements could arrive.
and the sea. On the Sth the VI., III., VIII. and Guard corps, Much had been done to create an efficient staff, but though the
together with a new cavalry reserve corps under Lannes, in all idea of the army corps command was now no new thing, the
147,000, stood ready for the operation, and with Murat and senior generals entrusted with these commands were far from
Soult as general advanced guard the whole moved forward, having acquired the independence and initiative of their French
driving the Russian outposts before them. Bernadotte, who was opponents. Hence the extraordinary slowness of their man-
to have attacked Lestocq, again failed to receive his orders and oeuvres, not because the Austrian infantry were bad marchers,
took no part in the following operations. but because the preparation and circulation of orders was still
Murat attacked the Russians, who had halted in their far behind the French standard. The light cavalry had been
entrenched position, on the nth and drove in their outposts, much improved and the heavy cavalry on the whole proved a
but did not discover the entrenchments. Meanwhile Soult fair match for their opponents.
had followed with his infantry in close support, and the emperor 27. The French Army. After. the peace of Tilsit the Grand
himself arriving, ordered him to attack at once. Now the Army was gradually withdrawn behind the Rhine, leaving only
Russians uncovered their entrenchments, and in the absence of three commands, totalling 63,000 men, under Davout in Prussia,
artillery preparation Soult's leading troops received most severe Oudinot in west central Germany, and Lefebvre in Bavaria, to
punishment. Fresh troops arriving were sent in to his support, assist the princes of the Confederation of the Rhine in the main-
but these also proved insufficient, and darkness alone put an tenance of order and the enforcement of the French law of con-
end to the struggle, which cost the French 12,000 killed and scription, which was rigorously insisted on in all the States
wounded. comprised in this new federation.
Bennigsen, however, learning that his right was threatened by In exchange for the subsistence of the French troops of
the III. corps, and not having as yet completed his concentration, occupation, a corresponding number of these new levies were
retreated in the night to Bartenstein, and the following day moved to the south of France, where they commenced to arrive
turned sharp to right towards Schippenbeil. The emperor at the moment when the situation in Spain became acute. The
now pressed on towards Friedland, where he would completely Peninsular War (q.v.) called for large forces of the old Grande
control the Russian communications with Konigsberg, their Armfe and for a brief period Napoleon directed operations in
immediate base of supply, but for once the Russians outmarched person; and the Austrians took advantage of the dissemination
him and covered their movement so successfully that for the and weakness of the French forces in Germany to push forward
next three days he seems to have completely lost all knowledge their own preparations with renewed energy.
of his enemy's whereabouts. Lestocq in the meantime had been But they reckoned without the resourcefulness of Napoleon.
forced northwards towards Konigsberg, and Soult with Murat The moment news of their activity reached him, whilst still in
was in hot pursuit. The III., VI., VIII. and Guard corps followed pursuit of Sir John Moore, he despatched letters to all the
the main road towards Konigsberg, and the former had reached members of the Confederation warning them that their con-
Muhlhausen, the remainder were about Preussisch-Eylau, tingents might soon be required, and at the same time issued a
when Latour Maubourg's dragoons sent in intelligence which series of decrees to General Clarke, his war minister, authorizing
pointed to the presence of Bennigsen about Friedland. This him to call up the contingent of 1810 in advance, and directing
was indeed the case. The Russians after passing Schippenbeil him in detail to proceed with the formation of 4th and sth
had suddenly turned northwards, and on the evening of the battalions for all the regiments across the Rhine. By these
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 225
means Davout's, Oudinot's and Lefebvre's commands were Berthier returned and after hearing his explanation Massena
augmented, whilst in February and March new corps were formed received orders to move from Augsburg towards Ingolstadt.
"
and rapidly pushed towards the front. To-morrow will be a day of preparation spent in drawing
On his return from Spain, seeing war imminent, he issued a closer together, and I expect to be able by Wednesday to
march orders (which deserve the closest study in detail)
series of manoeuvre against the enemy's columns according to
by which on the I5th of April his whole army was to be con- circumstances."
centrated for manoeuvres between Regensburg, Landshut, Augs- Meanwhile the Austrians had approached so near that by a
burg and Donauworth, and sending on the Guard in wagons to single day's march it would have been possible to fall upon and
Strassburg, he despatched Berthier to act as commander-in- chief crush by superior numbers either wing of the French army,
until his own arrival. but though the Austrian h'ght cavalry successfully covered the
operations of the following troops they had not yet risen to a
ftMrin ECKMUHL 1809
Mild
conception of their reconnoitring mission, and the archduke,
'if English
" in ignorance of his opportunity and possessed, moreover, with
the preconceived idea of uniting at Regensburg with the two
corps coming from Bohemia, moved the bulk of his forces in
that direction, leaving only a covering body against Davout
altogether insufficient to retain him. Davout, however, had
left a garrison of 1800 men in Regensburg, who delayed the
junction of the Austrian wings until the 2oth inst., and on the
same day the emperor, having now reunited his whole right
wing and centre, overwhelmed the covering detachments
facing him in a long series of disconnected engagements lasting
forty-eight hours, and the archduke now found himself in danger
of being forced back into the Danube. But with the Bohemian
reinforcements he had still four corps in hand, and Napoleon,
whose intelligence service in the difficult and intersected country
had lamentably failed him, had weakened his army by detaching
Emery Walker fc a. portion of his force in pursuit of the beaten right wing, and
28. Austrian Offensive. The position of assembly was ex- against the archduke's communications.
cellently chosen, but unfortunately the Austrians took the 30. Eckmiihl. When, therefore, the latter, on the 22nd,
initiative. On the gth of April their main body of six corps marched southward to reopen his communications by the defeat
crossed the Inn between Braunau and Passau, and simultane- of the enemy's army, always the surest means of solving this
ously two additional corps moved from Pilsen in Bohemia on difficulty, he actually reached the neighbourhood of Eckmiihl
Regensburg. At this moment Davout was entering Regens- with a sufficient numerical superiority had he only been prompt
burg with his leading troops, the remainder still some marches enough to seize his opportunity. But the French had been
in rear, and it was evident that the whole concentration beforehand with him. Napoleon, who had personally taken part
could no longer be carried out before the Austrians would be in the fighting of the previous day, and followed the pursuit as
in a position to intervene. Berthier received the news while still far as Landshut, whence he had despatched Massena to follow
on his way to the front, and quite failed to grasp the situation. the retreating Austrians along the Isar, seems to have realized
Reaching Donauworth at 8 P.M. on the I3th of April, he ordered about 3 A.M. in the morning that it was not the main body of
Davout and Oudinot to remain at Regensburg, whilst Lefebvre the enemy he had had before him, but only its left wing, and that
and Wrede (Bavarians) who had fallen back before the Austrians the main body itself must still be northward towards Regensburg.
were directed to reoccupy Landshut. This was in direct contra- Issuing orders to Davout, Oudinot and his cavalry to concentrate
diction with the instructions Napoleon had given him on the with all speed towards Eckmiihl, he himself rode back along the
28th of March in view of this very emergency. Davout obeyed, Regensburg road and reached the battle-field just as the engage-
but remonstrated. On the i6th Berthier went on to Augsburg, ment between the advance troops had commenced. Had the
where he learnt that Lefebvre's advanced troops had been Austrians possessed mobility equal to that of the French the
driven out of Landshut, thus opening a great gap seventy-six latter should have been overwhelmed in detail, but whilst the
miles wide between the two wings of the French army. French covered 17 and 19 m. the Austrians only marched 10,
Meanwhile Napoleon, who had left Paris at 4 A.M. on the and, owing to the defect in their tactical training alluded to above,
I3th of April, was hastening towards the front, but remained the troops actually on the ground could not hold out long enough
still in ignorance of Berthier's
doings until on the i6th at Stutt- for their reserves to arrive. The retreat of the front lines
gart he received a letter from the Marshal dated the ijth, which involved the following ones in confusion, and presently the
threw him into consternation. In reply he immediately wrote : whole mass was driven back in considerable disorder. It
"
You do not inform me what has rendered necessary such an seemed as if nothing 'could save the Austrians from complete
extraordinary measure which weakens and divides my troops "- disaster, but at the critical moment the emperor, yielding to
and " I cannot quite grasp the meaning of your letter yet I ,
the protestations of his corps commanders, who represented the
should have preferred to see my army concentrated between excessive fatigue of their troops, stopped the pursuit, and the
Ingolstadt and Augsburg, the Bavarians in the first line, with archduke made the most of his opportunity to restore order
the duke of Danzig in his old position, until we know what the
amongst his demoralized men, and crossed to the north bank
enemy going to do. Everything would be excellent if the duke
is of the Danube during the night.
of Auerstadt had been at Ingolstadt and the duke of Rivoli 31. Austrian Retreat. On the following morning the French
with the Wurttembergers and Oudinot's corps at Augsburg, reached Regensburg and at once proceeded to assault its
... so that just the opposite of what should have been medieval walls, but the Austrian garrison bravely defended it
done has been done " (C. N. to Berthier, Ludwigsburg, i6th till the last of the stragglers was safely across on the north bank.
April). It was here that for the only time in his career Napoleon was
slightly wounded. Then, leaving Davout to observe the archduke's
20. Napoleon takes command.
Having despatched this severe
reprimand he hastened on to Donauworth, where he arrived at retreat, the emperor himself rode after Massena, who with the
4 A.M. on the lyth, hoping to find Berthier, but the latter was at major portion of the French army was following the Austrian
Augsburg. Nevertheless, at 10 A.M. he ordered Davout and weaker wing under Hiller. The latter was not so shaken as
Oudinot to withdraw at once to Ingolstadt; and Lefebvre and Napoleon believed, and turning to bay inflicted a severe check
Wrede on the right to support the movement. About noon on its pursuers, who at Ebelsberg lost 4000 men in three
xix. 8
226 NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
fruitless assaults.Thus covered by his rearguard Hiller gained battlefield, and marched because they were compelled, not of
space and time to pass his troops over to the north bank of the their owngoodwill. The result was apparent in a sudden
Danube and remove all boats on the river. This left the direct diminution in mobility, and a general want of punctuality
road to Vienna open, and Napoleon, hoping to find peace in the which in the event very seriously influenced the course of the
enemy's capital, pushed the whole of his army down the right campaign. On the other hand, the Russians, once their father-
bank, and with Murat's cavalry entered the city on the i2th of land was invaded, became dominated by an ever-growing spirit
May, after somewhat severe resistance lasting three days. Mean- of fanaticism, and they were by nature too obedient to their
while the archduke and Hiller, both now unmolested, effected natural leaders, and too well inured to the hardships of cam-
their junction in the vicinity of Wagram, picketing the whole line paigning, to lose their courage in a retreat.
of the Danube with their outposts and collecting all the boats. 34. The Strategic Deployment. By the middle of June 1812
32. Aspern and Wagram. The reconnaissance of the river the emperor had assembled his army along the line of the Niemen.
was at once taken in hand by the French upon their arrival On the extreme right stood the Austrian contingent under
in Vienna, and a point opposite the island of Lobau selected Schwarzenberg (34,000 men). Next, centring about Warsaw,
for the crossing. Thanks to the Austrian precautions it took a group of three corps (19,000 men) under the chief command
four days to collect the necessary material to span the main of Napoleon's brother Jerome. Then the main army under
branch of the river, here some 2000 yds. across, and though Napoleon in person (220,000 men; with 80,000 more under the
Napoleon personally spurred on all to activity nearly four days viceroy of Italy on his right rear); and on the extreme left at
more were required for its construction. It was not till the night Tilsit a flanking corps, comprising the Prussian auxiliary corps
of the igth of May that orders for the passage were finally issued, and other Germans (in all 40,000 strong). The whole army
and during the night the troops commenced to occupy the island was particularly strong in cavalry; out of the 450,000, 80,000
of Lobau. Surprise, of course, was out of the question, but the belonged to that arm, and Napoleon, mindful of the lessons of
Austrians did not attempt to dispute the passage, their object 1807, had issued the most minute and detailed orders for the
being to allow as many French as they felt they could deal with supply service in all its branches, and the forwarding of reinforce-
to pass over and then to fall on them. Thus on the 2ist of ments, no less than 100,000 men being destined for that purpose
May the battle of Aspern (q.v.) or Essling began. It ended on in due course of time.
the night of the 22nd with the complete defeat of Napoleon, Information about the Russians was very indifferent; it was
the first ever inflicted upon him. The French retreated into the only known that Prince Bagration with about 33,000 men lay
island of Lobau. By nightfall upwards of 100,000 men, en- grouped about Wolkowysk; Barclay de Tolly with 40,000 about
cumbered with at least 20,000 wounded, were crowded together Vilna; and on the Austrian frontier lay a small corps under
on the little island scarcely a mile square, short of provisions Tormassov in process of formation, while far away on the Turkish
and entirely destitute of course of all hospital accessories. The frontiers hostilities with the sultan retained Tschitschagov with
question then arose whether the retreat was to be continued 50,000 more. Of the enemy's plans Napoleon knew nothing,
across the main stream or not, and for the second time in his but, in accordance with his usual practice, the position he had
career Napoleon assembled his generals to take their opinion. selected met all immediate possible moves.
They counselled retreat, but having heard them all he replied, 35. Opening of the Campaign. On the 24th of June the passage
"
in substance: If we leave here at all we may as well retire to of the Niemen began in torrid heat which lasted for a few days.
Strassburg, for unless the enemy is held by the threat of further The main army, with the emperor in person, covered by Murat
operations he will be free to strike at our communications and and the cavalry, moved on Vilna, whilst Jerome on his right rear
has a shorter distance to go. We must remain here and renew at once threatened Bagration and covered the emperor's outer
operations as soon as possible." flank. From the very first, however, the inherent weakness of
Immediate orders were despatched to summon every available the vast army, and the vicious choice of time for the beginning
body of troops to concentrate for the decisive stroke. Practically of the advance, began to make itself felt. The crops being still
the lines of communication along the Danube were denuded green, and nothing else available as forage for the horses, an
of combatants, even Bernadotte being called up from Passau, epidemic of colic broke out amongst them, and in ten days the
and the viceroy of Italy, who driving the archduke Johann before mounted arms had lost upwards of one-third of their strength;
him Raab) had brought up 56,000 men through
(action of men died of sunstroke in numbers, and serious straggling began.
Tirol, was disposed towards Pressburg within easy call. The Still everything pointed to the concentration of the Russians at
arsenal of Vienna was ransacked for guns, stores and appliances, Vilna, and Jerome, who on the 5th of July had reached Grodno,
and preparations in the island pushed on as fast as possible. was ordered to push on. But Jerome proved quite inadequate
By the end of June 200,000 troops were stationed within call, to his position, listening to the complaints of his subordinates as
and on the 4th July the French began to cross over to the left to want of supplies and even of pay; he spent four whole days
bank of the Danube. The events which followed are described in absolute inertia, notwithstanding the emperor's reprimands.
under WAGRAM. The great battle at this place, fought on the Meanwhile the Russians made good their retreat Barclay to-
5th and 6th of July, ended in the retirement of the Austrians. wards the entrenched camp of Drissa on the Dvina, Bagration
The only other event which occurred before peace was made towards Mohilev.
was an unimportant action at Znaym on the nth of July. The emperor's first great coup thus failed. Jerome was
33. The Russian War of 1812. Whilst the campaign of 1809 replaced by Davout, and the army resumed its march, this time
had seriously shaken the faith of the marshals and the higher in the hope of surrounding and overwhelming Barclay, whilst
ranks in the infallibility of the emperor's judgment, and the Davout dealt with Bagration. The want of mobility, particularly
slaughter of the troops at Aspern and Wagram had still further in the cavalry, now began to tell against the French. With horses
accentuated the opposition of the French people to conscription, only just recovering from an epidemic, they proved quite unequal
the result on the fighting discipline of the army had, on the to the task of catching the Cossacks, who swarmed round them
whole, been for good. The panics of Wagram had taught men in every direction, never accepting an engagement but compelling
and officers alike a salutary lesson. a constant watchfulness for which nothing in their previous
Aware of the growing feeling against war in France, Napoleon experience had sufficiently prepared the French.
had determined to make his allies not only bear the expenses of Before their advance, however, the Russian armies steadily
the coming campaign, but find the men as well, and he was retired, Barclay from Vilna via Drissa to Vitebsk, Bagration
so far master of Europe that of the 363,000 who on the 24th of from Wolkowysk to Mohilev. Again arrangments were made
June crossed the Niemen no less than two-thirds were Germans, for a Napoleonic battle; behind Murat's cavalry came the
" "
Austrians, Poles or Italians. But though the battlefield discipline general advanced guard to attack and hold the enemy, whilst
of the men was better, the discipline in camp and on the march the main body and Davout were held available to swing in on
was worse, for the troops were no longer eager to reach the his rear. Napoleon, however, failed to allow for the psychology
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 227
of his opponents, who, utterly indifferent to the sacrifice of life, and then began a series of rearguard actions and nocturnal
refused to be drawn into engagements to support an advance retreats which completely accomplished their purpose of wearing
or to extricate a rearguard, and steadily withdrew from every down the French army. The Russian government, however,
when the French gained touch with them. failed to see the matter in its true light, and Marshal Kutusov
position
Thus the manoeuvre against Vitebsk again miscarried, and was sent to the front to assume the chief command. His inten-
tion was to occupy a strong position and fight one general action
Napoleon found himself in a far worse position, numerically and
materially, than at the outset of the campaign. Then he had for the possession of Moscow, and to this end he selected the line of
stood with 420,000 men on a front of 160 m., now he had only the Kalatscha where the stream intersects the great Moscow road.
229,000 men on a front of 135; he had missed three great 37. Borodino. Here he was overtaken by Murat and Ney, but
enemy in detail, and in five weeks,
opportunities of destroying hi? the French columns had straggled so badly that four whole days
during which time he had only traversed 200 m., he had seen his elapsed before the emperor was able to concentrate his army for
troops reduced numerically at least one-third, and, worse still, battle and then could only oppose 128,000 men to the Russians'
his army was now far from being the fighting machine it had been 110,000. About 6 a.m. the battle began, but Napoleon was
at the outset. suffering from one of those attacks of illness and depression
36. Smolensk. Meanwhile the Russians had not lost a single which henceforth became such an important factor in his fate.
gun and the moral of their men had been improved by the result Till about midday he foUowed the course of the action with his
of the many minor encounters with the enemy; further, the usual alertness; then he appears to have been overcome by a
B A L T I C
>Mosc<yw
,.
..
,..
Conigsberg Glubokoye
Danzigj /Una
Kalug*
"Krasnyi
ichm/any
IMarienwerderl
I Mogilev
Ostrolenka/
iNesTiye
Pultusk^
Modlir
Warsaw
oLnblin
:AMPAIGNof Scale. 1:7,800,000
1812
English Miles
Kiev 50 loo MO
Roadi Marshes -"
junction of Bagration and Barclay was now assured in the vicinity kind of stupor and allowed his marshals to fight by themselves.
of Smolensk. Towards this place the French advance was now There was no final decisive effort as at Wagram and the Guard
resumed, and the Russian generals at the head of a united force was not even called on to move. Ultimately the sun went down
of 130,000 men marched forward to meet them. Here, however, on an undecided field on which 25,000 French and 38,000 Russians
the inefficiency of the Russian staff actually saved them from had fallen, but the moral reaction on the former was far greater
the disaster which must certainly have overtaken them had they than on the latter.
realized their intention of fighting the French. The Russians 38. Moscow. Kutusov continued his retreat, and Murat
marched in two columns, which lost touch of one another, and with his now exhausted horsemen followed as best he might.
as it was
quite impossible for either to engage the French single- Sebastiani, commanding the advanced guard, overtook the
handed, they both retired again towards Smolensk, where with Russians in the act of evacuating Moscow, and agreed with the
an advanced guard in the town itself which possessed an old- latter to observe a seven hours' armistice to allow the Russians to
fashioned brick enceinte not to be breached by field artillery alone clear the town, for experience had shown the French that street
the two columns reunited and deployed for action behind the fighting in wooden Russian townships always meant fire and the
unfordable Dnieper. consequent destruction of much-needed shelter and provisions.
Murat and Ney as " general advanced guard " attacked the Towards nightfall Napoleon reached the scene, and the Russians
town in the morning of the i6th of August, and whilst they being now clear the troops began to enter, but already fires were
fought the main body was swung round to attack the Russian observed in the farther part of the city. Napoleon passed the
left and rear. The whole of the 1
7th was required to complete the night in a house in the western suburb and next morning rode
movement, and as soon as its purpose was sufficiently revealed to the Kremlin, the troops moving to the quarters assigned
to the Russians the latter determined to retreat under cover of to them, but in the afternoon a great fire began and, continuing
night. Their manoeuvre was carried out with complete success, for two days, drove the French out into the country again.
228 NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
The emperor was now in the direst perplexity. Kutusov was Borisov. He now selected Viesselovo as the point of passage and
hovering on the outskirts of the city, his main body at Kaluga, at i a.m. on the 23rd sent orders to Oudinot to march thither
some marches to the S.W., where he was in full communication and construct bridges. In the execution of these orders Oudinot
with the richest portion of the empire; and now news arrived encountered the Russian advanced guard near Borisov and
that St. Cyr, who had relieved Macdonald on his extreme left, drove the latter back in confusion, though not before they had
had only 17,000 men left under arms against upwards of 40,000 destroyed the existing bridge there. This sudden reassumption
Russians under Witgenstein; and to the south Tschitschagov's of the offensive threw Tschitschagov into confusion. Thus time
army, being no longer detained on the Turkish frontier, peace was gained come up and for Oudinot to con-
for Victor also to
having been made, was marching to join Tormassov about struct the bridges at Studienka near the above-mentioned
Brest-Litewski with forces which would bring the total of the place, but a spot in many respects better suited for the purpose.
two well over 100,000 men. Meanwhile Schwarzenberg's force Thither therefore Napoleon sent his pontonniers under General
opposing these had dwindled to a bare 30,000. Eble, but on their arrival they found that no preparations had
The French army was thus disposed almost in an equilateral been made and much time was lost. Meanwhile Victor, in doubt
triangle with sides of about 570 m., with 95,000 men at the apex as to the real point of passage, had left the road to Studienka
at Moscow opposed to 120,000, 30,000 about Brest opposite open to Wittgenstein, who had followed hard on his heels.
100,000, and 17,000 about Drissa confronted by 40,000, whilst in By 4 p.m. on the 26th the bridges were finished and the passage
the centre of the base at Smolensk lay Victor's corps, about began, but not without resistance by the Russians, who were'
30,000. From Moscow to the Niemen was 550 m. In view of gradually closing in. The crossing continued all night, though
this situation Napoleon on the 4th of October sent General interrupted from time to time by failures of the bridges. All
Lauriston to the Russian headquarters to treat. Whilst waiting day during the 27th stragglers continued to cross, covered by
his return Murat was enjoined to skirmish with Kutusov, and such combatants as remained under sufficient discipline to be
the emperor himself worked out a scheme to assume the offensive employed. At 8 a.m. on the 28th, however, Tschitschagov and
with his whole army towards St Petersburg, calling in Victor and Wittgenstein moved forward on both banks of the river to the
St Cyr on the way. This project was persisted with, until on the attack, but were held off by the splendid self-sacrifice of the few
1 8th Murat was himself attacked and severely handled (action remaining troops under Ney, Oudinot and Victor, until about
of Tarutino or Vinkovo). On the morning of the ipth the whole i p.m. the last body of regular troops passed over the bridges,
army moved out to accept this challenge, and the French were and only a few thousand stragglers remained beyond the river.
thoroughly worsted on the 24th in the battle of Maloyaroslavetz. The number of troops engaged by the French that day cannot
39. The Retreat from Moscow. Then began the celebrated be given exactly. Oudinot's and Victor's men were relatively
retreat. It has generally been forgotten that the utter want fresh and may have totalled 20,000, whilst Ney can hardly have
of march discipline in the French, and not the climatic condi- had more than 6000 of all corps fighting under him. How many
tions, was responsible for the appalling disasters which ensued. were killed can never be known, but three days later the total
Actually the frost came later than usual that year, the 2yth of number of men reported fit for duty had fallen to 8800 only.
October, and the weather was dry and bracing; not till the 8th 41. Final Operations. Henceforward the retreat of the army
of November did the cold at night become sharp. Even when the became practically a headlong flight, and on the 5th of December,
Beresina was reached on the 26th November, the cold was far from having reached Smorgoni and seeing that nothing further could
severe, for the slow and sluggish stream was not frozen over, as is be done by him at the front, the emperor handed over the
proved by the fact that Eble's pioneers worked in the water all command of what remained to Murat, and left fry Paris to
through that terrible day. But the French army was already com- organize a fresh army for the following year. Travelling at
pletely out of hand, and the degree to which the panic of a crowd the fullest speed, he reached the Tuileries on the i8th, after a
can master even the strongest instinct of the individual is shown journey of 312 hours.
by the conduct of the fugitives who crowded over the bridges, After the emperor's departure the cold set in with increased
treading hundreds under foot, whilst all the time the river was severity, the thermometer falling to 23. On the 8th of December
easily fordable and mounted men rode backwards and forwards Murat reached Vilna, whilst Ney with about 400 men and Wrede
across it. with 2000 Bavarians still formed the rearguard; but it was quite
To return to the actual sequence of events. Kutusov had
.
impossible to carry out Napoleon's instructions to go into
been very slow in exploiting his success of the 24th and indeed winter quarters about the town, so that the retreat was resumed
had begun the pursuit in a false direction; but about the 2nd of on the loth and ultimately Konigsberg was attained on the
November, headquarters of the French being at Vyazma, the 1 9th of December by Murat with 400 Guards and 600 Guard
Cossacks became so threatening that the emperor ordered the cavalry dismounted.
army to march (as in Egypt) in hollow square. This order, Meanwhile on the extreme French right Schwarzenberg and
however, appears only to have been obeyed by the Guards, with his Austrians had drifted away towards their own frontier,
whom henceforward the emperor marched. and the Prussian contingent, which under Yorck (see YORCK
Kutusov had now overtaken the French, but fortunately for VON WARTENBUEG) formed part of Macdonald's command
them he made no effort to close with them, but hung on their about Riga, had entered into a convention with the Russians
flank, molesting them with Cossacks and picking up stragglers. at Tauroggen (December 30) which deprived the French of their
Thus the wreck of the Grande Arm&e, now not more than last support upon their left. Konigsberg thus became untenable,
fifty thousand strong, reached Smolensk on the 9th and and Murat fell back to Posen, where on the loth of January
there rested till the I4th. The march was then resumed, the he handed over his command to Eugene Beauharnais and
Guard leading and Ney commanding the rearguard. Near returned to Paris.
Krasnoi on the i6th the Russian advanced guard tried to head The Russian pursuit practically ceased at the line of the
the column off. Napoleon halted a whole day to let the army Niemen, for their troops also had suffered terrible hardships
close up; and then attacked with his old vigour and succeeded and a period of rest had become an absolute necessity.
in clearing the road, but only at the cost of leaving Ney and the 42. The War of Liberation. The Convention of Tauroggen
rearguard to its fate. By a night march of unexampled daring became the starting-point of Prussia's regeneration. As the
and difficulty Ney succeeded in breaking through the Russian news of the destruction of the Grande Armie spread, and the
cordon, but when he regained touch with the main body at appearance of countless stragglers convinced the Prussian people
Orcha only 800 of his 6000 men were still with him (2ist). of the reality of the disaster, the spirit generated by years of
40. The Beresina. From here Napoleon despatched orders French domination burst out. For the moment the king and his
to Victor to join him at Borisov on the Beresina. The cold now ministers were placed in a position of the greatest anxiety, for
gave way and thaw set in, leaving the country a morass, and they knew the resources of France and the boundless versatility
Information came that Tschitschagov from the south had reached of their arch-enemy far too well to imagine that the end of their
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 229
sufferingswas yet in sight. To disavow the acts and desires of the French advanced guard, which he took to be their whole
the army and of the secret societies for defence with which all force,on its right flank, and during the morning had drawn
north Germany was honeycombed would be to imperil the very together the bulk of his forces on his right in the vicinity of Gross-
existence of the monarchy, whilst an attack on the wreck of Gorschen and Kaya.
the Grand Army meant the certainty of a terrible retribution 45. Bailie of Lutzen. About 9 a.m. on May 2nd he began an
from the new armies now rapidly forming on the Rhine. attack on the French advance guard in Lutzen, whilst the
But the Russians and the soldiers were resolved to continue remainder of his army was directed against Napoleon's right
the campaign, and working in collusion they put pressure on and rear. Just as the latter were moving off the heads of the
the not unwilling representatives of the civil power to facilitate French main body suddenly appeared, and at 1 1 a.m. Napoleon,
the supply and equipment of such troops as were still in the field; then standing near the Gustavus Adolphus monument on the
they could not refuse food and shelter to their starving country- field of Lutzen, heard the roar of a heavy cannonade to his right
men or their loyal allies, and thus by degrees the French garrisons rear. He realized the situation in a moment, galloped to the
scattered about the country either found themselves surrounded new scene of action, and at once grouped his forces for decisive
or were compelled to retire to avoid that fate. Thus it happened action the gift in which he was supreme. Leaving the leading
that the viceroy of Italy felt himself compelled to depart from troops to repulse as best they might the furious attack of both
the positive injunctions of the emperor to hold on at all costs Russians and Prussians, and caring little whether they lost
to his advanced position at Posen, where about 14,000 men ground, he rapidly organized for his own control a battle-reserve.
had gradually rallied around him, and to withdraw step by step . At length when both sides were exhausted by their efforts he
to Magdeburg, where he met reinforcements and commanded sent forward nearly a hundred guns which tore asunder by their
the whole course of the lower Elbe. case-shot fire the enemy's line and marched his reserve right
43.Napoleon's Preparations. Meanwhile the emperor in through the gap. Had he possessed an adequate cavalry force
Paris had been organizing a fresh army for the reconquest of the victory would have been decisive. As it was, the allies made
Prussia. Thanks to his having compelled his allies to fight his good their retreat and the French were too exhausted for infantry
battles for him, he had not as yet drawn very heavily on the pursuit.
fighting resources of France, the actual percentage of men taken Perhaps no battle better exemplifies the inherent strength of
by the conscriptions during the years since 1806 being actually the emperor's strategy, and in none was his grasp of the battlefield
"
lower than that in force in continental armies of to-day. He more brilliantly displayed, for, as he fully recognized, These
had also created in 1811-1812 a new National Guard, organized Prussians have at last learnt something they are no longer the
" "
in cohorts to distinguish it from the regular army, and for wooden toys of Frederick the Great," and, on the other hand,
home defence only, and these by a skilful appeal to their patriotism the relative inferiority of his own men as compared with his
and judicious pressure applied through the prefects, became a veterans of Austerlitz called for far more individual effort than
useful reservoir of half-trained men for new battalions of the on any previous day. He was everywhere, encouraging and
active army. Levies were also made with
rigorous severity compelling his men it is a legend in the French army that the
in the states of the Rhine Confederation, and even Italy was persuasion even of the imperial boot was used upon some of his
called on for fresh sacrifices. In this manner by the end of reluctant conscripts, and in the result his system was fully
March upwards of 200,000 men were movingtowards the Elbe, 1 justified, as it triumphed even against a great tactical surprise.
and in the first fortnight of April they were
duly concentrated 46. Bautzen. As soon as possible the army pressed on in
in the angle formed by the Elbe and Saale, threatening on the pursuit, Ney being sent across the Elbe to turn the position of the
one hand Berlin, on the other Dresden and the east. allies at Dresden. This threat forced the latter to evacuate the
44. Spring Campaign of 1813. The allies, aware of the gradual town and retire over the Elbe, after blowing up the stone bridge
strengthening of their enemy's forces but themselves as yet across the river. Napoleon entered the town hard on their heels,
unable to put more than 200,000 in the field, had left a small but the broken bridge caused a delay of four days, there being no
corps of observation opposite Magdeburg and along the Elbe pontoon trains with the army. Ultimately on the i8th of May the
to give timely notice of an advance towards Berlin; and with march was renewed, but the allies had continued their retreat in
the bulk of their forces had taken up a position about Dresden, leisurely fashion, picking up reinforcements by the way. Arrived
whence they had determined to march down the course of the at the line of the Spree, they took up and fortified a very formid-
Elbe and roll up the French from right to left. Both armies able position about Bautzen (?..). Here, on the 2oth, they were
were very indifferently supplied with information, as both were attacked, and after a two days' battle dislodged by Napoleon;
without any reliable regular cavalry capable of piercing the but the weakness of the French cavalry conditioned both the
screen of outposts with which each endeavoured to conceal form of the attack, which was less effective than usual, and the
his disposition, and Napoleon, operating in a most unfriendly results of the victory, which were extremely meagre.
country, suffered more in this respect than his adversaries. The allies broke off the action at their own time and retired
On the 2$th of April Napoleon reached Erfurt and assumed in such good order that the emperor failed to capture a single
the chief command. On this day his troops stood in the following trophy as proof of his victory. The enemy's escape annoyed him
positions. Eugene, with Lauriston's, Macdonald's and Regnier's greatly, the absence of captured guns and prisoners reminded
corps, on the lower Saale, Ney in front of Weimar, holding the him too much of his Russian experiences, and he redoubled his
defile Kosen; the Guard at Erfurt, Marmont at Gotha,
of demands on his corps commanders for greater vigour in the
Bertrand at Saalfeld, and Oudinot at Coburg, and during the pursuit. This led the latter to push on without due regard to
next few days the whole were set in motion towards Merseburg tactical precautions, and Bliicher took advantage of their
and Leipzig, in the now stereotyped Napoleonic order, a strong carelessness when at Haynau (May 26), with some twenty
advanced guard of all arms leading, the remainder about two- squadrons of Landwehr cavalry, he surprised, rode over and
"
thirds of the whole following as masse de manoeuvre," this almost destroyed Maison's division. The material loss inflicted
time, owing to the cover afforded by the Elbe on the left, to the on the French was not very great, but its effect in raising the
right rear of the advanced guard. moral of the raw Prussian cavalry and increasing their con-
Meanwhile the Russians and Prussians had concentrated all fidence in their old commander was enormous.
available men and were moving on an almost parallel line, but Still the allies continued their retreat and the French were
somewhat to the south of the direction taken by the French. unable to bring them to action. In view of the doubtful attitude
On the ist of May Napoleon and the advanced guard entered of Austria, Napoleon became alarmed at the gradual lengthening
Lutzen. Wittgenstein, who now commanded the allies in place of his lines of communication and opened negotiations. The
of Kutusov, hearing of his approach, had decided to attack e'nemy, having everything to gain and nothing to lose thereby,
agreed finally to a six weeks' suspension of arms. This was
1
Napoleon always gave them out as 300,000, but this number
was never attained. perhaps the gravest military error of Napoleon's whole career,
230 NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
"
and his excuse for it, want of adequate cavalry," is the strongest Danzig. The moral effect, he promised himself, would be
testimony as to the value of that arm. prodigious, and there was neither room nor food for these
47. The Autumn Campaign. As soon as a suspension of arms 100,000 elsewhere.
(to i sth of August) had been agreed to, Napoleon hastened to Towards the close of the armistice he learned the general
withdraw his troops from the dangerous position they occupied situation of the allies. The crown prince of Sweden (Bernadotte),
with reference to the passes leading over the mountains from with his Swedes and various Prussian levies, 135,000 in all, lay
Bohemia, for he entertained no doubt now that Austria was also in and around Berlin and Stettin; and knowing his former
to be considered as an enemy. Finally he decided to group his marshal well, Napoleon considered Oudinot a match for him.
corps round Gorlitz and Bautzen whence they could either meet Blucher with about 95,000 Russians and Prussians was about
the enemy advancing from Breslau or fall on his flank over the Breslau, and Schwarzenberg, with nearly 180,000 Austrians and
mountains if they attempted to force their way into Saxony Russians, lay in Bohemia. In his position at Bautzen he felt
by the valley of the 'Elbe. This latter manoeuvre depended, himself equal to all his enemy's combinations.
however, on his maintenance of Dresden, and to this end he sent 48. Dresden. The advance towards Berlin began punctually
the I. Corps up the Elbe to Pirna and Konigstein to cover the with the expiration of the armistice, but with the main army he
fortifications of Dresden itself. His instructions on this point himself waited to see more clearly his adversaries' plans. At
deserve the closest study, for he foresaw the inevitable attraction length becoming impatient he advanced a portion of his army
which a complete entrenched camp would exercise even upon him- towards Blucher, who fell back to draw him into a trap. Then
self, and, therefore, limited his engineers to the construction of a the news reached him that Schwarzenberg was pressing down the
strong bridge head on the right bank and a continuous enceinte, valley of the Elbe, and, leaving Macdonald to observe Blucher,
broken only by gaps for counter attack, around the town itself. he hurried back to Bautzen to dispose his troops to cross the
Then he turned his attention to the plan for the coming Bohemian mountains in the general direction of Konigstein, a
campaign. Seeing clearly that his want of an efficient cavalry blow which must have had decisive results. But the news from
precluded all ideas of a resolute offensive in his old style, he Dresden was so alarming that at the last moment he changed his
determined to limit himself to a defence of the line of the Elbe, mind, and sending Vandamme alone over the mountains, he
making only dashes of a few days' duration at any target the hurried with his whole army to the threatened point. This
enemy might present. march remains one of the most extraordinary in history, for the
Reinforcements had been coming up without ceasing and bulk of his forces moved, mainly in mass and across country,
at the beginning of August he calculated that he would have 90 m. in 72 hours, entering Dresden on the morning of the 27th,
300,000 men available about Bautzen and 100,000 along the only a few hours before the attack of the allies commenced. For
Elbe from Hamburg via Magdeburg to Torgau. With the the events which followed see DRESDEN (battle).
latter he determined to strike the first blow, by a concentric Dresden was the last great victory of the First Empire. By
advance on Berlin (which he calculated he would reach on noon on the 27th August the Austrians and Russians were
the 4th or 5th day), the movement being continued thence completely beaten and in full retreat, the French pressing hard
to extricate the French garrisons in Kiistrin, Stettin and behind them, but meanwhile Napoleon himself again succumbed
_^ttle of **-
LE1PZ1O
Oct.iftth 1813
Engnsn Mi:
! \ /.- Vi^
Campaign of 1813
Si .tliv 1:2.000.000
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 231
to one of his unaccountable attacks of apparent intellectual with his usual sureness and celerity, but whilst the French moved
paralysis. He seemed unaware of the vital importance of the on Wittenberg, Blucher was marching to his right, indifferent
moment, crouched shivering over a bivouac fire, and finally rode to his communications as all Prussia lay behind him.
back to Dresden, leaving no specific orders for the further pursuit. This move on the I4th brought him into touch with Bernadotte,
49. French Defeats. The allies, however, continued to retreat, and now a single march forward of all three armies would have
but unfortunately Vandamme, with his single corps and un- absolutely isolated Napoleon from France; but Bernadotte's
supported, issued out of the mountains on their flank, threw nerve failed him, for on hearing of Napoleon's threat against
himself across their line of retreat near Kulm, and was completely Wittenberg he decided to retreat northward, and not all the
overwhelmed by sheer weight of numbers (2qth). In spite of persuasions of Blucher and Gneisenau could move him. Thus
this misfortune, Napoleon could claim a brilliant success for if the French movement momentarily ended in a blow in the
himself, but almost at the same moment news reached him that air, it was indirectly the cause of their ultimate salvation.
"
Oudinot at Grossbeeren near Berlin, and Macdonald on the 52. The Bailie of the Nations." On the I5th Napoleon con-
Katzbach opposed to Blucher, had both been severely defeated. centrated his forces to the east of Leipzig, with only a weak
50. Napoleon's Movements. During the next two days the detachment to the west, and in the evening the allies were prepared
emperor examined his situation and dictated a series of notes to attack him. Schwarzenberg, with 180,000 men available at
which have been a puzzle to every strategical thinker ever since. once and 60,000 on the following day; Blucher had about
In these he seems suddenly to have cut adrift from every principle 60,000, but Bernadotte now could not arrive before the i8th.
the truth of which he had himself so brilliantly demonstrated, Napoleon prepared to throw the bulk of his force upon Schwar-
and we find him discussing plans based on hypothesis, not zenberg and massed his troops south-east of the town, whilst
knowledge, and on the importance of geographical points without Schwarzenberg marched concentrically against him down
reference to the enemy's field army. From these reveries he the valley of the Elster and Pleisse, the mass of his troops
was at length awakened by news which indicated that the con- on the right bank of the latter and a strong column under
sequences of Macdonald's defeat had been far more serious to Giulay on the left working round to join Blucher on the
the moral of that command than he had imagined. He immedi- north. The fighting which followed was most obstinate, but the
ately rode over to establish order, and his manner and violence Austrians failed to make any impression on the French positions,
were so improper that Caulaincourt had the greatest difficulty and indeed Giulay felt himself compelled to withdraw to his
in concealing the scandal. Bliicher, however, hearing of his former position. On the other hand, Blucher carried the
arrival, at once retreated and the emperor followed, thus village of Mockern and came within a mile of the gates of the
uncovering the passes over the Bohemian mountains, a fact town. During the i7th there was only indecisive skirmishing,
of which Schwarzenberg was quick to take advantage. Learning Schwarzenberg waiting for his reinforcements coming up by the
of his approach, Napoleon again withdrew to Bautzen. Then Dresden road, Blucher for Bernadotte to come in on his left,
hearing that the Austrians had counter-marched and were again and by some extraordinary oversight Giulay was brought closer
moving towards Dresden, he hastened back there, concentrated in to the Austrian centre, thus opening for the French their
as many men as could conveniently be handled, and advanced line of retreat towards Erfurt, and no imformation of this move-
beyond Pirna and Konigstein to meet him. But the Austrians ment appears to have been conveyed to Blucher. The emperor
had no intention of attacking him, for time was now working when he became aware of the movement, sent the IVth Corps
on their side and, leaving his men to starve in the exhausted to Lindenau to keep the road open.
district, the emperor again returned to Dresden, where for the On the i8th the fighting was resumed and by about noon
rest of the month he remained in an extraordinary state of Bernadotte came up and closed the gap to the N.E. of the town
vacillation. On the 4th of October he again drew up a review between Blucher and the Austrians. At 2 p.m. the Saxons,
of the situation, in which he apparently contemplated giving who had remained faithful to Napoleon longer than his other
up his communications with France and wintering in and around German allies, went over to the enemy. All hope of saving the
Dresden, though at the same time he is aware of the distress battle had now to be given up, but the French covered their
amongst his men for want of food. retreat obstinately and by daybreak next morning one-half
51. Campaign of Leipzig. In the meanwhile Blucher, of the army was already filing out along the road to Erfurt
Schwarzenberg and Bernadotte were working round his flanks. which had so fortunately been left for them.
Ney, who had joined Oudinot after Grossbeeren, had been 53. Retreat of the French and Battle of Hanau. It took Blucher
defeated at Dennewitz (6th Sept.), the victory, won by Prussian time to extricate his troops from the confusion into which the
troops solely, giving the greatest encouragement to the enemy. battle had thrown them, and the garrison of Leipzig and the
Suddenly Napoleon's plans are again reviewed and completely troops left on the right bank of the Elster still resisted obstinately
changed. Calling up St Cyr, whom he had already warned to hence no direct pursuit could be initiated and the French,
remain at Dresden with his command, he decides to fall back still upwards of 100,000 strong, marching rapidly, soon gained
towards Erfurt, and go into winter quarters between that place distance enough to be reformed. Blucher followed by parallel
and Magdeburg, pointing out that Dresden was of no use to him and inferior roads on their northern flank, but Schwarzenberg
as a base and that if he does have a battle, he had much better knowing that the Bavarians also had forsaken the emperor
have St Cyr and his men with him than at Dresden. He then and were marching under Wrede, 50,000 strong, to intercept
on the 7th of October drew up a final plan, in which one again his retreat, followed in a most leisurely fashion. Blucher did
recognizes the old commander, and this he immediately proceeded not succeed in overtaking the French, but the latter, near
to put into execution, for he was now quite aware of the danger Hanau, found their way barred by Wrede with 50,000 men and
threatening his line of retreat from both Bliicher and Schwarzen- over zoo guns in a strong position.
berg and the North Army; yet only a few hours afterwards To this fresh emergency Napoleon and his army responded in
the portion of the order relating to St Cyr and Lobau was most brilliant fashion. As at Krasnoi in 1812, they went straight
cancelled and the two were finally left behind at Dresden. From for their enemy and after one of the most brilliant series of
the loth to the I3th Napoleon lay at Diiben, again a prey to artillerymovements in history, directed by General Drouot,
the most extraordinary irresolution, but on that day he thought
they marched right over their enemy, practically destroying his
he saw his opportunity. Blucher was reported near Wittenberg, whole force. Henceforward their march was unmolested, and
and Schwarzenberg was moving slowly round to the south of they reached Mainz on the sth of November.
Leipzig. The North Army under Bernadotte, unknown to 54. The Defensive Campaign. When the last of the French
Napoleon, lay on Blucher's left around Halle. The emperor troops had crossed to the western bank of the Rhine, divided
decided to throw the bulk of his force on Blucher, and, having counsels made their appearance at the headquarters of the allies.
routed him, turn south on Schwarzenberg and sever his com-
Every one was weary of the war, and many felt that it would be
munications with Bohemia. His concentration was effected unwise to push Napoleon and the French nation to extremes.
232 NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
Hence a prolonged halt arose, utilized by the troops in renewing In the night his headquarters were again surprised, and he
their equipment and so forth, but ultimately the Young German learnt that Napoleon himself with his main body was in full
party, led by Blucher and the principal fighting men of the march to fall on his scattered detachments. At the same time
army, triumphed, and on the ist of January 1814 the Silesian he heard that Pahlen's Cossacks had been withdrawn forty-eight
army (50,000) began its passage of the Rhine at Kaub. They hours previously, thus completely exposing his flank. He himself
were to be supported by Schwarzenberg with 200,000 men, who retreated towards fitoges endeavouring to rally his scattered
was to advance by Basel and Neu Breisach to the south, and detachments, but Napoleon was too quick for him and in three
Bernadotte with the Northern army, about 120,000, was to move successive days he defeated Sacken at Montmirail, York at Champ
in support on the right flank through the Netherlands and Aubert and Bliicher and his main body at fitoges, pursuing
Laon; this force was not yet ready and did not, in fact, reach the the latter towards Vertus. These disasters compelled the retreat
latter place till March. of the whole Silesian army, and Napoleon, leaving Mortier and
200,000 men
To meet these forces the emperor could not collect Marmont to deal with them, hurried back to Troyes with his
in all, of whom upwards of
100,000 were held by Wellington on main body to strike the flank of Schwarzenberg's army, which had
the Spanish frontier, and 20,000 more were required to watch meanwhile begun its leisurely advance, and again at Mormant on
the debouches from the Alps. Hence less than 80,000 remained the 1 7th of February, Montereauthe iSthand Mery the 2ist, he
available for the east and north-eastern frontier. If, however, inflicted such heavy punishment upon his adversaries that they
he was weak in numbers, he was now again operating in a fell back precipitately to Bar-sur-Aube.
friendly country, able to find
food almost everywhere and
practically indifferent as to his
communications.
On the 25th of January,
Blucher entered Nancy, and,
moving rapidly up the valley
of the Moselle, was in com-
munication with the Austrian
advanced guard near La
Rothiere on the afternoon
of the 28th. Here his head-
quarters were surprised and
he himself nearly captured by
a sudden rush of French
troops, and he learnt at the
same time that the emperor
in person was at hand. He
accordingly fell back a few
miles next morning to a strong
position covering the exits
from the Bar-sur-Aube defile.
There he was joined by the
Austrian advance guard, and I .Yon--i<\
together they decided to ac-
CAMPAIGN of 1814 ?
cept battle indeed they had
no alternative, as the roads EmcryWAlkcrsc
in rear were so choked with
traffic that retreat was out of the question. About noon 56. Laon.In the meantime Blucher had rallied his scattered
the 2nd of February Napoleon attacked them, but the weather forces and was driving Marmont and Mortier before him.
was and the ground so heavy that his favourite
terrible, Napoleon, as soon as he had disembarrassed himself of Schwarzen-
artillery,the mainstay of his whole system of warfare, was berg, counter-marched his main body and moving again by
useless and in the drifts of snow which at intervals swept Sezanne, fell upon Bliicher's left and drove him back upon
across the field, the columns lost their direction and many Soissons. This place had been held by a French garrison,
were severely handled by the Cossacks. At nightfall the but had capitulated only twenty-four hours beforehand, a fact
fighting ceased and the emperor retired to Lesmont, and thence of which Napoleon was naturally unaware. The Silesian army
to Troyes, Marmont being left to observe the enemy. was thus able to escape, and marching northwards combined
55. Montmirail. Owing to the state of the roads, more with Bernadotte at Laon this reinforcement bringing the
perhaps to the extraordinary lethargy which always characterized forces at Bliicher's disposal up to over 100,000 men.
Schwarzenberg's headquarters, no pursuit was attempted. On the 7th of March Napoleon fell upon the advance guard of
But on the 4th of February Blucher, chafing at this inaction, this force at Craonne and drove it back upon Laon, where a
obtained the permission of his own sovereign to transfer his battle took place on the 9th. Napoleon was here defeated, and
line of operations to the valley of the Marne; Pahlen's corps with only 30,000 men at his back he was compelled to renounce
of Cossacks were assigned to him to cover his left and maintain all ideas of a further offensive, and he retired to rest his troops
communication with the Austrians. to Reims. Here he remained unmolested for a few days, for
Believing himself secure behind this screen, he advanced from Blucher was struck down by sickness, and in his absence nothing
Vitry along the roads leading down the valley of the Marne, was done. On the I4th of March, however, Schwarzenberg,
with his columns widely separated for convenience of subsistence becoming aware of Napoleon's withdrawal to Reims, again began
and shelter the latter being almost essential in the terrible his advance and had reached Arcis-sur-Aube when the news of
weather prevailing. Blucher himself on the night of the 7th was at Napoleon's approach again induced him to retreat to Brienne.
Sezanne, on the exposed flank so as to be nearer to his sources 57. The Allies March on Paris. Thus after six weeks' fighting
of intelligence, and the rest of his army were distributed in the allies were hardly more advanced than at the beginning.
four small corps at or near fipernay, Montmirail and fitoges; Now, however, they began to realize the weakness of their
reinforcements also were on their way to join him and were then opponent, and perhaps actuated by the fear that Wellington
about Vitry. from Toulouse might, after all, reach Paris first, they determined
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 233
to march to Paris (then an open city), and let Napoleon do his the two minds the greater the uncertainty which must prevail
worst to their communications. Actually this was exactly what on the side of the abler commander.
he was preparing to do. He had determined to move eastward It was in 1806 that an improved solution was first devised
to St Dizier, rally what garrisons he could find, and raise the whole The general advanced guard of all arms now followed immediately
country against the invaders, and had actually started on the behind the cavalry screen and held the enemy in position,
execution of this plan when his instructions fell into the enemy's while the remainder of the army followed at a day's march in
"
hands and his projects were exposed. Regardless of the threat, a bataillon carree " ready to manoeuvre in any required direc-
the allies marched straight for the capital. Marmont and tion. The full reach of this discovery seems as yet scarcely
Mortier with what troops they could rally took up a position on to have impressed itself upon the emperor with complete con-
Montmartre heights to oppose them, but seeing further resistance viction, for in the succeeding campaign in Poland we find that
to be hopeless they gave way on the 3ist of March, just as he twice departed from this form at Pultusk and Heilsberg
Napoleon, with the wreck of the Guards and a mere handful of and each time his enemy succeeded in escaping him. At Fried-
other detachments, was hurrying across the rear of the Austrians land, however, his success was complete, and henceforth the
towards Fontainebleau to join them. method recurs oh practically every battlefield. When it fails it is
This was the end of the First Empire. The story of the Water- because its inventor himself hesitates to push his own concep-
loo Campaign is told under its own heading. tion to its full development (Eckmiihl 1809, Borodino 1812). Yet
it would seem that this invention of Napoleon's was intuitive
The Military Character of Napoleon. rather than reasoned; he never communicated it in its entirety
No military career has been examined more often and more to his marshals, and seems to have been only capable of exercising
than that of Napoleon. Yet even so the want of complete it either when in full possession of his health or under the excite-
freely
documentary evidence upon which to base conclusions has ment of action. Thus we find him after the battle of Dresden
vitiated all but the most recent of the countless monographs itself a splendid example of its efficacy suddenly reverting
and histories that have appeared on the subject. Fortunately to the terminology of the school in which he had been brought
the industry and ability of the military history section of the up, which he himself had destroyed, only to revive again in the
French General Staff have rendered available, by the publica- next few days and handle his forces strategically with all his
tion of the original orders issued during the course of his accustomed brilliancy.
campaigns, a mass of information which, taken in conjunction In 1814 and in 1815 in the presence of the enemy he again
with his own voluminous correspondence, renders it possible risessupremely to each occasion, only to lapse in the intervals
to trace the growth of his military genius with a reasonable even below the level of his old opponents; and that this was not
approach to accuracy. Formerly we could only watch the the consequence of temporary depression naturally resulting
evolution of his powers of organization and the purely psychic from the accumulated load of his misfortunes, is sufficiently
gifts of resolution and command. The actual working of his shown by the downright puerility of the arguments by which
mind towards that strategic and tactical ascendancy that he seeks to justify his own successes in the St Helena memoirs,
rendered his presence on the battlefield, according to the testi- which one may search in vain for any indication that Napoleon
mony of his opponents, equal to a reinforcement of 40,000 men, was himself aware of the magnitude of his own discovery. One
was entirely undiscernible. is forced to the conclusion that there existed in Napoleon's
The history of his youth reveals no special predilection for brain a dual capacity one the normal and reasoning one,
the military service the bent of his mind was political far more developing only the ideas and conceptions of his contemporaries,
than military, but unlike the politicians of his epoch he con- the other intuitive, and capable only of work under abnormal
sistently applied scientific and mathematical methods to his pressure. At such moments of crisis it almost excelled human
theories, and desired above all things a knowledge of facts in comprehension; the mind seems to have gathered to itself
their true relation to one another. His early military education and summed up the balance of all human passions arranged for
was the best and most practical then attainable, primarily and against him, and to have calculated with unerring exacti-
because he had the good fortune to come under the influence tude the consequences of each decision.
of men of exceptional ability Baron du Keile, Bois Roger and A partial explanation of this phenomenon may perhaps be
others. From them he derived a sound knowledge of artillery found in the economy of nervous energy his strategical method
and fortification, and particularly of mountain warfare, which ensured to him. Marching always ready to fight wherever his
latter was destined to prove of inestimable service to him in enemy might stand or move to meet him, his mind was relieved
his first campaigns of 1794-95 and 1796. In these, as well as from all the hesitations which necessarily arise in men less
in his most dramatic success of Marengo in 1800, we can discern confident in the security of their designs. Hence, when on the
no trace of strategical innovation. He was simply a master of battlefield the changing course of events left his antagonists
the methods of his time. Ceaseless industry, energy and con- mentally exhausted, he was able to face them with will power
spicuous personal gallantry were the principal factors of his neither bound nor broken. But this only explains a portion
brilliant victories, and even in 1805 at Ulm and Austerlitz of the mystery that surrounds him, and which will make the
it was still the excellence of the tactical instrument, the
army, study of his career the most fascinating to the military student
which the Revolution had bequeathed to him that essentially of all times.
produced the results. Amongst all the great captains of history Cromwell alone
Meanwhile the mathematical mind, with its craving for accurate can be compared to him. Both, in their powers of organization
data on which to found its plans (the most difficult of all to obtain and the mastery of the tactical potentialities of the weapons
under the conditions of warfare), had been searching for ex- of their day, were immeasurably ahead of their times, and both
pedients which might serve him to better purpose, and in 1805 also understood to the full the strategic art of binding and
he had recourse to the cavalry screen in the hope of such results. restraining the independent will power of their opponents,
This proved a palliation of his difficulty, but not a solution. an art of which Marlborough and Frederick, Wellington, Lee
Cavalry can only observe, it cannot hold. The facts as to the and Moltke do not seem ever even to have grasped the fringe.
position of an opponent accurately observed and correctly re- (F.N.M.)
ported at a given moment, afford no reliable guarantee of his
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Among the principal modern works on Napo-
position 48 hours later, when the orders based on this information leon'scampaigns 1805-14 are the following: Yorck von Wartenberg,
enter upon execution. This can
only be calculated on the ground Napoleon als Feldherr (1866, English and French translations);
of reasonable
probability as to what it may
be to the best interest H. Camon, La Guerre natoolionienne (Paris, 1903); H. Bonnal,
of the adversary to But what Esprit de la guerre moderne (a series of works, of which those dealing
attempt. may seem to a Napoleon with 1805-1812 are separately mentioned below). For 1805 see
the best course is not
necessarily the one that suggests itself Alombert and Colin (French Gen. Staff), de 180$ en
to a mediocre Campagne
mind, and the greater the gulf which separates Allcmagne (Paris, 1898-1910); H. Bonnal, De Rosbach a Ulm (Paris,
234 NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS
1903) Sir D. Haig, Cavalry Studies
; (London, 1907) G. A. Furse, Vim,
; back as unfit to keep the sea. With the other four he reached
Trafalgar and Austerlitz (London, 1905). For 1806-1807, Pr. Kraft
the coast of Egypt, on the 7th of May, only to sight a powerful
zu Honenlohe-Ingelfingen, Letters on Strategy (Eng. trans., vol. i.);
British force, and to be compelled to escape to Toulon, which he
Freiherr v. d. Goltz, Rossbach und Jena; the new edition of the same
work, Von Rossbach bis Jena und Auerstadt (Berlin, 1906) and Von did not reach till the 22nd of July. The French in Egypt were
Jena bis Preussisch-Eylau (Berlin, 1908); Studies in French in fact beaten before he reached the coast. At the beginning of
Gen. Staff Revue d'Histoire (1909); P. Foucart, Campagne de
1801, a British naval force, commanded by Lord Keith, had
Prusse; H. Bonnal, La Manoeuvre d lena (Paris, 1904); Memoirs of
sailed from Gibraltar, escorting an army of 18,000 men under
Bennigsen (trans, by E. Cazalas, French Gen. Staff, 1909) F. N. ;
Maude, Tt*e Jena Campaign (London, 1909); F. L. Petre, Napoleon's General Abercromby. It reached Marmorice Bay, in Asia Minor,
Campaign in Poland (London, 1902). For 1809, H. Bonnal, La on the 3ist of January, to arrange a co-operation with the Turks,
Manoeuvre de Landshut (Paris, 1905) Saski, Campagne de 1809
;
and after some delay the army was transported and landed in
(Paris, 1899-1902); Ritter v. Angeli, Erzherzog Karl (Vienna,
1895-1897); Lieut. Field Marshal von Woinpvich (ed.), Das Egypt, on the 7th and 8th of March. Before the end of September
Kriegsjahr 1809; Buat, De Ratisbonne d Znaim (Paris, 1910). the French army was reduced to capitulate. In the interval
For 1812, G. Fabry (French Gen. Staff), Campagne de 1812 (Paris, another effort to carry help to it was made from Toulon. On
1904); La Guerre nationale de 1812 (French translation from the the i3th of June 1801 Rear-admiral Linois left Toulon with
Russian general staff work, Paris, 1904) H. Bonnal, La Manoeuvre
;
de Vilna (Paris, 1905); Freiherr v. d. Osten-Sacken, Feldzug 1812
three sail of the line, to join a Spanish squadron at Cadiz and go
(Berlin, 1899) H. B. George, Napoleon's Invasion of Russia (London,
;
on to Egypt. In the straits he was sighted by the British
1900). For 1813, F. N. Maude, The Leipzig Campaign (London, squadron under Sir J. Saumarez, and driven to seek the protection
1908) Lanrezac, La Manceuvre de Liitzen B. v. Quistorp, Gesch.
; ;
of the Spanish batteries in Algeciras. On the 6th of July he
der Nordarmee i8ij (1894); v. Holleben, Gesch. des Fruhjahrs- "
feldzug 1813 (Berlin, 1904) Friedrich, Der Herbstfeldzug
; 1813
beat off a British attack, capturing the Hannibal," 74. On
(Berlin, 1903-1906). For 1814, German Gen. Staff, Kriegsgesch. the gth a Spanish squadron came to his assistance, and the com-
Einzelschriften, No. 13; v. Janson, Der Feldzug 1814 in Frankreich bined force steered for Cadiz. During the night of the I2th/i3th
(Berlin, 19031905). See also works mentioned under FRENCH of July they were attacked by Sir J. Saumarez. Two Spanish
REVOLUTIONARY VVARS and under biographical headings, as well as
three-deckers blew up, and a 74-gun ship was taken. The others
the general histories of the time.
were blockaded in Cadiz. The invasion scheme was vigorously
pushed after the '3rd of March 1801. Flat-bottomed boats were
NAVAL OPERATIONS
gradually collected at Boulogne. Two attempts to destroy them
The French navy came under the direct and exclusive control at anchor, though directed by Nelson himself, were repulsed
of Napoleon after the i8th Brumaire. At the close of 1799 (see on the 4th and i6th of August. But the invasion was so far
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS) he had three purposes to serve little more than a threat made for diplomatic purposes. On
by the help of his fleet: the relief of the French garrison besieged the ist of October 1801 an armistice was signed in London,
by the British forces in Malta; the reinforcement of the army and the Peace of Amiens followed, on the 27th of March 1802.
he had left in Egypt; and the distraction of Great Britain by (For the operations in the Baltic in 1801, see COPENHAGEN,
the threat of invasion of England across the Channel, or of BATTLE OF.)
Ireland. The both in number and in quality of his
deficiencies The Peace of Amiens proved to be only an uneasy truce,
naval resources doomed him to fail in all three. Though he had and it was succeeded by open war, on the i8th of May 1803.
control of what remained of the navies of Holland and Spain, From that date till about the middle of August 1805, a space of
as well as of the French, he was outnumbered at every point, some two years and two months, the war took the form of a most
while the efficiency of the British fleet gave it a mobility which determined attempt on the part of Napoleon to carry out an
doubled its material superiority. All Napoleon's efforts to sup- invasion of Great Britain, met by the counter measures of the
port his troops in Malta and Egypt were necessarily made under British government. The scheme of invasion was based on the
the hampering obligation to evade the British forces barring the Boulogne flotilla, a device inherited from the old French royal
road. The inevitable result was that only an occasional blockade- government, through the Republic. Its object was to throw
runner could succeed in escaping detection and attack. The relief a great army ashore on the coast between Dover and Hastings.
thus brought to Malta and Egypt was not sufficient. In February The preparations were made on an unprecedented scale. The
" "
1800, the Genereux (74), one of the few ships which escaped Republic had collected some two hundred and forty vessels.
from the Nile, sailed from Toulon with three corvettes, under Under the direction of Napoleon ten times as many were equipped.
Rear-admiral Perree, to relieve Malta. On the i8th she was They were divided into: prames, ship-rigged, of 35 metres long
sighted by the blockading squadron, surrounded and captured. and 8 wide, carrying 12 guns; chaloupes cannonieres, of 24 metres
Three other survivors of the Nile were at anchor in Malta the long and 5 wide, carrying 5 guns and brig-rigged; bateaux
" " " "
Guillaume Tell (80), and two frigates, the Diane and the cannoniers, of 19 metres long by 1-56 wide, carrying 2 guns and
"
Justice." On the 29th of July the " Guillaume Tell " en- mere boats. All were built to be rowed, were flat-bottomed, and
deavoured to slip out in the night. She was sighted, pursued of shallow draft so as to be able to navigate close to the shore, and
and overpowered, after a singularly gallant resistance. The to take the ground without hurt. They were built in France
frigates made an attempt to get off on the 24th of August, but and the Low Countries, in the coast towns and the rivers even
"
only the Justice," a solitary survivor of the squadron which in Paris and were collected gradually, shore batteries both fixed
fought at the Nile, reached Toulon. Malta, starved out by the and mobile being largely employed to cover the passage. A
British fleet, surrendered on the 5th of September 1800. Very vast sum of money and the labour of thousands of men were
similar was the fate of the efforts to reach and reinforce the employed to clear harbours for them, at and near Boulogne.
army of Egypt. The
British squadrons either stopped the re- The shallow water on the coast made it impossible for the British
lieving forces at their point of departure, or baffled, when they line-of -battle ships, or even large frigates, to press the attack' on
did not take them, at their landfall. A
squadron of seven sail of them home. Smaller vessels they were able to beat off and so,
the under Admiral Ganteaume, succeeded in slipping out of
line, in spite of the activity of the British cruisers and of many sharp
Brest, when a gale had driven the British blockading force off encounters, the concentration was effected at Boulogne, where an
the coast. Ganteaume met with some measure of success in army of 130,000 was encamped and was incessantly practised
capturing isolated British men-of-war, one of them being a 74, in embarking and disembarking. Before the invasion was
"
the Swiftsure." But he failed to give effectual help to the taken in hand as a serious policy, there had been at least a pro-
Egyptian army. He sailed oa the 23rd of January 1801, entered fession of a belief that the flotilla could push across the Channel
trie Mediterranean and, his squadron being in a bad condition, during a calm. Experience soon showed that when the needful
steered for Toulon, which he reached on the i8th of February. allowance was made for the time required to bring them out
On the i gth of March he sailed again for Egypt, but was again of harbour (two tides) and for the influence which the Channel
driven back by the same causes on the 5th of April. On the 25th currents must have upon their speed, it would be extremely rash
he was ordered out once more. Three of his ships had to be sent to rely on a calm of sufficient length. Napoleon therefore came
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS 235
of the pth/ioth of April, and reached Fort de France in Martin-
early to the conclusion that he must bring about a concentration
of his seagoing fleet in the Channel, which would give him a ique on the i4th of May. Here he was to have remained till
temporary command of its v/aters. joined by Ganteaume from Brest. On the ist of June he was
He had a squadron at Brest, ships at L'Orient and Rochefort, joined by a frigate and two line-of-battle ships sent with orders
some had taken refuge at Ferrol on their way back
of his vessels from Rochefort, and was told to remain in the West Indies till
from San Domingo when war broke out, one was at Cadiz, and the sth of July, and if not joined by Ganteaume to steer for
he had a squadron at Toulon. All these forces were watched by Ferrol, pick up the French and Spanish ships in the port, and
British blockading squadrons. The problem was to bring them come on to the Channel. Villeneuve learnt on the 8th of June
together before the British fleet could be concentrated
to meet that Nelson had reached Barbadoes in pursuit of him on the 4th.
them. Napoleon's solution grew, as time went on and circum- The British admiral, delayed by contrary winds, had not been
stances changed, in scope and complexity. In July 1804 he able to start from the entry to the Straits of Gibraltar till the
ordered his admiral commanding at Toulon, Latouche Treville, nth of May. An action in the West Indies would have ruined
to seize an opportunity when Nelson, who was in command of the the emperor's plan of concentration, and Villeneuve decided to
blockade, was driven off by a northerly gale, to put to sea, with sail at once for Ferrol. Nelson, misled by false information,
10 sail of the line, pick up the French ship in Cadiz, join Ville- ranged the West Indies as far south as the Gulf of Paria, in search
neuve who was in the Aix roads, and then effect a junction with of his opponent whom he supposed to be engaged in attacks on
Ganteaume and the 21 sail of the line at Brest. He hoped that British possessions. By the i3th of June he had learnt the truth,
if the British ships in the North Sea concentrated with the and sailed for Gibraltar under the erroneous impression that the
squadron in the Channel, he would be able to make use of Dutch French admiral would return to Toulon. He sent a brig home
vessels from the Texel. The death of Latouche Treville, aoth of with despatches; on the igth of June, in lat. 33 12' N. and
August 1804, supplied an excuse for delay. He was succeeded by long. 58 W., the French were seen by this vessel heading for
Villeneuve. Napoleon now modified the simple plan prepared the Bay of Biscay. Captain Bettesworth who commanded the
for Latouche Treville, and began laying elaborate plans by which brig hurried home, and the information he brought was at once
French vessels were to slip out and sail for distant seas, to draw acted on by Lord Barham, the First Lord of the Admiralty,
the British fleet after them, and then return to concentrate in who took measures to station a force to intercept Villeneuve
the Channel. A further modification was introduced by the end outside Ferrol. On the 22nd of July, 35 leagues N.W. of Finis-
of 1804. Spain, which was bound by treaty to join Napoleon, terre, Villeneuve was met by the British admiral sent to intercept
was allowed to preserve a show of neutrality by paying a monthly him, Sir Robert Calder. A confused action in a fog ended in the
subvention. The British government, treating this as a hostile capture of 2 Spanish line-of-battle ships. But Sir R. Calder,
action as it was seized the Spanish treasure ships on their who had only 15 ships to his opponent's 20 and was nervous
way from America, near Cape Santa Maria, on the 5th of October lest he should be overpowered, did not act with energy. He
1804, and Spain declared war on the I2th of December. New retreated to join the blockading fleet off Brest. Villeneuve was
plans were now made including the co-operation of the Spanish now able to join the vessels at Ferrol. Nelson, who reached
fleet. Amid all the variation in their details, and the apparent Gibraltar on the very day the action off Ferrol was fought, was
confusion introduced by Napoleon's habit of suggesting alter- too far away to interfere with him. But Villeneuve, who was
natives and discussing probabilities, and in spite of the prepara- deeply impressed by the inefficiency of the ships of his fleet and
tions ostensibly made for an expedition to Ireland, which was especially of the Spaniards, and who was convinced that an
to have sailed from Brest and to have carried 30,000 troops overwhelming British force would be united against him in the
commanded by Augereau, the real purpose of Napoleon was Channel, lost heart, and on the isth of August sailed south to
neither altered nor concealed. He worked to produce doubt Cadiz. By this movement he ruined the emperor's elaborate
and confusion in the mind of the British government by threats scheme. Napoleon at once broke up the camp at Boulogne and
and attacks on distant possessions, which should lead it to
its marched to Germany. The further movements of Villeneuve's
scatter its forces. One of these ventures was actually carried fleet are told under TRAFALGAR, BATTLE OF.
out, without, however, securing the co-operation, or effecting With the collapse of the invasion scheme, the naval war
the purpose he had in view. On the nth of January 1805 between Napoleon and Great Britain entered on a new phase.
Admiral Missiessy left Rochefort with 5 sail of the line, un- It lost at once the unity given to it by the efforts of the emperor
detected by the British forces on the coast. Missiessy carried out to effect, and of the British government to baffle the passage of
a successful voyage of commerce-destroying, and returned safely the Channel by an army. In place of the movements of great
to Rochefort on the 2oth of May, from the West Indies. But fleets to a single end, we have a nine years' story (1805-1814)
the force sent in pursuit of him was small, and the British of cruising for the protection of commerce, of convoy, of colonial
government was not deceived into weakening its hold on the expeditions to capture French, Dutch or Spanish possessions
Channel. It in fact well supplied with information by
was and of combined naval and military operations in which the
means of the spy service directed by an exiled French royalist, British navy was engaged in carrying troops to various countries,
the count d'Antraigues, who was established at Dresden as a and in supporting them on shore. Napoleon continued to build
Russian diplomatic agent. Through his correspondents in Paris, line-of-battle ships in numbers from Venice to Hamburg, but
some of whom had access to Napoleon's papers, the British only in order to force the British government to maintain
government was able to learn the emperor's real intentions. costly and wearing blockades. He never allowed his fleets to go
The blockade of Brest was so strictly maintained that Ganteaume to sea to seek battle. The operations of the British fleet were
was allowed no opportunity to get to sea. Villeneuve, who therefore divided between the work of patrolling the ocean roads
was to have co-operated with Missiessy, did indeed leave Toulon, and ancillary services to diplomacy, or to the armies serving in
at a moment when Nelson, whose policy it was to encourage Italy, Denmark and, after 1808, in Spain. The remaining colonial
him to come out by not staying too near the port, was absent, possessions of France, and of Holland, then wholly dependent
ontheiythof January 1805. The British admiral, when informed on her,were conquered by degrees, and the ports in which
that the French were at sea, justified Napoleon's estimate of his privateers were fitted out to cruise against British commerce
probable course in such a contingency, by making a useless in distant seas were gradually rendered harmless. Though
cruise to Egypt. But Villeneuve's ill-appointed ships, manned privateering was carried on by the French with daring and a
by raw crews, suffered loss of spars in a gale, and he returned to considerable measure of success, it did not put an appreciable
Toulon on the 2ist. His last start came when he sailed, unseen check on the growth of British merchant shipping. The function
by Nelson, on the 3oth of March. Aided by lucky changes of of the British navy in the long conflict with Napoleon was of the
wind, he reached Cadiz, was joined by i French and 6 Spanish first importance, and its services were rendered in every sea,
ships under Admiral Gravina, which, added to the u
he had but their very number, extent and complexity render it impossible
with him, gave him a force of 18 sail. He left Cadiz on the night here to record them in detail.
236 NAPOLEONITE NARA
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Captain Mahan, Influence of Sea Power upon connected. His proposal for the re-establishment of divorce was
the French Revolution and the Empire (London, 1892); Chevalier,
discussed in May 1879, and again in 1881 and 1882, and became
Histoire de la marine franchise sous le consulat et V empire (Paris,
1886). All the operations connected with the successive invasion law two years later. Naquet, although he disapproved in
schemes are recorded, with exhaustive quotations of documentary principle of a second chamber, secured his election to the senate
evidence, in Projets et tentatives de debarguement aux lies Britan- in 1883 to pilot his measure through that body. In 1886 by his
nigues, by Captain Desbriere (Paris, 1901). Captain Desbriere's efforts divorce became legal after three years of definite separa-
exhaustive work was done for the historical section of the French
tion on the demand of one of the parties concerned. In 1890 he
general staff, and is a fine example of the scholarly and conscientious
modern French historical school. (D. H.) resigned from the senate to re-enter the Chamber of Deputies,
because this time for the sth arrondissement of Paris, and took his seat
NAPOLEONITE, also called Corsite the stone is
found in the island of Corsica, a variety of diorite which is with the Boulangist deputies. After Boulanger's suicide his
characterized by orbicular structure. The grey matrix of the political influence declined, and was further compromised by
stone has the normal appearance of a diorite, but contains many accusations (of which he was legally cleared) in connexion with
rounded lumps i or 2 in. in diameter, which show concentric the Panama scandals.
zones of light and dark colours. In these spheroids also a The thesis written for his doctorate, Application de I'analyse
distinct and well-marked radial arrangement of the crystals is chimique a la toxicologie (1859), was followed by many papers on
chemistry contributed to learned journals, and his Principes de
apparent. The centre of the spheroid is usually white or pale chimie fondes sur les theories modernes (1865) reached its 5th edition
grey and consists mainly of felspar; the same mineral makes the in 1890. rje is better known by his political works, Socialisme
pale zones while the dark ones are rich in hornblende and cottectiviste et socialisme liberal (1890, Eng. trans., 1891), L'Humanite
Lot du divorce (1903), L' Anarchic et le collectivisme
pyroxene. The felspar is a basic variety of plagioclase (anorthite et la
patrie^ (1901),
or bytownite). Though mostly rounded, the spheroids may (1904), Disarmament ou alliance anglaise (1908).
be elliptical or subangular; sometimes they are in contact with NARA, an important water channel in Sind, India, probably
one another but usually they are separated by small areas of representing a former bed of the Indus, though now traversing
massive diorite. When cut and polished the rock makes a beauti- the desert far E. of the river. Its total length is 250 m.; and by
ful and striking ornamental stone. It has been used for making means of cross cuts, weirs and embankments, it has been made
paper-weights and other small ornamental articles. to irrigate no less than 429 sq. m., with a navigable length of
Spheroidal structure is found in other diorites and in quite a 425 m.
number of granites in various places, such as Sweden, Russia, NARA, a town of Japan, in the province of Yamato, 255 m.
America, Sardinia, Ireland. It is by no means common, however,
and usually occurs in only a small part of a granitic or dioritic mass, from Osaka by rail. Pop. 32,000. It lies on the slope of a range
being sometimes restricted to an area of a few square yards. In of picturesque hills, beautifully wooded with cryptomerias,
most cases it is found near the centre of the outcrop, though ex- evergreen oaks, &c. This was the first permanent capital of
ceptionally it has been found quite close to the margin. It arises Japan. Up to the beginning of the Sth century the imperial
evidently from intermittent and repeated crystallization of the rock- court changed its location at the accession of each sovereign, and
forming minerals in successive stages. Such a process would be
favoured by complete rest, which would allow of supersaturation of the court's place of residence naturally became the official
the magma by one of the components. Rapid crystallization would metropolis. But Nara remained the metropolis during seven
follow, producing deposits on any suitable nuclei, and the crystals consecutive reigns (709 to 784), and its seventy-five years of
then formed might have a radial disposition on the surfaces on
favoured existence sufficed for the building and furnishing of
which they grew. The magma might then be greatly impoverished
in this particular substance, and another deposit of a different kind several imposing shrines and temples, for the laying out of a
would follow, producing a zone of different colour. The nucleus for noble park, for the casting of a colossal image of Buddha, and
the spheroidal growth is sometimes an early for the execution of many other beautiful specimens of applied
porphyritic crystal,
sometimes an enclosure of gneiss, &c., and often does not differ
art. Not much is known of the Nara palace in its original form,
essentially in composition from the surrounding rock. When spher-
oids are in contact the?r inner zones may be distinct while the outer but many of the articles and ornaments used by its inmates
ones are common to both individuals having the outlines of a figure survive in a celebrated collection which, during nearly twelve
of eight. This proves that growth was centrifugal, not centripetal. hundred years, had been preserved in a store-house (Shoso-in)
Many varieties of spheroids are described presenting great differ- near the temple of Todai-ji. This collection cannot be visited
ences in composition and in structure. Some are merely rounded
balls consisting of the earliest minerals of the rock, such as apatite, by strangers more than once a year, and even then only by special
zircon, biotite and hornblende, and possessing no regular arrange- permission. The vigorous growth of the Buddhist creed through-
ment. Others have as centres a foreign fragment such as gneiss out the Nara epoch was remarkable, and found outward ex-
or hornfels, with one or more zones, pale or dark, around this.
Radial arrangement of the crystals, though often very perfect, is pression in many striking architectural and artistic works. The
by no means universal. The spheroids are sometimes flattened or best of these, namely, those dating from the first half of the
fluxion movements of the magma at a Sth century, show Indo-Grecian affinities, which gradually grow
egg-shaped, apparently by
time when they were semi-solid or plastic. As a general rule the fainter as the end of the epoch approaches. The temple called
are more basic and richer in the ferromagnesian minerals
spheroids
than the surrounding rock, though some of the zones are often very Todai-ji was completed about 750. At present the buildings
rich in quartz and felspar. Graphic or perthitic intergrowths between enclose a quadrangle 520 ft. by 620, the south side being mainly
the minerals of a zone are frequent. The spheroids vary in width occupied by the huge, ungainly and no longer perpendicular hall
up to i or 2 ft. In some cases they contain abnormal constituents containing the Dai Butsu, or colossal statue of Buddha. The
such as calcite, sillimanite or corundum, (J. S. F.)
casting of this wonderful piece of work was accomplished after
NAQUET, ALFRED JOSEPH (1834- ), French chemist eight failures in 749 by Takusho, an artist from Korea. On two
and was born at Carpentras (Vaucluse), on the 6th
politician, occasions the head was melted during the burning of the temple
of October 1834. He became professor in the faculty of medicine (1180 and 1567) and from 1567 to 1697 the statue stood exposed
in Paris in 1863, and in the same year professor of chemistry to the weather. The height of the figure is S3 ft. On a hill to the
at Palermo, where he delivered his lectures in Italian. He lost east of the temple stands a bell-house with a huge bell, cast in
his professorship in 1867 with his civic rights, when he was 73 2 J 32 ft- high, 9 ft. across the mouth and weighing 37 tons.
>
condemned to fifteen months' imprisonment for his share in a The great Buddha is often spoken of as the most remarkable of
secret society. On a new prosecution in 1869 for his book the Nara relics; but restorations have so marred it that it can
Religion, propriett, famille he took refuge in Spain. Returning no longer be compared with many smaller examples of con-
to France under the government of Emile Ollivier he took an temporaneous and subsequent sculpture. More worthy of close
active share in the revolution of the 4th of September 1870, attention are two effigies of Brahma and Indra preserved among
and became secretary of the commission of national defence. the relics of Kobuku-ji, which, with Kasuga-no-Miya, Ni-gwatsu-
In the National Assembly he sat on the extreme Left, consistently do and Todai-ji, constitute the chief religious edifices. These
opposing the opportunist policy of successive governments. figures, sculptured in wood, have suffered much from the ravages
Re-elected to the Chamber of Deputies he began the agitation of time, but nothing could destroy the grandeur of their propor-
against the marriage laws with which his name is especially tions or the majesty and dignity of their pose. Several other
NARAINGANJ NARBOROUGH 237
works of scarcely inferior excellence may be seen among the spirituous liquors, and is famous for its honey. The industries
relics,and at the shrine of Kasuga is performed a religious dance include cooperage, sulphur-refining, brandy-distilling and the
called Kagura, in which the costumes and gestures of the dancers manufacture of bricks and tiles and verdigris.
are doubtless t he same as those of twelve centuries back. Kasuga- Long before the Roman invasion of Gaul Narbonne was a flourish-
no-Miya was founded in 767, and its chapels with their rough red- ing city, being capital of the Volcae Tectosages. It was there that
the Romans in 118 B.C. founded their first colony in Gaul, which
painted log-work afford fine examples of primitive Japanese bore the name of Narbo Martins; they constructed great works
architecture. In the temple-park are herds of tame deer; and to protect the city from inundation and to improve its port, situated
little images of deer and trinkets from deer's horn are the favourite on a lake now filled up but at that time communicating with the sea.
charms purchased by the pilgrims. Within the enclosure stands Capital of Gallia Narbonensis, the seat of a proconsul and a station
for the Roman fleet, Narbo Martius became the rival of Massilia.
a curious old trunk of seven plants entwined, including a camellia,
But in A.D. 150 it suffered greatly from a conflagration, and the
cherry and wistaria. Of the great Buddhist temple Kobuku-ji, division of Gallia Narbonensis into two provinces lessened its im-
founded in 710, and burnt for the third time in 1717, there portance as a capital. Alans, Sueyi, Vandals, each held the city
remains little save two lofty pagodas. A railway now gives for a brief space, and at last, in 413, it was occupied by the Visigoths,
access to the town, but every effort is made to preserve all the
whose capital it afterwards became. In 719, after a siege of two
years, it was captured by the Saracens, and by them its fortifica-
ancient features of Nara. A museum has been formed, where tions were restored and extended. Charles Martel, after the battle
many antique objects of great interest are displayed, as well as of Poitiers, and Pippin the Short, in 752, were both repulsed from
works from the hands of comparatively modern artists. Nara its walls; but on a new attempt, after an investment of seven years,
in the days of its prosperity is said to have had a population of
and by aid of a traitor, the Franks managed again to force their
a quarter of a million.
way into Narbonne. Charlemagne made the city the capital of the
duchy of Gothia, and divided it into three lordships one for the
NARAINGANJ, or NARAYANGANJ, a town of India, in the bishop, another for a Prankish lord, and the third for the Jews, who,
Dacca district of eastern Bengal and Assam, situated near the occupying their own quarter, possessed schools, synagogues and a
university famous in the middle ages. The viscounts who succeeded
junction of two rivers with the Meghna, 10 m. by rail S. of Decca the Prankish lord sometimes acknowledged the authority of the
city. Pop. (1901) 24,472. As the port of Dacca, having steamer counts of Toulouse, sometimes that of the counts of Barcelona.
communication with both Calcutta and Chittagong, it has In the I3th century the crusade against the Albigenses spared the
become the chief entrepot for the jute trade of eastern Bengal. city, but the archbishopric was seized by the pope's legate, Arnaud
There are 73 jute-presses, employing 6000 hands, and the annual Amaury, who took the title of viscount of Narbonne. Simon de
Montfort, however, deprived him of this dignity, receiving from
export of jute exceeds 300,000 tons. It also ranks as the model
Philip Augustus the duchy of Narbonne along with the county of
municipality of Bengal. Toulouse. By his expulsion of the Jews Philip the Fair hastened
NARBONNE, a city of France, capital of an arrondissement the decay of the city and about the same period the Aude, which
;
in the department of Aude, situated in a vine-growing plain had formerly been diverted by the Romans, ceased to flow towards
Narbonne and the harbour was silted up, to the further disadvantage
S m. from the Mediterranean, on the railway from Toulouse to of the place. In 1642 Henri Marquis de Cinq-Mars was arrested at
Cette, 37 m. E. of Carcassonne. Pop. (1906) 23,289. The Robine Narbonne for conspiring against Richelieu. United to the French
canal, a branch of the Canal du Midi, divides Narbonne into two crown in 1507, Narbonne was enclosed by a new line of walls under
distinct portions, the bdurg and the cite. The latter is one of the Francis I., but having ceased to be a garrison town it had the last
oldest and most interesting of French towns. The former portions of its ramparts demolished in 1870. The archbishopric
was founded about the middle of the 3rd century, its first holder
cathedral (St Just), which consists only of a choir 130 ft. high being Sergius Paulus; it was suppressed in 1790.
and transept, was begun in 1272, and the transept was still un- NARBONNE-LARA, LOUIS MARIE JACQUES AMALRIC,
finished at the end of the isth century. The towers (194 ft. high) COMTE DE (1755-1813), French soldier and diplomatist, was born
at each extremity of the transept were built about 1480. Some at Colorno, in the duchy of Parma, on the 24th of August 1755.
additions towards the west were made early in the i8th century. He was the son of one of the ladies-in-waiting of Elizabeth,
An unusual effect is produced by a double row of crenellation duchess of Parma, and his father was either a Spanish nobleman
taking the place of balustrades on the roof of the choir chapels or as has been alleged Louis XV. himself. He was brought
and connecting the pillars of the flying buttresses. Among the up at Versailles with the princesses of France, and was made
sepulchral monuments, which are the chief feature of the interior, colonel at the age of twenty-five. He became marechal-de-
may be noticed the alabaster tomb of Cardinal Guillaume camp in 1791, and, through the influence of Madame de Stael,
Briconnet, minister of state under Charles VIII. The chapter- was appointed minister of war. But he showed incapacity in
house, of the 1 5th century, has a vaulted roof supported on four this post, gave in his resignation, and joined the Army of the
free pillars. The treasury preserves many interesting relics. North. Incurring suspicion as a Feuittant and also by his policy
The apse of the cathedral was formerly joined to the fortifications at the war office, he emigrated after the loth of August 1792,
of the archiepiscopal palace, and the two buildings are still con- visited England, Switzerland and Germany, and returned to
nected by a mutilated cloister of the i4th and isth centuries. France in 1801. In 1809 he re-entered the army as general of
On the front of the palace are three square towers of unequal division, and was subsequently minister plenipotentiary at
height. Between the Tour des Telegraphes (1318), crenellated Munich and aide de camp to Napoleon. In 1813 he was appointed
and turreted at the corners, and that of St Martial (1374), machi- French ambassador at Vienna, where he was engaged in an un-
colated and pierced by Gothic openings, a new facade was erected
equal diplomatic duel with Metternich (q.v.) during the fateful
in the style of the I3th century after the plans of Viollet-le-Duc. months that witnessed the defection of Austria from the cause
This portion of the building now serves as h6tel de ville, and its of Napoleon to that of the Allies. He died at Torgau, in Saxony,
upper stories are occupied by the Narbonne museum of art on the 1 7th of November 1813.
and archaeology, which includes a fine collection of pottery. See A. F. Villemain, Souvenirs contemporains (Paris, 1854).
The palace garden also contains many fragments of Roman work NARBOROUGH, SIR JOHN (d. 1688), English naval com-
once built into the now dismantled fortifications; and the mander, was descended from an old Norfolk family. He received
Musee Lapidaire in the Lamourguier buildings (formerly the his commission in 1664, and in 1666 was promoted lieutenant
church of a Benedictine convent) has a collection of Roman for gallantry in the action with the Dutch fleet off the Downs
remains derived from the same source. The church of St Paul, in June of that year. After the peace he was chosen to conduct
though partly Romanesque, is in the main striking, and for the a voyage of exploration in the South Seas. He set sail from
south of France a rare example of a building of the first half of Deptford on the a6th of November 1669, and entered the Straits
the i3th century in the Gothic style of the north. It possesses of Magellan in October of the following year, but returned home
some ancient Christian sarcophagi and fine Renaissance wood in June 1671 without accomplishing his original purpose. A
carving. Narbonne has a sub-prefecture, tribunals of first narrative of the expedition was published at London in 1694
instance and of commerce, a board of trade arbitration, a chamber under the title An Account of several late Voyages and Discoveries
of commerce, a communal
college for boys and a school of to the South and North. During the second Dutch War Nar-
commerce and industry. It has a good trade in wine and borough was second captain of the lord high-admiral's ship the
NARCISSUS
" There are five well-marked sections.
Prince," and conducted himself with such conspicuous valour
1. The hoop-petticoat narcissi, sometimes separated as the genu&
at the battle of Solebay (Southwold Bay) in May 1672 that he
Corbularia, are not more than from 3 to 6 in. in height, and have
won special approbation, and shortly afterwards was made rear- grassy foliage and yellow or white flowers. These have the coronet
admiral and knighted. In 1675 he was sent to suppress the in the centre of the flower very large in proportion to the other parts,
Tripoline piracies, and by the bold expedient of despatching
and much expanded, like the old hooped petticoats. They are now
all regarded as varieties or forms of the common hoop-petticoat,
gun-boats into the harbour of Tripoli at midnight and burning N. Bulbocodium, which has comparatively large bright yellow
the ships he induced the dey to agree to a treaty. Shortly after N. tenuifolius is smaller and somewhat paler and with
flowers;
his return he undertook a similar expedition against the Algerines. slender erect leaves; N. citrinus is pale lemon yellow and larger i
In 1680 he was appointed commissioner of the navy, an office he while N. monophyttus is white. The small bulbs should be taken up
in summer and replanted in autumn and early winter, according
held till his death in 1688. He was buried at Knowlton church,
to the state of the season. They bloom about March or April in the
Kent, where a monument has been erected to his memory. open air. The soil should be free and open, so that water may pass
See Charnock, Biog. Nav. i. Hist. MSS. Comm. I2th Rept.
; off readily.
NARCISSUS, in Greek mythology, son of the river god 2.A second group is that of the Pseudonarcissi, constituting the
genus Ajax of some botanists, of which the daffodil, N. Pseudo-
Cephissus and the nymph Leiriope, distinguished for his beauty. narcissus is the type. The daffodil (fig. 2)Js common in woods and
The seer Teiresias told his mother that he would have a long
life, provided he never looked upon his own features. His
rejection of the love of the nymph Echo (q.v.) drew upon him
the vengeance of the gods. Having fallen in love with his own
reflection in the waters of a spring, he pined away (or killed him-
self) and the flower that bears his name sprang up on the spot
where he died. According to Pausanias, Narcissus, to console
himself for the death of a favourite twin-sister, his exact counter-
part, sat gazing into the spring to recall her features by his own.
Narcissus, representing the early spring-flower, which for a brief
space beholds itself mirrored in the water ?nd then fades, is one
of the many youths whose premature death is recorded in Greek
mythology (cf. Adonis, Linus, Hyacinthus); the flower itself
was regarded as a symbol of such death. It was the last flower
gathered by Persephone before she was carried off by Hades,
and was sacred to Demeter and Core (the cult name of Perse-
phone), the great goddesses of the underworld. From its
associations Wieseler takes Narcissus himself to be a spirit of
the underworld, of death and rest. It is possible that the story
may have originated in the superstition (alluded to by Arte-
midorus, Oneirocritica, ii. 7) that it was an omen of death to
dream of seeing one's reflection in water.
See Ovid, Metam. iii. 341-510; Pausanias ix. 31; Conon,
Narrationes, 24; F. Wieseler, Narkissos (1856); Greve in Roscher's
Lexikon der Mythologie; J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough (1900), i.
293-
NARCISSUS, a genus of bulbous plants belonging to the
family Amaryllidaceae, natives of central Europe and the
Mediterranean region; one species N. Tazetta, extends through
Asia to Japan. From these, or rather from some of these, by
cultivation and hybridization,
have arisen the very numerous
modern varieties. The plants
have long narrow leaves spring-
ing from the bulb and a central
scape bearing one or more
generally large, white or yellow,
drooping or inclined flowers,
which are enveloped before FlG. 2. Daffodil (Narcissus Pseudonarcissus) } nat. size.
opening in a membranous I, Flower cut open; 2, pistil; 3, horizontal plan of flower.
spathe. The flowers are regular,
with a perianth springing from thickets in most parts of the north of Europe, but is rare in Scotland.
above the ovary, tubular below, Its leaves are five or six in number, are about I ft. in length and I in.
in breadth, and have a blunt keel and flat edges. The stem is about
with spreading segments and a 1 8 in. long and the spathe single-flowered. The flowers are large,
central corona; the six stamens scented and a little drooping, with a corolla deeply cleft
yellow,
are inserted within the tube. into six lobes and a bell-shaped corona which is crisped at the
The most interesting feature margin; they appear in March or April. In this species the corona
" " is also very large and prominent, but is more elongated and trumpet-
botanically the
is corona or
"
from shaped, while the other members are regarded as subspecies or
cup," which springs the varieties of this. Of this group the most striking one perhaps is
FIG. i. Flowers of Narcissus base of the flower-segments. N. bicolor, which has the perianth almost white and the corona
(Narcissus Tazetta) bursting from This gives the special char- deep yellow; it yields a number of varieties, some of the best known
the sheathing bract or spathe, 6.
acter to the flowerj and the being Empress, Horsfieldi, Grandee, Ellen Willmott, Victoria,
Weardale Perfection, &c. N. moschatus, a native of the Pyrenees
members of the genus are classified according to the length and the Spanish peninsula, is a cream-coloured subspecies of great
of this organ as compared with that of the segments. The beauty with several forms. N. cyclamineus is a pretty dwarf sub-
most probable supposition is that the cup is simply an species, native of Portugal, with narrow linear leaves and drooping
" " flowers with reflexed lemon-yellow segments and an orange-yellow
excrescence or enation from the mouth of the flower-tube,
corona N. major is a robust form with leaves J^f in. broad and bright
and is connected with the fertilization of the flowers by insect lemon-yellow flowers 2-2 J in. long ; maximus is a closely-related but
agency. still finer form ; obvallaris (the Tenby daffodil) is an early form with
NARCOTICS 239
uniformly yellow flowers.N. minor and minimus are miniature other of its preparations, relieve pain, whilst larger doses act
All these grow well in good garden soil,
repetitions of the daffodil. as hypnotics, causing deep sleep passing into coma. Cannabis
and blossom from March onwards, coming in very early in genial
seasons. Indica, belladonna and hyoscyamus, are also anodyne in their
3. Another group, the mock narcissi or star daffodils, with coronets action. The chief narcotics are mentioned below.
of medium size, includes the fine and numerous varieties of N.
incomparabilis, one of which, with large, double flowers, is known
Opium is the inspissated juice of the Papaver somniferum, con-
taining 7-5 to 10-5% of anhydrous morphine. Besides morphine
as butter-and-eggs N. odorus, known as the campernelle jonquil,
;
some of the other alkaloids contained in it are of a narcotic nature,
has two to four uniform bright yellow flowers, and is considered a
A
form with notably papaverine, narceine, meconine, cryptopine and narcotine,
hybrid between N. Jonquilla and N. Pseudonarcissus. but the principal anodyne and narcotic effects are due to the mor-
sweet-scented double flowers is known as Queen Ann's jonquil;
phine alkaloid. Though seasoned opium takers may take 20 to 30
N.juncifolius, a graceful little plant from Spain, Portugal and south grs. without noticeable effects, I to 3 grs. produces marked symptoms
France, has one to four small bright yellow flowers on each scape. in the western races. Idiosyncrasy is marked in regard to the
The hardier forms of this set thrive in the open border, but the amount of opium a person can safely take. The medicinal dose is
smaller sorts, like Queen Ann's ionqu'l. are better taken in
up up to 2 grs., and the smallest dose that has been known to cause
autumn and replanted in February; they bloom freely about April death in an adult is $ gr. The narcotic properties of Morphine vary
or May. N. triandrus Ganymede's Cup is a pretty little species as to whether it is taken by the stomach or injected under the skin;
with white flowers about I in. long; in several of its varieties the
flowers are a pale or deeper yellow; they make attractive pot plants.
2 grs.
by the stomach is dangerous, and a safe medicinal dose by the
skin is | to J gr. The smallest dose that has produced death in an
4. The polyanthus or bunch narcissi form another well-marked adult was i gr. given hypodermically. The motor centres of the
group, whose peculiarity of producing many flowers on the stem is brain and spinal cord are first stimulated by opium and morphine
indicated by the name. In these the corona is small and shallow and later depressed; death in fatal cases being from paralysis of
as compared with the perianth. Some of the hardier forms, as the respiratory centre of the medulla. For the treatment of poisoning
N. Tazetta itself, the type of the group, succeed in the open borders see under OPIUM.
in light well-drained soil, but the bulbs should be deeply planted, Cannabis indica or Indian Hemp (see HEMP). The part used in
not less than 6 or 8 in. below the surface, to escape risk of injury medicine is the non-fertilized female spikes of the Cannabis saliva.
from frost. Many varieties of this form of narcissus, such as Grand The active constituent is the resin containing cannabin with the
Mpnarque, Paper white, Soleil d'or, are grown. They admit of active principle cannabinol, the alkaloids cannabinene and tetano-
being forced into early bloom, like the hyacinth and tulip. They canabine. Cannabis indica is sold in the East under various names.
vary with a white, creamy or yellow perianth, and a yellow, lemon, A confection of the drug made in Arabia is called hashisch. Churrus
primrose or white cup or coronet; and, being richly fragrant, they is the resin scraped off the leaves, and the dried leaf is called bang,
are general favourites amongst spring flowers. Many tons of these
flowers are exported from the Scilly Isles to the London markets in
gunga or ganga being the name given to the dried flowering tops sold
" " " " for smoking. The medicinal dose is J to I gr. of the extract, 2 to 3
spring. The Chinese sacred lily or joss flower is a form of
grs. is a poisonous dose, but there is no recorded fatal case in man.
N. Tazetta. The jonquil, N. Jonquilla, with yellow flowers, a native In Eastern countries the smoking of Cannabis indica produces a
of south
Europe and Algeria, of which there are single and double form of mania. The effects of smaller doses are intoxication of a
flowered varieties, is also grown in pots for early flowering, but does
pleasant character, exaltation, hallucinations and delirium, later
well outside in a warm border.
dilatation of the pupils, drowsiness, sleep and coma. Indian hemp
5. There remains another little group, the poet's or pheasant's-
eye narcissi (N. poeticus), in which the perianth is large, spreading
is an uncertain
anodyne and hypnotic. When large quantities have
been taken an emetic should be given or the stomach pump used,
and conspicuous, and the corona very small and shallow. These and endeavour to allay excitement until the effects have passed off.
pheasant's-eye narcissi, of which there are several well-marked Belladonna and Atr opine. The leaves of the Atropa Belladonna
varieties, as radiiflorus, poetarum, recurvus, &c., blossom in succession or deadly nightshade of which the active principle is atropine
during April and May, and all do well in the open borders as perma- principally used as a sulphate. A small dose of belladonna or atro-
nent hardy bulbs. N. biflorus, the primrose peerless, a two-flowered
pine causes dryness of the throat and mouth, dilatation of the pupils,
whitish yellow-cupped species, equally hardy and easy of culture, is dimness of vision except for distant objects and often double vision.
a natural hybrid between N. poeticus and Tazetta. N. gracilis, a The pulse becomes quick, rising, in an adult, from 80 to 120 or 160
yellow-flowered species, has also been regarded as a hybrid between beats per minute; and there is often a bright red flush over the skin.
N. Tazetta and N.juncifolius, and blooms later. The intellectual powers are at first acute and strong, but they soon
Of late years some remarkably fine hybrids have been raised become confused. There is giddiness, confusion of thought, excite-
between the various distinct groups of narcissi, and the prices asked
ment, a peculiar talkative wakeful restiveness, in which the person
for the bulbs in many cases are exceedingly high. One of the most
" " shows that his mind is occupied by a train of fancies or is haunted
distinct groups is that known under the name of Poetaz a
combination of poeticus and Tazetta. The best forms of poeticus by visions and spectres. Often there is violent delirium before sleep
comes on. The sleep after a large dose deepens into stupor, with
ornatus have been crossed with the bunch-flowered Tazettas, and
have resulted in producing varieties with large trusses of exquisite great muscular prostration or paralysis. During all the time the
pupils are widely dilated. Death occurs from failure both of the
flowers more or less resembling the ornatus parents, and varying in
heart's action and of respiration. The minimum lethal dose is not
colour from the purest white to yellow, the rim of the corona being in
most cases conspicuously and charmingly coloured with red or known, but 80 grs. of the root have caused death ; ^to ^
gr.
crimson. This is an excellent group for cutting purposes, but it will
hypodermically have caused dangerous symptoms and J g_r. would
almost certainly be fatal. For the medicinal preparations and
take a few more years to make the varieties common.
treatment of poisoning see BELLADONNA.
For an account of the history and culture of the narcissus see Stramonium. The part of the plant used is the leaves and seed
F. W. Burbidge, The Narcissus (1875); a more recent scientific
of the Datura Stramonium or thorn apple, the alkaloidal constituent
treatment of the genus Will be found in J. G. Baker's Handbook of
being daturine, a variable mixture of hypscine and atrcpine. The
Amaryllideae (1888); see also Nicholson, Dictionary of Gardening
(1886) and J. Weathers, Practical Guide to Garden Plants (1901). physiological action is almost identical with belladonna. Poisoning
;
is usually due to children eating the seeds; the lethal dose is un-
known. The symptoms produced are divided into three stages
NARCOTICS making numb), a general term
(Gr. vapKuriKos, delirium, sleep and deep coma. In case of slight poisoning a rash is
for substances having the physiological action, in a healthy one of the toxic symptoms. The treatment of poisoning is to give
animal, of producing lethargy or stupor, which may pass into emetics, wash out the stomach and give stimulants and pilocarpine
a state of profound coma or unconsciousness along with complete subcutaneously, also to apply warmth and to use artificial respiration
if necessary.
paralysis, terminating in death. Certain substances of this class
Hyoscyamus, the leaves of the Hyoscyamus niger or henbane (g.f.)
'
.
are used in medicine for the relief of pain, and are then called The active principle is hyoscyamine. The physiological action is
anodynes, whilst another group produce profound sleep, and are almost similar to belladonna, with excitement and cardiac stimu-
lation and afterwards depression and stupor, but the action of hyos-
consequently known as hypnotics. In one sense, anaesthetics,
such as chloroform and ether, may be held to be narcotics, but,
cyamus on the heart is more powerful. In large doses it is a strong
cerebral depressant, and produces dilatation of the pupil gr.
; ,
as they are usually volatile substances causing unconsciousness of hyoscamine produces marked effects, sleepiness and dryness of the
for a
comparatively short time, they are conveniently separated
mouth J gr. by subcutaneous injection
;
has produced fatal results.
from the true narcotics, the effects of which are much more The treatment of hyoscyamus poisoning is similar to that of stra-
monium.
These distinctions are to a great extent artificial,
Hops (the Humulus Lupulus), containing the active principle
lasting.
as it is evident that a substance
capable of producing partial lupulme, and Lactucarium, the juice of the Lactuca virosa (lettuce),
insensibility to pain, or sleep, will inevitably in larger doses containing an alkaloid lactucine, are very feeble narcotics, causing
cause profound coma ending in death. Hence we find the same heaviness and sleep if taken in large doses.
Chloral Hydrate is a pure hypnotic which in larger doses is a
substances sometimes classed as anodynes and at other times
powerful narcotic, producing prolonged sleep with depression of the
as hypnotics. For cardiac and motor centres. It is an intrinsic cardiac poison, the
example, small doses of opium, or of one or
240 NARDI NARSES
heart being arrested in diastole, with coincident respiratory failure. The Umbrian Nequinum was taken by the Romans after a long
Chloral hydrate is not uniform in its action, some people manifesting siege in 299 B.C.,and a colony planted there against the Umbrians,
great susceptibility to the drug. It is safe in small doses of 10 to taking its name from the river. It was among the twelve colonies
20 grs. It is difficult to say what is a lethal dose. Cases are recorded that were punished for refusing help to Rome in 209 B.C. It was
of recovery after 336 grs. taken with an equal amount of potassium considered a suitable point to oppose a threatened march of Has-
bromide and even after a dose of 595 grs., but in susceptible persons drubal on Rome. It stood on the Via Flaminia, the great bridge
10 to 15 grs. have produced toxic symptoms and death has occurred of which over the river lies below the town. The original main road
after doses of from 30 to 45 grs. If seen early, the treatment is an ran to Nuceria by Mevania; a branch by Interamna and Spoletium
emetic, but if the poison should have been already absorbed, stimu- joined it at Forum Flaminii. According to some authors, the
lants, hot coffee, strychnine or digitalin hypodermically, with emperor Nerva was born at Narnia. The town is mentioned in the
perhaps artificial respiration, may be required. history of the Gothic wars. Procopius (B.C. i. 17) describes the
Alcohol in large quantities is a strong narcotic, producing the site of the town, the river and the bridge the latter as built by
typical stages of preliminary excitement followed by drowsiness Augustus, and as having the highest arches that he knew. In the
and profound coma, during which death may occur. The treatment middle ages Narni was under the papal power. It was the birthplace
is washing out the stomach to prevent the absorption of the poison of the well-known cpndottiere Erasmo Gattamelata.
and the use of strychnine hypodermically. See G. Eroli, Miscellanea Storica Narnese (2 vols., Narni, 1858-
NARDI, JACOPO (b. 1476), Florentine historian, occupied 1862), and other works by the same author.
various positions in the service of the Florentine republic after the NARRAGANSETT, a township of Washington county, Rhode
expulsion of the Medici in 1494, and even on their return in 1512 Island, U.S.A. on the W. shore of Narragansett Bay, about 25m.
he continued in the public service. In 1527 he joined in the S. of Providence and about 8 m. W.S.W. of Newport. Pop.
movement for the expulsion of the family and was instrumental (1890) 1408; (1900) 1523; (1905) 1469; (1910) 1250. Area
in defeating the Medicean troops under Cardinal Passerini, who about 15 sq. m. It is connected at Kingston Station (about
were attacking the Palazzo della. Signoria. When the Medici 9 m. N.W.) by the Narragansett Pier railway with the shore line
again definitely became masters of Florence in 1530, Nardi was of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway; an electric
exiled from the city and his property confiscated. He spent the line connects with Providence. The southern part of the town-
rest of his days in various parts of Italy, chiefly in Venice, and ship is a peninsula, lying between the mouth of Narragansett
wrote a statement of the claims of the Florentine exiles against Bay and an inlet separating this part of the township from
the Medici, addressed to the emperor Charles V. The exact South Kingstown. Narragansett Pier, within the township, has
date of his death is unknown. His chief work is his Istorie della a fine bathing beach, which extends along the indented coast
Cilia di Firenze, covering the period from 1498 to 1538, in part between the village and the mouth of the Pattaquamscutt river;
based on Biagio Buonaccorsi's Diario. the force of the surf is somewhat broken by Point Judith, about
L. Arbib's edition of Nardi's history (Florence, 1842) contains a 5 m. S. (also in the township), on which there is a lighthouse.
biography of the author, and so does that of Agenore Gelli (Florence, On a ridge overlooking the ocean and commanding a fine view is
1888). the Point Judith Country Club, with golf courses, tennis courts
NARES, SIR GEORGE STRONG (1831- ), English Arctic and a polo-field, on which is held a horse show at the close of
explorer, son of a captain in the navy, was educated at the each season. Many of the summer visitors at Narragansett Pier
Royal Naval College at New Cross, and entered the navy in are from New England, New York and Philadelphia, but there
1846. After being employed for some time on the Australian is a number from Baltimore, Washington, Richmond,
sufficient
" " and other Southern cities to give to its society a
station, in 1852 he became mate of the Resolute in the Louisville
Arctic expedition which was sent out in that year. Serving in the noticeably Southern tone. Narragansett Pier was so-named
Crimea upon his return, he was appointed lieutenant in charge from the piers that were built here late in the i8th century and
" "
of the naval cadets on the inauguration of the Britannia early in the igth to provide a port for the Narragansett Country,
training ship, and was then employed in surveying work on the or southern Rhode Island, and it still has a coal wharf, and a
N.E. coast of Australia and in the Mediterranean, attaining the yacht landing at the Casino. The development of the place as a
rank of captain in 1869. While in command of the " Challenger
"
summer resort was begun about the middle of the igth century
(1872-1874), in the famous voyage of deep-sea exploration by the erection of a bathing-house and the conversion of some
round the world, he was ordered home to take command of the farm houses into boarding houses. The erection of large hotels,
Arctic expedition which set sail in the spring of 1875 in the ships and private residences soon followed, and the completion of the
" "
Alert and " Discovery." He published a narrative of the railway to the pier in 1876 increased its popularity. The District
voyage on his return, and for his services was made K.C.B. of Narragansett (in the town of South Kingstown) was organized
(1876). Two years later he was sent in command of the " Alert " in 1888 and in 1901 was incorporated as a separate township.
to survey Magellan Strait. From 1879 to 1896 he was attached The town is named from the Narraganset Indians, a once-
to the Harbour Department Board of Trade. He retired
of the powerful Algonquian tribe, which occupied much of the shore of
from active service in 1886, and became a vice-admiral in Narragansett Bay. Under their chief Canonicus (d. 1647) they
1892. (See POLAR REGIONS.) were friendly to the early Rhode Island settlers, and under
NARGILE or NARGILEH, the Persian and Turkish name for a Miantonomo (q.v.) entered into a tripartite treaty with the
"
hookah," a tobacco pipe with a long flexible tube for stem Connecticut colonists and the Mohegans; but after the execu-
passing through a vessel containing water, often perfumed. tion of Miantonomo the Narragansets under Miantonomo's son,
This bowl was originally made of a coco-nut (Persian nargil), Canonchet or Nanuntenoo, were less friendly. Their loyalty
whence the name, but now glass, metal or porcelain, are also to the whites was suspected at the time of King Philip's War,
used. and on the igth of December 1675, at the Great or Cedar Swamp
NARNI (anc. Umbrian Nequinum, Rom. Narnia), a town and (Narragansett Fort) in the present town of South Kingstown
episcopal see of the province of Perugia, Italy, 65 m. N. of Rome (immediately west of the town of Narragansett), they were
by rail. Pop. (1901) 5200 (town), 12,773 (commune). It is decisively defeated by the whites, under Governor Josiah Winslow
picturesquely situated on a lofty rock (787 ft. above sea-level), of the Plymouth Colony. The site of the engagement is marked
480 ft. above the Nera valley, at the point where the river by a granite monument erected in 1906 by the Rhode Island
traverses a narrow ravine, and commands a fine view. The Society of Colonial Wars. Canonchet escaped, but on the 2nd of
cathedral and the portico of S. Maria della Pensola are buildings August 1676 was captured near Stonington, Connecticut, and on
of the nth century with arches; the former has some good
flat the following day was executed. Most of the survivors of the
Renaissance sculptures. There are other interesting 'churches; tribe were later settled among the Niantic, to whom the name
S. Francesco has a good doorway of the i4th century. In the Narraganset has been transferred. There are now few survivors
town hall is a " Coronation of the Virgin " by D. Ghirlandaio. of pure Indian blood.
The town also contains some picturesque Gothic houses and NARSES, NARSEH, NARSEUS, king of Persia, son of Shapur I.
palaces. Near the station, below the town, are factories of He rose as pretender to the throne against his grand-nephew
india-rubber and calcium carbide. Bahram III. in A.D. 292, and soon became-sole king. 'He attacked
NARSES 241
the Romans, but after defeating the emperor Galerius near which was holding out for the Romans, was also hard pressed by
Callinicum on the Euphrates in 296 was completely defeated in famine. The two generals who were sent to relieve it loitered
297, and forced to conclude a peace, by which western Meso- disgracefully over their march, and, when Belisarius wished to
potamia and five provinces on the left bank of the upper Tigris despatch further reinforcements, the commanders of these
were ceded to the Romans and their sovereignty over the new troops refused to stir till Narses gave them orders. Belisarius
kingdom of Armenia was acknowledged. This peace, concluded wrote to the eunuch pointing out the necessity of unity of purpose
in 297, lasted for forty years. Narses died in 303 and was in the imperial army. At length, grudgingly, Narses gave his
succeeded by his son Hormizd II. (Ed. M.) consent, and issued the required orders; but it was too late.
NARSES (c. 478-573) an important officer of Justinian, in Milan had been compelled by extremity of famine to surrender,
the 6th century. He was a eunuch, but we are nowhere distinctly and with it the whole province of Liguria fell into the hands of
informed that he was of servile origin. A native of Persarmenia the enemy. This event forced Justinian to recognize the dangers
(that portion of Armenia which was allotted to Persia by the of even a partially divided command, and he recalled Narses
partition of 384), he may have been prepared and educated by to Constantinople.
his parents for service in an oriental court. If the statement that Twelve years elapsed before Narses returned to Italy. Mean-
he died at the age of ninety-five be correct, he was born about while there had been great vicissitudes of fortune both for the
478. He was probably brought young to Constantinople, and Romans and the Goths. Italy, which appeared to have been
attained a footing in the officium of the grand chamberlain. He won by the sword of Belisarius, had been lost again by the
" exactions and misgovernment of Alexander. Totila had raised
rose to be one of the three (spectabiles) chartularii," a position
implying some literary attainment, and involving the custody of up a new army, had more than kept Belisarius at bay in five
the archives of the household. Hence, probably in middle life, he difficult campaigns (544-548) and now held nearly all the country.
became " praepositus sacri cubiculi," an "illustris," and entitled Belisarius, however, in this his second series of campaigns, had
along with the praetorian prefects and the generals to the highe^ ,
never been properly seconded by his master. In the spring of
rank at the imperial court. In this capacity, in 530, he receivta 552 Narses set sail from Salona on the Dalmatian coast with a
into the emperor's obedience another Narses, a fellow-country- large and well-appointed army. It was a Roman army only
man, with his two brothers, Aratius and Isaac. These Pers- in name. Lombards, Heruli, Huns, Gepidae and even Persians
armenian generals, having formerly fought under the standard followed the standard of Narses, men equal in physical strength
of Persia, now in consequence of the successes of Belisarius trans- and valour to the Goths, and inspired by the liberal pay which
ferred their allegiance to the emperor Justinian, came to Con- they received, and by the hope of plunder.
stantinople, and received costly gifts from the great minister. The eunuch seems to have led his army round the head of
In 532 the insurrection known as the Nika broke out in the Adriatic Gulf. By skilfully co-operating with his fleet,
Constantinople, when for some hours the throne of Justinian he was able to cross the rivers of Venetia without fighting the
seemed doomed to overthrow. It was saved partly by the Gothic general Teias, who intended to dispute their passage.
courage of his wife, Theodora, and partly by the timely prodigality Having mustered all his forces at Ravenna, he marched south-
of Narses, who stole out into the capital, and with large sums ward. He refused to be detained before Rimini, being determined
" " to meet the Gothic king as soon as possible with his army un-
of money bribed the leaders of the blue faction, which was
"
aforetime loyal to the emperor, to shout as of old Justiniane diminished. The occupation of the pass of Furlo (Petra Pertusa)
Auguste tu vincas." by the Goths prevented his marching by the Via Flaminia,
The African and Italian wars followed. In the fourth year but, taking a short circuit, he rejoined the great road near Cagli.
of the latter war (538) the splendid successes of Belisarius A little farther on, upon the crest of the Appenines, he was met
had awakened both joy and fear in the heart of his master. by Totila, who had advanced as far as Tadini, called by Procopius
Reinforcements were sent into Italy, and Narses was placed Tagina. Parleys, messages and harangues by each general
at their head. Belisarius understood that Narses came to serve followed. At length the line of battle was formed, and the
under him like any other officer of distinguished but subordinate Gothic army, probably greatly inferior in number to the Byzan-
rank, and he received a letter from Justinian which seemed to tine was hopelessly routed (July 552), the king receiving a
support this conclusion. But the friends of Narses continually mortal wound as he was hurrying from the battlefield.
plied him with suggestions that be, a great officer of the house- With Totila fell the last hopes of the Gothic kingdom of Italy.
hold, in the secrets of the emperor, had been sent to Italy, not Teias, who was proclaimed his successor, protracted for a few
to serve as a subaltern, but to hold independent command and months a desperate resistance in the rocky peninsula of Castella-
win military glory for himself. The truth probably lay between mare, overlooking the bay of Naples. At length want of provisions
the two. Justinian could not deprive his great general of the forced him into the plain, and there by the river Sarno, almost
supreme command, yet he wished to have a very powerful in sight of Pompeii, was fought (553) a battle which is generally
emissary of the court constantly at his side. He would have named from the overlooking range of Mons Lactarius (Monte
him watched but not hampered. Lettere). The actual site of the battle, however, is about half
The two generals met (A.D. 538) at Fermo on the Adriatic a mile from the little town of Angri, and its memory is still vaguely
coast. The first interference of Narses with the plans of Belisarius preserved by the name Pozzo dei Goli (well of the Goths). In
was beneficial. John, one of the officers highest in rank under this battle Teias was killed. He was the last king of the
Belisarius, had pressed on to Rimini, contrary to the instructions Ostrogoths.
of his chief, leaving in his rear the difficult fortress of Osimo The task of Narses, however, was not yet ended. By the
(Auximum) untaken. His daring march had alarmed the Goths invitation of the Goths an army of 75,000 warlike Alamanni
for Ravenna, and induced them to raise the siege of Rome; and Franks, the subjects of King Theudibald, crossed the Alps
but he himself was now shut up in Rimini, and on the point of under the command of two Alamannic nobles, the brothers
being forced by famine to surrender. Belisarius and his followers Lothair and Buccelin (553). The great strategic talents of
were prepared to let him pay the penalty of his rashness and Narses were shown even more conspicuously in this, than in his
disobedience. But his friend Narses so insisted on the blow to previous and more brilliant campaigns. Against the small but
the reputation of the imperial arms which would be produced gallant bands of Totila and Teias he had adopted the policy
by the surrender of Rimini that he carried the council of war of rapid marches and imperative challenges to battle. His
with him, and Belisarius had to plan a brilliant march across strategy in dealing with the great host from Gaul was of the
the mountains, in conjunction with a movement by the fleet, Fabian kind. He kept them as long as he could north of the
whereby Rimini was relieved while Osimo was still untaken. Apennines, while he completed the reduction of the fortresses
When Belisarius and John met, the latter ostentatiously thanked of Tuscany. At the approach of winter he gathered his troops
Narses alone for his preservation. into the chief cities and declined operations in the field, while
His next use of his authority was less fortunate. Milan, the Alamannic brothers marched through Italy, killing and
242 NARSINGHGARH NARVA
plundering. When the spring of 554 appeared, Lothaire with Narses, who had retired to Naples, was persuaded by the pope
his part of the army in-sisted on marching back to Gaul, there to (John III.) to return to Rome. He died there about 573, and
deposit in safety the plunder which they had reaped. In an his body, enclosed in a leaden coffin, was carried to Constantinople
unimportant engagement near Pesaro he was worsted by the and buried there. Several years after his death the secret of
Roman and this hastened his northward march. At
generals, the hiding-place of his vast stores of wealth is said to have
Ceneda Venetia he died of a raging fever. Pestilence broke
in been revealed by an old man to the emperor Tiberius II., for
out in his army, which was so wasted as to be incapable of whose charities to the poor and the captives they furnished an
further operations in Italy. Meanwhile his brother Buccelin, opportune supply.
whose army was also suffering grievously from disease, partly Narses was short in stature and lean in figure. His freehanded-
induced by free indulgence in the grapes of Campania, encamped ness and affability made him very popular with his soldiers. Eva-
at Casilinum, the site of modern Capua. Here, after a time, grius tells us that he was very.religious, and paid especial reverence
to the Virgin, never engaging in battle till he conceived that she
Narses accepted the offered battle (554). The barbarians, whose had given him the signal. Our best authorities for his life are his
army was in the form of a wedge, pierced the Roman centre. contemporaries Procopius and Agathias. See Gibbon, Decline and
But by a most skilful manoeuvre Narses contrived to draw Fall, vols. iv. and v., edited by J. B. Bury (1898). (T. H.)
his lines into a curve, so that his mounted archers on each flank NARSINGHGARH, a native state of Central India, in the
could aim their arrows at the backs of the troops who formed Bhopal agency. Area, 741 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 92,093; esti-
the other side of the Alamannic wedge. They thus fell in whole mated revenue, 33,000; tribute to Holkar, 4000. The chief,
ranks by the hands of unseen antagonists. Soon the Roman whose title is raja, is a Rajput of the Omat clan. The state was
centre, which had been belated in its march, arrived upon the founded about 1681 by a minister of Rajgarh, who compelled
field and completed the work of destruction. Buccelin and his the ruler of that state to transfer to him half his territory.
whole army were destroyed, though we need not accept the The town of Narsinghgarh had a population in 1901 of 8778.
statement of the Greek historian (Agathias ii. 9) that only five NARSINGHPUR, a town and district of British India, in the
men out of the barbaric host of 30,000 escaped, and only eighty ^l 'iiudda division of the Central Provinces. The town is on the
out of the Roman 18,000 perished. river Singri, and has a railway station 52 m. E. of Jubbulpore;
The only other important military operation of Narses which pop. (1901) 11,233. The district has an area of 1976 sq. m.
is recorded and that indistinctly is his defeat of the Herulian It forms a portion of the upper part of the Nerbudda valley.
king Sindbal, who had served under him at Capua, but who The first of those wide alluvial basins which, alternating with
subsequently revolted, was defeated, taken captive and hanged rocky gorges, give so varied a character to the river's course,
by the eunuch's order (565). In the main the thirteen years opens out just below the famous marble rocks in Jubbulpore, and
after the battle of Capua (554-567) were years of peace, and extends westward for 225 m., including the whole of Narsinghpur,
during them Narses ruled Italy from Ravenna with the title together with the greater part of Hoshangabad. The Satpura
of prefect. 1 He rebuilt Milan and other cities destroyed in the hills to the south are here a generally regular range, nowhere
Gothic War; and two inscriptions on the Salarian bridge at more than 500 ft. above the plain, and running almost parallel
Rome have preserved to modern times the record of repairs to the river, at a distance of 15 or 20 m. In the intervening
effected by him in the year 564. valley, the rich level of black wheat land is seldom broken,
His administration, however, was not popular. The effect except by occasional mounds of gravel or nodular limestone,
of the imperial organization was to wring the last solidus out which afford serviceable village sites. Along the foot of the
of the emaciated and fever-stricken population of Italy, and the boundary hills the alluvium gives way to belts of red gravelly
belief of his subjects was that no small portion of their contribu- soil, rice and sugar-cane take the place of wheat, and forest trees
tions remained in the eunuch's private coffers. At the close of that of mango groves. The population in 1901 was 315,518,
565 Justinian died, and a deputation of Romans waited upon showing a decrease of 14-5% in the decade, due to famine.
"
his successor Justin II., representing that they found the The principal crops are wheat, millets, rice, pulses, oil-seeds
Greeks " harder taskmasters than the Goths, that Narses the and cotton. There are manufactures of cotton, silk, brass and
eunuch was determined to reduce them all to slavery, and that iron-ware. At Mohpani are coal-mines. The Great Indian
unless he were removed they would transfer their allegiance Peninsula railway runs through the district, with a branch to
to the barbarians. This deputation led to the recall of Narses Mohpani.
in 567, accompanied, according to a somewhat late tradition, See Narsinghpur District Gazetteer (Bombay, 1906).
by an insulting message from the empress Sophia, who sent him NARTHEX (Gr. vapOr/^, the name of the plant giant-fennel,
a golden distaff, and bade him, as he was not a man, go and in Lat./crw/a), the name applied in architecture, probably from
"
spin wool in the apartments of the women. I will spin her a supposed resemblance in shape to the reed-like plant, to the long
such a hank," Narses is represented as saying, " that she shall arcaded porch forming the entrance into a Christian church,
"
not find the end of it in her lifetime ;
and forthwith he sent to which the catechumens and penitents were admitted. Some-
messengers to the Lombards in Pannonia, bearing some of the times there was a second narthex or vestibule within the church,
fruits of Italy, and inviting them to enter the land which bore when the outer one was known as the exonarthex. In Byzantine
such goodly produce. Hence came the invasion of Alboin (568), churches this inner narthex formed part of the main structure
which wrested the greater part of Italy from the empire, and of the church, being divided from it by a screen of columns.
changed the destinies of the peninsula.
2 A narthex is found in some German churches, where, however,
1
Gibbon's statement that Narses was " the first and most powerful it had no ritual meaning but was introduced as a western
"
of the exarchs is more correct in substance than in form. The transept to give more importance to the west end. One of the
title of exarch does not appear to be given to Narses by finest examples to be found in England is that of Ely cathedral,
" " any con-
"
temporary writer. He is always Praefectus Italiae," Patncius where its northern portion, however, was apparently never
or
'
Dux Italiae," except when he bears the style of his former
offices in the imperial household, " Ex-Praepositus [Cubiculi] " or completed.
" NARVA
Chartularius." (Rugodiv of Russian annals, also Ivangorod), a seaport
*
This celebrated story seems to be unknown to strictly con- and fortress of Russia, in the government of St Petersburg,
temporary authors. VVe find no hint of it in Agathias (who wrote 100 m. by rail W.S.W. of the city of St Petersburg. Pop.
between 566 and 582), in Marius (532-596), or in Gregory of Tours
(1897) 16,577. It stands on the Narova river, which flows
(540-594)- The possibly contemporary Liber Ponlificalis and Isidore
of Seville (560-636) hint at the invitation to the Lombards. Frede- from Lake Peipus or Chudskoye, and enters the Gulf of Finland
garius (so-called), who probably wrote in the middle of the 7th in Narva Bay, 8 m. below this town. The town was founded in
century, and Paul the Deacon, towards the close of the 8th, supply
the saga-like details, which become more minute the farther the 1223 by Danes, and changed hands between the Teutonic
narrators are from the action. On the whole, the transaction, knights, Danes, Swedes and Russians until it was taken by
though it is too well vouched for to allow us to dismiss it as entirely Peter the Great in 1704, after the Russians had suffered here a
fabulous, cannot take its place among the undoubted facts of history. terrible defeat at the hands of Charles XII. of Sweden four years
NARVACAN NASCIMENTO 243
before. Its fortress, built on the right bank of the river, and Some very curious notices of Narvaez may be
found in the letters
known as Ivangorod, has lost its importance, and was abandoned
of Prosper Merimee to Panizzi (1881). For his general political
career see Hermann Baumgarten, Geschichte Spaniens p. Ausbruch d.
in 1864. The cathedral and the town hall (1683) contain franzos. Revol. bis auf unsere Tase (1865-1871); and the Historia
interesting antiquities. There are here an arsenal, a small Contemporanea of Antonio Pirala (18711879).
museum and a school of navigation. Several manufactories NARVIK or VICTORIAHAVN, a seaport on the Ofoten Fjord of
utilize the waterfalls of the Narova, e.g. cotton-mills, woollen the north-west coast of Norway, in Nordland ami (county),
cloth mills, flax and jute mills, saw-mills and steam flour mills. 68 30' N. It is wholly modern, developed by the construction
The total trade falls short of half a million sterling annually. A and completion (1903) of the Ofoten railway, the most northerly
watering-place has grown up at Ust-Narova, or Hungerburg, at in the world. There are extensive quays, from which is shipped
the mouth of the Narova. the iron ore from the rich districts traversed by the line. Narvik
NARVACAN, a town of the province of Ilocos Sur, Luzon, is 167 m. of Gellivara, and 982 N. by W. of Stockholm by
N.W.
Philippine Islands, near the coast and on the main road 13 m. the railway. In summer express trains cover the whole distance
S.S.E. of Vigan, the capital. Pop. (1903) 19,575. It lies in a in two days. Narvik is a convenient point from which to visit
level valley surrounded by mountains, and has a cool and healthy the beautiful Lofoten Islands.
climate. The soil, both in the valley and on the neighbouring NARWHAL, the Scandinavian name of a cetacean (Monodon
mountain-sides, is very fertile, and produces rice, vegetables, monoceros), characterized by the presence in the male of a long
Indian corn, indigo, cotton, tobacco, maguey and sugar-cane. horn-like tusk. In the adult of both sexes there are only two
Cotton fabrics are woven by the women and sold to the mountain teeth, both in the upper jaw, which lie horizontally side by side,
tribes. The language of the town is Ilocano. and in the female remain throughout life concealed in cavities
NARVAEZ, PANFILO DE (c. 1480-1528), Spanish adventurer, of the bone. In the male the right tooth usually remains similarly
was an hidalgo of Castile, born at Valladolid about 1480. He concealed, but the left is immensely developed, attaining a length
was one of the subordinates of Velazquez in the reduction of equal to more than half that of the entire animal. In a narwhal
Cuba, and, after having held various posts under his governor- 12 ft. long, from snout to end of tail, the exserted portion of the
ship, was put at the head of the force sent to the Aztec coast to tusk may measure 6 or 7 and occasionally 8 ft. in length. It
compel Cortes to renounce his command; he was surprised and projects horizontally forwards from the head in the form of a
defeated, however, by his abler and more active compatriot at cylindrical or slightly tapering, pointed tusk, composed of ivory,
Cempoalla, and made prisoner with the loss of an eye (1520). with a central cavity reaching almost to the apex, without
After his return to Spain he obtained from Charles V. a grant of enamel, and with the surface marked by spiral grooves and
Florida as far as the River of Palms; sailing in 1527 with five ridges, running in a sinistral direction. Occasionally both left
ships and a force of about 600 men, he landed, probably near and right tusks are developed, in which case the direction of the
Pensacola Bay, in April 1528, and, striking inland with some 300 grooves is the same in both. No instance has ever been met
" "
of his followers, reached Apalache on June 25. The prospects with of the complete development of the right tusk associated
of fabulous wealth which had sustained them in their difficult with a rudimentary condition of the left. In young animals
and perilous journey having proved illusory a return to the several small additional teeth are present, but these usually
coast was determined, and the Bahia de los Caballos, at or near disappear soon after birth.
St Mark's, was reached in the following month. Having built The head is rather short and rounded; the fore limbs or
rude boats, the much-reduced company sailed hence for Mexico paddles are small and broad compared with those of most
on September 22, but the vessel which carried Narvaez was dolphins; and (as in the beluga) a dorsal fin, found in nearly all
driven to sea in a storm and perished. His lieutenant, Cabeza other members of the group, is wanting. The general colour of
de Vaca, with three others who ultimately reached land, made his the surface is dark grey above and white below, variously
way across Texas to the Gulf of California. (See FLORIDA.) marbled and spotted with shades of grey.
See Prescott, Conquest of Mexico; H. H. Bancroft, Mexico (1882- The narwhal is an Arctic whale, frequenting the icy circum-
1890); and the Naufragio of Alvaro Nunez Cabeza de Vaca in the polar seas, and rarely seen south of 65 N. lat. Four instances
Bibiioteca of Rivadeneyra, xxii.
have, however, been recorded of its occurrence on the British
NARVAEZ, RAMON MARIA (1800-1868), Spanish soldier and coasts, one on the coast of Norfolk in 1588, one in the Firth of
statesman, was born at Loja, Granada, on the 4th of August 1800, Forth in 1648, one near Boston in Lincolnshire in 1800, while
entered the army at an early age, and saw active service under a fourth entangled itself among rocks in the Sound of Weesdale,
Mina in Catalonia in 1822. He was in his sympathies a Con- Shetland, in September 1808. Like most cetaceans it is gregari-
" "
servative, and could not go all lengths with the Radical opposi- ous and usually met with in schools or' herds of fifteen or
tion to Ferdinand VII., whom he served after his restoration. twenty individuals. Its food appears to be cuttlefishes, small
When the king died, Narvaez became one of the Conservative fishes and crustaceans. The purpose served by the tusk or
"
supporters of Isabel II. He achieved great popularity by his horn " is not known; and little is known of the habits of
"
victory over Gomez, the Carlist general, near Arcos, in November narwhals. Scoresby describes them as extremely playful,
1836, and after clearing La Mancha of brigands by a vigorous frequently elevating their horns and crossing them with each
policy of suppression in 1838 he was appointed captain-general other as in fencing." They have never been known to charge and
of Old Castile, and commander-in-chief of the army of reserve. pierce the bottom of ships with their weapons, as the swordfish
In 1840, for the part he had taken at Seville in the insurrection does. The name " sea-unicorn " is sometimes applied to the
against Espartero and the Progresista party, he was compelled narwhal. The ivory of which the tusk is composed is of very
to take refuge in France, where, in conjunction with Maria good quality, but owing to the central cavity, only fitted for the
Cristina, he planned the expedition of 1843 which led to the manufacture of objects of small size. The entire tusks are
overthrow of his adversary. In 1844 he became prime minister, sometimes used for decorative purposes, and are of considerable,
and was created field-marshal and duke of Valencia, but his though fluctuating, value. (See CETACEA.) (W. H. F.)
policy was too reactionary to be tolerated long, and he was NASCIMENTO, FRANCISCO MANOEL DE (1734-1819),
compelled to quit office in February 1846. He now held the post Portuguese poet, better known by the literary name of Filinlo
of ambassador at Paris, until
again called to preside over the Elysio, bestowed on him by the Marqueza de Alorna, was the
council of ministers in 1847; but misunderstandings with reputed son of a Lisbon boat-owner. In his early years he
Maria Cristina led to his resignation in the following year. acquired a love of national customs and traditions which his
His ministry succeeded that of O'Donnell for a short time in humanist education never obliterated, while, in addition, he
1856-1857, and he again returned to power for a few months learnt to know the whole range of popular literature (litleratura
in 1864-1865. He once more replaced O'Donnell in July 1866, de cordet) songs, comedies, knightly stories and fairy tales,
and was still in office when he died at Madrid on the 23rd of which were then printed in loose sheets (folhas volantcs) and sold
April 1868. by the blind in the streets of the capital. These circumstances
244 NASEBY
explain the richness of his vocabulary, and joined to an ardent of reality, making his best poems those he wrote between the
patriotism they fitted him to become the herald of the literary ages of seventy and eighty-five, and when he passed away, it
revival known as Romanticism, which was inaugurated by his was recognized that Portugal had lost her foremost contempo-
distinguished follower Almeida Garrett. Nascimento began to rary poet.
write verses at the age of fourteen. He was ordained a priest in Garrett declared that Nascimento was worth an academy in
1754, and shortly afterwards became treasurer of the Chagas himself by his knowledge of the language, adding that no poet
church in Lisbon. He led a retired life, and devoted his time since Camoens had rendered it such valuable services; but his
to the study of the Latin classics, especially Horace, and to the truest title to fame is that he brought literature once more into
society of literary friends, among whom were numbered some touch with the life of the nation. By his life, as by his works,
cultivated foreign merchants. These men nourished the common Nascimento links the i8th and i9th centuries, the Neo-Classical
ambition to restore Camoens, then half forgotten, to his rightful period with Romanticism. Wieland's Oberon and Chateau-
place as the king of the Portuguese Parnassus, and they pro- briand's Martyrs opened a new world to him, and his cantos
claimed the cult of the Quinhentistas, regarding them as the best or scenes of Portuguese life have a real romantic flavour; they
poetical models, while in philosophy they accepted the teaching are the most natural of his compositions, though his noble
"
of the French Encyclopaedists. patriotic odes those To Neptune speaking to the Portuguese "
Nascimento's first publication was a version of one of and " To the liberty and independence of the United States "
Metastasio's operas, and his early work consisted mainly of are the most quoted and admired. On leaving Portugal, he
translations. Though of small volume and merit, it sufficed abandoned the use of rhyme as cramping freedom of thought
to arouse the jealousy of his brother bards. At this time the and expression; nevertheless his highly polished verses are
Arcadia was working to restore good taste and purify the generally robust to hardness and overdone with archaisms.
language of gallicisms, but the members of this society forgot His translations from Latin, French and Italian, are accurate
the traditions of their own land in their desire to imitate the though harsh, and his renderings of Racine and the Fables of
classics. Nascimento and other writers who did not belong Lafontaine entirely lack the simplicity and grace of the originals.
to the Arcadia, formed themselves into a rival group, which met But Nascimento's blank verse translation of the Mar tyrs is in
at the Ribeira das Naos, and the two bodies attacked one many ways superior to Chateaubriand's prose.
" BIBLIOGRAPHY. The most useful edition of his collected works
another in rhyme without restraint, until the war of the poets,"
is that in 22 vols., Lisbon, 1836-1840. See Innocencio da Silva,
as it was called, ended with the collapse of the Arcadia. Nasci-
Diccionario bibliographico Portuguez, ii. 446-457 and ix. 332-336;
mento now conceived a strong but platonic affection for D. also Filinto Elysio e a sua Epoca, by Pereira da Silva (Rio, 1891);
Maria de Almeida, afterwards Condessa da Ribeira, sister of and Filinto Elysio, by Dr Theophilo Braga (Oporto, 1891).
the famous poetess the Marqueza de Alorna. This lady sang (E. PR.)
the chansonnettes he wrote for her, and their poetical intercourse NASEBY, a village Northamptonshire, England, 7 m.
of
drew from him some lyrics of profound emotion. This was S.S.W. of Market Harborough, famous as the scene of the battle of
the happiest epoch of his life, but it did not last long. The June 14, 1645, which decided the issue of the first Civil War (see
accession of D. Maria I. inaugurated an era of reaction against GREAT REBELLION). The army of King Charles I. was less than
" "
the spirit and reforms of Pombal, and religious succeeded to 10,000 strong, while the New Mode] army of the parliament,
political intolerance. In June 1778 Nascimento was denounced commanded by Sir Thomas Fairfax, numbered some 13,000,
to the Inquisition on the charge of having given vent to heterodox yet it was not without considerable hopes of victory that the
"
opinions and read the works of modern philosophers who Royalists drew up for battle, for although Lieutenant-General
follow natural reason." The tribunal held a secret inquiry, and Cromwell had made the New Model cavalry formidable indeed,
without giving him an opportunity of defence issued an order the Royalist foot had become professionalized in several years
for his arrest, which was to take place early in the morning of of war, whereas the Parliamentarian foot was newly organized,
the I4th of July. He had received a warning, and succeeded and in part at least but half-trained. Fairfax and Cromwell,
in escaping to the house of a French merchant, Verdier, where however, were still more confident, and with better reason.
he lay hid for eleven days, at the end of which his friend the The battlefield lies between Naseby and Sibbertoft (3 m. N.
Marquez de Marialva put him on board a French ship which of Naseby) and is an undulating ridge which, near the centre
" "
carried him to Havre. Nascimento took up his residence in of England, forms the divide between the Avon and the
Paris,and his first years there passed pleasantly enough. Soon, Welland rivers. Across this ridge the two armies were drawn
however, his circumstances changed for the worse. He received up, the New Model facing north and the king's army south,
the news of the confiscation of his property by the Inquisition; the horse on the flanks and the foot in the centre in each army.
and though he strove to support himself by teaching and writing At the first shock the Royal foot asserted its superiority over
he could hardly make both ends meet. In 1792 his admirer the opposing infantry, four out of five regiments in the first
Antonio de Araujo, afterwards Conde de Barca, then Portuguese line were broken, and Skippon, the major-general of the foot,
minister to Holland, offered the poet the hospitality of his house was wounded. But Fairfax's regiment held its ground, until
at the Hague, but neither the country, the people, nor the the second line of infantry advanced and re-established the front.
language were congenial, and when his host went to Paris on a Meantime the Royalist right wing of horse, led by Prince Rupert,
diplomatic mission in 1797 Nascimento accompanied him, and had completely routed the horse of Colonel Ireton which opposed
spent the rest of his life in and near the French capital. He them. But the victors as usual indulged in a disorderly pursuit,
retained to the end an intense love of country, which made him and attempted to overpower the baggage guard of the enemy
wish to die in Portugal, and in 1796 a royal decree permitting near Naseby village. Their incoherent attack was repulsed,
his return there and ordering the restoration of his goods was and when Rupert, gathering as many of his men as he could,
issued, but delays occurred in its execution, and the flight of returned to the battlefield, the decisive stroke had been delivered
the court to the Brazils as a result of the French invasion finally by Cromwell and the right wing of Parliamentary horse. In
dashed his hopes. Before this the Conde de Barca had obtained front of him, in somewhat broken ground, was Sir Marmaduke
him a commission from the Portuguese government to translate Langdale's cavalry, which the lieutenant-general with his own
the De Rebus Emanuelis of Osorio; the assistance of some well-trained regiments scattered after a short, fierce encounter.
" "
fellow-countrymen in Paris carried him through his last years, Cromwell's godly troopers did not scatter in pursuit. A
which were cheered by the friendship of his biographer and few squadrons were ordered to keep the fugitives on the run, and
translator Alexandre San6 and of the Lusophil Ferdinand with the rest, and such of Ireton's broken troops as he could
D6nis. Lamartine addressed an ode to him; he enjoyed the gather, Cromwell attacked the Royalist centre in rear while
esteem of Chateaubriand; and his admirers at home, who Fairfax and his foot pressed it in front. Gradually the Royalist
imitated him extensively, were called after him Os Filintistas. infantry, inferior in numbers, was disintegrated into small groups,
Exile and suffering had enlarged his ideas and given him a sense which surrendered one after the other. But one brigade, called
NASH NASHE, THOMAS 245
"
the Bluecoats," held out to the last, and was finally broken literature. It is probable that his first effort was The Anatomie of
by a combined charge of Fairfax's regiment of foot, led by Absurditie (1589) which was perhaps written at Cambridge,
Cromwell, and the general's personal escort, led by Fairfax although he refers to it as a forthcoming publication in his
himself, who captured a colour with his'own hand. The remnant preface to Greene's Menaphon (1589). In this preface, addressed
of the king's army, re-formed by Rupert, stood inactive and to the gentlemen students of .both universities, he makes boister-
irresolute while its infantry was being destroyed and then fled. ous ridicule of the bombast of Thomas Kyd and the English
The spoils included 100 standards and colours and the king's hexameters of Richard Stanihurst, but does not forget the praise
private papers. But more important than trophies was the of many good books. Nashe was really a journalist born out of
practical annihilation of the last field army of which the king due time; he boasts of writing " as fast as his hand could trot ";
disposed. Half the Royalists were captured, and about 1000 he had a brilliant and picturesque style which, he was careful to
fell, in the battle and the pursuit which followed it. In addition explain, was entirely original; and in addition to his keen sense
all the artillery and the muskets (to the number of 8000) and of the ridiculous he had an abundance of miscellaneous learning.
ammunition without which the king could scarcely create a new As there was no market for his gifts he fared no better than the
army, fell into the hands of the victors. other university wits who were trying to live by letters. But
NASH, RICHARD (1674-1762), English dandy, better known he found an opening for his ready wit and keen sarcasm in
"
as BEAU NASH," was born at Swansea on the i8th of October the Martin Marprelate controversy. His share in this war of
1674. He was descended from an old family of good position, pamphlets cannot now be accurately determined, but he has,
but his father from straitened means had become partner in a with more or less probability, been credited with the following:
glass business. Young Nash was educated at Carmarthen A Countercuffe given to Martin Junior (1589), Martins Months
grammar school and at Jesus College, Oxford. He obtained a Minde (1589), The Returneof the renowned Cavaliero Pasquill
commission in the army, which, however, he soon exchanged for and his Meeting with Marforius (1589), The First Parte of Pasquils
"
the study of law at the Temple. Here among wits and men Apologie (1590), and An Almond for a Parrot (1590). He edited
"
of pleasure he came to be accepted as an authority in regard an unauthorized edition of Sidney's poems with an enthusiastic
to dress, manners and style. When the members of the Inns of preface in 1591, and A Wonderfull Astrologicall Prognostication,
"
Court entertained William III. after his accession, Nash was in ridicule of the almanac-makers, by Adam Fouleweather,"
chosen to conduct the pageant at the Middle Temple. This duty which appeared in the same year, has been attributed to him.
he performed so much to the satisfaction of the king that he Pierce Penilesse, His Supplication to the Divell, published in 1592,
was offered knighthood, but he declined the honour, unless shows us his power as a humorous critic of national manners, and
accompanied by a pension. As the king did not take the hint, tells incidentally how hard he found it to live by the pen. It
Nash found it necessary to turn gamester. The pursuit of his seems to Pierce a monstrous thing that brainless drudges wax
"
calling led him in 1705 to Bath, where he had the good fortune fat while the seven liberal sciences and a good leg will scarce
almost immediately to succeed Captain Webster as master of the get a scholar bread and cheese." In this pamphlet, too, Nashe
ceremonies. His qualifications for such a position were unique, began his attacks upon the Harveys by assailing Richard,
and under his authority reforms were introduced which rapidly who had written contemptuously of his preface to Greene's
secured to Bath a leading position as a fashionable watering-place. Menaphon. Greene died in September 1592, and Richard's
He drew up a new code of rules for the regulation of balls and brother, Gabriel Harvey, at once attacked his memory in his
assemblies, abolished the habit of wearing swords in places Foure Letters, at the same time adversely criticizing Pierce
of public amusement and brought duelling into disrepute, Penilesse. Nashe replied, both for Greene and for himself,
induced gentlemen to adopt shoes and stockings in parades and in Strange Newes of the intercepting cerlaine Letters, better known,
assemblies instead of boots, reduced refractory chairmen to from the running title, as Foure Letters Confuted (1592), in which
submission and civility, and introduced a tariff for lodgings. all the Harveys are violently attacked. The autumn of 1592
Through his exertions a handsome assembly-room was also Nashe seems to have spent at or near Croydon, where he wrote
erected, and the streets and public buildings were greatly his satirical masque of Summers Last Will and Testament at
improved. Nash adopted an outward state corresponding to his a safe distance from London and the plague. He afterwards
nominal dignity. He wore an immense white hat as a sign of lived for some months in the Isle of Wight under the patronage
office, and a dress adorned with rich embroidery, and drove in of Sir George Carey, the governor. In 1593 he wrote Christs
a chariot with six greys, laced lackeys and French horns. When Teares over Jerusalem, in the first edition of which he made
the act of parliament against gambling was passed in 1745, he friendly overtures to Gabriel Harvey. These were, however,
was deprived of an easy though uncertain means of subsistence, in a second edition, published in the following year, replaced
but the corporation afterwards granted him a pension of six score by a new attack, and two years later appeared the most violent
guineas a year, which, with the sale of his snuff-boxes and other of his tracts against Harvey, Have with you to Sajfron-walden,
trinkets, enabled him to support a certain faded splendour or, Gabriett Harveys Hunt is up (1596). In 1599 the controversy
till his death on the
3rd of February 1762. He was honoured was suppressed by the archbishop of Canterbury. After
with a public funeral at the expense of the town. Notwith- Marlowe's death Nashe prepared his friend's unfinished tragedy
standing his vanity and impertinence, the tact, energy and of Dido (1596) for the stage. In the next year he was in trouble
superficial cleverness of Nash won him the patronage and notice for a play, now lost,, called The Isle of Dogs, for only part of
of the great, while the success of his ceremonial rule, as shown which, however, he seems to have been responsible. The
in the increasing prosperity of the town, secured him the gratitude
" "
seditious and slanderous matter contained in this play
of the corporation and the people generally. He was a man of induced the authorities to close for a time the theatre at which
strong personality, and considerably more able than Beau it had been performed, and the dramatist was put in the Fleet
Brummell, whose prototype he was. prison. Besides his pamphlets and his play-writing, Nashe
See Lewis Melville, Bath under Beau Nash (1908), with full list of turned his energies to novel-writing. He may be regarded as the
authorities; Oliver Goldsmith, Life of Richard Nash (1762). See pioneer in the English novel of adventure. He published in
also Gentleman's Magazine (1762); London Magazine, vol. xxxi. ;
" " 1594 The Unfortunate Traveller, Or the Life of Jack Wilton, the
The Monarch of Bath in Blackwood's Magazine, vol. xlviii.
history of an ingenious page who was present at the siege of
NASHE (or NASH), THOMAS (1567-1601), English poet, T6rouenne, and afterwards travelled in Italy with the earl of
playwright and pamphleteer, was born at Lowestoft in 1567. Surrey. It tells the story of the earl and Fair Geraldine,
His father belonged to an old Herefordshire family, and is describes a tournament held by Surrey at Florence, and relates
"
vaguely described as a minister." Nashe spent nearly seven the adventures of Wilton and his mistress Diamante at Rome
years, 1582 to 1589, at St John's College, Cambridge, taking after the earl's return to England. The detailed, realistic
his B .A. degree in 1 585-1 586. On manner which Nashe relates
leaving the university he tried, in his improbable fiction resembles
like Greene and Marlowe, to make his living in London by that of Defoe. His last work is entitled Lenten
246 NASHUA NASHVILLE
"
and is in praise of the red herring," but really a
nominally dulating valley; its streets are paved with brick or granite
Yarmouth, to which place he had" retired after blocks in the business section and macadamized or paved with
description of
his imprisonment, written in the best style of a special corre- asphalt in the residential sections. The city has fine public
spondent." Nashe's death is referred to in Thomas Dekker's buildings, many handsome residences, and several beautiful
Knight's Conjuring (1607), a kind of sequel to Pierce Penilesse. parks. The principal building is the State House, a fine example
He is there represented as joining his boon companions in the of pure Greek architecture, on the most prominent hill-top, with
" a tower 205 ft. in height. On the grounds about it are a bronze
Elysian fields still haunted with the sharp and satirical spirit
that followed him here upon earth." Had his patrons under- equestrian statue of Andrew Jackson, by Clark Mills (1815-1883),
stood their duty, he would not, he said, have shortened his days and the tomb of President James K. Polk, who lived in Nashville.
by keeping company with pickled herrings. It may therefore Other prominent buildings and institutions are the United
be reasonably supposed that he died from eating bad and in- States Government Building, the County Court House, the City
sufficient food. The date of his death is fixed by an elegy on him Hall, the Tennessee School for the Blind, the Tennessee Industrial
printed in Fitzgeffrey's Afaniae (1601). School, the State Library, the Library of the State Historical
The works of Thomas Nashe were edited by Dr A. B. Grosart in Society housed in Watkins Institute, a Carnegie library, park
1883-1885, and more recently by Ronald B. McKerrow (1904). buildings, the State Penitentiary, Vend6me Theatre, the Board
An account of his work as a novelist may of Trade Building, the City Hospital, the St Thomas Hospital
Novel in the Time of Shakespeare, by J. j. Jusserand (Eng. trans.,
1890). The Unfortunate Traveller was edited with an introduction
"
(Roman Catholic), and, near the city, a Confederate Soldiers'
by Edmund Gosse in 1892. See also Nash's Unfortunate Traveller Home and a State Hospital for the Insane. Eleven miles east of
und Head's English Rogue, die beiden Hauptvertreter des englischen "
the city is the Hermitage," which was the residence of President
Schelmenromans," by W. Kollmann in Anglic (Halle, vol. xxii., 1899, Andrew Jackson.
pp. 81-140).
a city and one of the county seats of Hillsboro The grounds of the Tennessee Centennial Exposition of 1897
NASHUA,
(commemorating the admission Tennessee into the Union) on
of
county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., at the confluence of the Nashua
and Merrimac rivers, 35 m. S.S.E. of Concord and 40 m. N.W. of the west border of the city now constitute Centennial Park, in
Boston by rail. Pop. (1890) 19,311; (1900) 23,898, of whom which still stand the reproduced Parthenon of Athens, the
8093 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 26,005. Nashua is History Building, which in general outline is a reproduction of
served by the Boston & Maine railroad, whose several divisions the Erectheum and contains a museum and an art gallery, and a
monument to the memory of James Robertson (1742-1814), the
centring here give the city commercial importance, and by
electric lines to Hudson, Dracut and founder of the city. Besides this there are four other parks: Glen-
Litchfield, Pelham,
The area of the in was 1 sq. m. To the dale Park in the south section, a place of much natural beauty;
Tyngsboro. city 1906 30- 7
Shelby Park, in the eastern part of the city, fronting the river;
N.,W. and S.W. of the city there are beautiful hills and moun-
tains. The church of Saint Francis Xavier and the First Con- Watkins Park, on the north; and Cumberland Driving Park.
In Mount Olivet Cemetery is a beautiful Confederate Soldiers'
gregational church are architecturally noteworthy. The city has
a soldiers' monument, a public library, a court house and two monument surrounded by the graves of 2000 Confederate soldiers,
and a little to the north of the city is a National Cemetery in
hospitals. There is a United States fish hatchery here, and until
after the close of the i8th century fishing was the principal
which 16,643 Federal soldiers are buried, the names of 4711 of
them being unknown.
industry of the place, as manufacturing is now. Water-power is
furnished by the Nashua river and by Salmon Brook, and the Nashville is one of the foremost educational centres in the
Southern states. In the western part of the city is Vanderbilt
city is extensively engaged in, manufactures, notably cotton goods,
The University. This institution, opened in 1875, is under the
boots, shoes, and foundry and machine-shop products.
value of the city's factory products increased from $10,096,064 patronage of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, and was
in 1900 to $12,858,382 in 1905, or 27-4%, and in 1905 Nashua
named in honour of Cornelius Vanderbilt, who contributed
ranked second among the manufacturing cities of the state. $1,000,000 to its funds, and whose son, W. H. Vanderbilt, and
Nashua is one of the oldest interior settlements of the state. The grandsons, W. K. Vanderbilt and Cornelius Vanderbilt, gave to
first settlement here was established about 1665; and in 1673 the
the university about $820,000. It is coeducational and embraces
an academic department, a biblical department, and departments
township of Dunstable was incorporated by the General Court
of Massachusetts. In 1741, when the boundary between Massa- of engineering, law, medicine, pharmacy and dentistry; in 1909
chusetts and New Hampshire was settled, the jurisdiction of this it had 125 instructors and 959 students. The University of
Nashville is a non-sectarian institution embracing a college
portion of Dunstable was transferred to New Hampshire; five
years later it was incorporated under the laws of that state; and department, a medical department, a preparatory department,
in 1803 the settlement, originally known as Indian Head, was and the George Peabody College for Teachers; it was incorporated
under the laws of North Carolina as Davidson Academy in 1785
incorporated as a village under the name of Nashua, and in 1836
the township of Dunstable also received the name Nashua. The and under the laws of Tennessee as Cumberland College in 1806,
town of Nashville was set apart from the town of Nashua in 1842, and the present name was adopted in 1826. The George Peabody
but the two towns were united under a city charter obtained in College for Teachers, an important part of the institution, was
1853. In 1795 the first stage coach was run through here from opened as a normal school in 1875; in 1907-1908 it had an
Boston to Amherst, and at about the same time a canal was enrolment (including the summer session) of 647 students. In
built around Pawtucket Falls on the Merrimac at Lowell. In 1909 it received $1,000,000 from the Peabody Fund, later supple-
1822 a manufacturing company was formed, which at once began mented by $250,000 from the state, $200,000 from the city and
to develop the water-power and in 1825 erected the first cotton $100,000 from Davidson county. The University of Tennessee,
mill. Thirteen years later the Nashua & Lowell railroad (now located mainly at Knoxville, has at Nashville its medical and
leased to the Boston & Maine) first reached Nashua. dental departments. Ward Seminary, opened in 1865, Boscobel
See The History of the City of Nashua, edited by E. E. Parker College, opened in 1889, and Buford, Belmont and Radnor colleges
(Nashua, 1897). are all non-sectarian institutions of Nashville for the higher educa-
NASHVILLE, the capital of Tennessee, U.S.A., and the tion of women. For the education of negroes the city has Fisk
county-seat of Davidson county, on the Cumberland river, 186 m. University (opened in 1866, incorporated in 1867), under the
S.S.W. of Louisville, Kentucky. Pop. (1890) 76,168; (1900) auspices of the American Missionary Association and the Western
80,865, f whom 3037 were foreign-born and 30,044 were negroes; Freedman's Aid Commission of the Congregational Church (noted
(1910 census) 110,364. Nashville is served by the Tennessee since 1871 for its Jubilee Singers,who raised moneyfor Jubilee Hall,
Central, the Louisville & Nashville, and the Nashville, Chat- finished in 1876) ; it embraces a college department, a preparatory
tanooga & St Louis railways, and by several steamboat lines. department, a normal department and departments of theology,
The Cumberland river is crossed here by four foot-bridges. music and physical training; and Walden University, founded as
Nashville is situated on and between hills and bluffs in an un- Central Tennessee College in 1866, under the auspices of the
NASI NASIK 247
Methodist Episcopal Church, and embracing a college depart- from the entrenchments and by a vigorous attack on the Con-
ment, a normal department, an industrial department, and federate left forced back Hood's line to a second position 15 m.
departments of English, commerce, law, medicine, dentistry, to the south. Hood, having detached a part of his army, desired
pharmacy, music, bible training, nurse training and domestic to gain time to bring in his detachments by holding this line for
science. The Baptist, the Methodist Episcopal (South), the another day. Thomas, however, gave him no respite. On the
Cumberland Presbyterian, and the African Baptist and the 1 6th the Union army deployed in front of him, again
over-lap-
African Methodist Episcopal churches have publishing houses ping his left flank, and although a frontal attack was repulsed,
in Nashville. the extension of the Federal right wing compelled Hood to
The leading manufactures of the city are flour and grist mill extend his own lines more and more. Then the Federals broke
products (valued at $4,242,491 in 1905), lumber and timber
the attenuated line of defence at its left centre, and Hood's
products Nashville is one of the greatest hard wood markets in army drifted away in disorder. The pursuit was vigorous,
the United States, and in 1905 the value of lumber and timber and only a remnant of the Confederate forces reassembled at
products was $1,119,162 and of planing-mill products, $1,299,066 Columbia, 40 m. to the south, whence they fell back without
construction and repair of steam railway cars ($1,724,007 in delay behind the Tennessee.
1905), tobacco ($1,311,019 in 1005), fertilizers ($846,511 in 1905), NASI, JOSEPH (i6th century), Jewish statesman and financier,
men's clothing ($720,227 in 1905), saddlery, harness, soap and was born in Portugal of a Jewish (Marano) family. Emigrating
candles. The total value of the products of the factories increased from his native land, he founded a banking house in Antwerp.
from $15,301,096 in 1900 to $23,109,601 (16-8% of the entire Despite his financial and social prosperity there, he felt it irk-
factory product of the state) in 1905, amounts greater than some to be compelled to wear the guise of Catholicism, and
those of any other city m
the state. Nashville has a large trade determined to settle in a Mahommedan land. After two troubled
in grain, cotton, groceries, dry goods, drugs, and boots and shoes. years in Venice, Nasi betook himself to Constantinople. Here
The water-works and the electric lighting plant are owned and he proclaimed his Judaism, and married his beautiful cousin
operated by the municipality. Reyna. He rapidly rose to favour, the sultans Suleiman and
" Selim promoting him to high office. He founded a Jewish colony
Nashville was founded in 1780 as the advance guard of
" at Tiberias which was to be an asylum for the Jews of the Roman
western civilization by a company of two hundred or more
pioneers under the leadership of James Robertson, the nearest Campagna. In 1 566 when Selim ascended the throne, Nasi was
settlement being at the time about three hundred miles distant. made duke of Naxos. He had deserved well of Turkey, for he
When first settled it was named Nashborough in honour of Abner had conquered Cyprus for the sultan. Nasi's influence was so
Nash (1716-1786), who was at the time governor of North Caro- great that foreign powers often negotiated through him for
lina, ormore probably in honour of the Revolutionary general, concessions which they sought from the sultan. Thus the
Francis Nash (1720-1777), a brother of Abner, killed at German- emperor of Germany, Maximilian II., entered into direct corre-
town; but when, in 1784, it was incorporated as a town by the spondence with Nasi; William of Orange, Sigismund August II.,
North Carolina legislature the present name was substituted. king of Poland, also conferred with him on political questions
In 1806 Nashville was chartered as a city. Although it was not of moment. On the death of Selim in 1574, Nasi receded from
made the capital of the state until 1843, the legislature met here his political position, but retained his wealth and offices, and
from 1812 with the exception of the period from 1815 to 1826. passed the five years of life remaining to him in honoured
Many of the pioneers of Nashville were slain by the Creek and tranquillity at Belvedere (Constantinople). He died in 1579.
Cherokee Indians, and at times the settlement was saved from His career was not productive of direct results, but it was of
destruction only by the heroism of Robertson, but in 1794 the great moral importance. It was one of the tokens of the new
savages were dealt a crushing blow at Nickojack on the lower era that was to dawn for the Jews as trusted public officials
Tennessee and much more peaceful relations were established. and as members of the state.
On the 3rd of June 1850 a convention, known as the Southern or See Graetz, History of (he Jews (Eng. trans.), vol. iv. chs. xvi.-
Nashville Convention, whose action was generally considered xvii. Jewish Encyclopedia, ix. 172.
;
(I. A.)
a threat of disunion, met here to consider the questions at issue NASIK, town and district of British India, in the central
a.
between the North and the South. Since such a meeting had division of Bombay. The town is on the Godavari river, con-
first been proposed by a state convention of Mississippi, the nected by a tramway (5 m.) with Nasik Road railway station,
famous Compromise Measures of 1850 had been introduced in 107 m. N.E. of Bombay. Pop. (1001) 21,490. It is a very holy
Congress and the support of the movement had been greatly place of Hindu pilgrimage, being 30 m. from the source of the
weakened thereby except in South Carolina and Mississippi. Godavari. Shrines and temples line the river banks, and some
Nine states, however, were represented by about 100 delegates, stand even in the river. In the vicinity there are a number
mostly Democrats, and the convention denounced the Wilmot of sacred caves, among which those of Pandu Lena are the most
"
Proviso, and, as an extreme concession on the part of the noteworthy. They are ancient Buddhist caves dating from the
South," promised to agree that, W. of Missouri, there should be 3rd century before Christ to the 6th century after. There are
slavery only in the territory S. of 36 30' N. lat. At an adjourned numerous inscriptions of the highest historical value. Nasik
meeting in November it expressed its dissatisfaction with the has manufactures of cotton goods, brass-ware and mineral
Compromise Measures of Congress, and asserted the right of the waters.
South to secede. The DISTRICT OF NASIK has an area of 5850 sq. m. With
During the Civil War Nashville was at first held by the Con- the exception of a few villages in the west, the whole district
federates, but early in 1862 it was occupied by the Federals, is situated on a tableland from 1300 to 2000 ft. above sea-level.
who retained possession of it to the end. The battle of Nashville The western portion is hilly, and intersected by ravines, and
was fought on the isth and i6th of December 1864 between only the simplest kind of cultivation is possible. The eastern
the Union army under Major-General G. H. Thomas and the tract is open, fertile and well cultivated. The Sahyadri range
Confederates under General J. B. Hood. The Union defences stretches from north to south; the watershed is formed by the
extended in a semicircle round Nashville, the flanks on the Chander range, which runs east and west. All the streams
river above and below. Hood's army was to the south-east, to the south of that range are tributaries of the Godavari. To
lightly entrenched, with its flanks on two creeks which empty the north of the watershed, the Girna and its tributary the Mosam
into the Cumberland above and below Nashville. This position flow through fertile valleys into the Tapti. The district generally
he desired to maintain as long as possible so as to gather recruits is and the forests which formerly clothed the
destitute of trees,
and supplies in safety. Thomas, whose army was of motley
If Sahyadri have nearly disappeared; efforts are now being
hills
composition, attacked, he hoped to defeat him and to enter made to prevent further destruction, and to reclothe some of
Nashville on his heels. Thomas, however, would not strike the slopes. The district contains several old hill forts, the scenes
until he had his army organized. Then, on the
isth, he emerged of many engagements during the Mahratta wars. Nasik district
NASIR KHOSRAU NASMYTH, A.
became British territory in 1818 on the overthrow of the peshwa. society and princely courts in particular. It is the same strain
The population in 1901 was 816,504, showing a decrease of which runs, although in a somewhat lower key, through his two
larger mathnawis or double-rhymed poems, the Rushanainama, or
3 % in the decade. The principal crops are millet, wheat, pulse, "
book of enlightenment," and the Sa'adatnama, or " book of feli-
oil-seeds, cotton and sugar cane. There are also some vineyards city." The former is divided into two sections: the first, of a meta-
of old date, and much garden cultivation. Yeola is an important physical character, contains a sort of practical cosmography, chiefly
centre for weaving silk and cotton goods. There are flour-mills based on Avicenna's theories, but frequently intermixed both with
the freer speculations of the well-known philosophical brotherhood
at Malegaon, railway workshops at Igatpuri, and cantonments of Basra, the Ikhwan-es-safa'i, and purely Shi'ite or Isma'ilite
at Deolali and Malegaon. At Sharanpur is a Christian village, ideas; the second, or ethical section of the poem, abounds in moral
with an orphanage of the C.M.S., founded in 1854. The district maxims and ingenious thoughts on man's good and bad qualities,
is crossed by the main line and also by the chord line of the Great
on the necessity of shunning the company of fools and double-faced
friends, on the deceptive allurements of the world and the secret
Indian Peninsula railway. snares of ambitious craving for rank and wealth. It concludes with
NASIR KHOSRAU (Nasiri Khusru), Abu Mu'in-ed-din Nasir b. an imaginary vision of a beautiful world of spirits who have stripped
Khosrau (1004-1088), whose nom de plume was Hujjat, the first off the fetters of earthly cares and sorrows and revel in the pure
light of divine wisdom and love. If we compare this with a similar
great didactic poet of Persia, was born, according to his own
allegory in Nasir's diwan, which culminates in the praise of Mostansir,
statement, A.H. 394 (A.D. 1004), at Kubadiyan, near Balkh in we are fairly entitled to look upon it as a covert allusion to the
Khorasan. The first forty-two years of his life are obscure; eminent men who revealed to the poet in Cairo the secrets of the
Isma'ilitic faith, and showed him what he considered the
"
we learn from incidental remarks of his that he was a Sunnite, " heavenly
ladder to superior knowledge and spiritual bliss. The passage, thus
probably according to the Hanifite rite, well versed in all the
interpreted, lends additional weight to the correctness of Dr Ethe"s
branches of natural science, in medicine, mathematics, astronomy reconstruction of the date of the Rushanainama, viz. A.H. 440 (A.D.
and astrology, in. Greek philosophy, and the interpretation of 1049), which, notwithstanding M. Schefcr's objections, is warranted
the Koran; that he was much addicted to worldly pleasures, both by the astronomical details and by the metrical requirements
He had studied Arabic, of the respective verses. That of course does not exclude the possi-
especially to excessive wine drinking.
bility of the bulk of the poem having been composed at an earlier
Turkish, Greek, the vernacular languages of India and Sind, period; it only ascribes its completion or perhaps final revision to
and perhaps even Hebrew; he had visited Multan and Lahore, Nasir's sojourn in Egypt.
and the splendid Ghaznavide court under Sultan Mahmud, Asimilar series of excellent teachings on practical wisdom and
Firdousl's patron. Later on he chose Merv for his residence, the blessings of a virtuous life, only of a severer and more uncom-
promising character, is contained in the Sa'adalnama; and, judging
and was the owner of a house and garden there. In A.H. 437 from the extreme bitterness oftone manifested in the
"
reproaches
(A.D. 1045) he appears as financial secretary and revenue of kings and emirs," we should be inclined to consider it a protest
collector of the Seljuk sultan Toghrul Beg, or rather of his brother against the vile aspersions poured out upon Nasir's moral and
religious attitude during those persecutions which drove him at
Jaghir Beg, the emir of Khorasan, who had conquered Merv last to Yumgan. Of all the other works of our author mentioned
in 1037. About this time, inspired by a heavenly voice (which
by Oriental writers there has as yet been found only one, the Zad-
" "
he pretends to have heard in a dream), he abjured all the luxuries elmusafirin or travelling provisions of pilgrims (in the private
of life, and resolved upon a pilgrimage to the holy shrines of possession of M. Schefer, Paris), a theoretical description of his
Mecca and Medina, hoping to find there the solution of all his religious and philosophical principles; and we can very well dismiss
the rest as being probably just as apocryphal as Nasir's famous auto-
The graphic description of this journey is
religious doubts.
biography (found in several Persian tadhkiras or biographies of
contained in the Safarndma, which possesses a special value poets), a mere forgery of the most extravagant description, which is
among books of travel, since it contains the most authentic mainly responsible for the confusion in names and dates in older
account of the state of the Mussulman world in the middle of accounts of our author.
See Sprenger's Catalogue of the Libraries of the King of Oudh ( 1 854) ;
the nth century. The minute sketches of Jerusalem and its H. Bine", Nasir Chusrau's Rushanainama," in Zeitschrift der
environs are even now of practical value. During the seven deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, xxxiii., xxxiv., 1879-1880;
"
years of his journey (A.D. 1045-1052) Nasir visited Mecca four E. Fagnan, Le Livrede la fe'licite'," in vol. xxxiv. of the same journal,
times, and performed all the rites and observances of a zealous 643-674; Ch. Schefer, Sefer Nameh, publit, traduit et annoie (Paris,
1881), and by Guy le Strange in Pilgrims' Text Society (1888); H.
pilgrim; but he was far more attracted by Cairo, the capital Eth6, in Gdttinger Nachrichten, 1882, pp. 124-152, Z.D.M.G., 1882,
of Egypt, and the residence of the Fatimite sultan Mostansir pp. 478-508; and Geiger's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie ii.
billah, the great champion of the Shfa, and the spiritual as well p. 278; Fagnan in Journ. As. 7th ser. vol. xiii. pp. 164 seq., and
.
as political head of the house of 'All, which was just then waging R ieu, Cat. Pers. MSS. in Br. Mus., concluded that the poet and the
ilgrim were different persons. The opposite view was developed by
a deadly war against the 'Abbaside caliph of Bagdad, and the
great defender of the Sunnite creed, Toghrul Beg the Seljuk. NASIRABAD, or MYMENSINGH, a town of British India,
At the very time of Nasir's visit to Cairo, the power of the
headquarters of Mymensingh district in Eastern Bengal and
Egyptian Fatimites was in its zenith; Syria, the Hejaz, Africa, Assam, situated on the left bank of the old channel of the Brahma-
and obeyed Mostansir's sway, and the utmost order,
Sicily
putra, which is only navigable during the rainy season. Pop.
security and prosperity reigned in Egypt. At Cairo he became It has a station on the branch of the Eastern
(1901) 14,668.
thoroughly imbued with Shfa doctrines, and their introduction Bengal railway from Dacca to Jagannathganj, on the Jamuna
into his native country was henceforth the sole object of his life.
or main stream of the Brahmaputra. The earthquake of the
The hostility he encountered in the propagation of these new 1 2th of June 1897 destroyed the church and the high school, and
religious ideas after his return to Khorasan in 1052 and Sunnite
seriously damaged other public buildings.
fanaticism compelled him at last to flee, and after many wander- NASIRABAD is also the name of a town and cantonment in the
ings he found a refuge in Yumgan (about 1060) in the mountains district of Aimere, Rajputana. Pop. (1901) 22,494. It forms the
of Badakshan, where he spent as a hermit the last decades of headquarters of a brigade in the 5th division of the Southern army.
his life, and gathered round him a considerable number of devoted NASMYTH, ALEXANDER (1758-1840), Scottish portrait and
adherents, who have handed down his doctrines to succeeding landscape painter, was born in Edinburgh on the gth of September
generations. 1758. He studied at the Trustees' Academy under Runciman,
Most of Nasir's lyrica! poems were composed in his retirement, and, having been apprenticed as an heraldic painter to a coach-
and their chief topics are^ an enthusiastic praise of "All, his de- builder, he, at the age of sixteen, attracted the attention of Allan
scendants, and Mostansir in particular; passionate outcries against Ramsay, who took the youth with him to London, and employed
Khorasan and its rulers, who had driven him from house and home ;
him upon the subordinate portions of his works. Nasmyth
the highest satisfaction with the quiet solitude of Yumgan; and
utter despondency again in seeing himself despised by his former returned to Edinburgh in 1778, and was soon largely patronized
associates and for ever excluded from participation in the glorious as a portrait painter. He also assisted Mr Miller of Dalswinton,
contest of life. But scattered through all these alternate outbursts as draughtsman, in his mechanical researches and experiments;
of hope and despair we find precious lessons of purest morality, and
solemn warnings against the tricks and perfidy of the world, the and, this gentleman having generously offered the painter a loan
to enable him to pursue his studies abroad, he left in 1782 for
vanity of all earthly splendour and greatness, the folly and injustice
of men, and the hypocrisy, frivolity and viciousness of fashionable Italy, where he remained two years. On his return he painted
NASMYTH, J. NASRIDES, THE 249
the excellent portrait of Burns, now in the Scottish National NASR-ED-DIN [NASIRU'D-DIN] (1829-1896), shah of Persia,
Gallery, well known through Walker's engraving. Political was born on the 4th of April 1 His mother, a capable princess
8 2 9.
feeling at that time ran high in Edinburgh, and Nasmyth's
of the Kajar family, persuaded Shah Mahommed, his father, to
pronounced Liberal opinions, which he was too outspoken and appoint him heir apparent, in preference to his elder brothers;
sincere to disguise, gave offence to many of his aristocratic and he was accordingly made governor of Azerbaijan. His
patrons, and led to the diminution of his practice as a portraitist. succession to the throne, i3th October 1848, was vigorously
In his later years, accordingly, he devoted himself mainly to disputed, especially by the followers of the reformer El Bab,
landscape work, and did not disdain on occasion to set his hand upon whom he wreaked terrible vengeance. In 1855. he re-
to scene-painting for the theatres. He has been styled, not established friendly relations with France, and coming under the
" father of Scottish influence of Russia, signed a treaty of amity on the i7th of
unjustly, the landscape art." His subjects
are carefully finished and coloured, but are wanting in boldness December with that power, but remained neutral during the
and freedom. Nasmyth was also largely employed by noblemen Crimean war. In 1856 he seized Herat, but a British army under
throughout the country in the improving and beautifying of their Outram landed in the Persian Gulf, defeated his forces and
estates, in which his fine taste rendered him especially skilful; compelled him to evacuate the territory. The treaty of peace
and he was known as an architect, having designed the Dean was signed at Paris, on the 4th of March 1857, and to the end of
Bridge, Edinburgh, and the graceful circular temple covering his reign he treated Great Britain and Russia with equal friend-
St Bernard's Well. Nasmyth died in his native city on the loth ship. In 1866 the shah authorized the passage of the telegraph
of April 1840. His youngest son, James, was the well-known to India through his dominions and reminted his currency in the
inventor of the steam-hammer. His six daughters all attained European fashion. In 1873, and again in 1889, he visited
a certain local reputation as artists, but it was in his eldest son, England in the course of his three sumptuous journeys to Europe,
Patrick (1787-1831), that the artistic skill of his family was most 1873,1878,1889. The only results of his contact with Western
powerfully developed. Having studied under his father, Patrick civilization appear to have been the proclamation of religious
went to London at the age of twenty, and soon attracted atten- toleration, the institution of a postal service, accession to the
tion as a clever landscapist. He was a diligent stu4ent of the postal union and the establishment of a bank. He gave the
works of Claude and Richard Wilson, and of Ruysdael and monopoly of tobacco to a private company, but was soon com-
Hobbema, upon whom his own practice was mainly founded. pelled to withdraw it in deference to the resistance of his subjects.
His most characteristic paintings are of English domestic scenery, Abstemious in habits, and devoted to music and poetry, he was
full of quiet tone and colour, and detailed and minute expression a cultured, able and well-meaning ruler, and his reign, already
of foliage, and with considerable brilliancy of sky effect. They unusually long for an Eastern potentate, might have lasted still
were executed with his left hand, his right having in early life longer had it not been for the unpopular sale of the tobacco
been injured by an accident. monopoly, which was probably a factor in his assassination at
For an account of the Nasmyth family see James Nasmyth's Teheran on the ist of May 1896 by a member of the Babi faction.
Autobiography (1883). He was succeeded by his son Muzaffar-ed-din.
NASMYTH, JAMES (1808-1890), Scottish engineer, was born NASRIDES, THE, of Granada, were the last of the Mahom-
in Edinburgh on the igth of August 1808, and was the youngest medan dynasties in Spain. They ruled from 1 232 to 1492. They
son of Alexander Nasmyth, the "father of Scottish landscape arose at the time when the king of Castile, Fernando the Saint,
art." He was sent to school in his native city, and then attended was conquering Andalusia. The dynasty was of remote Arabic
classes in chemistry, mathematics and natural philosophy at the origin, but its immediate source was the mountain range of the
university. From an early age he showed great fondness for Alpujarra, and the founder was Yusuf (or Yahia) 1'Nasr, a chief
mechanical pursuits, and the skill he attained in the practical who was engaged in perpetual conflict with rival chiefs and in
use of tools enabled him to make models of engines, &c., which particular with the family of Beni-Hud, once kings at Saragossa,
found a ready sale. In 1829 he obtained a position in Henry who held the fortress of Granada. Yusuf's nephew (or son)
Maudslay's works in London, where he stayed two years, and Mahommed completed the defeat of the Beni-Hud largely by the
then, in 1834, started business on his own account in Manchester. help of the king of Castile, to whom he did homage and paid
The beginnings were small, but they quickly developed, and in a tribute. Mahommed I., called el Ghalib, i.e. the Conqueror (i 238-
few years he was at the head of the prosperous Bridgewater 1273), served the Christian king against his own co-religionists
foundry at Patricroft, from which he was able to retire in 1856 at the siege of Seville and contrived to escape in the general
with a fortune. The invention of the steam-hammer, with which wreck of the Mahommedan power. The internal history of the
his name is associated, was actually made in 1839, a drawing of dynasty is largely made up of civil dissensions, personal rivalries,
"
the device appearing in his note-book, or scheme-book," as he palace and harem intrigues. The direct male line of Mahommed
called it, with the date 24th November of that year. It was el Ghalib ended with the fourth sultan, Nasr, in 1314. Nasr was
designed to meet the difficulty experienced by the builders of succeeded by his cousin Imail (1314-1325), who is said to have
the Great Britain steamship in finding a firm that would under- been connected with the original stock only through women.
take to forge the large paddle-wheel shaft required for that From Mahommed el-Ghalib to Mahommed XL, called Boabdil,
vessel, but no machine of the kind was constructed till 1842. and also the little king " El Rey Chico " by the Christians, who lost
In that year Nasmyth discovered one in Schneiders' Creuzot Granada in 1492, there are counted twenty-nine reigns of the
works, and he found that the design was his own and had been Nasrides, giving an average of nine years. But there was not the
"
copied from his scheme-book." His title, therefore, to be same number of sultans, for several of them were expelled and
called the inventor of the steam-hammer holds good against the restored two or three times. Nor did all the members of the
claims sometimes advanced in favour of the Schneiders, though house who were allowed to have been sultans reign over all the
apparently he was anticipated in the idea by James Watt. territory still in Mahommedan hands. There were .contemporary
Nasmyth did much for the improvement of machine-tools, and reigns in different parts, and tribal or local rivalries between
his inventive genius devised many new appliances a planing- plain and hill, and the chief towns, Granada, Malaga and Guadix.
machine (" Nasmyth steam-arm "), a nut-shaping machine, The dissensions of the Nasrides reached their greatest pitch of
steam pile-driver, hydraulic machinery for various purposes, &c. fury during the very years in which the Catholic sovereigns were
In his retirement he lived at Penshurst in Kent, and amused
conquering their territory piecemeal, 1482-1492. Their position
himself with the study of astronomy, and especially of the moon,
imposed a certain consistency of policy on these sultans. They
on which he published a work, The Moon considered as a Planet, submitted and paid tribute to the kings of Castile when they
a World and a Satellite, in conjunction with could not help doing so, but they endeavoured to use the support
James Carpenter in
1874. He died in London on the 7th of May 1890. of Mahommedan rulers of northern Africa whenever it was to be
His Autobiography, edited by Dr Samuel Smiles, was published obtained. Granada became the recognized place of refuge for
in 1883. rebellious subjects of the kings of Castile, and on occasion
25 NASSARAW A NASSAU
supported them against rebels. The end came when the weakness plateau having an elevation of about 1800 ft. through which a
of Mahommedan rulers in Morocco coincided with the rule of short road to the Bauchi tin mines passes from the Benue.
strong sovereigns in Castile. Frontier wars between Mahom- These people had been raiding the Fula for cattle and murdering
medan and Christian borderers were incessant, and at long traders upon the road. A splendid grazing country, healthy
intervals the kings of Castile made invasions on a considerable and also rich in rubber, was opened. The road to the tin mines
scale, without, however, following up any successes they might was rendered safe and is now the Bauchi mail route. There is a
gain. The comparative prosperity of Granada was due to the cart road from Loko on the Benue to Keffi. (F. L. L.)
concentration of a large population driven from other parts of NASSAU, a territory of Germany, now forming the bulk of the
Spain, and the consequent necessity for the intensive cultivation government district of Wiesbaden, in the Prussian province of
of the rich valleys lying among the ranges of mountains which Hesse-Nassau, but until 1866 an independent and sovereign duchy
" "
of Germany. It consists of a compact mass of territory, 1830
encircle the kingdom, and the extensive Vega or plain of
Granada. The reputation for civilization which the agitated sq. m. in area, bounded on the S. and W. by the Main and Rhine,
Mahommedan state enjoys in history is based on the surviving on the N. by Westphalia and on the E. by Hesse. This territory
is divided into two nearly equal parts by the river Lahn, which
parts of the highly decorated fortress palace of the Alhambra,
which was mainly the work of three of the sultans, the founder, flows from east to west into the Rhine. The southern half is
Mahommed el Ghalib, and his two successors. almost entirely occupied by the Taunus Mountains, which
See Lane-Poole, The Mahommedan Dynasties (London, 1894)
S. ; attain a height of 2900 ft. in the Great Feldberg, while to the
and Historia de Granada, by Don M. Lafuente Alcantara (Granada, north of the Lahn is the barren Westerwald, culminating in
1884). the Salzburgerkopf (2000 ft.). The valleys and low-lying
NASSARAWA, a province of the British protectorate of districts, especially the Rheingau, are very fertile, producing
northern Nigeria, lying approximately between 6 40' and 9 E. abundance of grain, flax, hemp and fruit; but by far the most
and between 7 40' and 9 40' N. It is situated on the northern valuable product of the soil is its wine, which includes several of
bank of the river Benue, which in its windings forms the southern the choicest Rhenish varieties, such as Johannisberger, Marco-
frontier of the province. Nassarawa is bounded E. by the brunner and Assmannshauser. Nassau is one of the most thickly
province of Muri, N.E. by Bauchi, N. by Zaria and W. by Nupe wooded regions in Germany, about 42 % of its surface being
and the trans-Nigerian portion of the province of Kabba. It occupied by forests, which yield good timber and harbour large
has an area of 18,000 sq. m. and an estimated population of quantities of game. The rivers abound in fish, the salmon
1,500,000. The province, like that of Bauchi, is traversed fisheries on the Rhine being especially important. There are
by mountainous regions. It possesses valuable forests and upwards of a hundred mineral springs in the district, most of
many fertile river valleys. Native products include rubber, which formerly belonged to the duke, and afforded him a con-
palm kernels and beni seed. Cotton is grown extensively. siderable part of his revenue. The best known are those of
Until the middle of the i8th century Nassarawa appears to have Wiesbaden, Ems, Soden, Schwalbach, Schlangenbad, Geilnau
been peopled by many native tribes of a primitive type. About and Fachingen. The other mineral wealth of Nassau includes
1750 an important pagan tribe, the Igbira, came from the south- iron, lead, copper, building stone, coals, slate, a little silver
west across the Niger and established two rival kingdoms in the and a bed of malachite. Its manufactures, including cotton
western portion of the province. Later the native inhabitants and woollen goods, are unimportant, but a brisk trade is carried
of Zaria, driven before the Fula, came from the north and on by rail and river in wine, timber, grain and fruit. There are
occupied the central portion of Nassarawa. Later still (about few places of importance besides the above-named spas; Hochst
1840) certain Fula of Zaria themselves conquered portions of is the only manufacturing town. Wiesbaden, with 100,955
the province, founded Keffi, spread as far as the Benue in the inhabitants, is the capital of the government district as it
south-west corner and occupied the town and district of Abuja was of the duchy. In 1864 the duchy contained 468,311 in-
in the west. Fula also made a settlement at the town of habitants, of whom 242,000 were Protestants, 215,000 Roman
Nassarawa and at Darroro in the N.E. A colony from Bornu Catholics and 7000 Jews. The ecclesiastical jurisdiction was
entered the province and founded the important town of Lafia in the hands of the Protestant bishop of Wiesbaden and the
Berebere in the eastern district. As a result of these movements Roman Catholic bishop of Limburg. Education was amply
the aboriginal tribes were driven into the hilly regions of the S.E. provided for in numerous higher and lower schools. The annual
and N.E. The Munshi, a truculent and hardy people, hold a revenue of the dukedom was about 400,000 and it furnished a
portion of the northern bank of the Benue, and the Kagoro and contingent of 6000 men to the army of the German Confederation.
Attakar tribes hold the hilly country to the N.E., through History. During the Roman period the district enclosed by
which the road passes from Keffi and Lafia to the Bauchi high- the Rhine, the Main and the Lahn was occupied by the Mattiaci
lands. Before the British occupation the state of Nassarawa had and later by the Alamanni. The latter were subdued by the
become a partially subdued Fula emirate, exercising doubtful Franks under Clovis at the end of the 5th century, and at the
sway over the native pagans and paying a scarcely less doubtful partition of Verdun in 843 the country became part of the East
allegiance on its own part to the Fula ruler of Zaria. The riverain Prankish or German kingdom. Christianity seems to have been
tribes of Nassarawa were among the first to break into open introduced in the 4th century. The founder of the house of
aggression against the British administration established at Nassau is usually regarded as a certain Drutwin (d. 1076),
Lokoja. In January 1900 they attacked a telegraph construc- who, with his brother Dudo, count of Laurenburg, built a castle
tion party in the Munshi country on the banks of the Benue. on a hill overlooking the Lahn, near the present town of Nassau.
The result was the occupation of Keffi by British troops and Drutwin's descendant Walram (d. 1 198) took the title of count of
the gradual subjugation of the province. In 1902 the first Nassau, and placed bis lands under the immediate suzerainty
British resident, Captain Moloney, was murdered at Keffi by of the German king; previously he had been a vassal of the arch-
an official of the emir's court. The emir repudiated all re- bishop of Trier. Then in 1255 Walram's grandsons, Walram
sponsibility for the crime, and the murderer fled to Kano, and Otto, divided between them their paternal inheritance,
where his reception on friendly terms was among the incidents which had been steadily increasing in size. Walram took the
which determined the Sokoto-Kano campaign of 1903. The part of Nassau lying on the left bank of the Lahn and made
British were now recognized as the rulers of Nigeria, and the Wiesbaden his residence; Otto took the part on the right bank
emir of Nassarawa threw in his lot with the British government. of the river and his capital was Siegen. The brothers thus founded
Slave raiding was abolished and the slave trade made illegal. the two branches of the house of Nassau, which have flourished
A British court of justice was established at the provincial head- to the present time.
quarters and native courts in every district. Roads have been The fortunes of the Ottoman, or younger line, belong mainly
opened and trade is steadily increasing. In 1905 an expedition to the history of the Netherlands. The family was soon divided
was required against the Kagoro people, who occupy a vast open into several branches, and in the isth century one of its members,
NAST 251
Count Engelbert I. (d. 1442), obtained through marriage lands unsatisfactory condition. The duke adhered stedfastly to his
in Holland. Of his two sons one took the Dutch, and the other conservative principles, while his people showed their sympathies
the German possessions of the house, but these were united again by electing one liberal landtag after another. In 1866 Adolph
in 1504 under the sway of John, count of Nassau-Dillenburg, espoused the cause of Austria, sent his troops into the field and
the head of a branch of the family which, in consequence of a asked the landtag for money. This was refused, Adolph was
series of deaths, the last of which took place in 1561, was a few soon a fugitive before the Prussian troops, and on the 3rd of
years later the sole representative of the descendants of Count October 1866 Nassau was formally incorporated with the
Otto. John's son was Count William the Rich (d. 1559), and his kingdom of Prussia. The deposed duke entered in 1867 into a
grandson was the hero, William the Silent, who inherited the convention with Prussia by which he retained a few castles and
principality of Orange in 1544 and surrendered his prospective received an indemnity of about 1,500,000 for renouncing his
inheritance, in Nassau to his brother John (d. 1606). William claim to Nassau. In 1890, on the extinction of the collateral line
and his descendants were called princes of Orange-Nassau, and of his house, he became grand-duke of Luxemburg, and he died
the line became extinct when the English king William III. on the 1 7th of November 1905.
died in 1702. Meanwhile the descendants of Count John, The town of Nassau (Lat. Nasonga) on the right bank of the
the rulers of Nassau, were flourishing. They were divided into Lahn, 15 m. above Coblenz, is interesting as the birthplace of
several branches, and in 1702 the head of one of these, John the Prussian statesman, Freiherr von Stein. Pop. (1905) 2238.
William Friso of Nassau-Dietz (d. 1711), whose ancestor had been It has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church, while its
made a prince of the Empire in 1654, inherited the title of prince main industries are brewing and mining. Near the town are
of Orange and the lands of the English king in the Netherlands. the ruins of the castle of Stein, first mentioned in 1138, with a
A few years later in 1743 a number of deaths left John William's marble statue of Stein, while the ruins of the ancestral castle
son, William, the sole representative of his family, and as such of the house of Nassau may also be seen.
he ruled over the ancestral lands both in Nassau and in the For the history of Nassau see Hennes, Geschichte der Grafen von
Netherlands. In 1806, however, these were taken from a Nassau bis 125$ (Cologne, 1843) von Schutz, Geschichte des Herzog-
;
succeeding prince, William VI., because he refused to join the
tums Nassau (Wiesbaden, 1853); von Witzleben, Genealogie und
Geschichte der Furstenhauses Nassau (Stuttgart, 1855); F. W. T.
Confederation of the Rhine. Some of them were given in 1815
Schliephake and K. Menzel, Geschichte von Nassau (Wiesbaden,
to the other main line of the family, the one descended from
1865-1889); the Codex diplomaticus nassoicus, edited by K. Menzel
Count Walram (see below). In 1815 William VI. became king and W. Sauer (1885-1887) and the Annalen des Vereins fur nassau-
;
of the Netherlands as William I., and was compensated for this ische Altertumskunde und Geschichtsforschung (1827 fol.).
loss by the grant of parts of Luxemburg and the title of grand-
NAST, THOMAS (1840-1902), American caricaturist, was born
duke. When in 1890 William's male line died out Luxemburg, on the 27th of September 1840, in the military barracks of
like Nassau, passed to the descendants of Count Walram. In
Landau, Germany, the son of a musician in the Ninth regiment
the female line he is now represented by the queen of the Bavarian band. His mother took him to New York in 1846.
Netherlands. He studied art there for about a year with Theodore Kaufmann
Adolph of Nassau, a son of Walram, the founder of the elder and then at the school of the National Academy of Design.
line of the house of Nassau, became German king in 1292, but At the age of fifteen he became a draughtsman for Frank
was defeated and slain by his rival, Albert of Austria, in 1298. Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper; three years afterwards for
The territories of his descendants were partitioned several Harper's Weekly. In 1860 he went to England for the New
times, but these branch lines did not usually perpetuate them- York Illustrated News to depict the prize-fight between Heenan
selves beyond a few generations, and Walram's share of Nassau and Sayers, and then joined Garibaldi in Italy as artist for
was again united in 1605 under Louis II. of Nassau-Weilburg The Illustrated London News. His first serious work in caricature
(d. 1626). Soon, however, the family was again divided; three was the cartoon " Peace " in 1862, directed against those in
branches were formed, those of Saarbriicken, Idstein and Weil- the North who opposed the prosecution of the Civil War. This
burg, the heads of the first two becoming princes of the Empire and his other cartoons during the Civil War and Reconstruction
in 1688. Other partitions followed, but at the opening of the
days were published in Harper's Weekly; they attracted great
igth century only two lines were flourishing, those of Nassau- "
attention, and Nast was called by President Lincoln our best
Usingen and Nassau-Weilburg. In 1801 Charles William, recruiting sergeant." Even more able were Nast's cartoons
prince of Nassau-Usingen, was deprived by France of his lands against the Tweed Ring conspiracy in New York city; his
on the left bank of the Rhine, but both he and Frederick William caricature of Tweed being the means of the latter's identifica-
of Nassau-Weilburg, who suffered a similar loss, received ample tion and arrest at Vigo. In 1873, 1885 and 1887 Nast toured
compensation. In 1806 both Frederick William and Frederick the United States as lecturer and sketch-artist, but with the
Augustus, the brother and successor of Charles William, joined advent of new methods and younger blood his vogue decreased.
the Confederation of the Rhine and received from Napoleon He had been an ardent Republican in his earlier years; had
the title of duke, but after the battle of Leipzig they threw in attacked President Johnson and his Reconstruction
bitterly
their lot with the allies, and in 1815 joined the German Con-
policy; had ridiculed Greeley's candidature, and had opposed
federation. As a result of the changes of 1815 Frederick Augustus " "
inflation of the currency, notably with his famous rag-baby
of Nassau-Usingen ceded some of his newly-acquired lands to
cartoons, but his advocacy of civil service reform and his distrust
Prussia, receiving in return the greater part of the German of Elaine forced him to become a Mugwump and in 1884 an open
possessions of the Ottonian branch of the house of Nassau (see supporter of the Democratic party, from which in 1892 he re-
above). In March 1816 he died without sons and the whole turned to the Republican party and the support of Harrison.
of Nassau was united under the rule of Frederick William of He had lost practically all of his earnings by the failure of Grant
Nassau-Weilburg as duke of Nassau. Already in 1814 Frederick and Ward, and in May 1902 was appointed by President Roosevelt
William had granted a constitution to his subjects, which pro-
consul-general at Guayaquil, Ecuador, where he died on the 7th
vided for two representative chambers, and under his son William, of December in the same year. He did some painting in oil
who succeeded in 1816, the first landtag met in 1818. At once, and some book illustrations, but these were comparatively
however, it came into collision with the duke about the ducal unimportant, and his fame rests on his caricatures and political
domains, and 'these dissensions were not settled until 1836. cartoons. Nast introduced the donkey to typify the Democratic
In this year the duchy took an important step in the develop-
party, the elephant to typify the Republican party, and the
ment of its material prosperity by joining the German Zollverein.
tiger to typify Tammany Hall, and introduced into American
In 1848 Duke Adolph, the son and successor of Duke William, cartoons the practice of modernizing scenes from Shakespeare
was compelled to yield to the temper of the times and to grant for a political purpose.
a more liberal constitution to Nassau, but in the following years
See A. B. Paine, Thomas Nast, his Period and his Pictures (New
a series of reactionary measures reduced matters to their former York, 1904).
252 NASTURTIUM NATAL
NASTURTIUM, or INDIAN CRESS, Tropaeolum majus, a which is 250 ft. high and forested to the water's edge. Opposite
perennial climber, native of Peru, but in cultivation treated the Bluff a low sandy spit called the Point forms the northern
as a hardy annual. It climbs by means of the long stalk of the entrance to the harbour. North of Durban the coast belt,
peltate leaf which is sensitive to contact like a tendril. The hitherto very narrow, widens out and becomes more flat. But
irregular flowers have five sepals united at the base, the dorsal the greater part of the coast region, which has an average depth
one produced into a spurred development of the axis; of the of 15 m., is broken and rugged. Ranges of hills lead to the first
five petals the two upper are slightly different and stand rather plateau, which has an average elevation of 2000 ft. and is of
apart from the lower three; the eight stamens are unequal and ill-defined extent. Here the land loses its semi-tropical character
'
the pistil consists of three carpels which form a fleshy fruit and resembles more the plains of the Orange Free State and the
separating into three one-seeded portions. The flowers are Transvaal. The second plateau, reached by a steep ascent,
sometimes eaten in salads, and the leaves and young green fruits has an elevation of from nearly 4000 to fully 5000 ft. It is an
are pickled in vinegar as a substitute for capers. The pungency undulating plain, grass-covered, but for the most part without
of the nasturtium officinale, the water-cress, gave it its name trees or bush. It continues to the foot of the Drakensberg range,
nasi-tortium, that which twists the nose. The plant should the mountains rising towards the S.W., with almost perpendicular
have a warm situation, and the soil should be light and well sides, 6000 to 7000 ft. above the country at their base. North-
enriched; sow thinly early in April, either near a fence or wall, west, towards the Transvaal, the mountains are of lower elevation
or in an open spot, where it will require stakes 6 to 8 ft. high. and more rounded contours.
The dwarf form known as Tom Thumb (T. m. nanum), is an Mountains. Although the division of the country into terraces
excellent bedding or border flower, growing about a foot high.
separated by ranges of hills is clearly marked in various districts,
Sow in April in the beds or borders; and again in May for a as for instance between Durban and Colenso, the province is traversed
succession. Other fine annual Tropaeolums are T. Lobbianum by many secondary chains, as well as by spurs of the Drakensberg.
with long spurred orange flowers and numerous varieties; and
The highest points of that range, and the highest land in Africa south
of Kilimanjaro, lie within the borders of Natal. The Drakensberg
T. minus, a kind of miniature T. majus with yellow, scarlet and
(q.v.), from Majuba Hill on the N.W. to Bushman's Nek in the S.W.,
crimson varieties. form the frontier of the province, the crest of the range being gener-
The genus Tropaeolum, native of South America and Mexico, ally within Natal. This is the case in the Mont-aux-Sources (11,170
ft.) and Cathkin Peak or Champagne Castle (10,357 ft-) the top of
includes about 35 species of generally climbing annual and ;
the third great height, Giant's Castle (9657 ft.), is in Basutoland, but
perennial herbs with orange, yellow, rarely purple or blue, its seaward slopes are in Natal. From Giant's Castle to Mont-aux-
irregular flowers, T. peregrinum is the well-known canary Sources, in which, forsaking their general direction, the Drakensberg
creeper. The flame nasturtium with brilliant scarlet blossoms run S.E. to N.W., the mountains attain an elevation of 10,000 to
1 1,000 ft., with few breaks in their face. North of Mont-aux-Sources
is T. speciosum from Chile; it has tuberous roots, as have also
the mountain ridge sinks to 8000 and less feet, and here are several
such well-known perennials as T. polyphyllum, T. pentaphyllum.
passes leading into the Orange Free State. Laing's Nek is a pass
Of these T. speciosum should be grown in England in positions into the Transvaal. The chief heights in Natal between Mont-aux-
facing north; it flourishes in Scotland. Sources and Laing's Nek are Tintwa (7500 ft.), Inkwelo (6808 ft.)
and the flat-topped Majuba (7000 ft.). Spurs from the Drakensberg,
NATAL, a maritime province of the Union of South Africa, at right angles to the main range, cross the plateaus. The most
situated nearly between 27 and 31 S., 29 and 33 E. It is
northern, which runs E. from Majuba to the Lebombo Mountains,
bounded S.E. by the Indian Ocean, S.W. by the Cape province coincides roughly with the northern frontier of Natal. It is one of
and Basutoland, N.W. by the Orange Free State province, N. the transverse chains connecting the eastern coast range with the
and N.E. by the Transvaal and Portuguese East Africa. It has a higher terraces and goes under a variety of names, such as Elands
Berg and Ingome Mountains. A second range, the Biggarsberg,
coast line of 376 m.; its greatest length N. to S. in a direct line starts from the Drakensberg near Mount Malani and goes E.S.E.
is 247 m.; its greatest breadth E. to W., also in a direct line, to the junction of Mooi, Buffalo and Tugela rivers. This range con-
200 m. Natal has an area of 35,371 sq. m., being nearly three- tains, in Indumeni (7200 ft.), the highest mountain in Natal outside
the main Drakensberg. A third range runs N.E. from Giant's Castle
quarters the size of England. (For map see SOUTH AFRICA.) towards the Biggarsberg. It lies north of the Mooi river, and its
The province consists of two great divisions, namely Natal most general name is Mooi River Heights. A fourth range also
proper and Zululand (q.v.). Natal proper has a seaboard of 166 m. diverges from Giant's Castle and ramifies in various branches over
and an area of 24,910 sq. m., Zululand, in which is included a large tract of country, one branch running by Pietermaritzburg
to the Berea hills overlooking Durban. The chief height in this
Amatongaland, a seaboard of 210 m. and an area of 10,461 sq. m. fourth range is Spion Kop (7037 ft.), about 25 m. S.E. of Giant's
It lies north-east of Natal. In this article the description of the Castle. This is not the Spion Kop rendered famous during the
physical features, &c. refers only to Natal proper. Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902. That Spion Kop, with Vaal Kranz
Physical Features. The terrace formation of the land char- and Pieter's Hills, are heights on the northern bank of the upper
acteristic of other coast regions of South Africa prevails in Natal. Tugela.
Secondary ranges with heights of 5000 and more feet are numerous,
The country may be likened to a steep and gigantic staircase whilst lofty isolated mountains rise from the plateaus. The greatest
leading to a broad and level land lying beyond its borders. of these isolated masses is Mahwaqa (6834 ft.), in the south-west
The rocky barrier which shuts off this land is part of the Drakens- part of the country. Of many flat-topped hills the best known is the
Table Mountain east of Pietermaritzburg.
berg range. From the mountain sides flow many rivers which Rivers. All the rivers of Natal not purely coast streams have
dash in magnificent waterfalls and through deep gorges to the their origin in the Drakensberg or its secondary ranges. The largest
. sea. Falling 8000 or more feet in little over 200 m., these streams and longest, the Tugela, with the Buffalo, Mooi, Klip and other
are unnavigable. The south-eastern sides of the mountains are tributaries is treated separately. The Tugela basin drains the
in part covered with heavy timber, while the semi-tropical whole country north of a line drawn in a direct line east from Giant's
Castle. The Umkomaas (" gatherer of waters ") rises in Giant's
luxuriance of the coast belt has earned for Natal the title of Castle and flows in a south-easterly course to the sea. Though it
"
the garden colony." makes no large sweeps it has so tortuous a course that its length
The coast trends, in an almost unbroken line, from S.W.to N.E. (some 200 m.) is twice that of the valley through which it flows.
It extends from the mouth of the Umtamvuna river (31 4' S., Its banks in its upper course are wild and picturesque, with occasional
wide deep valleys, with climate and vegetation resembling the coast
30 12' E.), which separates Natal from the Cape, to the mouth. of belt. The Umzimkulu river rises in Bamboo Castle, in the Drakens-
the Tugela (29 15' S., 31 30' E.), which marks the frontier berg, and, with bolder curves than the Umkomaas, runs in a course
between Natal and Zululand. The only considerable indentation generally parallel with that stream S.E. to the sea, its mouth being
is at Durban, about two-thirds of the distance from the Umtam-
about 40 m. south of that of the Umkomaas. The Ingwangwane
rises in the Drakensberg south of the Umzimkulu, which it joins
vuna to the Tugela, where there is a wide and shallow bay, after a course of some 50 m. Below the junction the Umzimkulu
covering with its islands nearly 8 sq. m. The coast, though low forms for some distance the frontier between Natal and the Griqua-
and sandy in places, is for the most part rocky and dangerous. land East division of the Cape. The scenery along the river valley
The warm Mozambique current sweeps down from the N.E., (120 m. long) is very striking, in turns rugged and desolate, verdant
and smiling, with patches of dense forest and heights wooded to
setting up a back drift close in shore. The southern entrance their summit. Port Shepstone is situated at the mouth of the river,
to Durban harbour is marked by a bold bluff, the Bluff of Natal, which, like that of all others in Natal, is obstructed by a bar. As a
NATAL 253
result of harbour works, however, a channel has been cleared and browniana var indica; Bunb. Phyttotheca Zeilleri eth. fil.; Estheria
steamers can ascend the river for 6 m. Greyii, Jones, indicating a Permo-Carboniferous age.
The Pongola rises in the Transvaal in high ground N.E. of Wakker- Beaufort Series. The Ecca series graduates upwards into the
stroom and flows E., forming, for the greater part of its course, the highly coloured sandstones and shales of the Beaufort series. Fossil
northern frontier of the province. After piercing the Lebombo reptilian remains, chiefly Dicynodon, are abundant.
Mountains, it turns N. and joins the Maputa, a river emptying into Stormberg Series. This consists of sandstones and shales with thin
Delagoa Bay. The Umgeni, which rises in the Spion Kop hills some seams of coal. The chief outcrops occur around Biggarsberg and
30 m. S.E. of Giant's Castle, passes through the central part of Natal along the upper slopes of the Drakensberg. The fossil flora Thinn-
and reaches the sea 4 m. N. of Durban. It flows alternately through feldia odontopteroides, Morr. and a Pterophyllum indicate a Rhaetic
mountainous and pastoral country, and is known for two magnificent age. No reptilian remains have been found.
waterfalls, both within 12 m. of Pietermaritzburg. The upper fall Upper Karroo. The Red beds and Cave sandstones occur along
is close to the village of Howick. Here the Umgeni leaps in a single the eastern flanks of the Drakensberg.
sheet of water down a precipice over 350 ft. high, more than double Cretaceous. Deposits of this age are confined to the littoral.
the height of Niagara, forming, when the river is swollen by the They are exceedingly prolific in fossils which prove them to be of
rains, a spectacle of rare magnificence. Some 12 m. below are the Upper Cretaceous age. A long list of fossils has been obtained from
Karkloof or Lower Falls, where in a series of beautiful cascades Umkivelane Hill, Zululand. W.G.*]
the water descends to the plain. Other rivers of Natal which rise Climate. With a rise in level (not reckoning the mountain tops)
in the spurs of the Drakensberg or in the higher terraces are the of 5500 ft. in a distance of 170 m., Natal possesses several varieties
Umvoti, which runs south of the Tugela and gives its name to a of climate but is nowhere unhealthy. The climate is comparable
county division, the Umlaas (which gives Duroan its main water to that of north Italy. The valleys and coast belt, though
practically
supply, the Illovo, which traverse the country between the free from malarial fever, are hot and humid, and fires m dwelling
Umgeni and Umkomaas, and the Umtamvuna, noteworthy as houses are seldom required even in the coolest months; the lower
forming the boundary between Natal and Pondoland. There are plateaus are cool and the air dry; the uplands are bracing and
also seventeen distinct coast streams in the colony. often very cold, with snow on the ground in winter. The year is
[Geology.' The general geological structure of Natal and Zululand divided into two seasons, summer, which begins in October and ends
year. Summer
is simple. It consists of a series of plateaus formed of sedimentary in March, and winter, which fills up the rest of the
rocks which mainly belong to three formations of widely separated is the rainy season, and May, June and July the driest months of
ages, and which rest on a platform of granitic and metamorphic the year. The mean temperature at Durban, records taken at 260
rocks. ft. above the sea, is 70 F., varying from 42 in winter to 98 in
The geological formations represented include : summer. The average summer humidity is 76%, that of winter
74 %. At Pietermaritzburg, 41 m. inland and 2200 ft. above the sea,
Post-Cretaceous
the temperature is about 64. In the uplands the heat of summer is
and Recent often greater than on the coast, but the air is less humid and the
Cretaceous Littoral of Zululand.
Basalts. nights are generally cool. Both the humidity and the temperature
fPlateau are increased by the great mass of water, the Mozambique current,
U. Karroo -i Cave Sandstone.
flowing south from the equatorial regions. At Durban the annual
.
[Red Beds, rainfall is about 40 in., at Pietermaritzburg 38. The average for the
Series.
f Stormberg province is believed to be about 30 in. In 1893, the year of highest
L. Karroo '
J Beaufort Series. recorded rainfall, 70 in. fell on the coast districts. Thunderstorms,
Ecca Series.
|
averaging nearly one hundred in the year, and violent hailstorms,
l_Ecca Glacial Series
(Dwyka Conglomerate). occur in summer, being most severe in the interior. The storms
Cape System Table Mountain Sandstone Series. serve to modify the intense heat, though the lightning and hail
("Quartzites, Conglomerates
and Shales of cause considerable damage. The prevailing winds on the coast are
Canp Kocks
Rrvto Nkandhla, Umfolosi river,
Prp
e-cape north-east, warm and humid, and south-west, cool and bracing,
1 Gneisses, Schists, Marbles, Granites (Swazi-
land Series). though in summer the south-west wind brings rain. Inland, chiefly
[ in early summer, a hot dry wind, often accompanied by a dust
Pre-Cape Rocks. The granites and schists occur in close associa- storm, blows from the north. These winds, which blow on an
tion. The
series covers considerable areas in the lowest parts of the average twenty-five days in the year, seldom reach the coast and are
valleys and near the coast. The widest areas are in Zululand. In the generally followed by rain. Inhabitants of Natal are practically
Umzimkulu river and in the Tugela river below its junction with the exempt from chest diseases.
Buffalo, metamorphic limestones are associated with schists, gneisses Flora. Botanically, Natal is divided into three zones: (i) the
and granites. A
group of highly inclined quartzites, altered con- coast belt, extending from the sea inland to heights of 1500 ft.,
glomerates and iasperoid rocks which crop out on the Umhlatuzi and in some cases to 1800 and 2000 ft.; (2) the midland region,
river, between Melmoth and Nkandhla and on the White Umfolosi which rises to 4000 ft.; (3) the upper regions. In these zones the
river above Ulundi Plains, is considered by Anderson to represent flora varies from sub-tropical to sub-alpine. The heaths and pro-
some portion of the Lo*er Witwatersrand series. The conglomerates teads common at the Cape peninsula, in Basutoland and other parts
" "
are true banket and are auriferous, but the gold has not been of South Africa, are rare in Natal, but almost any species of the flora
met with in payable quantities. of semi-tropical and temperatecountries introduced attains perfection.
Table Mountain Sandstone Series. This rests unconformably The trees and plants characteristic of each zone are not always
on the pre-Cape rocks. Traced northwards, the series becomes confined to that zone, but in several instances, when common to the
thinner and finally dies out. As a rule denudation, which has acted coast belt and the midlands, their character alters according to the
on a magnificent scale, has removed all but a few hundred feet of elevation of the land. The dense bush or jungle of evergreen trees,
the basement beds. The maximum thickness of 2000 ft. occurs near climbers and flowering shrubs, which up to the middle of the loth
Melmoth. The beds are usually thin false-bedded sandstones with century covered the greater part of the coast belt, has largely dis-
an almost complete absence of shales. A conglomerate at the base appeared. There are still, however, in the coast belt woods of
contains traces of gold. Griesbach mentions the occurrence of some leguminous evergreens bearing bright-coloured flowers. The trees
small bivalves in the shales of Greytown, but Anderson failed to in these woods are generally from 20 to 50 ft. in height and include
find any fossils. the knob-thorn, water-boom, kafir-boom (with brilliant scarlet
Ecca Glacial Series. A great unconformity separates the Table flowers), the Cape chestnut and milkwoods (Mimusops). But the
Mountain and Ecca series. In the Cape this gap is represented by most striking of the coast-belt flora are the tropical forms the palm,
the Witteberg and Bokkeveld series. The Dwyka conglomerate mangrove, wild banana (Strelitzia augusta). tree-ferns, tree euphorbia,
rarely attains any great thickness though forming wide outcrops. candelabra spurge and Caput medusae. Of palms there are two
It is usua'.ly a hard
compact rock containing striated stones. The varieties, the ilala (Hyphaene crinita), found only by the sea shore
Umgeni quarries, where the rock is used for road-metal, furnish the and a mile or two inland, and the isundu (Phoenix reclinata), more
best exposures. widespread and found at heights up to 2000 ft. or even higher.
Ecca Series. With the Beaufort series this occupies over two- The amatungulu or Natal plum, found chiefly near the sea, is one of
thirds of the western portion of the province and has wide outcrops the few wild plants with edible fruit. Its leaves are of a glossy dark
in Zululand and in the Vryheid districts. The Ecca shales contain green, its- flower white and star-shaped and its fruit resembles the
some of the best coals of South Africa, but the seams contain much plum. Other wild fruits are the so-called Cape gooseberry (not
unmarketable coal. Around Dundee and Newcastle the coals are native to Natal) and the kaw apple or Dingaan apricot, which grows
on a species of ebony tree.
they are chiefly anthracitic. The fossils
bituminous. In Zululand
include several species of Clossopteris among them: Glossopteris The midland region is characterized by grass lands (the Natal
grasses are long and coarse) and by considerable areas of flat-topped
1
See C. L. Griesbach, " On the Geology of Natal in South Africa," thorn bush mimosa. The bush is not as a rule dense, nor is it of any
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxvii. pp. 53-72 (1871); P. C. Suther-
" great height. A tree peculiar to this, zone is the Alberta magna.
land, Notes on an Ancient Boulder Clay of Natal," Quart. Journ. It has dull pink flowers, succeeded by seed vessels, each of which is
Geol Soc. vol. xxvi. pp.
514-517 (1870); W. Anderson, Reports, crowned by two scarlet-coloured leafy lobes. A grass belt separates
Geol. Survey, Natal and Zululand (Pietermaritzburg, 1901 London, the thorn bush from the districts carrying heavy timber, found
;
1904); and "Science in South Africa," Handbook, Brit. Assoc. pp. mainly in the upland zone, along the sides of the mountains ex-
260-272 (Cape Town, 1905). posed to the rains and in kloofs. The indigenous timber trees are
254 NATAL
principally the yellow wood (Podocarpus) sneezewood (Pteroxylon
,
and crushing adult natives. It is common in the coast districts,
utile), stinkwood (Oreodaphne bullata), black ironwood (Olea lauri- and is sometimes 20 ft. long. Insects abound in great numbers,
folia), white ironwood ( Vepris lanceolaia) and umtomboti (Exoecaria
, the most troublesome and destructive being the tick (Ixodes natal-
africana) all are very useful woods, and the yellow wood, sneeze-
; ensis), which infests the pasturage, and the white ant (Termes
wood, stinkwood and ironwood when polished "have grain and mordax). Occasionally vast armies of locusts or caterpillars advance
colour equal to maple, walnut and ebony. The rooibesje," red over large tracts of country, devouring all vegetation in their line
pear and milkwood trees are used for boatbuilding. The Australian of march. The fish moth, a steel-grey slimy active fish-shaped
Eucalyptus and Casuarina in great variety, and many other imported insect, is found in every house and is very destructive. Fish of
trees, including syringas, wattles, acacias, willows, pines, cypress, excellent quality and in great quantities abound on the coast. They
cork and oak all thrive when properly planted and protected from include shad, rock cod, mackerel, mullet, bream and soles; sharks,
grass fires. The black wattle has been extensively planted and stingrays, cuttlefish and the octopus are also common in the waters
flourishes at elevations of from 1000 to 3000 ft. Its bark forms a off the coast of Natal. Prawns, crayfish and oysters are also ob-
valuable article of commerce. tainable, and turtle (Chelonia mydas) are frequently captured.
Flowers which bloom in the early spring are abundant, especially Freshwater scale-fish are mostly full of bones, but fine eels and
on the edges of forests. Among those found throughout
"
the country barbel are plentiful in the rivers. Trout have been introduced into
are the Dierama pendula, the orchid and the everlasting." As a some of the higher reaches of the rivers.
rule flowers common to all zones are on the coast smaller and with
Inhabitants. At the census of 1904 the population of the
paler colours
than they are in the midlands. Aloes are common;
in part of the midland zone they form when in bloom with abundance province, including Zululand, was 1,108, 754.2 Of this total
of orange and scarlet flowers a most picturesque sight. Of Cyca- 8-8%, or 97,109, were Europeans, 9%, or 100,918, Asiatics and
daceae the Stangeria paradoxa is peculiar to Natal. There is but the rest natives of South Africa, mainly of Zulu-Kaffir stock.
one cactus indigenous to Natal; it is found hanging from perpen- Of the 824,063
dicular rocks in the midlands. There are, however, several species of natives, 203,373 lived in Zululand. The white and
Asiatic population nearly doubled in the thirteen years since
euphorbia of the miscalled cacti. Climbing plants with gorgeous
flowers are common, and there are numerous species of Compositae the previous census, allowance being made for the Utrecht and
and about a hundred cinchonaceous plants. Bulbous plants are Vryheid districts, which in 1891 formed part of the Transvaal.
also very numerous. The most common are the Natal lily with Of the total population 985,167 live in rural areas, the average
pink and white ribbed bells, the fire-lily, with flame-coloured blos-
soms, ixias, gladiolas, the Ifafa lily, with fuchsia-like clusters, and density for the whole country being 31-34 per sq. m. The
the arum lily. A conspicuous veld plant is the orange and crimson white population is divided into 56,758 males and 40,351 females.
leonotis, growing 6 ft. high. Geraniums are somewhat scarce. Fern Of the white inhabitants the great majority are British. Some
life is abundant; 126 species are indigenous, two being tree-ferns.
One of these, Cyathea dregei, found in moist places and open land, 12,500 are of Dutch extraction; these live chiefly in the districts
has a stem 20 ft. high; the stem of the other, Hemitelia capensis, of Utrecht and Vryheid. There are also about 4500 Natalians of
sometimes reaches 30 ft. The ferns are most common in the midland German extraction, settled mainly in the New Hanover and
zone and in the heavy timber forests. Sixty different species have Umzimkulu districts. The Asiatics at the 1004 census were
been identified in one valley not more than I m. long and about divided into 63,497 males and 37,421 females. They include a
100 yds. in breadth. Among fruit trees, besides the wild fruits
few high caste Indians, Arabs and Chinese, but the great majority
already mentioned, are the pineapple, mango, papua, guava, grena-
dilla, rose apple, custard apple, soursop, loquat, naartje, shaddock are Indian coolies. The Asiatics are mainly congregated in the
and citrous fruits. coast districts between the Umzimkulu and Tugela rivers.
Fauna. The larger animals which abounded in Natal in the first In this region (which includes Durban) the Asiatic population
half of the igth century have been exterminated or driven out of the
country. This fate has overtaken the elephant, giraffe, the buffalo,
was 61,854. In none of the inland districts did the Asiatic
quagga, gnu, blesbok, gemsbok and ostrich. If the Vryheid district inhabitants number 2000. The coolies are employed chiefly on
be excluded, the lion and rhinoceros may be added to this list; the sugar, coffee, cotton and other plantations, a small proportion
and the Vryheid district belongs geographically to Zululand. Hip-
being employed in the coal-mines.
popotami are still found in the Umgeni river and crocodiles in several
of the coast streams. Leopards and panthers are found in thickly The native inhabitants of Natal proper were almost exter-
wooded kloofs. Hyenas, jackals, wild pig, polecats and wild dogs minated by the Zulus in the early years of the I9th century.
(Canis pictus) of different species are still found in or about bush Before that period the natives of what is now Natal proper were
jungles and forest clumps; elands (Antilope areas) are preserved on estimated to number about 100,000. In 1838 when the Zulu
some estates, and there are at least ten distinct species of antelope
(hartebeest, bushbok, duiker, rietbok, rhebok, rovibok, blauwbok, power was first checked the natives had been reduced to about
&c.). In the Vryheid district the kudu, blue wildebeest, waterbuck, 10,000. The stoppage of intertribal wars by the British, aided
reedbuck, impala, steinbok and klipspringer are also found. Several by a great influx of refugees from Zululand, led to a rapid increase
of these species are now preserved. Ant-eaters (Orycteropus capensis) ,
of the population. With the exception of a few. Bushmen,
porcupines, weasels, squirrels, rock rabbits, hares and cane rats are
common in different localities. Baboons (Cynocephalus porcarius) who cling to the slopes of the Drakensberg, all the natives are of
and monkeys of different kinds frequent the mountains and rocky Bantu stock. Before the Zulu devastations the natives belonged
kloofs and bush and timber lands. The birds of Natal 1 are of to the Ama-Xosa branch of the Kaffirs and are said to have been
many species; some have beautiful plumage, but none of them, divided into ninety-four different tribes; to-day all the tribes
with the exception of the canary, are to be considered as songsters.
have a large admixture of Zulu blood (see KAFFIRS, ZULULAND
Among the larger birds are cranes, herons, the ibis, storks, eagles,
vultures, falcons, hawks, kites, owls, the secretary birds, pelicans, and BANTU LANGUAGES). The Natal natives have preserved
flamingoes, wild duck and geese, gulls, and of game birds, the paauw, their tribal organization to a considerable extent. Nearly 50%
koraan, pheasant, partridge, guinea fowl and quail. The other birds live in special reserves or locations, the area set apart for native
include parrots, toucans, gaudily coloured cuckoos, lories, swallows,
shrikes, sun-birds, kingfishers, weavers, finches, wild pigeons and occupation being about 4000 sq. m. exclusive of Zululand.
crows. The otter is found in some of the rivers, which are also fre- Most of the remainder are employed on or live upon farms owned
quented, near their mouths, by turtles. These last are also found by whites, paying annual rents of from i to 5 or more. There
in the coast lagoons and sometimes are of great size. Iguanas, 4 and
were, however, in 1004, 69,746 male natives and 10,232 female
5 ft. long, are found on the wooded banks of the rivers; small
lizards and chameleons are common, and there are several varieties natives in domestic service. Of the tribes who were in Natal
of tortoise. before the Zulu invasion about 1812, the two largest are the
Of snakes there are about forty distinct species or varieties. Abatembu (who are in five main divisions and number about
The most dreaded by the natives are called " imamba," of which
there are at least eight different kinds; these snakes elevate and 30,000) and the Amakwabe (seven divisions and about 20,000
throw themselves forward, and have been known to pursue a horse- people). Other large tribes are the Amanyuswa (ten divisions
man. One sort of imamba, named by the natives indhlondhlt>," 38,000 people), the Amakunu (three divisions 26,000 people),
is crested, and its body is of a bright flame colour. The sluggish and the Amabomvu (five divisions 25,000 people). The three
puff-adder (Clotho arietans) is common and very dangerous. A last tribes are among those which sought refuge in Natal from
hooded snake (Naja haemachates) the imfezi of the natives, is
,
dangerous, and spits or ejects its poison; besides this there are a
Zulu persecution, before the establishment of British rule in
few other varieties of the cobra species. The largest of the serpent 1843. The number of half-castes is remarkably small, at the
tribe, however, is the python (Hortulia natalensis), called inhlwati census of 1904 the number of " mixed and others," which
by the natives; its usual haunts are by streams amongst rocky
boulders and in jungles, and instances are recorded of its strangling 2
The following is the official estimate of the population on the
3ist of December 1908: Europeans 91,443, natives 908,264 (in-
1
See R. B. and D. Woodward, Natal Birds (Maritzburg, 1899). "
J. cluding 7386 mixed and others "), Asiatics 116,679; total 1 ,206,386.
NATAL 255
and Hottentots and non-aboriginal negroes, line reaches an altitude of 3054 ft. at a point 58 m. distant from
includes Griquas
Durban; after falling 1000 ft. in its farther progress to Pieter-
was only 6686. maritzburg, it again rises, 12 m. after leaving that city, to a height
Chief Towns. The seat of the provincial government
is Pieter- of 3700 ft. above the sea; at a point 134 m. from Durban it has
maritzburg (g.t>.). commonly called Maritzburg (or P.M.B.), with a reached an altitude of 5152 ft., but on reaching Ladysmith, 191 m.
rail N.N.W. of Durban
population (1904) of 31,199. It is 71 m. by from Durban, the altitude has decreased to 3284 ft. The summit
(<?..), the seaport
and only large city in Natal, pop. 67,842. Lady- of the Biggarsberg chain is crossed at a point 233 m. from the port,
smith (q.v.), pop. 5568, ranks next in size. It is in the north-west at a height of 4800 ft., and at Laing's Nek the altitude is 5399 ft.
of the province, is famous for its investment by the Boers in 1899- The Orange Free State line, after leaving Ladysmith, ascends by
1900 and is an important railway junction. North-east steep gradients the whoje of its own course in Natal territory, and
of Lady-
smith are Dundee (2811) and Newcastle (2950). Dundee is the centre when it gains the summit at Van Reenen's Pass it is 5500 ft. above
of the coal-mining district. Newcastle is also a mining town, but the sea. The mileage open in 1910 was 1173. The cost of construc-
depends chiefly on its large trade in wool. It is named after the tion, to the same year, exceeded 14,000,000, the interest earned per
duke of Newcastle who was secretary for the colonies in 1852 and cent since 1895 not being less than 3, 123. in any one year. In out-
1859. Vryheid (2287) is in the centre of a highly mineralized lying districts post carts and ox wagons are the usual means of con-
district. Utrecht (860) lies between Newcastle and Vryheid, and veyance. There are about 5000 m. of high roads kept in repair by
was one of the first towns founded by the Transvaal Boers. There the government.
are coal-mines on the town lands. Greytown (2436), a wool and There is a well-organized postal and telegraphic service. Land
wattle trading centre, is in central Natal. Verulam (1325), 19 m. lines connect Natal with every part of South Africa and with Nyasa-
along the coast north of Durban, serves as centre for sugar, tobacco land and Ujiji. A submarine cable from Durban goes to Zanzibar
and fruit plantations. It was founded by emigrants from St Albans, and Aden, whence there is communication with every Quarter of the
England whence the name. Port Shepstone, at the mouth of the globe. The first telegraph line in Natal was opened in 1873; in
Umzimkulu river, is the natural outlet for south-west Natal. Est- 1878 communication was established with Cape Town and in the
court is a trading centre, 75 m. by rail N.N.W. of Pietermaritzburg following year with Delagoa Bay.
and is 29 m. distant from the village of Weenen (" Weeping "), so Agriculture and Allied Industries. The diversity of soil and climate
named by the first Boer settlers in memory of a Zulu raid. Another leads to a great diversity in the agricultural produce. The chief
village, Colenso, on the south bank of the Tugela,
16 m. by rail drawback to farming in the midland and upper districts is the con-
south of Ladysmith, was the headquarters of Sir Redvers Buller siderable proportion of stony ground, and, in some cases, the lack
at the battle of Colenso on the isth of December 1899. of running water. The area of land under tillage is less than a
Communications. Durban (Port Natal) is in regular communica- twentieth of the whole surface, the crop most extensively grown
"
tion with Europe via Cape Town and via Suez by several lines of being maize or mealies." This is universally grown by the natives
steamers, the chief being the boats of the Union-Castle line, which and forms their staple food; it is also grown by the Indians, and
sail from Southampton and follow the west coast route, those of by the white farmers for export. Besides maize the crops cultivated
the German East Africa line, which sail from Hamburg and go via by the natives are Kaffir corn or amabele (Sorghum cafrorum)
the east coast route and those of the Austrian Lloyd from Trieste, used in the manufacture of utyuala, native beer imfi (Sorghum
also by the east coast route. By the Union-Castle boats there is a saccharalum), tobacco, pumpkins and sweet potatoes. The chief
weekly mail service to England. There are also two direct lines of wealth of the natives consists, however, in their large herds of cattle
steamers between London and Durban (a distance of 6993 nautical (see infra). While maize thrives in every part of the country,
miles), average passage about twenty-six days; the mail route taking wheat, barley and oats cultivated by the white farmers flourish
twenty to twenty-two days. Durban is also in regular and frequent only in the midlands and uplands. More important than the cereal
communication by passenger steamers with the other South African crops are the tropical and sub-tropical products of the coast zone.
ports, as well as Mauritius, Zanzibar, &c., and with India, Australia, Besides fruits of nearly all kinds there are cultivated in the low
the United States and South America. The works which have made moist regions the sugar-cane, the tea, coffee and tobacco plants,
Port Natal the finest harbour in South Africa are described under arrowroot, cayenne pepper, cotton, &c. The area under sugar in
DURBAN. 1905 was 45,840 acres and the produce 532,067 cwt. (a large quantity
The first railway built in South Africa was a 2-m. line from of sugar-cane is grown for feeding stock). In the same year the
The Point (or harbour) to the town of Durban. It was opened for production of tea was 1,633, 178 Ib; f coffee, 24,859^; of maize,
traffic in 1860 and in 1874 was extended some 4 m. to the Umgeni 2,101,470 bushels; of potatoes, 419,946 bushels; and of sweet
river. This line was of 4 ft. 8J in. gauge and was privately owned, potatoes, 181,195 bushels. The tea plant was first introduced in
but, when in 1876 the Natal government determined to build and Natal in 1850, but little attention was paid to it until the failure of
own a railway system which should in time cover the country, the the coffee plantations about 1875, since when only small quantities
existing line was bought out and the gauge altered to 3 ft. 6 in. of coffee have been produced. In 1877 renewed efforts were made
On this, the normal South African gauge, all the Natal railways, to induce tea cultivation, and by 1881 it had become an established
save a few 2-ft. branch lines, are built. The main line starts from
industry. The variety chiefly grown is the Assam indigenous.
Durban, and passing through Pietermaritzburg (71 m.), Ladysmith Most of the tea estates are situated in the coast belt north of Durban.
(190 m.) and Newcastle (268 m.) pierces the Drakensberg at Laing's The sugar cane, like tea, was first introduced in 1850, the first canes
Nek by a tunnel 2213 ft. long, and 3 m. beyond Charlestown reaches being brought from Mauritius. The industry is steadily growing,
the Transvaal frontier at mile 307. Thence the railway is continued as are the dependent manufactures of molasses and rum. The fruit
to Johannesburg, &c. The distances from Durban to the places industry is of considerable importance and by 1905 had reached a
mentioned by this route are: Johannesburg, 483 m.; Pretoria turnover of over 100,000 a year.
511 m.; Kimberley, 793 m.; Bulawayo, 1508 m.; Delagoa Bay, Extensive areas in the midland and upland districts are devoted
860 m. to the raising of stock. Horse-breeding is successfully carried on
From Ladysmith a branch line runs north-west into the Orange in the upper districts. The higher the altitude the healthier the
Free State, crossing the Drakensberg at Van Reenen's Pass. This animals and the greater their immunity from disease. Horse-
line is continued via Harrismith and Bethlehem to Kroonstad sickness, a kind of malarial fever, which takes an epidemic form in
(393 m. from Durban) on the main Cape Town, Bloemfontein and very wet seasons, causes considerable loss. The Natal horse is small,
Johannesburg railway and is the shortest route between Durban wiry, and has great powers of endurance. Cattle-breeding is probably
and Cape Town (1271 m.). It also affords via Bloemfontein the the most lucrative branch of stock-farming, the country being
shortest route (622 m.) between Durban and Kimberley. From pre-eminently adapted for horned cattle. Rinderpest in 1896-1897
Glencoe Junction, 42 m. north of Ladysmith on the direct line to swept through South Africa, and probably carried off in Natal from
Johannesburg, a branch railway goes N.E. to the Dundee coal- 30 to 40 % of the stock of Europeans, while the natives' losses were
fields, yryheid (59 m.) and Hlobane (76 m.). Two lines branch off even heavier. Serum and bile inoculation were the means of saving
from Pietermaritzburg. One (62 m. long) goes N.E. to Greytown, a considerable herds. The farmers soon began to
percentage of the
serving the east-central part of the province; the other line (108 m. recover from their losses, but in 1908-1909 another serious loss of
long) goes S.W. to Riverside Station, forming a link in the scheme stock resulted from the ravages of East Coast fever. The cattle
for direct communication between Natal and East London and Port consist chiefly of the Zulu and Africander breeds, but attention
Elizabeth. has been given to improving the breed by the introduction of Short-
Durban is the starting-point of two coast lines. The south coast horn, Devon and Holstein (or Friesland) stock. The chief market
line, which runs close to the sea, goes to Port Shepstone (79 m.). for cattle is The principal breed of sheep is the
A 2-ft. gauge railway (102 m.), which leaves the south coast line at merino, whichJohannesburg.
does well in the higher altitudes. A Scab Act is in
Alexandra Junction (44 m. from Durban), runs N.W. by Stuarts- force, and is stringently carried out by government inspectors
town and joins the Pietermaritzburg-Riverside line. The north coast with most satisfactory results. The Angora goat thrives well in
railway (167 m. long) crosses the Tugela 70 m. from Durban and certain districts. Ostriches do well in the dry, arid valleys of the
continued through Zululand to Somkele, the centre of the Santa Tugela and Mooi rivers. In 1908 Europeans were returned as
Lucia coal-fields. owning 32,000 horses, 220,000 horned cattle, 765,000 sheep, 68,000
As might be expected in a country possessing the goats, 25,000 pigs, 960 ostriches and 384,000 poultry. Large
herds
physical features
of Natal, the gradients and curves are
exceptionally severe. Not of cattle over 500,000 in the aggregate are owned by the
less than 43 m. are upon
grades of I in 30 and l in 35, and curves of natives, who also possess vast flocks of goats and sheep.
The
300 to 350 ft. radius, while on over 100 m. more there are grades dairy industry is well established, and Natal butter commands a
under I in 60 and curves of less than 450 ft. radius. The main trunk ready sale.
256 NATAL
Valuable timber is obtained from the forests. Stinkwood is entrusted the management of affairs purely provincial consists
largely employed in the making of wagons, and is also used for making of 25 members, elected by the parliamentary voters and each
furniture. Black ironwood is likewise used in building wagons,
while sneezewood is largely utilized for supports for piers and other representing a separate constituency. The council sits for a
marine structures, being impervious to the attacks of the Teredo statutory period of three years. For local government purposes
navalis. More important is the cultivation of the black wattle the province is divided into counties or magisterial divisions;
(Acacia mollissima), which began in 1886, the bark being exported for Zululand being under special jurisdiction. The chief towns
tanning purposes, the wood also commanding a ready sale. This
wattle thrives well in most localities, but especially in the highlands Durban, Maritzburg, Ladysmith, Newcastle and Dundee are
of central Natal. In 1905 the production of wattle bark was 13,620 governed by municipal corporations and minor towns by local
tons, and the area planted with the tree over 60,000 acres. Aloes boards.
and ramie are cultivated to some extent for their fibre.
The government maintains experimental farms and forestry Revenue and Expenditure. Revenue is derived chiefly from
customs and excise, railways, land sales, posts and telegraphs and a
plantations and a veterinary department to cope with lung sickness,
rinderpest, East Coast fever and such like diseases. It also conducts capitation tax. The expenditure is largely on reproductive works
(railways, harbours, post office, &c.), on the judiciary and police,
campaigns against locusts and other pests and helps irrigation education and military defence. The majority of these services are,
settlements. By means of an Agricultural Bank it affords assistance
to farmers. since 1910, managed by the Union Government, but the provincial
council has power to levy direct taxation, and (with the consent
Mining. There are several highly mineralized areas in the of the Union Government) to raise loans for purely provincial
country. The existence of coal in the north-east districts on or near
Its revenues and powers are those pertaining to local
the surface of the ground was reported as early as 1839, but it was purposes.
not until 1880 that steps were taken to examine the coalfields. government. Some particulars follow as to the financial position of
This was done by F. W. North, who reported in 1881 that in the Natal previous to the establishment of the Union.
In 1846, the first year of Natal's separate existence, the revenue
Klip river (Dundee) district there was an area of 1350 sq. m. that
was 3073 and the expenditure 6905. In 1852 the revenue was
might be depended upon for the supply of coal, which is of all
characters from lignite to anthracite. In 1889 the extension of the 27,158 and the expenditure 24,296, and in 1862 the conesppnding
railway from Ladysmith through the coal area first made coal- figures were 98,799. and 85,928. In 1872 revenue had risen to
mining profitable. In 1896 the total output of coal was 216,106 180,499 and expenditure to 132,978. Ten years later the figures
tons (valued at 108,053 at tne P't' s mouth), in 1908 it had increased were, revenue 657,738, expenditure 659,031. The rise of Johannes-
to 1,669,774 tons (valued at the pit's mouth at 737,169). There is a burg and the opening up of the Dundee coal-fields, as well as the
considerable trade in bunker and export coal at Durban, the coal development of agriculture, now caused a rapid increase on both
.
bunkered having increased from 118,740 tons in 1900 to 710,777 in sides of the account. In 1888 the revenue for the first time exceeded
a million, the figures for that year being, revenue 1,130,614, ex-
1908. In the last-named year 446,915 tons of coal were exported.
Besides the mines in the Newcastle and Dundee district there are penditure 781,326; in 1898-1899 the figures were 2,081,349 and
extensive coal-fields at Hlobane in the Vryheid district and in Zulu- 1,914,725. The Anglo-Boer War (1890-1902) caused both revenue
land (q.v.). Iron ore is widely distributed and is found in the neigh- and expenditure to rise abnormally, while the depression in trade
bourhood of all the coal-fields. There are extensive copper and gold- which followed the war adversely affected the exchequer. In 1903-
yielding areas, and in some districts these metals are mined. On 1904 there was a slight credit balance, the figures being, revenue
the lower Umzimkulu, near Port Shepstone, marble is found in great 4,160,145, expenditure 4,071,439. For the next four years
there were deficits, but in 1908-1909 a surplus was realized, the
quantities.
Commerce. The chief exports, not all products of the province, revenue being 3,569,275 and the expenditure 3,530,576. For
are coal, wool, mohair, hides and skins, wattle bark, tea, sugar, 1909-1910, the last year of Natal's existence as a colony, the revenue,
fruits and jams. The import trade is of a most varied characte_r, 4,035,000, again exceeded the expenditure. The public debt,
and a large proportion of the goods brought into the country are in 2,101,500 in 1882, had risen at the close of the Boer War in 1902
transit to the Transvaal and Orange Free State, Natal affording, next to 12,519,000, and was in June 1909, 21,420,000.
to Delagoa Bay, the shortest route to the Rand. Textiles, largely Defence. A small garrison of imperial troops is quartered at
cotton goods, hardware, mining and agricultural machinery, tobacco Maritzburg. The provincial force consists of a militia, fully equipped
and foodstuffs form the bulk of the imports. In 1896 the value and armed with modern weapons. It is divided into mounted rifle-
of exports was 1,785,000; in 1908 the value was 9,622,000. In men, about 1900 strong, four field batteries of 340 men and two
1896 the imports were valued at 5,427,000, in 1908 at 8,330,000 infantry battalions, each of over 800 men. There is also an armed
and mounted police force of 870 Europeans. Military training is
(a decrease of 2,300,000 compared with 1905). The bulk of these
exports are to the Transvaal and neighbouring countries, and compulsory on all lads over ten attending government schools.
wool and hides, The boys are organized in cadet corps. A senior cadet corps is
previously figure as imports, other exports, largely formed of youths between sixteen and twenty. There are also many
are first imported from the Transvaal. Over three-fifths of the
rifle associations, the members of which are liable to be called out
imports are from Great Britain, and about one-seventh of the
for defence. Durban harbour is defended by batteries with heavy
exports go to Great Britain. The shipping, which in 1874 was
modern guns. The batteries are manned by the naval corps (150
126,000 tons, was in 1884 1,013,000; in 1894, 1,463,000; in 1904
4,263,000; and in 1908, 5,028,000. Over six-sevenths of the shipping strong) of the Natal militia. Natal makes an annual contribution of
is British. 35,000 towards the upkeep of the British navy.
Law and Justice. The South Africa Act 1909 established a
Government and Constitution. Natal was from 1893 to 1910 Supreme Court of South Africa, the former supreme court of Natal
a self-governing colony. It is now represented in the Union becoming a provincial division of the new supreme court. The
Parliament by eight senators and seventeen members of the Roman-Dutch law, as accepted and administered by the courts of
House of Assembly. The qualifications for electors and members Cape Colony up to 1845 (the date of the separation of Natal from the
Cape), is the law of the land, save as modified by ordinances and
of the Assembly are the same, namely men of full age owning laws enacted
by the local legislature, mostly founded upon imperial
houses or land worth 50, or who rent such property of the yearly statute law. The law of evidence is the same as that of the courts
value of 10; or who, having lived three years in the province, of England. Natives, however, are not justiceable under the Roman-
Dutch law, but by virtue of letters patent passed in 1848 they are
have incomes of not less than 96 a year.
judged by native laws and customs, except so far as these may be
Coloured persons are not, by name, excluded from the franchise, repugnant to natural equity. The native laws were first codified in
" *
but no persons subject to special laws and tribunals," in which 1878. in 1887 a board was appointed for their revision, and the new
all natives are included, are entitled to vote. Another code came into operation in 1901. Provision is made whereby a
category
2 native can obtain relief from the operation of native law and be
law, directed against Indians, excludes from the franchise,
subject to the colonial law (Law No. 28 of 1865). Special laws have
natives, or descendants of natives in the male line, of countries been passed for the benefit of the coolie immigrants. The ad-
not possessing elective representative institutions. Exemption ministration of justice is conducted
by magistrates' courts, circuit
from the scope of these provisions may be granted by the courts and the provincial division of the supreme court. The magi-
strates have both civil and criminal jurisdiction in minor cases.
governor-general and under such exemption a few Kaffirs are
Appeals can be made from the magistrates' decisions to the pro-
on the roll of electors. vincial or circuit court. The provincial court, consisting of a judge
At the head of the provincial government is an administrator, president and three puisne judges, sits in Pietermaritzburg
and has
appointed by the Union Ministry, who holds office for five jurisdiction
over all causes whether affecting natives or Europeans.
The judges also hold circuit courts at Durban and other places.
years. He is assisted by an executive committee of four members
Appeals from the circuit courts can be made to the provincial court;
elected by the provincial council. This council to which is and from the provincial court appeals lie to the appellate division
1
Act No. 2 (of the Natal Legislature) of 1883. of the Supreme Court of South Africa, sitting at Bloemfontein.
'Act No. 8 of 1896. The Indians whose names were "rightly Criminal cases are tried before a single judge and a jury of nine
"
contained in the voters' rolls at the date of the act retain the of whom not fewer than seven determine the verdict. There is a
franchise. vice-admiralty court, of which the judge-president is judge and
NATAL 257
commissary. In native cases the chiefs have civil jurisdiction in In 1886 a new Dutch paper, De Afrikaner, was started at
Maritzburg.
disputes among their own tribesmen and criminal jurisdiction over The Kaffirs have their own organ, Ipipa lo Hlunga (the paper of
natives except in capital cases, offences against the person or grievances), issued at Maritzburg, and the Asiatics, Indian Opinion,
property of non-natives, pretended witchcraft, cases arising out of a weekly paper started in 1903 and printed in English, Gujarati,
marriages by Christian rites, &c. An appeal lies to a magistrates' Hindi and Tamil. Local
papers are published weekly at Lady smith,
court from every judgment of a native chief, and from the magis- Dundee and Greytown. The Agricultural Journal, a government
trates' judgment on such appeal to a native high court. This native publication issued fortnightly, isof great service in the promotion of
high court consists of a judge-president and two other judges, and sits agricultural knowledge.
in full court at Maritzburg not less than three months and at Eshowe
History.
not less than once in the year. There is no jury in this tribunal
and single judges may hold circuit courts. With certain exceptions Vasco da Gama on hisvoyage to India sighted the bluff at
reserved for the provincial court (such as insolvency, ownership of the entrance to the bay now forming the harbour of Durban
immovable property and divorce), the native high court exercises on Christmas Day 1497 and named the country Terra
when all parties to the suit are natives; it also has
jurisdiction
jurisdiction when the complainant is not a native, but all other
Natalis. Da Gama made no landing here and, like Discovery
parties to the suit are natives. the rest of South Africa, Natal was neglected by the
The majority of the white inhabitants are Protestants, ^,"0^
Religion. Portuguese, whose nearest settlement was at Delagoa
the bodies with the largest number of adherents being the Anglicans,
Bay. In 1576 Manuel de Mesquita Perestrellp, commanded by
Dutch Reformed Church, Presbyterians and Wesleyans. "The
Anglicans are divided into two parties those belonging to the King Sebastian to explore the coast of South Africa and report
Church of the Province of South Africa," the body in communion on suitable harbours, made a rough chart, even then of little use
with the Church of England, and those who act independently and to navigators, which is of value as exhibiting the most that was
"
constitute the Church of England in Natal.' 1
The schism arose
known of the country by its discoverers before the advent of their
out of the alleged heterodox views of Bishop Colenso (<?..), who had
been created bishop of Natal by letters patent in 1853. In 1863 Dutch rivals, who established themselves at Cape Town in 1652.
the metropolitan of Cape Town, as head of the Church of the Province PerestreUo states that Natal has no ports but otherwise he gives
of South Africa, excommunicated Dr Colenso and consecrated a rival a fairly accurate description of the country noting particu-
bishop for Natal, who took the title of bishop of Pietermaritzburg.
Dr Colenso, who obtained a decision of the privy council confirming larly the abundance of animals and the density of the population.
his claim to be bishop of Natal and possessor of the temporalities The first detailed accounts of the country were received from
After his death those " "
attached to the bishopric, died in 1883. shipwrecked mariners. In 1683 the English ship Johanna
members of the Anglican community who objected to the constitu- went ashore near Delagoa Bay and the crew made a remarkable
tion of the provincial church maintained their organization while the
Reunion in journey overland to Cape Town, passing through Natal, where
temporalities were placed in the hands of curators.
spiritual matters has, however, been practically effected. Moreover, they were kindly received by the natives. About the same time
an act of the Natal parliament passed in 10,09 placed the temporalities (in 1684) an English ship put into Port Natal (as the bay came
into commission in the persons of the bishop and other trustees of to be known) and purchased ivory from the natives, who, how-
the Natal diocese of the Provincial Church reservations being made
;
in favour of four congregations at that time unwilling to unite with ever, refused to deal in slaves. In May 1685 another English
the main body of churchmen.
1
At the census of 1904 the Anglicans ship the
"
Good Hope " was wrecked in crossing the bar at Port
numbered 40,880. The Presbyterians numbered 12,184, the Wes- Natal and in February 1686 the " Stavenisse," a Dutch East
leyan Methodists 11,992, the Dutch Reformed Church 11,340, the Indiaman, was wrecked a little farther south. Survivors of
Lutherans 4852, and the Baptists 2193. The Roman Catholics, at
both vessels lived for nearly a year at Port Natal and there built
whose head is a vicar-apostolic, numbered 10,419. All these figures
are exclusive of natives, of whom the churches named notably the a boat in which they made the voyage to Cape Town in twelve
Anglicans and Wesleyans have many converts. The Jewish com- days. They brought with them 3 tons of ivory. This fact
munity in 1904 numbered 1496. Of the Asiatics, 87,234 were classed and their reports of the immense herds of elephants which roamed
as Hindus and 10,111 as Mahommedans.
the bush led Simon van der Stell, then governor at Cape Town,
Education. Education other than elementary is controlled by the "
Union government. Public schools, and private schools aided by to despatch (1689) the ship Noord " to Port Natal, with instruc-
provincial grants provide elementary education for white children. tions to her commander to open up a trade in ivory and to acquire
Education is neither compulsory nor free; but the fees are low From the chief of the Amatuli tribe,
possession of the bay.
(is. to 53. a month) and few children are kept away from school.
There are government secondary and art schools at Durban and
who inhabited the adjacent district, the bay was " purchased "
Maritzburg, and a Technical Institute at Durban. For higher edu-
for about 50 worth of goods. No settlement was then made
cation provision was made by the affiliation of Natal to the Cape of and in 1705 the son of the chief repudiated the bargain. In
Good Hope University and by exhibitions tenable at English universi- 1721 the Cape government did form a settlement at the bay,
ties. An act of the Natal legislature, passed December 1909, provided
but it was soon afterwards abandoned. Thereafter for nearly
for the establishment at Maritzburg of the Natal University College,
the course of studies to be such as from time to time a hundred years' Natal was again neglected by white men.
prescribed by
the Cape University. In 1910 30,000 was voted for the University A ship now and again put into the bay, but the dangerous bar
College buildings. State aid and is given to
private at its entrance militated against its frequent use. When in
inspection
schools for natives. In the native schools almost all maintained by
Christian missions Zulu and English are taught, the subjects taken 1824 the next attempt was made by Europeans to form a settle-
being usually reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, geography
ment at the bay, Cape Colony had passed from the Dutch
and history. The state provides elementary and higher grade into the possession of Great Britain, while in Natal great
schools for Indian children. In 1908 there were 52 government
changes had come over the land as a result of wars between the
schools and 472 schools under inspection; 304 European, 21 coloured,
natives.
168 native and 31 Indian, with an aggregate attendance of 30,598
scholars. There are in addition many private and denominational From the records of the i7th and i8th centuries it is apparent
schools and colleges not receiving state aid. Of these, two of the that the people then inhabiting Natal were Bantu-negroes of
best known are Hilton College and Hermansberg College, many the Kaffir (Ama Xosa) branch. There is no mention of Hotten-
prominent Natalians having been educated at one or the other of
these establishments. To encourage the instruction of children tots, and the few Bushmen who dwelt in the upper regions by the
who by reason of distance cannot attend a government or govern- Drakensberg did not come into contact with Europeans. The
ment-aided school, grants-in-a,id are made for each pupil attending
" Stavenisse "
sailors of the reported the most numerous and
farm schools. most powerful tribe to be the Abambo, while that which came
The Press. The first newspaper in Natal was the Nalalier, a
Dutch print published at Maritzburg; it was succeeded by the most in contact with the whites was the Amatuli, as it occupied
Patriot. The first English paper was the Natal Witness, started in a considerable part of the coast -land. These Kaffirs appear to
1845 and still one of the leading organs of public opinion. In 1851 have been more given to agriculture and more peaceful than
the Natal Times appeared, and is now continued as the Times of their neighbours in Kaffraria and Cape Colony. But the quiet of
Natal. Another leading paper, the Natal Mercury, dates from 1852.
the country was destroyed by the inroads of Chaka, the chief of
It is a morning newspaper and is issued at Durban. The Natal
Advertiser is a Durban evening Sir John Robinson, the first the Zulus (see ZULULAND). Chaka between 1818 and 1820
paper.
premier of Natal under responsible government, was the editor of ravaged the whole of what is now known as Natal, and after
the Mercury from 1860 until he became prime minister in 1893.
beating his foes in battle, butchered the women, children and
1
For a summary of the Natal church controversy see The Guardian old men, incorporating the young men in his impis. The popula-
(London March II, 1910). tion was greatly reduced and large areas left without a single
XIX. 9
258 NATAL
inhabitant. By right of conquest Chaka became undisputed Gardiner, a naval whose chief object was the evangeliza-
officer,
master of the country. With the support of the traders he founded
tion of the natives.
Such was the situation when the first British settlement was a mission station on the hill overlooking the bay. In 1837
made in Natal.In 1823 Francis George Farewell, formerly a Gardiner was given authority by the British government to
lieutenant in the British navy, with other merchants of Cape exercise jurisdiction over the traders. They, however, refused
Town, formed a company to trade with the natives of the south- to acknowledge Gardiner's authority, and from the Cape govern-
"
east coast. In the brig Salisbury," commanded by James S. ment he received no support. 1 It was not until their hand was
King, who had been a midshipman in the navy, Farewell visited forced by the occupation of the interior by Dutch farmers that
Port Natal, St Lucia and Delagoa Bays. The voyage was not the Cape authorities at length intervened.
successful as a trading venture, but Farewell was so impressed The British settlers had, characteristically, reached Natal
with the possibilities of Natal both for trade and colonization that mainly by way of the sea; the new tide of immigration was by
he resolved to establish himself at the port. He went thither with land the wortrekkers streamed through the passes of
Arrival
ten companions, among them Henry Francis Fynn. All the rest the Drakensberg, bringing with them their wives and of the
save Farewell and Fynn speedily repented of their adventure and children and vast herds of cattle. The reasons which Dutch
returned to the Cape, but the two who remained were joined by caused the exodus from the Cape are discussed else-
three sailors, John Cane, Henry Ogle and Thomas Holstead, a where (see SOUTH AFRICA and CAPE COLONY), here it is
lad. Farewell, Fynn and the others went to the royal kraal of only necessary to point out that those emigrants who entered
Chaka, and, having cured him of a wound and made him various Natal shared with those who settled elsewhere an intense desire
presents, obtained a document, dated the 7th of August 1824, to be free from British control. The first emigrant Boers to enter
"
ceding to F. G. Farewell & Company entire and full possession the country were led by Pieter Retief (c. 1780-1838), a man of
" "
in perpetuity of a tract of land including the port or harbour Huguenot descent and of marked abih'ty, who had formerly lived
of Natal." On the 27th of the same month Farewell hoisted the on the eastern frontier of Cape Colony and had suffered severely
The Union Jack at the port and declared the territory he
first
in the Kaffir wars. Passing through the almost deserted upper
British had acquired a British possession. In 1825 he was regions Retief arrived at the bay in October 1837. He went
setae-
joined by King, who had meantime visited England thence to Dingaan's kraal with the object of securing a formal
meat -
and had obtained from the government a letter of cession of territory to the Dutch farmers. Dingaan consented
recommendation to Lord Charles Somerset, governor of the Cape, on condition that the Boers recovered for him certain cattle
granting King permission to settle at Natal. Farewell, King and stolen by another chief; this task Retief accomplished, and with
Fynn made independent settlements at various parts of the the help of the Rev. F. Owen, a missionary then living at
bay, where a few Amatuli still lingered. They lived, practically, Dingaau's kraal, a deed of cession was drawn up in English and
as Kaffir chiefs, trading with Chaka and gathering round them signed by Dingaan and Relief on the 4th of February 1838.
many refugees from that monarch's tyranny. Early in 1828 Two days after the signature of the deed Retief and all of his
King, accompanied by two of Chaka's indunas, voyaged in the party, 66 whites, besides Hottentot servants, were treacherously
" murdered by Dingaan's orders. The Zulu king then commanded
Elizabeth and Susan," a small schooner built by the settlers,
to Port Elizabeth. He appears to have been coldly received by his impis to kill all the Boerswho had entered Natal. The Zulu
the authorities, who were even unable to ascertain the nature of forces crossed the Tugela the same day, and the most advanced
Chaka's embassy. Soon after his return to Natal King died, and parties of the Boers were massacred, many at a spot near where
in the same month (September 1828) Chaka was murdered by the town of Weenen now stands, its name (meaning wailing or
his brother Dingaan. In the December following Farewell went weeping) commemorating the event. Other of the farmers
" "
in the Elizabeth and Susan to Port Elizabeth. On this hastily laagered and were able to repulse the Zulu attacks; the
occasion the authorities were more hostile than before to the assailants suffering serious loss at a fight near the Bushman's
Natal pioneers, for they confiscated the schooner on the ground river. Nevertheless in one week after the murder of Retief
that it was unregistered and that it came from a foreign port. 600 Boers men, women and children had been killed by the
Farewell was not daunted, and in September 1829 set out to Zulus. The English settlers at the bay, hearing of the attack on
return overland to Port Natal. He was, however, murdered in the Boers, determined to make a diversion in their favour, and
Pondoland by a chief who was at enmity with the Zulus. Fynn some 20 men under the command of R. Biggar and with a
thus became leader of the whites at the port, who were much at following of 700 friendly Zulus crossed the Tugela near its mouth.
the mercy of Dingaan. In 1831 that chief raided their settle- In a desperate fight (April 17) with a strong force of the
ments, the whites all fleeing south of the Umzimkulu; but at enemy the English were overwhelmed and only four Europeans
Dingaan's invitation they soon returned. Dingaan declared escaped to the bay. Pursued by the Zulus, all the surviving
"
Fynn his representative and great chief of the Natal Kaffirs." inhabitants of Durban were compelled for a time to take refuge
In 1834, however, Fynn accepted a post under the Cape govern- on a ship then in harbour. After the Zulus retired, less than a
ment and did not return to Natal for many years. It was in this dozen Englishmen returned to live at the port; the missionaries,
year that a petition from Cape Town merchants asking for the hunters and other traders returned to the Cape. Meantime the
creation of a British colony at Natal was met by the statement Boers, who had repelled the Zulu attacks on their laagers, had been
that the Cape finances would not permit the establishment of joined by others from the Drakensberg, and about 400 men under
a new dependency. The merchants, however, despatched an Hendrik Potgieter and Piet Uys advanced to attack Dingaan.
expedition under Dr Andrew Smith to inquire into the possibilities On the nth of April, however, they fell into a trap laid by the
of the country, and the favourable nature of his report induced a Zulus and with difficulty cut their way out. Among those slain
party of Dutch farmers under Piet Uys to go thither also. Both were Piet Uys and his son Dirk, aged 15, who rode by his side.
Dr Smith and Uys travelled overland through Kaffraria, and The Boer farmers were now in a miserable plight, but towards the
were well received by the English living at the bay. The next end of the year they received reinforcements, and in December
step was taken by the settlers at the port, who in 1835 resolved 460 men set out under Andries Pretorius to avenge themselves
to lay out a town, which they named Durban, after Sir Benjamin on the Zulus. On Sunday the i6th of December, while laagered
d'Urban, then governor of Cape Colony. At the same time the near the Umslatos river, they were attacked by over 10,000
settlers, who numbered about 50, sent a memorial to the governor Zulus. The Boers had firearms, the Zulus their assegais only,
calling attention to the fact that they were acknowledged rulers and after a three hours' fight the Zulus were totally defeated,
over a large tract of territory south of the Tugela, and asking losing thousands killed, while the farmers' casualties were under
that this territory should be proclaimed a British colony under
Captain Allen Francis Gardiner (1794-1851) left Natal in 1838,
1
the name of Victoria and that a governor and council be appointed.
subsequently devoting himself to missionary work in South America,
To all these requests no official answer was returned. The being known as the missionary to Patagonia. He died of starvation
settlers had been joined in the year named (1835) by Captain in Tierra del Fuego.
NATAL 259
a dozen. (This memorable victory is annually commemorated wilh or possession of Ihe counlry by any olher European power,"
by the Boers as Dingaan's Day, while the Umslatos, which ran Sir George communicaled Ihis decision lo Ihe volksraad in
red with the blood of the slain, was renamed Blood river.) Seplember 1841. Under Ihe arrangemenl proposed Ihe Boers
Dingaan fled, the victorious Boers entered the royal kraal, gave mighl easily have secured Ihe benefils of self-governmenl,
decent burial to the skeletons of Relief and his party, and regarded subjecl lo an acknowledgment of Brilish supremacy, logelher
themselves as now undisputed masters of Natal. They had wilh Ihe advanlage of mililary proleclion, for Ihe Brilish govern-
recovered from a leather pouch which Relief carried the deed by menl was Ihen extremely reluctanl lo exlend ils colonial re-
"
which Dingaan ceded to Relief and his countrymen Ihe place sponsibilities. The
Boers, however, slrongly resenled the conten-
called Port Nalal logelher wilh all Ihe lands annexed ... as tion of Ihe Brilish lhal Ihey could nol shake off Brilish nationality
far as Ihe land may be useful and in my possession." This was ihough beyond Ihe bounds of any recognized Brilish possession,
Ihe 5th or 6th cession made by Chaka or Dingaan of the same nor were they prepared to see Iheir only porl garrisoned by
territory to differenl individuals. In every case Ihe overlordship British Iroops, and Ihey rejecled Napier's overtures. Napier,
of the Zulus was assumed. Iherefore, on Ihe 2nd of December 1841, issued a proclamalion
Returning south, Pretorius and his commando were surprised in which he slaled lhal in consequence of the emigranl farmers
Nalal had been occupied on Ihe 4lh of December
to learn lhal Port refusing lo be Irealed as Brilish subjects and of their atlilude
by a delachment of Ihe 72nd Highlanders sent thilher from Ihe lowards Ihe Kaffir tribes he intended resuming military occupalion
Cape. The emigrant farmers had, wilh Ihe assent of Ihe few of Porl Nalal. This proclamalion was answered in a lenglhy
remaining Englishmen al Port Nalal, in May 1838 issued a minule, daled Ihe 2isl of February 1842, drawn up by J. N.
proclamalion laking possession of Ihe port. This had been Boshof (aflerwards presidenl of Ihe Orange Free Stale), by far
followed by an inlimalion from Ihe governor of Ihe Cape (Major- Ihe ablest of Ihe Dulch who had sellled in Nalal. In Ihis minute
General Sir George Napier) inviting Ihe emigranls lo relurn lo Ihe the farmers ascribed all their troubles lo one cause, British
colony, and slaling lhal whenever he Ihoughl il desirable he namely, the absence of a representative government, ana
'"
should lake mililary possession of Ihe port. In sanclioning Ihe which had been repeatedly asked for by them while
occupalion of Ihe porl Ihe British government of Ihe day had no still living in Cape Colony and as often denied or
inlenlion of making Natal a British colony, but wished to prevent delayed, and concluded by a protest against Ihe occupation
the Boers establishing an independenl republic upon Ihe coast of any part of Iheir lerrilory by Brilish Iroops. An incidenl
wilh a harbour ihrough which access lo Ihe inlerior could be which happened immedialely afler these evenls greally en-
gained. Afler remaining at Ihe port just over a year the couraged Ihe Boers lo persisl in Iheir opposition lo Greal Brilain.
Highlanders were withdrawn, on Christmas Eve 1839. Mean- In March 1842 a Dulch vessel senl out by G. G. Ohrig, an
time Ihe Boers had founded Pielermaritzburg and made it Ihe Amsterdam merchanl who sympalhized warmly wilh Ihe cause
seal of iheir volksraad. They rendered Iheir power in Natal of Ihe emigranl farmers, reached porl Nalal, and ils supercargo,
absolute, for the lime, in Ihe following month, when they joined J. A. Smellekamp (a man who subsequenlly played a part in
with Panda, Dingaan's brolher, in anolher allack on Ihe Zulu Ihe early hislory of Ihe Transvaal and Orange Free Slale), con-
king. Dingaan was ullerly defealed and soon aflerwards cluded a Irealy wilh Ihe volksraad assuring them of the pro-
perished, Panda becoming king in his slead by favour of the Boers. tection of Holland. The Natal Boers believed the Nelherlands lo
At this time, had Ihe affairs of Ihe Boer communily been be one of Ihe greal powers of Europe, and were firmly persuaded
managed wilh prudence and sagacily Ihey mighl have eslab- lhal governmenl would aid Ihem in resisling England.
ils
lished an enduring slale. Bui Iheir impalience of conlrol, On Iheisl of April Caplain T. C. Smilh wilh a force of 263 men
reflecled in Ihe form of government adopled, led to disastrous lefl his camp al Ihe Umgazi,on the eastern fronlier of Cape Colony,
consequences. Legislative power was vesled, nominally, in Ihe and marching overland reached Durban wilhoul opposilion, and
volksraad (consisling of Iwenly-four members), while Ihepresidenl encamped, on Ihe 4lh of May, at Ihe base of Ihe Berea hills.
and execulive were changed every Ihree monlhs. Bui whenever The Boers, cul off from Iheir porl, called oul a commando of some
any measure of importance was lo be decided a meeling was 300 lo 400 men under Andries Prelorius and galhered al Congella
called of het publiek, lhal is, of all who chose lo allend, to al Ihe head of Ihe bay. On Ihe nighl of Ihe 23rd of May Smilh
"
sanction or rejecl it. The result," says Theal, " was utler made an unsuccessful allack on Ihe Boer camp, losing his guns
anarchy. Decisions of one day were frequenlly reversed Ihe and fifly men killed and wounded. On Ihe 26lh the Boers
nexl, and every one held himself free lo disobey any law lhal he captured the harbour and selllemenl, and on Ihe 31 si blockaded
did nol approve of. ... Public opinion of Ihe hour in each Ihe Brilish camp, Ihe women and children being removed, on Ihe
section of Ihe communily was Ihe only force in Ihe land" suggestion of Prelorius, to a ship in the harbour of which 'the
(History of South Africa 1834-1854, chap. xliv.). While such Boers had taken possession. Meanlime, an old Durban residenl,
was Ihe domestic slale of affairs during Ihe period of self-govern- Richard (commonly called Dick) King, had underlaken lo convey
menl, the selllers cherished large lerrilorial views. They were tidings of Ihe perilous posilion of Ihe Brilish force lo Ihe com-
in loose alliance wilh and in quasi-supremacy over Ihe Boer mandanl al Graham's Town. He slarled on Ihe nighl of Ihe
communilies which had lefl Ihe Cape and sellled al Winburg 24lh, and escaping Ihe Boer oulposls rode Ihrough Ihe dense bush
and al Polchefslroom. They had declared Ihemselves a free and across Ihe bridgeless rivers of Kaffraria al peril of his life
and independenl slale under Ihe lille of " The Republic of from hostile nalives and wild beasls, and in nine days reached
Porl Nalal and adjacenl counlries," 1 and soughl (Seplember his destination a dislance of 360 m. in a direcl line, and nearly
1840) from Sir George Napier al Ihe Cape an acknowledgmenl 600 by Ihe roule to be followed. This remarkable ride was
of iheir independence by Greal Brilain. Sir George, being accomplished with one change of mounl, oblained from a mis-
withoul definile inslruclions from England, could give no decisive sionary in Pondoland. A comparatively slrong force under
answer, but he was friendly disposed to the Nalal farmers. Colonel A. J. Cloele was al once senl by sea lo Port Nalal, and on
This feeling was, however, changed by whal Sir George (and many the 26th of June Captain Smilh was relieved. The besieged had
of the Dulch in Natal also) Ihoughl a wilful and unjuslifiable suffered greally from lack of food. Wilhin a forlnighl Colonel
allack (December 1840) on a Iribe of Kaffirs on Ihe soulhern, Cloele had received Ihe submission of Ihe volksraad al Pieler-
or Cape Colony, fronlier by a commando under Andries Prelorius, marilzburg. The burghers represented, that they were under
which sel oul, nominally, to recover stolen cattle. Having the protection of Holland, bul Ihis plea was peremplorily rejecled
at length received an inlimalion from London lhal Ihe queen
" by the commander of the British forces.
could nol acknowledge Ihe independence of her own subjecls, The Brilish government was slill undecided as to its policy
bul lhal Ihe Irade of Ihe emigranl farmers would be placed towards Natal. In April 1842 Lord Slanley (afterwards i4lh
on Ihe same footing as that of any other Brilish selllemenl, earl ofDerby), Ihen secrelary for the colonies in the second Peel
upon iheir receiving a mililary force lo exclude Ihe inlerference Adminislration, wrote to Sir George Napier thai Ihe eslablishmenl
1
Commonly called the Republic of Natalia or Natal. of a colony in Nalal would be allended wilh lillle prospect of
260 NATAL
advantage, but at the same time stated that the pretensions of 1854. In 1856 the dependence of the country on Cape Colony was
the emigrants to be regarded as an independent community put to an end and Natal constituted a distinct colony with a
could not be admitted. Various measures were proposed which legislative council of sixteen members, twelve elected by the
would but have aggravated the situation. Finally, in deference inhabitants and four nominated by the crown. At the time the
to the strongly urged views of Sir George Napier, Lord Stanley, white population exceeded 8000. While dependent on the Cape,
in a despatch of the I3th of December, received in Cape Town ordinances had been passed establishing Roman-Dutch law as
on the 23rd of April 1843, consented to Natal becoming a the law of Natal, and save where modified by legislation it
British colony. The institutions adopted were to be as far as remained in force.
possible in accordance with the wishes of the people, but it was The British settlers soon realized that the coast lands were
"
a fundamental condition that there should not be in the eye of suited to the cultivation of tropical or semi-tropical products, and
the law any distinction or disqualification whatever, founded from 1852 onward sugar, coffee, cotton and arrow-root Indian
on mere difference of colour, origin, language or creed." Sir were introduced, tea being afterwards substituted for coolie*
George then appointed Mr Henry Cloete (a brother of Colonel coffee. The sugar industry soon became of importance,
Cloete) a special commissioner to explain to the Natal volksraad and the planters were compelled to seek for large numbers
the decision of the government. There was a considerable party of labourers. The natives, at ease in their locations, did not
of Natal Boers still strongly opposed to the British, and they volunteer in sufficient numbers, and recourse was had to coolie
were reinforced by numerous bands of Boers who came over the labour from India. The first coolies reached Natal in 1 860. They
Drakensberg from Winburg and Potchefstroom. Commandant came under indentures, but at the expiration of their contract
Jan Mocke of Winburg (who had helped to besiege Captain Smith were allowed to settle in the colony. 1 This proved one of the
at Durban) and others of the
"
war party " attempted to induce most momentous steps taken in the history of South Africa, for
the volksraad not to submit, and a plan was formed to murder the Indian population rapidly increased, the " free " Indians be-
Pretorius, Boshof and other leaders, who were now convinced coming market gardeners, farmers, hawkers, traders, and in time
that the only chance of ending the state of complete anarchy serious competitors with the whites. But in 1860 and for many
into which the country had fallen was by accepting British years afterwards these consequences were not foreseen, and alone
sovereignty. In these circumstances the task of Mr Henry among the South Africa states Natal offered a welcome to Asiatics.
Cloete was one of great difficulty and delicacy. He behaved with In 1866 the borders of the colony were extended on the south-
the utmost tact and got rid of the Winburg and Potchefstroom west by the annexation of part of Kaffraria that had formerly
burghers by declaring that he should recommend the Drakensberg been under the sway of the Pondo chief Faku, who
as the northern limit of Natal. On the 8th of August 1843 found himself unable to maintain his authority in
Natal the Natal volksraad unanimously agreed to the terms a region occupied by many diverse tribes. The newly awards.
annexed proposed by Lord Stanley. Many of the Boers who acquired territory was named Alfred county in memory
byOnat WO uld not acknowledge British rule trekked once of a visit paid to Natal by Prince Alfred (afterwards duke of
more over the mountains into what are now the Orange Saxe-Coburg-Gotha). In 1867 R. W. Keate (1814-1873) became
Free State and Transvaal provinces. At the end of 1843 there lieutenant-governor, a post which he filled until 1872. His
were not more than 500 Dutch families left in Natal. Cloete, administration is notable, not so much for internal affairs but
before returning to the Cape, visited Panda and obtained from from the fact that he twice acted as arbitrator in disputes in
him a valuable concession. Hitherto the Tugela from source to which the Boer states were involved. In a dispute between the
mouth had been the recognized frontier between Natal and Transvaal and the Orange Free State he decided (February 1870)
Zululand. Panda gave up to Natal all the territory between that the Klip river and not the upper Vaal was the frontier
the Buffalo and Tugela rivers, now forming Klip River county. stream. A more famous decision, that known as the Keate
Although proclaimed a British colony in 1843, and in 1844 Award, was given in October 1871. It concerned the south-
declared a part of Cape Colony, it was not until the end of 1845 western frontiers of the Transvaal, and the award, which was
that an effective administration was installed with Mr Martin against the Transvaal pretensions, had important effects on
West as lieutenant-governor, and the power of the volksraad the history of South Africa (see TRANSVAAL and SOUTH AFRICA).
finally came to an end. In that year the external trade of Natal, During all this time little was done to alter the condition of
almost entirely with Cape Colony, was of the total value of the natives. There was scarcely an attempt to copy the policy,
42,000 of which 32,000 represented imported goods. deliberately adopted in Cape Colony, of educating and civilizing
The new administration found it hard to please the Dutch the black man. Neither was Natal faced with the Cape problem
farmers, who among other grievances resented what they con- of a large half-caste population. The Natal natives were left
sidered the undue favour shown to the Kaffirs, whose numbers very much in the state in which they were before the advent of
had been greatly augmented by the flight of refugees from Panda. the white men. While this opportunity of educating and training
In 1843, f r instance, no fewer than 50,000 Zulus crossed the a docile people was in the main neglected, savage abuse of power
Tugela seeking the protection of the white man. The natives by their chiefs was prevented. Under the superintendence
were settled in 1846 in specially selected locations and placed of Shepstone the original refugees were quiet and contented,
under the general supervision of Sir (then Mr) Theophilus Shep- enjoying security from injustice and considerable freedom.
stone (q.v.). Sir Harry Smith, newly appointed governor of the This ideal lot, from the native point of view, drew such numbers
Cape, met, on the banks of the upper Tugela, a body of farmers of immigrants from disturbed districts that with the natural
preparing to recross the Drakensberg, and by remedying their increase of population in thirty years the native inhabitants
grievances induced many of them to remain in Natal. Andries increased from about 100,000 to fully 350,000. New generations
Pretorius and others, however, declined to remain, and from this grew up almost as ignorant as their fathers, but not with the
time Pretorius (q.v.) ceased his connexion with Natal. Although same sense of dependence upon the white men. In this way was
by this migration the white population was again considerably sown the seed of future trouble between the two races. The
reduced, those who remained were contented and loyal, and first serious collision between the natives and the government
through the arrival of 4500 emigrants from England in the years occurred in 1873. The Amahlubi, one of the highest in rank
1848-1851 and by subsequent immigration from oversea the of the Bantu tribes of South Africa, fleeing from the cruelties of
colony became overwhelmingly British in character. From the 1
Between 1860 and 1866 some 5000 Indians entered the colony.
time of the coming of the first considerable body of British
Immigration then ceased, and was not resumed until 1874. By that
settlers dates the development of trade and agriculture in the year the natives from Portuguese territory and elsewhere who had
colony, followed somewhat later by the exploitation of the found employment in Natal had been attracted to the Kimberley
mineral resources of the country. At the same time schools were diamond mines, and the Natal natives not coming forward (save under
established and various churches began or increased their work compulsion), the importation of Indian coolies was again permitted
(see the Natal Blue Book, Report of the Indian Immigration Com-
in the colony. Dr Colenso, appointed bishop of Natal, arrived in mission, ipop).
NATAL 261
Panda, had been located by the Natal government under their Transvaal governments that Sir Bartle Frere, then High Com-
chief Langalibalele (i.e. the great sun which shines and burns) missioner for South Africa, determined on his reduction. During
in 1848 at the foot of the Drakensberg with the object of prevent- the war (see ZULULAND) Natal was used as the British base,
ing the Bushmen who dwelt in the mountains plundering the and the Natal volunteers rendered valuable service in the
upland farmers. Here the Amahlubi prospered, and after the campaign, which, after opening with disasters to the British
diamond fields had been discovered many of the young men forces, ended in the breaking of the Zulu power. (F. R. C.)
who had been to Kimberley brought back firearms. These Scarcely had the colony recovered from the shock of the
Langalibalele refused to register, and entered into negotiations Zulu War than it was involved in the revolt of the Transvaal
with several tribes with the object of organizing a general revolt. Boers (1880-1881), an event which overshadowed all jva<;
Prompt action by Sir Benjamin Pine, then lieutenant-governor domestic concerns. The Natalians were intensely ana the
of the colony, together with help from the Cape and British in sentiment, and resented deeply the policy
baMe's Basutoland, prevented the success of Langalibalele's adopted by the Gladstone administration. At In-
rebellion, and his own tribe, numbering some 10,000 persons,
plan, gogo, Majuba and Laing's Nek, all of them situated within
was the only one which rebelled. The chief was the colony, British forces had been defeated by the Boers.
captured, and exiled to Cape Colony (August 1874). Permitted And the treaty of retrocession was never regarded in Natal as
to return to Natal in 1886, he died in 1889. anything but a surrender. It was clearly understood that the
This rebellion drew the attention of the home government to Boers would aim to establish a republican government over the
the native question in Natal. The
colonists, if mistaken in whole of South Africa, and that the terms of peace simply meant
their general policy of leaving the natives in a condition of greater bloodshed at no distant date. The protest made by
mitigated barbarism, had behaved towards them with uniform the Natalians against the settlement was in vain. The Transvaal
kindness and justice. They showed indeed in their dealings both Republic was established, but the prediction of the colonists,
with the natives within their borders and with the Zulus beyond ignored at the time, was afterwards fulfilled to the letter. In
the Tugela a disposition to favour the natives at the expense justice, however, to the colonists of Natal it must be recorded
of their white neighbours in the Transvaal and Orange Free that, finding their protest with regard to the Transvaal settle-
State, and their action against Langalibalele was fully justified ment useless, they made up their minds to shape their policy
and the danger of a widespread native revolt real. But there in conformity with that settlement. But it was not long before
were those, including Bishop Colenso, who thought the treatment their worst fears with regard to the Boers began to be realized,
of the Amahlubi wrong, and their agitation induced the British and their patience was once more severely taxed. The Zulu
government to recall Sir Benjamin Pine, Sir Garnet Wolseley power, as has been recorded, was broken in 1879. After the
being sent out as temporary governor. Sir Garnet reported war quarrels arose among the petty chiefs set up by Sir Garnet
"
the natives as happy and prosperous well off in every sense." Wolseley, and in 1883 some Transvaal Boers intervened, and
As a result of consultations with Shepstone certain modifications subsequently, as a reward for the assistance they had rendered
were made in native policy, chiefly in the direction of more to one of the Combatants, demanded and annexed 8000 sq. m.
"
European supervision. of country, which they styled the New Republic." As the
Meantime the colony had weathered a severe commercial London Convention had stipulated that there should be no
crisis brought on in 1865 through over-speculation and the trespassing on the part of the Boers over their specified boundaries,
neglect of agriculture, save along the coast belt. But and as Natal had been the basis for those operations against
tne trade over berg largely developed on the dis- the Zulus on the part of the British in 1879, which alone made
affair. covery of the Kimberley diamond mines, and the such an annexation of territory possible, a strong feeling was
progress of the country was greatly promoted by the once more aroused in Natal. The " New Republic," reduced in
substitution of the railway for the ox wagon as a means of area, however, to less than 2000 sq. m., was nevertheless recog-
transport. There already existed a short line from the Point nized by the British government in 1886, and in 1888 its consent
at Durban to the Umgeni, and on the ist of January 1876 Sir was given to the territory- (the Vryheid district) being incor-
Henry Bulwer, who had succeeded Wolseley as governor, turned porated with the Transvaal. Meantime, in 1887, the remainder
the first sod of a new state-owned railway which was completed of Zululand had been annexed to Great Britain (see ZULULAND).
as far as Maritzburg in 1880. At this date the white inhabitants In 1884 the discovery of gold in De Kaap Valley, and on
numbered about 20,000. But besides a commercial crisis the Mr Moodie's farm in the Transvaal, caused a considerable rush
colony had been the scene of an ecclesiastical dispute which of colonists from Natal to that country. Railways were still
attracted widespread attention. Bishop Colenso (?..), condemned far from the Transvaal border, and Natal not only sent her own
in 1863 on a charge of heresy, ignored the authority of the court colonists to the new fields, but also offered the nearest route for
of South African bishops and was maintained in his position by prospectors from Cape Colony or from Europe. Durban was
decision of the Privy Council in England. This led to a division soon thronged; and Pietermaritzburg, which was then practi-
among the Anglican community in the colony and the consecra- cally the terminus of the Natal railway, was the base from which
tion in 1869 of a rival bishop, who took the title of bishop of nearly all the expeditions to the goldfields were fitted out.
Maritzburg. Colenso's bold advocacy of the cause of the natives The journey to De Kaap by bullock-waggon occupied about
which he maintained with vigour until his death (in 1883) " "
six weeks. Kurveying (the conducting of transport by
attracted almost equal attention. His native name was Usobantu bullock-waggon) in itself constituted a great industry. Two
(father of the people). years later, in 1886, the Rand goldfields were proclaimed, and
For some years Natal, in common with the other countries of the tide of trade which had already set in with the
South Africa, had suffered from the absence of anything resem- "
Growth
Transvaal steadily increased. Natal colonists were
bling a strong government among the Boers of the Transvaal, not merely the first in the field with the transport Industrie*.
neighbours of Natal on the north. The annexation of the traffic tothe new goldfields; they became some of
Transvaal to Great Britain, effected by Sir Theophilus Shepstone the earliest proprietors of mines, and for several years many of
in April 1877, would, it was the largest mining companies had their chief offices at Pieter-
hoped, put a period to the disorders
in that country. But the new administration at Pretoria in- maritzburg or Durban. In this year (1886) the railv/ay reached
herited many disputes with the Zulus, disputes which were in
Ladysmith, and in 1891 it was completed to the Transvaal
large measure the cause of the war of 1879. For years the frontier at Charlestown, the section from Ladysmith northward
Zulus had lived at amity with the Natalians, from whom they opening up the Dundee and Newcastle coalfields. Thus a new
received substantial favours, and in 1872
Cetywayo (?..), industry was added to the resources of the colony.
on succeeding his father Panda, had given assurances of good The demand which the growing trade made upon the one
behaviour. These promises were not kept for long, and by 1878 port of Natal, Durban, encouraged the colonists to redouble
his attitude had become so hostile towards both the Natal and their efforts to improve their harbour. The question of a fairway
262 NATAL
from ocean to harbour has been a difficult one at nearly every would be taken up. This led to a request on their part that if
port on the African coast. A heavy sea from the Indian Ocean the Imperial government had any reason to anticipate the
"
is always breaking on the shore, even in the finest weather, breakdown of negotiations, such steps may be at once taken
and at the mouth of every natural harbour a bar occurs. To as may be necessary for the effectual defence of the whole
deepen the channel over the bar at Durban so that steamers colony." Sir William Penn Symons, the general commanding
might enter the harbour was the cause of labour and expenditure the British forces in Natal in September, decided to hold Glencoe.
for manyyears. Harbour works were begun in 1857, piers and On the arrival of Lieut. -General Sir George White from India,
jetties were constructed, dredgers imported, and controversy he informed the governor that he considered it dangerous to
raged over the various schemes for harbour improvement. In attempt to hold Glencoe, and urged the advisability of with-
1 88 1 a harbour board was formed under the chairmanship of drawing the troops to Ladysmith. The goveinor was strongly
Mr Harry Escombe. It controlled the operations for improving opposed to this step, as he was anxious to protect the coal supply,
the sea entrance until 1893, when on the establishment of re- and also feared the moral effect of a withdrawal. Eventually
sponsible government it was abolished. The work of improving Sir Archibald Hunter, then chief of staff to Sir Redvers Buller,
the harbour was however continued with vigour, and finally, in was consulted, and stated that in his opinion, Glencoe being
"
it was a case of balancing drawbacks, and
1904, such success was achieved that vessels of the largest class already occupied,
were enabled to enter port (see DURBAN). At the same time advised that, under the circumstances, the troops be retained
the railway system was continually developing. at Glencoe." This course was then adopted.
For many years there had been an agitation among the On the i ith of October 1899 war broke out. The first act was
colonists for self-government. In 1882 the colony was offered the seizure by the Boers of a Natal train on the Free State border.
5^, self-government coupled with the obligations of On the 1 2th Laing's Nek was occupied by the Boer forces, who
govern- self-defence. The offer was declined, but in 1883 the were moved in considerable force over the Natal border. New-
meat legislative council was remodelled so as to consist of castle was next occupied by the Boers unopposed, and on the
granted. 2^ elected and nominated members. In 2oth of October occurred the battle of Talana Hill outside
7 1890
the elections to the council led to the return of a majority in Dundee. In this engagement the advanced body of British
favour of accepting self-government, and in 1893 a bill in favour troops, 3000 strong, under Symons, held a camp called Craigside
of the proposed change was passed and received the sanction which lay between Glencoe and Dundee, and from this position
of the Imperial government. At the time the white inhabitants General Symons hoped to be able to hold the northern portion
numbered about 50,000. The electoral law was framed to of Natal. There is no doubt that this policy strongly
prevent more than a very few natives obtaining the franchise. commended itself to the governor and ministers of Natal,
Restrictions in this direction dated as far back as 1865, while in and that they exercised considerable pressure to have it
1896 an act was passed aimed at the exclusion of Indians from adopted. But from a military point of view it was not at all
the suffrage. The leader of the party which sought responsible cordially approved by Sir George White, and it was after-
government was SirJohn Robinson (1839-1903) who'had gone wards condemned by Lord Roberts. Fortunately Symons was
to Natal in 1850, was a leading journalist in the colony, had able to win a complete victory over one of the Boer columns at
been a member of the legislative council since 1863, and had Talana Hill. He himself received a mortal wound in the action.
filled various official positions. He now became the first premier Brigadier-General Yule then took command, and an overwhelm-
and colonial secretary with Mr Harry Escombe (q.v .) as attorney- ing force of Boers rendering the further occupation of Dundee
general and Mr F. R. Moor as secretary for Native Affairs. The dangerous, he decided to retire his force to Ladysmith. On the
year that witnessed this change in the constitution was also 2ist of October General Sir George White and General (Sir John)
notable for the death of Sir Theophilus Shepstone, Natal's French defeated at Elandslaagte a strong force of Boers, who
most prominent citizen. In the same year Sir Walter Hely- threatened to cut off General Yule's retreat. He again attacked
Hutchinson became governor. His immediate predecessors the Boer forces at Rietfontein on the 24th of October, and .on
had been Sir Charles Mitchell (1889-1893) and Sir Arthur the 26th General Yule reached Ladysmith in safety. Ladysmith
Havelock (1886-1889). Sir John Robinson remained premier now became for a time the centre of military interest. The Boers
until 1897, a year marked by the annexation of Zululand to gradually surrounded the town and cut off the communications
Natal. In the following year Natal entered the Customs Union from the south. Various engagements were fought in the
already existing between Cape Colony and the Orange Free attempt to prevent this movement, including the actions of
State. Sir John Robinson had been succeeded as premier by Farquhar's Farm and Nicholson's Nek on the 3oth (see TRANS-
Mr Harry Escombe (February-October 1897) and Escombe VAAL). The investment of Ladysmith continued till the 28th of
by Henry Binns, on whose death in June 1899 Lieut.-Colonel
Sir February 1900, when, after various attempts to relieve the
(afterwards Sir) Albert Hime formed a ministry which remained beleaguered garrison, Sir Redvers Buller's forces at last entered
in office until after the conclusion of the Anglo-Boer War. Mean- the town. During the six weeks previous to the relief, 200
time (in 1901) Sir Henry McCallum had succeeded Sir Walter deaths had occurred from disease alone, and altogether as many
Hely-Hutchinson as governor. as 8424 were reported to have passed through the hospitals.
For some years Natal had watched with anxiety the attitude The relief of Ladysmith soon led to the evacuation of Natal by
of increasing hostility towards the British adopted by the the Boer forces, who trekked northwards.
Pretoria administration, and, with bitter remembrance of the During the Boer invasion the government and the loyal
events of 1881, gauged with accuracy the intentions of the Boers. colonists, constituting the great majority of the inhabitants of
So suspicious had the ministry become of the nature of the the colony, rendered the Imperial forces every assistance. A
military preparations that were being made by the Boers, that comparatively small number of the Dutch colonists joined the
in May1899 they communicated their apprehensions to the enemy, but there was no general rebellion among them. As the
High Commissioner, Sir Alfred Milner, who telegraphed on the war progressed the Natal volunteers and other Natal forces took
25th of May to Mr Chamberlain, informing him that Natal was a prominent part. The Imperial Light Horse and other irregular
uneasy. The governor expressed his views to the prime minister corps were recruited in Natal, although the bulk of the men in
that the Natal government ought to give the British government the forces were Uitlanders from Johannesburg. As the nearest
every support, and Colonel Hime replied that their support colony to the Transvaal, Natal was resorted to by alarge number
would be given, but at the same time he feared the of men, women and children, who were compelled to leave the
consequences to Natal if, after all, the British govern- Transvaal on the outbreak of the war. Refugee and Uitlander
low, ment should draw back. In July the Natal ministry committees were formed both at Durban and Maritzburg, and,
learnt that it was not the intention of the Imperial in conjunction with the colonists, they did all in their power to
government to endeavour to hold the frontier in case hostilities assist in recruiting irregular corps, and also in furnishing relief
arose, but that a line of defence considerably south of the frontier to the sick and needy.
NATAL 263
As one result of the war, an addition was made to the territory The attitude of the natives both in Natal proper and in Zululand
comprised in Natal, consisting of a portion of what had previously caused much disquiet. As early as July 1903 rumours were
been included in the Transvaal. The Natal government origin- current that Dinizulu (a son of Cetywayo) was disaffected and
ally made two proposals for annexing new territory: the power he exercised as representative of the former royal house
1. It was proposed that the following districts should be trans- rendered his attitude a matter of great moment. Dinizulu,
ferred to Natal, viz. the district of Vryheid, the district of Utrecht
however, remained at the time quiescent, though the Zulus were
and such portion of the district of Wakkerstroom as was comprised
in a state of excitement over incidents connected with the war,
by a line drawn from the north-eastern corner
of Natal, east by
Volksrust in a northerly direction to the summit of the Drakensberg when they had been subject to raids by Boer commandoes, and
Range, along that range, passing just north of the town of Wakker- on one occasion at least had retaliated in characteristic Zulu
stroom, to the head waters of the Pongola river, and thence follow- fashion. Unrest was also manifested among the natives west of
ing the Pongola river to the border of the Utrecht district. In
consideration of the advantage to Natal from this addition of terri-
the Tugela, but it was not at first cause for alarm. The chief
tory, Natal should take over 700,000 of the Transvaal debt. concern of the Natal government was to remodel their native
2. It was proposed to include in Natal such portions of the Harri-
policy where it proved inadequate, especially in view of the
srnith and Vrede districts as were comprised by a line following the
Elands river north from its source on the Basutoland growth of the movement for the federation of the South African
border to its junction with the Wilge river, and thence colonies. During 1903-1904 a Native Affairs' Commission,
drawn straight to the point where the boundaries of Natal, representative of all the states, obtained much evidence on the
. the Transvaal and the Orange River Colony meet on the status and conditions of the natives. Its investigations pointed
Drakensberg. In consideration of this addition to her to the loosening of tribal ties and to the corresponding growth
territory, Natal should take over a portion of the Orange
River Colony debt, to be raised at the end of the war, to the amount of a spirit of individual independence. Among its recommenda-
of 200,000. tions was the direct political representation of natives in the
The Imperial government decided to sanction only the first colonial legislatures on the New Zealand model, and the imposi-
of these two proposals. For this course there were many reasons, tion of direct taxation upon natives, which should not be less
the Transvaal territory annexed, or the greater part of it (the than i a year payable by every adult male. The commission
Vryheid district), having been only separated from the rest of also called attention to the numerical insufficiency of magistrates
" In and native commissioners in certain parts of Natal. With some
Zululand in 1883 by a raid of armed Boers. handing over
this district to the administration which controls the rest of of the recommendations the Natal commissioners disagreed;
Zululand, His Majesty's government," wrote Mr Chamberlain, in 1905, however, an act was passed by the Natal legislature
"
under date March 1902, feel that they are reuniting what ought imposing a poll-tax of i on all males over 18 in the colony,
never to have been separated." except indentured Indians and natives paying hut-tax (which
With regard, however, to the proposed transfer of territory was 145. a year). Every European was bound to pay the tax.
from the Orange River Colony, the circumstances were different. In 1906 a serious rebellion broke out in the colony, attributable
"
There is," said Mr Chamberlain, " no such historical reason ostensibly to the poll-tax, and spread to Zululand. It was
as exists in the case of Vryheid for making the transfer. On the suppressed by the colonial forces under Colonel (afterwards Sir)
contrary, the districts in question have invariably formed part Duncan McKenzie, aided by a detachment of Transvaal
of the state from which it is now proposed to sever them, and volunteers. An incident which marked the beginning of this
they are separated from Natal by mountains which form a well- rebellion brought the Natal ministry into sharp conflict with
defined natural boundary. In these circumstances, His Majesty's the Imperial government (the Campbell-Bannerman administra-
government have decided to confine the territory to be trans- tion). Early in the year a farmer who had insisted that the
ferred to the districts in the Transvaal." Kaffirs on his farm should pay the poll-tax was murdered, and on
The districts added to Natal contained about 6000 white the 8th of February some forty natives in the Richmond district
inhabitants (mostly Dutch), and some 92,000 natives, and had forcibly resisted the collection of the tax and killed a sub-
an area of nearly 7000 sq. m., so that this annexation meant an inspector of police and a trooper at Byrnetown. Two of the
addition to the white population of Natal of about one-tenth, natives implicated were court-martialled and shot (February 1 5) ;
to her native population of about one-tenth also, and to her others were subsequently arrested and tried by court martial.
territory ofabout one-fourth. An act authorizing the annexation Nineteen were sentenced to death, but in the case of seven of the
was passed during 1902 and the territories were formally trans- prisoners the sentence was commuted. On the day before that
ferred to Natal in January 1003. (A. P. H.; F. R. C.) fixed for the execution Lord Elgin, then Secretary of _
n/7fc<
The period following the war was succeeded by commercial State for the Colonies, intervened and directed the J/lft u, e
depression, though in Natal it was not so severely felt as in other governor to postpone the execution of the sentence, home
oven>-
states of South Africa. The government met the crisis Thereupon the Natal ministry resigned, giving as their x*
menial by renewed energy in harbour works, railway construc- reason the importance of maintaining the authority of
depresslon tions and the development of the natural resources the colonial administration at a critical period, and the con-
of the country. A railway to the Zululand coalfields stitutional question involved in the interference by the imperial
rebellion
was com pl e ' ed in 1903, and in the same year a line
; authorities in the domestic affairs of a self-governing colony.
was opened to Vryheid in the newly annexed territories. The action of the British cabinet caused both astonishment and
Natal further built several railway lines in the eastern half of indignation throughout South Africa and in the other self-
the Orange River Colony, thus opening up new markets for her governing states of the empire. After a day's delay, during which
produce and facilitating her transit trade. Mr Chamberlain on Sir Henry McCallum reiterated his concurrence, already made
his visit to South Africa came first to Natal, where he landed in known in London, in the justice of the sentence passed on the
the last days of 1902, and conferred with the leading colonists. natives,Lord Elgin gave way (March 30). The Natal ministry
In August 1903 the Hime ministry resigned and was succeeded thereupon remained in office. The guilty natives were shot on
by a cabinet under the premiership of Mr (afterwards Sir) George the and of April. 1 It was at this time that Bambaata, a chief
Sutton, the founder of the wattle industry in Natal and one of in the Greytown district who had been deposed for misconduct,
the pioneers in the coal-mining industry. In May 1905 Sir kidnapped the regent appointed in his stead. He was pursued
George Sutton was replaced by a coalition ministry under Mr and escaped to Zululand, -where he received considerable help.
C. J. Smythe, who had been colonial He was killed in battle in June, and by the close of July the
secretary under Sir Albert
Hime. These somewhat frequent changes of ministry, char- rebellion was at an end. As has been stated, it was ostensibly
acteristic of a country new to attributable to the poll-tax, but the causes were more deep-
responsible government, reflected,
chiefly,differences concerning the treatment of commercial seated. Though somewhat obscure they may be found in the
questions and the policy to be adopted towards the natives. 1
Towards those Dutch colonists who had joined the enemy Subsequently three other natives, after trial by the supreme
court, werecondemned and executed for their share in the Byrne-
during the war leniency was shown, all rebels being pardoned. town murders.
264 NATAL
"
growing sense of power and solidarity among all the Kaffir of the free," i.e. unindentured Indians. An act of 1895, which
"
tribes of South Africa a sense which gave force to the Ethio- did not become effective until 1901, imposed an annual tax of 3
pian movement," which, ecclesiastical in origin, was political on time-expired Indians who remained in the colony
in its development. There were moreover special local causes and did not reindenture. In 1897 an Indian
such as undoubted defects in the Natal administration. 1 Those Immigration Restriction Act was passed with the Indians.
" "
Africans whose nationalism was greatest looked to Dinizulu object of protecting European traders; in 1903
as their leader, and he was accused by many colonists of having another Immigration Restriction Act among other things, per-
incited the rebellion. Dinizulu protested his loyalty to the mitted the exclusion of all would-be immigrants unable to write
British, nor was it likely that he viewed with approval the action in the characters of some European language. Under this act
of Bambaata, a comparatively unimportant and meddlesome thousands of Asiatics were refused permission to land. In 1906
chief. As time went on, however, the Natal government, municipal disabilities were imposed upon Asiatics, and in 1907
alarmed at a series of murders of whites in Zululand and at the a Dealers' Licences Act was passed with the object, and effect,
evidences of continued unrest among the natives, became con- of restricting the trading operations of Indians. In 1908 the
vinced that Dinizulu was implicated in the rebellious movement. government introduced a bill to provide for the cessation of
When a young man, in 1889, he had been convicted of high Indian emigration at the end of three years; it was not pro-
treason and had been exiled, but afterwards (in 1897) allowed to ceeded with, but a strong commission was appointed to inquire
return. Now a force under Sir Duncan McKenzie entered into the whole subject. This commission reported in 1909, its
Zululand. Thereupon Dinizulu surrendered (December 1907) general conclusion being that in the interests of Natal the
without opposition, and was removed to Maritzburg. His trial importation of indentured Indian labour should not be dis-
was delayed until November 1908, and it was not until March continued. For sugar, tea and wattle growing, farming, coal-
1909 that judgment was given, the court finding him guilty only mining and other industries indentured Indian labour appeared
on the minor charge of harbouring rebels. Meantime, in February to be essential. But the evidence was practically unanimous that
1908, the governor Sir Matthew Nathan, who had succeeded the Indian was undesirable in Natal other than as a labourer
Sir Henry McCallum in August 1907 had made a tour in and the commission recommended compulsory repatriation.
Zululand, on which occasion some 1500 of the prisoners taken While desirous that steps should be taken to prevent an increase
in the rebellion of 1906 were released. in the number of free Asiatic colonists, the commission pointed
" "
The intercolonial commission had dealt with the native out that there were in Natal over 60,000 free Indians whose
question as it affected South Africa as a whole; it was felt that rights could not be interfered with by legislation dealing with the
Native l ca l investigation was needed, and in August
a more further importation of coolies. But these Indians by reindentur-
Affairs' 1906 a strong commission was appointed to inquire ing might come under the operation of the repatriation proposal.
Com ' into the condition of the Natal natives. The general Nothing further was done in Natal up to the establishment of
"'
election which was held in the.following month turned the Union of South Africa, when all questions specially or
on native policy and on the measures necessary to meet the differentially affecting Asiatics were withdrawn from the com-
commercial depression. The election, which witnessed the return petence of the provincial authorities.
of four Labour members, 'resulted in a ministerial majority of a Not long after the conclusion of the war of 1899-1902 the
somewhat heterogeneous character, and in November 1906 Mr close commercial relations between the Transvaal and Natal
Smythe resigned, being succeeded by Mr F. R. Moor, who in led to suggestions for a union of the two colonies, but
his election campaign had criticized the Smythe ministry for these suggestions were not seriously entertained. The menTtor*'
their financial proposals and for the
" " manner in
theatrical divergent interests of the various colonies threatened union.
which they had conducted their conflict with the home govern- indeed a tariff and railway war when the Customs
ment. Mr Moor remained premier until the office was abolished Convention (provisionally renewed in March 1906) should
by the establishment of the Union of South Africa. In August expire in 1908. But at the close of 1906 the Cape ministry formally
1907 the report of the Native Affairs' Commission was published. reopened the question of federation, and at a railway con-
The commission declared that the chasm between the native ference held in Pretoria in May 1908 the Natal delegates
and white races had been broadening for years and that the agreed to a motion affirming the desirability of the early union
efforts of the administration especially since the grant of of the self-governing colonies. The movement for union rapidly
responsible government to reconcile the Kaffirs to the changed gained strength, and a National Convention to consider the
conditions of rule and policy and to convert them into an element matter met in Durban in October 1908. In Natal, especially
of strength had been ineffective. It was not sufficient to secure among the older colonists, who feared that in a united South
them, as the government had done, peace and ample means of Africa Natal interests would be overborne, the proposals for
livelihood. The commission among other proposals for a more union were met with suspicion and opposition, and the Natal
liberal and sympathetic native policy urged the creation of a ministry felt bound to submit the question to the people. A
"
native advisory Board entrusted with very wide powers. Per- referendum act was passed in April 1909, and in June following
"
sonal rule," they declared, supplies the keynote of successful the electors by 11,121 votes to 3701 decided to join the Union.
"
native control a statement amply borne out by the influence (See SOUTH AFRICA.)
over the natives exercised by Sir T. Shepstone. The unrest in Natal was concerned not only with the political aspects of
Zululand delayed action being taken on the commission's report. union, and with its natives and Indian problems, but had to
But in 1909 an act was passed which placed native affairs in the safeguard its commercial interests and to deal with a revenue
hands of four district commissioners, gave to the minister for insufficient for its needs. In 1908 an Income Tax and a Land
native affairs direct executive authority and created a council Tax Act was passed; the land tax being a halfpenny in the
" "
for native affairs on which non-official members had seats. on the aggregate unimproved value it brought in 30,000
While the commissioners were intended to keep in close
district in 1908-1909. Meantime it was agreed by the Cape, Transvaal
touch with the natives, the council was to act as a " deliberative, and Natal governments that, subject to Natal entering the
consultative and advisory body." Union, its share of the Rand import trade should be 25% before
Concurrently with the efforts made to reorganize their native and 30% after the establishment of the Union. Previously
policy the colony also endeavoured to deal with the Asiatic Natal had only 22 $% of the traffic, and this agreement led to a
question. The rapid growth of the Indian population from revival in trade. Moreover, the development of its coal-mines
about 1890 caused much disquiet among the majority of the and agriculture was vigorously prosecuted, and in 1910 it was
white inhabitants, who viewed with especial anxiety the activities found possible to abolish both the Income Tax and Land Tax
1
The and yet have a surplus in revenue. The closing months of
causes, both local and general, are set forth in a despatch
of the 2ist of June 1906 and printed in the Blue Natal's existence as a separate colony thus found her peaceful
by the governor
Book, Cd. 3247. and prosperous. The governor, Sir Matthew Nathan, had
NATAL NATHANAEL 265
returned to England in December 1909, and Lord Methuen was were negroes, (1910 census) 11,791. It is served by the
governor from that time until the 3ist of May 1910. On that Yazoo &Mississippi Valley, the St Louis, Iron Mountain &
date the Union of South Africa was established, Natal becoming Southern, the New Orleans & North- Western and the Mississippi
one of the original provinces of the Union. Central railways, and by steamboats on the Mississippi river.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. R. Russell, The Garden Colony. The Story of The city, which has an area of 2-19 sq. m., is mostly on a bluff
Natal and its Neighbours (London, 1910 ed.), a good general account ;
that rises 200 ft. above the river, the wharfs and landings, and a
H. Brooks (edited by R. J. Mann), Natal, a History and Description
of the Colony, &c. (London, 1876); J. F. Ingram, Natalia, a Con-
few old buildings being the only reminders of what was before
densed History of the Exploration and Colonization of Natal and the Civil War the principal business section. Among the city's
Zuiuland (London, 1897); C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of the institutions are the Fisk Public Library, a charity hospital,
" "
British Colonies, vol. iv. South and East Africa (Oxford, 1807), two sanatoriums, three orphan asylums, Stanton College for
also general surveys. Twentieth- Century Impressions of Natal
girls (non-sectarian; opened in 1894 and lodged in the old Fisk
(London, 1906) deals with the peoples, commerce, industries and
resources of the colony; the Census of the Colony of Natal, April mansion), St Joseph's College for girls, the Jefferson Military
1904 (Maritzburg, 1905) contains a large amount of authoritative College (1802), 6 m. from the city, and Natchez College for
information; The Natal Almanac is a directory and yearly register
negroes. The city has four public parks, three on the river
published at Maritzburg. See also the official Statistical Year Book.
For the native inhabitants, besides the works quoted under KAFFIRS, front, and one, Memorial Park, in honour of Confederate dead,
valuable information will be found in Native Customs, H.C. 292 (1881), in the heart of the city. On a neighbouring bluff is a national
the Report of the Native Affairs' Commission, 1900-190^, Cd. 3889 cemetery. Just outside the city limits, at Gloster, the former
(1908); the Report of the South African Native Affairs' Commission, estate of Winthrop Sargent, first governor of the Territory of
1903-1905, Cd. 2399 (1905); and other parliamentary papers
Mississippi, are the graves of Sargent and S. S. Prentiss, who lived
(consult The Colonial Office List, London, yearlv).
For detailed historical study consult G. M. Theal, History of South in Natchez for some years. In and near the city are many
Africa, 1834-1854 (London, 1893), with notes on early books on handsome old residences typical of ante-bellum Natchez, among
Natal. Among these the most valuable are : N. Isaacs, Travels and them being: Monmouth, General Quitman's estate; Somerset
Adventures in Eastern Africa . .with a Sketch of Natal (2 vols.,
.
and Oakland, long in the Chotard family; and The Briars,
London, 1836); H. Cloete, Emigration of the Dutch Farmers from
the Cape and their Settlement in Natal .
(Cape Town, 1856),
. .
the home during girlhood of Varina Howell, the wife of Jefferson
reprinted as The History of the Great Boer Trek (London, 1899), an Davis. A Roman Catholic cathedral (1841), Trinity Protestant
authoritative record; J. C. Chase, Natal, a Reprint of all Authentic
Episcopal Church (1825) and a Presbyterian church (1829)
Notices, &c. (Grahamstown, 1843); W. C. Holden, History of the
are the principal church buildings. The Prentiss and the Elk
Colony of Natal (London, 1855); J. Bird, The Annals of Natal,
1495 to 1845 (2 vols., Maritzburg, 1888), a work of permanent value,
are the leading clubs. Mardi Gras is annually celebrated. The
consisting of official records, &c. Shepstone, Historic Sketch of
; leading industries are the shipment of cotton (70,000 to 90,000
Natal (1864). See also South Africa Handbooks, useful reprints from bales are handled annually) and the manufacture of cottonseed
the paper South Africa (London, N.D. [1900 et seq.]); Martineau's
oil and cake the first cottonseed-oil mill in the country was
Life of Sir Bartle Frere, the Autobiography of Sir Harry Smith, and
Sir J. Robinson's A Lifetime in South Africa (London, 1901) George
;
built here in 1834 cotton goods, rope and yarns, lumber,
Union, or the First Years of an English Colony (London, 1876). brick, drugs and ice. Natchez was the first city in the state to
Bishop A. H. Baynes's Handbooks of English Church Expansion. own municipal water-works and sewage system.
South Africa (London, N.D. [1908]) gives the story of the Colenso
The city was named from the Natchez Indians who lived on
controversy and its results.
its site when the country was first settled. In 1716 on the bluff
For further historical works and for information on flora, fauna,
climate, law, church, &c. see the bibliography under SOUTH AFRICA. Le Moyne de Bienville built Fort Rosalie for the protection of
(See also ZULULAND: Bibliography.) (F. R. C.) some French warehouses, and later the French demanded a
NATAL, a city and port of Brazil and capital of the state of neighbouring hill for another settlement. This offended the
Rio Grande do Norte, on the right bank of the Rio Potengy, Natchez, and on the 28th of November 1729 they massacred the
or Rio Grande do Norte, about 2 m. above its mouth. Pop. of French and destroyed the fort, which was immediately rebuilt,
the municipality (1890) 13,725. Natal is the starting-point of and in 1 764 was handed over to the English in accordance with
the Natal and Nova Cruz railway, and is a port of call for coast- the treaty of Paris, and became Fort Panmure; in 1779 it was
wise steamers, which usually anchor outside the bar. It is a turned over to the Spanish, who held it until 1798, when they
stagnant, poorly built town of one-storeyed houses and mud- withdrew and United States troops occupied the place. Under
walled cabins, with few public edifices and business houses of Spanish rule Natchez was the seat of government of a large district,
a better type. The only industry of note is the manufacture and from 1798 to 1802 and from 1817 to 1821 it was the capital of
of cotton. The exports are chiefly sugar and cotton. Natal was Mississippi. It was chartered as a city in 1803. On the 7th of
founded in 1597 as a military post to check an illicit trade in May 1840 a large part of the city was destroyed by a tornado,
Brazil-wood. In 1633 it was occupied by the Dutch, who but it was soon rebuilt, and at the outbreak of the Civil War was
remained until 1654. It became the capital of a province in a place of considerable wealth and culture. For several years it
1820. In early works it is sometimes termed Cidade dos Reis was the home of General John Anthony Quitman (1799-1858).
(City of the Kings). Natchez surrendered to Union forces during the Vicksburg
NATANZ, a minor province of Persia, situated in the hilly campaigns, first on the I2th of May 1862, and again on the
district between Isfahan and Kashan, and held in fief by the I3th of July 1863. On the 2nd of September 1862 the
family of the Hissam es Saltaneh (Sultan Murad Mirza, d. 1882). Union iron-clad " Essex," commanded by William David
It contains eighty-two villages and hamlets, has a revenue of Porter, bombarded the city and put an end to the commercial
about 4000, and a population of about 23,000. It is divided importance of the river front section.
into four districts: Barzrud, Natanzrud, Tarkrud and Badrud. NATHANAEL, a character in the New Testament, who appears
Natanz pears are famous throughout the country. The western in John i. 45 sqq. as one of the first disciples of Jesus. In John
part of the province is traversed from north to south by the xxi. 2 he is described as belonging to Cana of Galilee. The
old high-road between Kashan and Isfahan, with the well-known account of his call reveals to us a man of a deeply spiritual
stations ofKuhrud (7140 ft.) and So (7560 ft.). This road was and sincere nature. Otherwise we know nothing beyond the
practically abandoned when the Indian government telegraph mention of his name as one of the seven to whom, after the
line, which ran along it, was removed to a road farther east in Resurrection, Christ revealed himself at the sea of Tiberias
1906. The capital of the little province is NATANZ, a large village (John xxi. 2). But the interest he has evoked is shown by the
with a population of about 3000, situated 69 m. north of Isfahan, attempts to identify him with other New Testament characters.
at an elevation of 5670 ft. It has an old mosque, with a minaret Of these the one which has found most favour sees in him
123 ft. in height, built in 1315. the apostle Bartholomew (q.v.). The actual identification must
NATCHEZ, a city and the county-seat of Adams county, however remain a matter of pure conjecture. Still less can
Mississippi, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river, about 100 m. S.W. be said for the attempts to find in Nathanael another
of Jackson. Pop. (1890) 10,101, (1900) 12,210, of whom 7090 name for the apostle Matthew, or for Matthias, or for Paul " the
266 NATHUBHOY, SIR M. NATIONAL DEBT
Fourth Gospel of ceremonial usage. In Europe the chief national anthems
apostle of visions," or even for the writer of the
himself. are: The United Kingdom:
"
God save the king " (see below);
"
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the story of Nathanael's call see Archbishop France: The Marseillaise," by Rouget de Lisle; Germany:
Trench, Studies in the Gospels, No. 2, and on his character, J. H. Heil dir im Siegeskranz," words by Balthasar Gerhard
Newman's Sermons for the Festivals of the Church, No. 27. "
God save the King "; Switzerland:
Schumacher, music of
NATHUBHOY, SIR MANGALDAS (1832-1890), Seth or head Rufst du, mein Vaterland," music of
"
God save the King ";
of the Kapol Bania caste, well known for their thrift and keen Italy: the
"
Royal March
"
by G. Gabetti; Austria:
"
Gott
commercial instincts. He was born on the isth of October words L. L. music
erhalte unsern Kaiser," by Haschka, by
1832, of a family whose ancestors emigrated from Diu to "
Isten aid meg a Magyart "; Belgium:
Haydn; Hungary:
Bombay soon after Bombay came into British possession. His "La Brabanconne," by F. Campenhout; Holland:
"
Wien
grandfather, Ramdas Manordas, amassed a considerable fortune, Nierlansch "; Denmark:
"
Heil dir, dem Liebenden," words
which, owing to the premature death of his father, came into "
God save the King," and " King
by H. Harries, music of
the sole possession of Mangaldas at the age of eleven. He had
Kristian stod ved hojen mast," words by Ewald, music by
to take charge of the business in early life, though he gave some Sweden:
"
Ur Svenska Russia:
Hartman; hjertans";
time to English studies. On the death of his wife he established "
Bozhe Zaria chrany," words by J. J. Canas, music by D.
a dispensary at Kalyan in her memory and also a special female "
Traeasca Regale," words by V. Alexandri,
Jenko; Rumania:
ward in connexion with the David Sassoon hospital in Poona. music by E. A. Hiibsch; Spain:
" Himno de
Riego," music
As a merchant Mangaldas was upright and successful. In social " "
by Herta. In the United Slates, the Star Spangled Banner
matters he stood forth as a reformer, and to him the change to "
(1814; words by F.S. Key, music by J. S. Smith) and
Hail
election from hereditary succession to the headship of the caste
Columbia " (1798; words by Joseph Hopkinson, music by
is due. In 1862 he founded a fellowship in Bombay university while the tune
Fyles) share the duties of a national anthem,
to allow graduates to spend some years in Europe. A bequest " " "
of God save the King is sung to words beginning My
in his will enabled the university to establish seven similar
country, 'tis of thee," by Samuel F. Smith (1808-1895).
scholarships. He took keen interest in learning, and in such The most celebrated of all national anthems is the English
institutions as the Asiatic and geographical societies. In 1866 "
God save the King." which is said to have been first sung
he was nominated to the legislative council and sat till 1874.
as his own composition by Henry Carey in 1740; and a version
In 1867 he revived the Bombay association, a political body,
was assigned by W. Chappell (Popular Music) to the Harmonia
over which he presided for a time. In 1872 he was made C.S.I., now
Anglicana of 1742 or 1743, but no copy exists and this is
and in 1875 the dignity of Knight Bachelor was conferred on doubted. Words and music were printed in the Gentleman's
him. Besides a large donation to the Indian Famine Fund,
Magazine for October 1745. There has been much controversy
Sir Mangaldas is known to have expended 500,000 on charities.
as to the authorship, which is complicated by the fact that
He died at the gth of March 1890.
Bombay on Such are
earlier forms of the air and the words are recorded.
NATICK, a township of S.E. Middlesex county, Massachusetts, an " Ayre " of 1619, attributed to John Bull, who has long been
U.S.A., on the S.E. end of Cochituate Lake. Pop. (1890) 9118; credited with the origin of the anthem; the Scottish carol,
(IQOO) 9488, of whom 1788 were foreign-born; (1910 census) " O
thou man," in Ravenscroft's Melismala, 1611;
Remember,
The area of the township is 1 2 -375sq.nl. The township's " "
9866. the ballad Franklin is fled away (printed 1669; and a
largest village, also named Natick, lying 18 m. W.S.W. of Boston,
piece in Purcell's Choice Collection for the Harpsichord (1696).
is served by the Boston &
Albany railroad; it has the Walnut The words or part of them are also found in various forms from
Leonard Morse hospital, and a public
Hill preparatory school, the
the 1 6th century. The question was discussed in Richard
library, the Morse institute, which was given by Mary Ann Clarke's Account of the National Anthem (1822), and has been
Morse (1825-1862) and was built in 1873. In the village of God
South Natick is the Bacon Free Library (1880), in which is
reinvestigated by Dr W. H. Cummings in his save the
King (1902). Bull, in the general opinion of musical
Carey and
housed the Historical, Natural History and Library Society. but in his Minstrelsy of England
historians, divide the credit;
In 1905 the factory product was valued at $3,453,094; the
(1901) Frank Kidson introduced a new claimant, James Oswald,
boots and shoes manufactured in 1005 were valued at $2,896,110
a Scotsman who settled in London in 1742, and worked for
or 83-9% of the town's total, the output of brogans being
Other distinctive manufactures are shirts John Simpson, the publisher of the early copies of God save the
especially important.
" King', and who became chamber composer to George III. What
and base-balls. Natick is the Indian name, signifying our
" appears to be certain is that 1745 is the earliest date assignable
land," or t hilly land," of the site (originally part of Dedham) to the substantial national anthem as we know it, and that
" "
granted in 1650 to John Eliot, for the praying Indians.
both words and music had been evolved out of earlier forms.
There was an Indian church in Natick, at what is now called
" Bull's is the earliest form of the air; Carey's claim to the re-
South Natick or Oldtown," from 1660 to 1716; and for some
modelling of the anthem rests on an unauthoritative tradition;
years the community was governed, in accordance with the
" "
rulers
and, on general probabilities, Oswald is a strong candidate.
eighteenth chapter of Exodus, by rulers of tens,"
" The tune was adopted by Germany and by Denmark before
of fifties," and rulers of hundreds." Until 1719 the Indians
the end of the i8th century.
held the land in common. In 1735 the few Indians remaining
NATIONAL DEBT. Details as to the recent figures of the
were put under guardianship. The township owns a copy
national debts of individual countries are given under the
of Eliot's Indian Bible. An Eliotmonument was erected in
heading of each country, and the reader is also referred to the
1847 on the Indian burying-ground near the site of the Indian article FINANCE. Here the subject is considered in its technical
church, now occupied by a Unitarian church. Of the Eliot
aspects including the special character of the institution, the
oaks, made famous by Longfellow's sonnet, one was cut down different classes of debt, the various methods of raising loans,
in 1842, the other still stands. Henry Wilson learned to make
interest, funding systems, comparative statistics of national
shoes here, and in the presidential campaign in 1840 gained the
" debts and other points.
sobriquet of the Natick cobbler." By the colonial authorities
National debt is so universal that it has been described as
Natick was considered as a " plantation " until the establishment
the first stage of a nation towards civilization. A nation, so
of the church; in 1762 the parish (erected in 1745) became a
far as its finances are concerned, may be regarded as a corporate
district, and in 1781 this was incorporated as a town.
See
"
Natick," by S. D. Hosmer, Daniel Wight and Austin Bacon, body or even as an individual. Like the one or the other it may
in vol. 2 of S. A. Drake's History of Middlesex County (Boston, 1880) ;
borrow money at rates of interest, and with securities, general
and Oliver N. Bacon, History of the Town of Natick (Boston, 1856). or special, proportionate to its resources, credit and stability.
NATIONAL ANTHEMS OR HYMNS. The selection of some But, while in this respect there are certain points of analogy
particular songs, words and music, as the formal expression between a state and an individual, there are important points of
of national patriotism, is a comparatively modern development difference so far as the question of debt is concerned. A state,
NATIONAL DEBT 267
forexample, may be regarded as imperishable, and its debt as a of England were wont to exact from the Jews were really of
permanent institution which it is not bound to liquidate at any the character of forced loans, though the method has never been
definite period, the interest, unless specially stipulated, being used in England in modern times so extensively as on the
thus of the nature of transferable permanent annuities. While continent. There the sum sought to be obtained in this way has
an individual who borrows engages to pay interest to the lender never been anything like realized. In 1793, for example, a loan
personally, and to reimburse the entire debt by a certain date, of this class was imposed in France, on the basis of income;
a state may have an entirely different set of creditors every six and of the milliard (francs) which it was sought to raise only
months, and may make no stipulation whatever with regard to 100 millions were realized. In Austria and Spain, also, recourse
the principal. A state, moreover, is the sole judge of its own has been had at various times to forced loans, but invariably
solvency, and is not only at liberty either to repudiate its debts with unsatisfactory results. Other methods of a more or less
or compound with its creditors, but even when perfectly solvent compulsory character have been and are made use of in various
may materially alter the conditions on which it originally states for obtaining money, which, as they involve the payment
borrowed. These distinctions explain many of the peculiarities of interest, may be regarded as of the nature of loans; but the
of national debts as contrasted with those of individuals debt incurred by such methods is comparatively insignificant,
though a nation, like an individual, may by reckless bad faith and some of the methods adopted are peculiarly irritating and
utterly destroy its credit and exhaust its borrowing powers. mischievous. On the other hand, it has occasionally been
A well-organized state ought to have within itself the means of attempted to raise voluntary loans by appeals to a nation's
meeting all its ordinary expenses; where this is not the case, patriotism; the method has been confined almost exclusively
either through insufficiency of resources or maladministration, to France. After the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 appeals were
and where borrowing is resorted to for what may be regarded as thus made to the patriotism of French capitalists to buy 5%
current expenses, a state imperils, not only its credit, but, when direct from the government at par, at a time when the French 5 %
any crisis occurs, its very existence; in illustration of this we need were selling at 80; but the results were quite insignificant.
only refer to the cases of Turkey in Europe and some of the states In short, the only economically sound method of meeting ex-
of Central and South America. Even for meeting emergencies penses which the ordinary resources of a state cannot meet is
it is not always inevitable that a state should incur debt; its by borrowing in the open market on the most advantageous terms
ordinary resources, from taxation or from state property, may obtainable. On this normal method of borrowing, loans are
so exceed its ordinary expenses as to enable it to accumulate divided into different categories, though there are really only
a fund for extraordinary contingencies. This, it would seem, was two main which may be designated perpetual and
classes,
a method commonly adopted in ancient states. The Athenians, terminable. Borrowing in quasi-perpetuity has hitherto been
for example, amassed 10,000 talents in the interval between the the mode adopted by most states in the creation of the bulk of
Persian and the Peloponnesian wars, and the Lacedaemonians their debt. Not that any state ever borrows with the avowed
are said to have done the same. At Susa and Ecbatana Alexander intention of never paying off debts; but either no definite
found a great treasure which had been accumulated by Cyrus. period for reimbursement is fixed, or the b'mit has been so
In the early days of Rome the revenue from certain sources was extended as to be practically perpetual, or in actual practice
accumulated as a sacred treasure in the temple of Saturn; the debt has been got rid of by the creation of another of equal
and we know that when Pompey left Italy he made the mistake amount under similar or slightly differing conditions as to interest.
of leaving behind him the public treasury, which fell into the Of course a state is not bcund to retain any part of its debt as
hands of Caesar. In later times, also, the more prudent emperors a perpetual burden; it is at liberty to liquidate whenever it suits
were in the habit of amassing a hoard. We find that the method its convenience. This quasi-perpetuity of debt in the case of a
of accumulating reserves prevailed among some of the early state in a sound financial condition involves no hardship upon its
French kings, even down to the time of Henry IV. This system creditors, who may at any moment realize their invested capital
long prevailed in Prussia. Frederick II., when he ascended the by selling their titles as creditors in the
open money market, it
throne, found in the treasury a sum of 8,700,000 thalers, and may be at the price they paid, or it may be a little below or a
it is estimated that at his death he left behind him a hoard of little above it, according to the state of the market at the time.
from 60 to 70 million thalers. And similarly, in our own time, Loans, again, contracted on the terminable principle are of
of the five milliards of indemnity paid by France as a result of various classes; the chief of these are (i) life annuities, (2)
the Franco-German War, 150 millions were set apart to recon- terminable annuities, (3) loans repayable by instalments at
stitute the traditional war-treasury. The German empire, certain intervals, (4) loans repayable entirely at a fixed date.
apart from the individual states which comprise it, had in 1882 From the time of William III. life and terminable annuities
a debt of about 24,000,000, while its invested funds amounted have been a favourite mode in England either of borrowing
t 37>39 O OO
> ,including a war-treasure of 6,000,000. The money or of commuting, and thus gradually paying off, the
majority of economists disapprove of such an accumulation of existing funded debt. At first, and indeed until comparatively
funds by a state as a bad financial policy, maintaining that the recent times, the system of life annuities resulted in serious loss
remission of a proportionate amount of taxation would be much to the country, owing to the calculation of the rate of annuity
more for the real good of the nation. At the same time the on too high a scale, a result arising from imperfect data on which
possession of a moderate war-fund, it must be admitted, could to base estimates of the average duration of life. The system of
not but give a state a great advantage in the case of a sudden life annuities was sometimes combined in England with that of
war. In the case of England, apart from the private hoardings perpetual annuities, or interest on the permanent debt the
of a few sovereigns, there does not seem to have existed any life annuity forming a sort of additional inducement to lenders
deliberately accumulated public treasure; before the time of of limited means to invest their money. At one time the form
William and Mary English monarchs borrowed money occasion- of life annuities known as tontine was much in vogue both in
ally from Jews and from the city of London, but emergencies England and France, the principle of the tontine being that the
were generally met by " benevolences " and increased imposts. proceeds of the total amount invested by the contributors
All modern states, it may be said, have been compelled to should be divided among the survivors, the last survivor receiving
have recourse to loans, either to meet war expenses, to carry out the whole interest or annuity. The results of this system were
great public undertakings or to make up the recurrent deficits of not, however, encouraging to the state. In England, at least,
a mismanaged revenue. Resources obtained in this way are the terminable annuity has been a favourite mode of borrowing
what constitute national debt proper. Loans have been divided from the time of William III.; it has been generally conjoined
into forced and voluntary. Forced loans with a low rate of permanent interest on the sum borrowed.
can, of course, only be
raised within the bounds of the Thus in 1700 the interest on the consolidated debt amounted
borrowing country; and, apart
from the injustice which is sure to attend such an impost, it is to only 260,000, while the terminable annuities payable
always economically mischievous. The loans which the kings amounted to 308,407. In 1780 a loan of 12 millions was raised
268 NATIONAL DEBT
difficult to keep even a direct loan out of their hands. The
at 4%at par, with the additional benefit of an annuity of majority
pf loans, therefore, are negotiated by one or more of these houses,
i, i6s. 3d. %
for eighty years. Even so late as the Crimean
and the name of Rothschild is familiar to every one in connexion
War in 1855, a loan of 16 millions at 3%
at par was contracted, with such transactions. By this method a borrowing state can
the contributors receiving in addition an annuity of 143. 6d. % assure itself of having the proceeds of the loan with the least possible
for thirty years. delay and with the minimum of trouble. A loan may be issued at,
The third method of contracting terminable loans, that of above, or below par, though generally it is either at or below par
" "
par being the normal or theoretical price of a single share in the
gradual repayment or amortization within a certain limit of loan, the sum which the borrowing government undertakes to pay
years, has been a favourite one among certain nations, and back for each share on reimbursement, without discount or premium.
specially commends itself to those whose credit is at a low ebb. Very generally, as an inducement to investors, a loan is offered at a
When the final term of repayment is fixed upon, a calculation is greater or less discount, according to the credit of the borrowing
government. Sometimes a state may offer a loan to the highest
easily made as to how much is to be paid half-yearly until the bidders; for example, the city of Auckland in 1875 invited sub-
expiry of the term, so that at the end the whole, principal and scriptions through the Bank of New Zealand to a loan of 100,000
interest, will have been paid. At first, of course, the amount at 6%; offers were made of six times the amount, but only those
were accepted -which were at the rate of 98% or above. The rate of
paid will largely represent interest, but, as at each half-yearly
interest offered generally depends on the credit of the state issuing
drawing of the numbers of the bonds to be finally paid off the the loan. England, for example, would have no difficulty in raising
principal will be gradually reduced, there will be more and more any amount at 3 % or even less, while less stable states may have to
money set free from interest for the reduction of the actual debt. pay 8 or 9%. The nominal percentage is by no means, however,
This method, as we have said, has its advantages, and when always an index of the cost of a loan to a state, as the history of
the debt of England disastrously shows. During the l8th century
conjoined with stipulations as to liberty of conversion to debt various expedients were employed, besides that of terminable
bearing a lower rate of interest than that originally offered, and annuities already referred to, to raise money for the great wars
when the bonds are not issued at a figure much below par, of the period, at an apparently low percentage. For example, from
might be the most satisfactory method of raising money for a 3 to 5% would be offered for a loan, the actual amount of stock
" cent, allotted being sometimes 107 J or even in; so that
state under certain emergencies. What is known as the Morgan per
" between 1776 and 1785, for the 91,763,842 actually borrowed by
loan of France in 1870 was contracted on such conditions. the government, 115,267,993 was to be paid back. In 1797 a loan
The form of temporary loan,' that repayable in bulk at a
last of 1,620,000 was contracted, for every 100 of which actually
fixed date, is one which, when the sum is of considerable amount, subscribed, at 3%, the sum of 219 was allotted to the lender.
is apt to be attended with serious disadvantages. The repayment In !793 a 3% loan of 4j millions was offered at the price of 72 %,
the government thus making itself liable for 6,250,000. Greatly
may have to be made at a time when a state may not be in a owing to this reckless method the debt of Great Britain in 1815
position to meet it, and so to keep faith with its creditors may amounted to over 900 millions. France in this respect has been
have to borrow at a higher rate in order to pay their claims. quite as extravagant as England; many of her loans during the
It has, however, worked well in the United States, most of the igth century were issued at from 52$ to 84%, one indeed (1848)
debt of which has been contracted on the principle of optional
so low as 45 % as a rule with 5 % interest. The enormous and
embarrassing increase of the French debt during the igth century
payment at the end of a short period, say five years, and com- was doubtless greatly due to this disastrous system. Nearly every
pulsory payment at the end of a longer period, say twenty years. European state and most of the Central and South American states
Thus the loan of 515 millions of dollars contracted in 1862 was have at one time or another aggravated their debts by this method
of borrowing, and got themselves into difficulty with their creditors.
issued on this principle, at 6 %, and so with other loans between
Financiers almost unanimously maintain that in the long run it is
that year and 1868. In European states, however, the risks much better for a state to borrow at high interest at or near par,
of embarrassment are too great to permit of the application than at an apparently low interest much below par. A state of even
of this method on an extensive scale; and for loans of great the highest rank may find itself in the midst of a crisis that will for
a time shake its credit; but when the crisis is past and its credit
amount the methods most likely to yield satisfactory results revives it will be in a much more sound position with a high interest
are loans bearing quasi-perpetual interest, or those repayable for a debt contracted at par than with a comparatively low interest
by instalments on the basis of half-yearly drawings within a on a debt much in excess of what it really received. If a state, for
certain period. example, borrows at par at 6% when its credit is low, it may easily
What are known as lottery loans are greatly favoured on the when again in a flourishing condition reduce the interest on its debt
to 4 or even 3 %. The United States government actually did so
continent, either as an independent means of raising money, or with the debt it had to contract at the time of the Civil War. This
as an adjunct to any of the methods referred to above. These method of reducing the burden of a debt is evidently no injustice to
must not be confounded with the lottery pure and simple, in the creditors of a government, when used in a legitimate way. A
state is at liberty at any time to pay off its debts, and, if it can
which the contributors run the risk of losing the whole of their
investment. The lottery loan has been found to work well for
borrow at 3% to pay off a 6% debt, it may with perfect justice
offer its creditors the option of payment of the principal or of holding
small sums, when the interest is but little below what it would it at a reduced interest. Government debts are, however, sometimes
have been in an ordinary loan, and when the percentage thus reduced after a fashion by no means so legitimate as this. Other
states have been even more unprincipled, and have got rid of their
set aside to form prizes of varying amounts forms but a small
debts at one sweep by the simple method of repudiation.
fraction of the whole interest payable. The principle is that When a state has a variety of loans at varying rates of interest,
each contributor of such a losin has a greater or less chance of it may consolidate them into a single debt at a uniform interest.
drawing a prize of varying amount, over and above the repayment For example, in 1751 several descriptions of English debt were con-
of his capital with interest. solidated into one fund bearing a uniform interest of 3 %, an opera-
" "
tion which gave origin to the familiar term consols (" consoli-
What are known in England as exchequer bills and treasury dated annuities "). In the early days of the English national debt,
bills maybe regarded as loans payable at a fixed period of short a special tax or fund was appropriated to the payment of the interest
"
duration, from three months upwards, and bearing very in- on each particular loan. This was the original meaning of the
funds," a term which has now come to the national debt
significant interest, even so low as \/ .
They are a useful "signify "
funded as applied to a
means of raising money for immediate wants and for local loans, generally. So also the origin of the term
debt which has been recognized as at least quasi-permanent, and for
and form handy investments for capitalists who are reserving the payment of the interest on which regular provision is made.
their funds for a special purpose. Exchequer bonds are simply Unfunded or floating debt, on the other hand, means strictly loans
a special form of the funded debt, to be paid off generally within for which no permanent provision requires to be made, which have
been obtained for temporary purposes with the intention of paying
a certain period of years.
them off within a brief period. Exchequer and treasury bills are
included in this category, and such other moneys in the hands of a
There are two principal methods of issuing or effecting a loan. government as it may be required to reimburse at any moment.
Either the state may appeal directly to capitalists and invite sub- Where a government is the recipient of savings banks deposits, these
scriptions, or it may delegate the negotiation to one or more bankers. may be included in its floating debt, and so also may the paper-
The former method has been occasionally followed in France and money which has been issued so largely by some governments. A
Russia, but in practice it has been found to be attended with so state with an excessive floating debt must be regarded as in a very
many disadvantages to the borrowing state or city that the best critical financial condition.
financial authorities consider it unsound. The great banking- National debt, again, is divided into external and internal, accord-
houses have such a command over the money-market that it is ing as the loans have been raised within or without the country
NATIONAL DEBT 269
some states, generally the smaller ones, having a considerable Kingdom (756 millions) stood second to that of France (1000
amount of exclusively internal debt, though it is obvious that the millions), in 1900 it stood third to France and Russia; whereas
bulk of national debts are both external and internal.
in 1883 its weight per head of population was third, in 1900 it
We referred above to various ways of reducing the burden of a
debt, and also to methods of contracting loans by which within a was eleventh; whereas in 1883 its annual charge stood second,
certain period they are amortized or extinguished. Most states, in. 1 900 itstood fourth; and whereas the weight of the charge
however, are burdened with enormous quasi-permanent debts, the
per head of population in 1883 was fifth, in 1900 it was eleventh.
reduction or extinction of which gives ample scope for the financial
skill of statesmen. A favourite method of accomplishing this is by The indebtedness of the great British dependencies, on the
the establishment of what is known as a sinking fund, formed by other hand, had increased from 302 millions to 544 millions
the setting aside of a certain amount of national revenue for the sterling, or by 242 millions; and the local (municipal) debt of
reduction of the principal of the debt. (J- S. K.) Great Britain had risen from about ico millions to upwards of
The following table shows the general state of the world's 300 millions.
public indebtedness at the beginning of the 2oth century, divided It is interesting to recall the history of the British national
according to the more important countries, the bracketed debt during the igth century. The debt at the close of the
figures in black type indicating the position of the country Napoleonic war (1816) was nearly 887 millions sterling, History
referred to under each heading in the list. The figures are given and at the beginning of 1900 this debt had been of
for the year 1900, as more representative, in a case
1
reduced to 621 millions, or a decrease of 266 millions British
by preference ***"
like this, than for some later years; for the Boer War, as regards notwithstanding interim additions of about 367
the United Kingdom, and also the Russo-Japanese War, intro- millions, which made the gross reduction during that period
duced new debt and new considerations, hardly fair to the 633 millions sterling, an amount actually larger than the whole
comparison, while this stands at the end of a long period of
2
(dead- weight ) debt at the end of the century. No country
peace. The figures in every case are not to be supposed to be (except the United States, to a smaller amount) has ever
absolutely accurate; statistics of national debts differ, often redeemed its obligations on such a scale, and this was done
remarkably, and it is practically impossible to give a perfectly while all other European countries of similar standing were
satisfactory comparison, owing partly to difficulties of computing piling up debt.
the exchange, partly to inaccurate accounts, and partly to the This enormous reduction was effected at different rates of
varieties of debt (reproductive or non-reproductive, &c.). speed. Between 1817 and 1830, when what was known as
The Principal Public Debts of the World, 1900.
Country.
270 NATIONAL DEBT
the amount required for payment of interest forming a (new) amount more was practically locked up by being held by trustees,
or by banks, insurance societies, &c. The savings banks deposits,
sinking fund devoted to repayment of capital. This fixed charge
increasing as they did by about 1,000,000 per month (owing partly
was gradually reduced from about 29 millions to 26 millions in to the raising in 1894 of the maximum limit), had to be invested
1888, to 25 millions in 1890, and to 23 millions in 1899. in government securities; and the compulsory activity of the
The amount paid off during this period by means of old government as a buyer of consols, both on this account and also
for sinking fund purposes (in order to obtain stock to redeem debt
sinking fund, terminable annuities and new sinking fund, down on the increased scale already indicated) operated as an abnormal
to March 1900, was 155,238,639, or an annual average of cause for sending the price of consols high above par. Even at that
6,468,276. figure (the average prices for consols being loij'j in 1894, 1065 in
It will be observed that the burden of the debt incurred 1895, 119! in 1896, ii2j| in 1897, nojjj in 1898 and io6J having
fallen owing to war prospects in 1899) it was difficult for the govern-
previously to 1817 has thus been borne very unequally by ment brokers to obtain consols, and it was principally owing to this
"
different ages of posterity." While the generations immedi- state of things that in 1899 Sir Michael Hicks-Beach reduced the
ately succeeding the Napoleonic war paid off about 2,000,000 fixed annual charge for the debt (and pro tanto the new sinking fund)
a year, the taxpayers between 1876 and 1900 paid at three from 25,000,000 to 23,000,000.
times that rate. They did so largely without knowing it, since It may be useful to give the figures for the British natipnal
a large part of the amount was wrapped up in the terminable debt in 1902, after the disturbance due to the South African
annuities; but it is very questionable justice that so large a War. During the years 1900 and 1901 the new sinking fund was
proportion of the burden should have been imposed upon suspended, as well as the payments on the terminable annuity
them. debt applicable to repayment of capital (except in so far as
The great bulk of the funded national debt consists of what annuities to individuals were concerned) so that the debt was
;
"
are known as consols." This name dates from 1751, when not reduced, as it would otherwise have been, by 4,547,000 in
nine different government annuities at 3% were 1900 and by 4,681,000 in 1901. On the contrary, it was
Consols.
consolidated into one, amounting to 9,137,821. increased by fresh borrowings. Consols were raised (in 1901 and
"
These
"
consolidated annuities formed the germ of what has 1902) to the extent of 92,000,000; a
"
War Loan " of 2$%
since become the type of British government stock. At the same stock and bonds, redeemable in 1910, was raised (1900) to the
time some of the annuities at a higher rate of interest were amount of 30,000,000; 2j% exchequer bonds were raised
combined and the interest reduced to 3%, and this stock (in 1900) to the amount of 24,000,000, and treasury bills (in
"
was known as reduced," the two 3%
stocks remaining 1899 and 1900), 13,000,000. The total war borrowing amounted
side by side, until in 1854 the 3j% government stock was accordingly to 159,000,000, raised at a discount of (6,585,000)
also converted into 3%, under the style of "new threes." 4-14%. This includes the whole new borrowing in 1902, a
"Consols," "reduced" and "new threes" formed thenceforth portion of which was intended after the peace to be paid back
a solid body of British 3%
stock, until in 1888 the whole in the current year; but for this no allowance can here be made.
amount was converted (see Conversions below) by Mr (after- The accompanying table shows the totals for the " dead-weight
"
wards Lord) Goschen into 2j%. "Consols" were added to debt in 1900, 1901 and 1902, and, for convenience, also the
"
from time to time when fresh loans were needed: from other capital liabilities."
39 millions in 1771 they rose to 71 millions
in 1781, to 101 millions in 1783, 278
millions in i&oi, 334 millions in 1811,
and 400 millions in 1858; but in 1888
they had decreased, by redemptions, to
"
322,681,035. Reduced " were also added
to:from 17 millions in 1751 they rose to
164 millions in 1815, and then gradually
NATIONAL DEBT 271
have command of sufficient funds for the
purpose of paying off with disfavour, and both the Bank and the East India Company
the stockholders, or should be able to raise those funds by opposed it. But the pens of the government pamphleteers were
busily occupied in showing the advantages of the offer, and at the
borrowing at a rate of interest lower than that borne by the close of the three months acceptances had been received from the
stock. Any circumstances which might tend to raise the price holders of nearly 39,000,000 of the stocks, or more than two-thirds
of the stock above par would also assist the government in of the whole. A further opportunity was afforded to waverers by a
second act (23 Geo. II. c. 22), which allowed three months more for
raising its redemption money on more favourable terms. When
consideration; but for holders accepting under this act the inter-
the amount of stock to be dealt with is large, the raising by a
mediate period of 3J% interest was reduced from seven years to
fresh loan of the amount required for redemption would occasion five. These terms brought in an additional 15,600,000 of stock;
great disturbance. A
more convenient method is the conversion and the balance left outstanding, amounting to less thanj 3 J millions,
of the existing stock to a lower rate of interest by agreement was paid off at par by means of a new loan. The annual saving of
interest on the stock converted was at first 272,000, increasing to
with the stockholders, whose reluctance to accept a reduction
544,000 after seven years.
of income is overborne by their knowledge that the power of For nearly three-quarters of a century no further conversion was
redemption exists and will be put in force if necessary. The attempted. In that period the total debt had been increased tenfold,
and the practice of borrowing in times of war by the issue
opportunity for conversion may be looked for when the price of a
of an inflated capital, bearing nominally a low rate of
redeemable stock stands steadily at or barely above par. Observa-
interest, prevented recourse to conversion as a means of reducing
tion of the movements' in the price of other securities will serve the burden after peace was restored. But in 1822 Mr Vansittart
to show whether this stationary price represents the real market who four years earlier had effected a conversion in the opposite
value of the stock, or whether that value is subject to depression direction, turning 27,000,000 of stock from 3 inio 3 j %, in order to
obtain from the holders an advance of 3,000,000 without adding to
owing to an expectation of the stock being converted or redeemed. the capital of the debt was able to deal with the 5 %. These stocks
Accordingly, the course of prices of other government stocks amounted to 152,000,000 out of a total funded debt of 795,000,000.
which are free from the liability to redemption, of the stocks of The prices at which the chief denominations of government stocks
and the colonies, and of the large municipalities, stood in the market in the early part of 1822 indicated a normal rate
foreign countries
of interest ot more than 4 but considerably less than 4i%. In these
must be watched by government in order to determine, first,
whether the conversion of a redeemable stock is feasible, and,
circumstances, to propose the conversion of the 5 % stocks to 4i %
would probably have been futile, unless the new stock were guaran-
secondly, to what extent the reduction of the interest in the teed for a long period, as holders would have stood in fear of a
stock may be carried. speedy further reduction. Nor could the government hope to suc-
ceed in a reduction to 4%. Mr Vansittart's plan was to offer 105
The
credit for the first measure of conversion belongs to Walpole, of stock bearing 4 % in exchange for 100 of 5 % stock, thus adding
though it was carried through by Stanhope, his successor as chan- slightly tojthe capital of the debt, but effecting a large annual saving
cellor of the exchequer. In 1714 the legal rate of interest in interest. These terms were highly successful. Holders of nearly
for. private transactions, which had been fixed at 6% 150,000,000 accepted, leaving less than 3,000,000 of the stock to
in the year of the Restoration, was reduced to 5%
by the act 12 be paid off, and the annual saving obtained was 1,197,000. The
Anne, stat. 2, c. 16. But the bulk of the national debt still bore new 4 % stock was made irredeemable for seven years (act 3, Geo.
interest at 6%, the doubtful security of the throne and the too IV c. 9).
frequent irregularities in public payment having hitherto precluded There were, however, other 4 % stocks, amounting to 76,000,000,
any considerable borrowing at lower rates. Walpole saw that the which were not secured against redemption. Two years later, the
first requirement was to give increased confidence to the public conditions being favourable for their conversion, the act
creditors. Three acts were passed dealing respectively with debts 5 Geo. IV. c. 24 was passed, offering holders in exchange
due to the general public, to the Bank of England and to the South a 3i % stock, irredeemable for five years. The offer was accepted
Sea Company. Three separate funds the general fund, the aggre- as regards 70,000,000, and the remaining 6,000,000 paid off, the
gate fund and the South Sea fund were assigned to the service annual saving on interest being 381,000.
of the several classes of debt, each of these funds being credited In 1830 the guarantee given to the 4% stock of 1822 had expired,
with the produce of specified taxes, which were made permanent and the stock stood at a price of 1025. Mr Goulburn decided to
for the purpose; and it was further provided that any surplus of attempt its conversion without delay, and accordingly by
the funds, after payment of the interest of the debts, should be the act ii Geo. IV. c. 13 holders were offered in exchange
applied in reduction of the principal. Such was the success of this for each 100 of the stock, either 100 of a 3! % stock, irredeemable
measure that, in spite of the reduction of interest from 6 to 5% for ten years, or 70 of a 5 % stock, irredeemable for forty-two years,
which was also enacted, the passing of the acts was followed by a these two options
being considered of approximately equal value.
rise in the price of stocks. A
curious
preliminary
to the introduction No difficulty was found in securing assent. Over 150,000,000 of the
of these measures was the passing of a resolution by the House of stock was converted, almost wholly into the 3i % stock; the balance
Commons, which invited advances not exceeding 600,000, to be of less than 3,000,000 was paid off, and an annual saving of 754,000
repaid with interest at 4%
out of the first supplies of the year. in interest was the result.
The result showed that the time was not ripe for such a reduction It was again Mr Goulburn's fortune to carry out a large and
of interest, as only a sum of 45,000 was offered on those terms. A successful conversion in 1844. At that date the funded debt was
further resolution was then passed, substituting 5 %
as the rate of made up of 3 % and ji % stocks in the proportions of
interest, and the whole sum was at once subscribed. Besides accept- about two to one, the only other denomination being the
ing the reduction of interest on their own debts, the Bank of England trifling amount of 5 % stock created in connexion with the conver-
and the South Sea Company agreed to assist the government by sion of 1830. The price of 3% consols ranged about 98, and that
advancing 4$ millions at the reduced rate, to be employed in paying of the new 3i%, created in 1830, about 102. A reduction straight-
off any of the general creditors who might refuse assent to the con- way from 3i to 3% was not to be looked for, but it was hoped to
version. The assistance was not required, as all the creditors ensure that reduction ultimately by offering 3i% for the first few
signified assent. The debts thus dealt with amounted altogether years and a guarantee against redemption for a long term. Accord-
to about 25$ millions, and the annual saving of interest effected ingly the holders of the several 3? % stocks were offered an exchange
(including that upon a large quantity of exchequer bills for which to a new stock bearing interest at 3} % for ten years and at 3 % for
the Bank had been receiving over 7 %) was 329,000. the following twenty years. Practically the whole of the stock,
Walpole had a further opportunity of effecting a conversion in amounting to 249,000,000, was converted on these terms, only
1737. In the meantime much of the 5% debt had been reduced to 103,000 being left to be paid off at par. The immediate saving of
1749 ^ *f* ky arrangements with the Bank of England and the interest was 622,000 a year for ten years, and twice that rate in
South Sea Company, and further borrowings had taken subsequent years (acts 7 & 8 Viet. cc. 4 and 5).
place at that rate and even at 3%. In 1737 the 3% stood above Mr Gladstone's only attempt at the conversion of the debt was
par, and Sir John Barnard proposed to the House of Commons a made in his first year as chancellor of the exchequer. His primary
scheme for the gradual reduction of the 4 %. As a financial measure purpose was to extinguish some small remnants of 3%
the scheme would doubtless have succeeded; but Walpole, moved stocks which stood outside the main stocks of that de- '
apparently by consideration for his capitalist supporters, opposed nomination. The act 1 6 Viet. c. 23 offered to holders of these
and for the time defeated it. A scheme on similar lines was carried minor stocks, amounting altogether to about <)\ millions, the option
through by Pelham as chancellor of the exchequer in 1749 and em- of exchanging every 100 for either 82, los. of a 3J % stock guaran-
bodied in the act 23 Geo. II. c. I. By that act holders of the 4% teed for 40 years, or no of a 2^% stock guaranteed for the same
securities, amounting to nearly 58,000,000, were offered a con- period, or else for exchequer bonds at par. In the result stock to the
tinuance of interest at 4% for one year, followed by 3^ %
for seven amount of only about 1,500,000 was converted, and the remaining
years, during which they were guaranteed against redemption, with 8,000,000 had to be paid off at par, with some apparent loss of
a final reduction to 3 %
thereafter. It was necessary to continue capital, as the current market price of the 3 % was less than par.
the rate of 4 %for the first year, as
any objecting stockholders The failure w?s largely owing to the fact that, between the initiation
could not be paid off without a year's notice. Three months were and the execution of the scheme, the train of events leading up to
allowed for signifying assent to the proposal. At first it was viewed the Crimean War had become manifest, with unfavourable results
272 NATIONALITY NATIONAL WORKSHOPS
to the public credit. Mr Gladstone had also included, as an optional Debts, and his paper in the Stat. Soc. Jour. (1874). ; Sir E. W. Hamil-
portion of his plan, liberty to holders of the larger 3%
stocks to ton, Conversion and Redemption (1889). And for statistics of national
exchange into the new 3j and 2j%. Very little advantage was debts see the Statesman's Year-Book and the Stock Exchange
taken of this permission, but the small amount of 2j% stock then Annual.
created has been largely added to in later years by the conversion
of stocks of higher denominations held by the national debt com-
NATIONALITY, a somewhat vague term, used strictly in
missioners for the savings banks and other government funds. international law (see INTERNATIONAL LAW, PRIVATE) for the
Little better was the result of a more ambitious attempt made by status of membership in a nation or state (for the conditions of
&
Mr Childers in 1884. His offer (act 47 48 Viet. c. 23) extended which see STATE, ALLEGIANCE, NATURALIZATION, ALIEN), and
1884
to t ' le holders of all the 3 %
stocks, amounting to more in a more extended sense in political discussion to denote an
than 600 millions, but no attempt was made to compel
acceptance. There was offered in exchange for each 100 of 3% aggregation of persons claiming to represent a racial, territorial
stock either 102 of a stock at 2 J %
or 108 of a stock at 2 J %, both or some other bond of unity, though not necessarily recognized
irredeemable for twenty-one years. But the amount exchanged as an independent political entity. In this latter sense the word
into the new stocks was only 22 millions, of which more than one-
has often been applied to such people as the Irish, the Armenians
half was stock held by government departments.
The most important of all the conversions of the British debt was and the Czechs. A " nationality " in this connexion represents
effected by Mr Goschen in 1888. It applied to the whole of the 3 % a common feeling and an organized claim rather than distinct
1888 stocks, amounting to a total of 558,000,000, made up as attributes which can be comprised in a strict definition.
follows: 323,000,000 of consols, a stock which dated NATIONAL WORKSHOPS (Fr. Ateliers Nationaux), the term
from 1752, when it was formed by the consolidation of a number of
minor stocks; 69,000,000 of reduced 3%, of which the nucleus applied to the workshops established to provide work for the
was the stock reduced from 4 to 3%
by Pelham's conversion in unemployed by the French provisional government after the
!749; 166,000,000 of new 3% resulting from the conversion of revolution of 1848.' The political crisis which resulted in the
1844. All the three stocks were, and had been for a considerable abdication of Louis Philippe was naturally followed, in Paris,
time, well over par. But for the past few years they had remained
in almost a stationary position, relatively to the upward movement by an acute industrial crisis, and this, following the general
shown in the prices of the government 2j% stock, and of the stocks agricultural and commercial distress which had prevailed through-
of foreign governments, of British colonies and of the leading munici- out 1847, rendered the problem of unemployment in Paris very
palities. It was clear that the anticipation of a conversion or re-
acute. The provisional government under the influence of one of
demption scheme was weighing down consols. Direct evidence of
this fact was afforded by the course of a new its members, Louis Blanc, and on the demand of a deputation
3% stock, the local
loans stock, which Mr Goschen had created in 1887. Though bearing claiming to represent the people passed a decree (Feb. 25,
the same interest and resting upon the same ultimate security as 1848) from which the following is an extract:
consols, this stock, which had been made irredeemable for twenty- The provisional government of the French Republic undertakes
five years, rose at once to a higher level of price. The opportunity to guarantee the existence of the workmen by work. It undertakes
for a great scheme of conversion had evidently come. The risk to
to guarantee work for every citizen.
be incurred by government in undertaking the liability to pay off
such an enormous body of stock, though Iqss in comparison with the For the carrying out of this decree, Louis Blanc wanted the
resources of the nation than that which Mr Goulburn had faced in formation of a ministry of labour, but this was shelved by his
1844, was still very great, and it was rendered more formidable by
colleagues, who as a compromise appointed a government labour
the fact that holders of consols and of reduced 3% were entitled
Commission, under the presidency of Louis Blanc, with power of
at law to a year's notice before their stocks could be redeemed.
If that right of notice were to be enforced as regards any large
pro- inquiry and consultation only. The carrying out of the decree
portion of the stocks, no precaution could adequately guard against of Feb. 25th was entrusted to the minister of public works,
the risk of untoward circumstances arising to affect the operation
M. Marie, and various public works 2 were immediately started.
before the year expired. Mr Goschen proposed to offer to the
holders of each of the three stocks an exchange at par into a new The earlier stages of the national works are sufficiently interesting
stock bearing interest at 3 % for the first year, at 2f% for the next to justify the following detailed account:
"
fourteen years and at 2$ % for twenty years thereafter, the stock The workman first of all obtained a certificate from the landlord
to be irredeemable for the whole of that period, namely till 1923. of his house, or furnished apartments, showing his address, whether
Acceptance was made compulsory for holders of the new 3 %, with in Paris or the department of the Seine. This certificate was vised
the alternative of being paid off at par, as they had no claim to and stamped by the police commissary of the district. The work-
receive notice; but it was made optional for the holders of the other man then repaired to the office of the maire of his ward, and, on
two stocks, and a bonus of 53. %was offered to them as an induce- delivering this document, received in exchange a note of admission
ment to forgo their right of notice. These provisions were duly to the national works, bearing his name, residence and calling, and
embodied in the act 51 Viet. c. 2. The terms were accepted by enabling him to be received by the director of the workplaces in
practically all the holders of the new 3 %and by the great majority which vacancies existed. All went well while the number of the un-
of the holders in consols and reduced 35, the amount left outstanding
employed was less than 6000, but as soon as that number was
being only 42,000,000. To enable that balance to be dealt with, an exceeded the workmen of each arrondissement, after having visited
act was passed providing for the compulsory redemption or conver- all the open works in succession without result, returned to their
sion of the outstanding stock at the expiry of the statutory notice. maire's offices tired, starving and discontented. The workmen had
The funds required for this further operation were raised by the been promised bread when work was not to be had, which was reason-
issue of treasury bills and exchequer bonds, by temporary advances able and charitable; the great mistake was, however, then committed
from the bank and from the national debt commissioners, and by the of giving them money, and distributing it in public at the offices of
creation of an additional half-million of the new stock. In the the maires instead of distributing assistance in kind, which might
result it was only necessary to find cash for paying off dissentients have been done so easily through the agency of the bureaux de bien-
to the amount of 19,000,000. The final outcome of the whole faisance. Each maire s office was authorized to pay every un-
operation was a saving in the annual charge of interest of 1,412,000, employed workman 1-50 frs. per day on production of a ticket
increasing to twice that amount after fourteen years. showing that there was no vacancy for him in the national works.
The conversion of the consols and reduced 3% was greatly The fixed sum of 2 francs was paid to any workman engaged on the
facilitated by the exercise of a power, which the act conferred, to
public excavation work, without regard to his age, the work done
pay to recognized agents, such as stockbrokers, bankers and solicitors, or his calling. . The workman made the following simple calcu-
. .
a commission of is. 6d. % on stocks in respect of which they lodged lation, and he made it aloud The state gives me 30 sous for doing
:
'
their clients' assents. These agents were thus afforded an induce-
nothing, it pays me 40 sous when I work, so I need only work to the
ment to give their clients explanation and advice, without which extent of 10 sous.' This was .
" logical. . .
many of the fundholders would probably not have moved in the The works opened by
the minister of public works being far
matter. The commissions paid amounted to more than 234,000, distant from each other, and the workmen not being able to visit
representing stocks to the amount of over 312,000,000. The them all in turn to make certain that there were no vacancies for
government would not again be confronted with this difficulty of them, two central bureaux were established, one at the Halle-aux-
having to give long preliminary notice of the intention to convert Veaux under M. Wissocq, the other near the maire's office in the
or redeem a large portion of the debt, as it was provided by the
Conversion Act 1888 that the present consols should be redeemable 'The term is also incorrectly applied to the proposed ateliers
after 1923 on such notice and in such manner as parliament might sociauxol Louis Blanc (q.v.), state-supported co-operative productive
direct. (W. BL.; E. W. H.*) societies.
See Leroy-Beaulieu, Traile de la Science des Finances; Rau, 1
Clearing the trench of Clamart and conveying the earth to Paris
Finanzwissenschaft; M'CulIoch, On Taxation and the Funding for the construction of a railway station on the chemin de fer de
System; Hamilton, Inquiry concerning the Rise and Progress of the 1'Ouest; construction of the Paris terminus of the Paris-Chartres
English Debt; Taylor, History of Taxation in England; Fenn, railway; improvement of the navigation of the Oise: extension
Compendium of English and Foreign Funds; Dudley Baxter, National of the Sceaux railway to Orsay.
NATROLITE NATURAL BRIDGE 273
5th arrondissement in the Rue de Bondy, entrusted to M. Higonnet. The mineral also often occurs in compact fibrous aggregates,
. The workmen wenthave their tickets examined at one of
to
. .
the fibres having a divergent or radial arrangement (hence the
these bureaux; and the absence
of employment having been
1 name radiolite for one variety). From other fibrous zeolites
proved, they returned to get their 30 sous at their maires' offices."
natrolite is readily distinguished by its optical characters:
Owing to the increase in the number of those claiming work
or between crossed nicols the fibres extinguish parallel to .their
relief, disorganization set in, and both the bureaux and the length, and they do not show an optic figure in convergent
maires became the centres of disturbances, those in charge of the polarized light. Natrolite is usually white or colourless, but some-
offices being unable to control the crowds. As a consequence times reddish or yellowish. The lustre is vitreous, or in finely
M. Marie commissioned Emile Thomas, a chemist connected fibrous specimens sometimes silky. The spec. grav. is 2-2,
with the Ecole Centrale to reorganize the works. When Thomas and the hardness 55. The mineral is readily fusible, melting in
took the work in hand on the 5th of March, the number of a candle-flame, to which it imparts a yellow colour owing to the
unemployed had increased to 14,000 in addition to some 4000 presence of sodium. It is decomposed by hydrochloric acid
or 5000 employed on public works, and it was steadily on the with separation of gelatinous silica.
increase. On the i6th of March the daily pay of the workmen Natrojite occurs with other zeolites in the amygdaloidal cavities
of basic igneous rocks. The best
who were not working was reduced to i franc; work was specimens are the diverging groups
of white prismatic crystals found in compact basalt at the Puy-de-
guaranteed for at least every other day, in which case the pay Marman, Puy-de D6me, France. The largest crystals are those from
was to be 2 francs for the day. The possible usefulness of this Brevig in Norway. The walls of cavities in the basalt of the Giant's
order was stultified by the near approach of the elections, Causeway, in Co. Antrim, are frequently encrusted with slender
needles of natrolite, and similar material is found abundantly in the
the moderate and extreme sections both trying to exploit the volcanic rocks (basalt and phonolite) of Salesel, Aussig and several
dissatisfied workmen. Private industry, too, was paralysed, other places in the north of Bohemia.
the workpeople for the most part preferring i franc a day and Several varieties of natrolite have been distinguished by special
names. Fargite is a red natrolite from Glenfarg in Perthshire.
idleness, with the possibility of future benefits. Thomas, left
Bergmannite or Spreustein is an impure variety which has resulted
practically to his own resources, endeavoured to organize some
by the alteration of other minerals, chiefly sodalite, in the augite-
special workshops where artisans could be employed at their own syenite of southern Norway.
trades; but it was found almost impossible to persuade them NATTIER, JEAN MARC (1685-1766), French painter, was
to do serious work, as they knew that many of their fellows born in Paris in 1685, the son of Marc Nattier, a portrait painter,
were being paid for loafing. On the igth of May the number and of Marie Courtois, a miniaturist. He received his first
enrolled had increased to 87,942. The National Assembly had instruction from his father, and having applied himself to copying
in the meanwhile been elected, and met on the 4th of May. The
pictures at the Luxembourg Gallery, he refused to proceed to
Executive Commission was elected a few days later; Louis Blanc the French Academy in Rome, though he had taken the first
was excluded, but all the other members of the provisional prize at the Paris Academy at the age of fifteen. In 1715 he
government were on it. Blanc renewed his motion for a ministry went to Amsterdam, where Peter the Great was then staying,
of labour; this was rejected. On the isth the mob invaded the and painted portraits of the tsar and the empress Catherine, but
Assembly, and from that time the government abated their declined an offer to go to Russia. Between 1715 and 1720 he
socialist tendencies, and cast about for means to put an end to devoted himself to compositions like the " Battle of Pultawa,"
what had become a serious danger to the state as well as an which he painted for Peter the Great, and the " Purification of
exhausting drain on the treasury. On the 24th of May Thomas Phineus and of his Companions," which led to his election to
received instructions to dismiss all unmarried men under 25 the Academy. The financial collapse of 1720 caused by the
years of age who would not enlist in the army, all men who could schemes of Law all but ruined Nattier, who found himself forced
not prove six months' residence in Paris, and all who refused offers to devote his whole energy to portraiture. He became the
of private employment. Piece-work was to be established instead
painter of the artificial ladies of Louis XV.'s court. The most
of time-work, and men were to be prepared to be drafted into the notable examples of his straightforward portraiture are the
"
provinces. Thomas foretold trouble as a consequence of the Marie Leczinska " at the Dijon Museum, and a group of the
order, and it was for a time withdrawn. On the 26th of May artist surrounded by his family, dated 1730. He died in Paris
Thomas was superseded by M. Lalanne, and on the 3oth the in 1 766. Many of his pictures are in the public collections of
National Assembly decreed the substitution of piece-work for France. Thus at the Louvre is his " Magdalen " at Nantes the ;
time-work. On the 2oth of June the remainder of the proposals portrait of
"
La Camargo " and " A Lady of the Court of Louis
were approved, and the sequel was the insurrection of the 23rd XV." At Orleans a " Head of a Young Girl," at Marseilles a
of June and following days (see FRENCH HISTORY). How far portrait of
"
Mme de Pompadour," at Perpignan a portrait of
"
the real socialistic scheme of Louis Blanc would have been '"Louis XV., and at Valenciennes a portrait of " Le Due de
successful if it had been put in practice must remain a matter of Boufflers." The Versailles Museum owns an important group of
speculation. It was entered upon hastily, without any organiza- two ladies, and the Dresden Gallery a portrait of the " Mar6chal
tion, was looked upon coldly by those servants of the govern- de Saxe." At the Wallace collection Nattier is represented by
ment who ought to have assisted it, and, in the circumstances, "
The Comtesse de Dillieres," " The Bath (MdlledeClermont),"
"
was foredoomed to failure from the start. Portrait of a Lady in Blue,"
"
Marie Leczinska " and " A
AUTHORITIES. E. Thomas, Histoire des ateliers nationaux (1848) ; Prince of the House of France." In the collection of Mr Lionel
L. Blanc, Histoire de la revolution fran$aise de 1848 (1870-1880); "
Phillips are the duchess of Flavacourt as Le Silence," and the
1848 Hist, revelations' (1858) A. de Lamartine, Hist, de la resolution "
Le Point du jour." A portrait of
;
de 1848 (1849) a useful summary is given in the English Board of duchess of Chateauroux as
;
"
Trade Report on Agencies and Metltodsfor dealing with the Unemployed the Comtesse de Neubourg and her Daughter " formed part
(c. 7182, 1893). of the Vaile Collection, and realized 4500 gs. at the sale of this
NATROLITE, a mineral species belonging to the zeolite group. collection in 1903. Nattier's works have been engraved by
It is a hydrated sodium and aluminium silicate with the formula Leroy, Tardieu, Lepicie, Audran, Dupin and many other noted
NajAUSiaOio^HzO, and containing sodium (NajO, 16-3%), craftsmen.
was named natrolite by M. H. Klaproth in 1803. " Needle- "
" " "
SeeJ. M. Nattier," by Paul Mantz, in the Gazette des beaux-arts
stone or are other names, alluding to the
needle-zeolite (1894); Life of Nattier, by his daughter, Madame Tocque; Nattier,
common acicular habit of the crystals, which are often very by Pierre de Nolhac (1904, revised 1910); and French Painters of
slender and are aggregated in divergent tufts. Larger crystals the XVIIIth Century, by Lady Dilke (London, 1899).
have the form of a square prism terminated by a low pyramid: NATURAL BRIDGE, a small village of Rockbridge county,
the prism angle being nearly a right angle (88 455'), the crystals Virginia, in the western part of the state, 179 m. by rail W. of
are tetragonal in appearance, though actually orthorhombic. Richmond, and about 16 m. S.E. of Lexington, the county-seat.
There are perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of the prism. It is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio and the Norfolk & Western
1
E. Thomas, Histoire des ateliers nationaux, p. 29. railways. In the vicinity of the village, which is about 1500 ft.
274 NATURAL GAS NATURALISM
above sea-level, is the great natural curiosity from which it principles of conduct, comparable in respect of intelligibility
derives its name a bridge of natural rock 90 ft. long and from with the truths of mathematics; but already we find that in
50 to 150 ft. wide, which spans Cedar Creek at a height of 215 ft. Shaftesbury the centre of ethical interest is transferred from the
above that stream. It consists of horizontal limestone strata, Reason, conceived as apprehending either abstract moral dis-
"
and is the remains of the roof of a cave or underground tunnel tinctions or laws of divine legislation, to the natural affections "
through which the creek once flowed. It is crossed by a public that prompt to social duty; 3 and when we reach Bentham,
"
road. In the village are magnesia and lithia springs and a salt- with pleasure and pain as sovereign masters," and the Mills,
petre cave, which was worked during the War of 1812 and the with love of virtue explained by the laws of association, all
Civil War. A
royal grant dated the 5th of July 1 7 74 conveyed to seems to be non-rational. 4 There is much resemblance, as well
"
Thomas Jefferson a tract of 157 acres, including the Natural as some historical connexion, between the naturalism of moralists
Bridge on Cedar Creek," and ?t did not pass from his estate until such as Shaftesbury and Hutcheson and the Common-Sense
metaphysics of Reid and his school. Hence Kant, distinguishing
6
1833-
NATURAL GAS, the name given to the inflammable gas occur- between a
"
naturalistic
"
and " scientific " or critical method
"
ring in petroliferous formations. It consists mainly of hydro- in metaphysics, styles Reid and his followers naturalists of pure
carbons of the paraffin series, principally marsh gas, which reason," satirically comparing them to people who think they can
constitutes from 50 to 90 %
of the Pennsylvanian gas. Members settle the size and distance of the moon by direct eyesight better
of the olefine series are also present, especially in the gas of Baku. than by the roundabout calculations of mathematics.
Varying amounts of carbon dioxide, sometimes as much as 10% So far we have seen the natural approximating to the non-
or more, and small quantities of carbon monoxide, nitrogen, rational. But when used in a subjective sense in opposition to
hydrogen and oxygen are also found. For particulars of the the supernatural, it means the rational as opposed to what is
geological occurrence, and the collection and distribution, of above reason, or even contrary to reason. It is in this sense that
natural gas, see PETROLEUM. the term Naturalism most frequently occurs; and it was so
NATURALISM. " Nature " is a term of very uncertain applied specially to the doctrines of the English Deists and the
" " has German Illuminati of the I7th and i8th centuries: those of
extent, and the natural accordingly several antitheses,
often more or less conflicting, and only to be learnt from the them who held that human reason alone was capable of attaining
context in which they occur. Thus, though Man and the World to the knowledge of God were called theological naturalists
are often opposed as respectively subject and object, yet the or rationalists, while those who denied the possibility of revela-
word nature is applied to both: hence Naturalism is used in tion altogether were called philosophical naturalists or naturalists
6
both a subjective and an objective sense. In the subjective simply. In these controversies the term Naturalist was also
sense the natural, as the original or essential, is opposed to what sometimes used in an objective sense for those who identified
is acquired, artificial, conventional or accidental. On this God and Nature, but they were more frequently styled Spinozists,
opposition the casuistry and paradoxes of the Sophists largely Pantheists or even Atheists. But it is at once obvious that
turned; it determined also, at least negatively, the conduct of dispute as to what is natural and what supernatural is vain and
the Cynics in their contempt for the customary duties and hopeless till the meanings of reason and nature are clearly defined.
"
decencies; and it led the Stoics to seek positive rules of life in The only distinct meaning of the word " [natural], said Butler,
" " " "
conformity to nature." This deference for the natural is stated, fixed or settled; since what is natural as much requires
generally, and distrust of traditional systems of thought and and presupposes an intelligent agent to render it so, i.e. to effect
even of traditional institutions, has played a large part in it continually, or at stated times, as what is supernatural or
modern philosophy, especially British philosophy. It was miraculous does to effect it for once. And from hence it must
perhaps the inevitable outcome of the reaction, which began follow that persons' notion of what is natural will be enlarged
with the Renaissance, against the medieval domination of mere in proportion to their greater knowledge. . .. Nor is there any
"
authority. L'homme qui medite est un animal depravd," absurdity in supposing that there may be beings in the universe,
" whose capacities
said Rousseau; and again, Tout est bien sortant des mains de . . .
may be so extensive, as that the whole
1'auteur des choses, tout degenere entre les mains de rhomme." 1 Christian dispensation may to them appear natural, i.e. analogous
"
In psychology and epistemology, no one," as Green has said, or conformable to God's dealings with other parts of His creation;
" is more than Locke in what is real to what as natural as the visible known course of things appears to us." 7
emphatic opposing
'
we make for ourselves
'
the work of nature to the work of the The antithesis of natural to spiritual (or ideal) has mainly
mind. Simple ideas or sensations we certainly do not make
'
determined the use of the term Naturalism in the present
8
for ourselves.' They therefore, and matter supposed to cause day. But current naturalism is not to be called materialism,
them, are, according to Locke, real. But relations are neither though these terms are often used synonymously, as by Hegel,
simple ideas nor their material archetypes. They therefore, Ueberweg and other historians of philosophy; nor yet pan-
as Locke explicitly holds, fall under the head of the work of the theism, if by that is meant the immanence of all things in one
mind, which is opposed to the real."
2
This opposition again led God. We know only material phenomena, it is said; matter is
Hume, in the first place, to distinguish between natural and an abstract conception simply, not a substantial reality. It is
philosophical relations the former determined simply by associa- therefore meaningless to describe mind as its effect. Moreover,
tion, the latter by an abitrary union of two ideas, which we mind also is but an abstract conception; and here again all
may think proper tc compare and then, in the next, to reduce our knowledge is confined to the phenomenal. To identify the
" two classes of phenomena is, however, impossible, and indeed
identity and causality, the two chief philosophical relations,"
"
to fictions resulting from natural relations," that is. to say, from absurd; nevertheless we find a constant concomitance of
associations of similarity and contiguity. Subjective naturalism psychosis and neurosis; and the more sensationalist and associa-
thus tended to become, and in the end became, what is more tionist our psychology, the easier it becomes to correlate the
commonly called Sensationalism or Associationism, thereby *
Cf. Sidgwick, History of Ethics (1886), p. 181.
approximating towards that objective naturalism which reduces 4
Cf. W. R. Sorley, The Ethics of Naturalism (1885), pp. 16 sqq.
the external world to a mechanism describable in terms of matter 6
Cf. W. R. Scott, Francis tiutcheson; his Life, Teaching and
and motion a result already foreshadowed when Hartley Position in Philosophy (1900), pp. 121, 265 seq.
See RATIONALISM; Kant, Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der
connected ideas and their association with brain vibrations and
blossen Vernunft, Hartenstein's edition, vi. 253; and Lechler, Ge-
vibratiuncles. In ethics, also, the striving to get back to the schichte des Englischen Deismus (1841),
pp. 454 sqq.
natural entailed a similar downward trend. From the Cambridge ''Analogy, part i. chap. i. end. Cf. also J. S. Mill, Logic, book
Platonists, from Locke and Clarke, we hear much of rational iii. chap. xxv. 2, and Essays on Religion.
8
In aesthetics we find Naturalism used in a cognate sense: the
1
Quoted by Eisler, Worterbuck der philosophischen Begriffe (1899), Flemish pointers, such writers as Flaubert or Zola, for example, being
s.v. Naturalismus." called naturalistic or realistic, in contrast to the Italian painters or
1
T. H. Green, Prolegomena to Ethics (1883), 20. writers like George Sand or ihe Brontes.
NATURALIZATION 275
" "
psychical and the physical as but two aspects of one and the to military service, and has been practically accepted
this doctrine
same fact. It is therefore simplest and sufficient to assume an by France in her dealings with America. Germany also accepted
underlying, albeit unknown, unity connecting the two. A it by the treaty of 1868 between the United States and the
monism so far neutral, neither materialistic nor spiritualistic North German Confederation, now in force for the German
isthus a characteristic of the prevailing naturalism. But when empire, subject to provisions that the emigrant's fixing his
the question arises, how best to systematize experience as a domicile in the old country shall be deemed a renunciation
whole, it is contended that we must begin from the physical side. of his naturalization in the new, and that his living in the old
Here we have precise conceptions, quantitative exactness and country for more than two years may be deemed to imply the
thoroughgoing continuity; every thought that has ever stirred absence of an intention to return to the new. Between the
the hearts of men, not less than every breeze that has ever United States and Great Britain the convention of the I3th of
rippled the face of the deep, has meant a perfectly definite re- May 1870 provides that naturalization in either is to be valid
distribution of matter and motion. To the mechanical principles for all purposes immediately on its completion, but that if the
of this redistribution an ultimate analysis brings us down; resident shall renew his residence in his old country he may be
and beginning from these the nebular hypothesis and the readmitted to his old nationality, on his application and on such
theory of natural selection will enable us to explain all subsequent conditions as the readmitting government may impose.
synthesis.
1
Life and mind now clearly take a secondary place; The Naturalization Act 1870, which now governs the matter
the cosmical mechanism determines them, while they are powerless for England, does not say that the person naturalized becomes
"
to modify it. The spiritual becomes the epiphenomenal," a thereby a British subject, to which, if it had been said, a proviso
merely incidental phosphorescence, so to say, that regularly might have been added saving the above-mentioned policy of
accompanies physical processes of a certain type and complexity. the foreign office as to not protecting him in his old country,
(See also PSYCHOLOGY.) although even without such a proviso the foreign office would
This absolute naturalism, as we may call it, the union, that have been free to follow that policy. The act in question (s. 7)
is, of psychological and cosmolcgica) naturalism, is in fact a gives him the rights and imposes on him the duties of a natural-
2
species of Fatalism, as Kant indeed entitled it. It is the logical born British subject in the United Kingdom, and provides that,
outcome of a Sensationalist psychology, and of the epistemology when within the limits of his old country, he shall not be deemed
which this entails. As long as association of ideas (or sensory a British subject unless he has ceased to be a subject of that
residua) held to explain judgment and conscience, so long may
is country, by its laws or in pursuance of a treaty. On this wording
naturalism stand. it has been maintained that British naturalization is not really
The naturalistic work of chief account at the present day is naturalization at all; but leaves the naturalized person as he
E. Haeckel's Die Weltratsel, gemeinverstandliche Studien uber
was with the addition of a certain quality within the United
monistische Philosophic (sth ed., 1900), of which an English trans-
lation has appeared. Effective refutations will be found in the works Kingdom; and on that ground it has been considered in France
of two of Haeckel's colleagues, O. Liebmann, Zur Analysis det that a Frenchman, obtaining naturalization in England, does not
Wirklichkeit (3rd ed., 1900) R. Eucken, Die Einheit des Geisteslebens
; fall within the French law (Code Civil, Art. 17) which pronounces
in Bewusstsein und That der Menschheit (1888, Eng. trans.); Der
the expatriation of citizens who cause themselves to be naturalized
Kampf um einen geistigen Lebensinhalt (1898). See also A. J. abroad. This is the Bourgoise Case, 41 Ch. D. 310, in which,
Balfour, Foundations of Belief (Sth ed., 1901); J. Ward, Naturalism
and Agnosticism (1899). (J. W.*) when it came before the English courts, Mr Justice Kay inclined
NATURALIZATION, the term given in law to the acquisition to the same view, but the court of appeal avoided giving an
by an alien of the national character or citizenship of a certain opinion on the point. Professor Dicey leans to the same view
state, always with the consent of that state and of himself, (5 Law Quarterly Review, 438); but Sir Thomas Barclay (4 L.Q.R.
but not necessarily with the consent of the state to which he 226), Sir Malcolm Mcllwraith (6 L.Q.R. 379), and Professor West-
lake (International Law Peace, 2nd ed. p. 234; Private Inter-
previously belonged, which may refuse to its subjects the right
" national Law, 4th ed. p. 356) adopt the view that the Naturaliza-
of renouncing its nationality, called expatriation," or may
allow the right only on conditions which have not been fulfilled tion Act 1870 makes the naturalized person a full British subject,
in the particular case. Hence although nationality in strict only to be treated in his old country in accordance with the
international principles recognized by the British executive.
theory is always single, as liege homage was and allegiance in its
proper sense is, it often happens that two states claim the same
And the foreign office, by granting passports to naturalized
person as their national or subject. This conflict arises not only persons, acts on the same view. The point is important with
from naturalization having, been granted without the corre- reference to the question whether the naturalization of the father
in the United Kingdom confers the character of British subjects
sponding expatriation having been permitted, but also from the
fact that birth on the soil was the leading determinant of nation- on his children afterwards born abroad. (See ALIEN.)
ality by feudal law, and still is so by the laws of England and the
An analogous question arises on the provision in the Naturaliza-
United States (jus soli), while the nationality of the father is its tion Act 1870, sec. 16, that the legislature of any British posses-
"
leading determinant in those countries which have accepted
sion may make laws for imparting to any person the privileges
Roman principles of jurisprudence (jus sanguinis). The conflict
of naturalization, to be enjoyed by such person within the limits
'
is usually solved for practical purposes by an understanding
of such possession." This, in accordance with the wider view
which is approximately general, namely that, in cases not pro- of the effect of naturalization in the United Kingdom, may mean
vided for by treaty, no state shall protect those whom it claims that naturalization in pursuance of a colonial law confers the
as its nationals while residing in the territory of another state full character of a British subject, only without removing
which claims them as its own nationals by any title, whether disabilities, such as that to hold land, under which the naturalized
jus soli, jus sanguinis, naturalization, or the refusal to allow person may have lain as an alien in any other British possession.
expatriation. On this footing the British foreign office, while On that footing the foreign office grants passports to the holders
of colonial certificates of naturalization, and protects them in all
it grants
passports for travel to naturalized persons, will extend
no protection to them against a claim of their former country, if foreign countries but that of their origin; and the Merchant
they return to it, to exact military service due to it. The United Shipping Act 1894, sec. i, allows persons naturalized in British
States, asserting that expatriation is an inalienable right of man, possessions to be owners of British ships. On the other hand,
maintains that, to lose his right to American protection, the those who maintain the narrower view of the effect of natural-
emigrant who has been naturalized in the United States must ization in the United Kingdom naturally hold that colonial
have done that for which he might have been tried and punished naturalization has no effect at
all outside the British possession
at the moment
of his departure; it claims to protect him against in which it is
granted.
the exaction of what at that moment was merely a future liability Naturalization in India is regulated by the British Indian
1
Cf. Spencer, First Principles (1867), Naturalization Act, No. 30 of 1852, under which it may be
2
p. 398.
Cf. Prolegomena, 60. granted to subjects of the several princes and states in India
276 NAUARCHIA NAUCRATIS
as well as to those who are entirely aliens to the British empire. Sophocles (1856, &c.); texts of Homer, Odyssey (1874) and Iliad
The former, however, are treated for several purposes as British (1877-1879); the fragments of Aristophanes of Byzantium (1848),
still indispensable; Porphyrius of Tyre (1860, 2nd ed., 1886);
subjects even without being so naturalized. lamblichus, De VitaPythagorica (1884) Lexikon Vindobonense (1867),
;
In most countries a lengthened sojourn is a condition precedent a meagre compilation of the I4th or I5th century. See memoir
to naturalization. In Belgium, the United Kingdom, North by T. Zielinski, in Bursian's Biographisches Jahrbuch (1894), and J. E.
America and Russia the period of such sojourn is fixed at five Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, iii. (1908), pp. 149-152.
years, in France, Greece and Sweden at three, in the Argentine NAUCRARY, a subdivision of the people of Attica, which
Republic two, while in Portugal a residence of one year is was certainly among the most primitive in the Athenian state.
sufficient. In Germany, Austria and Italy no period of residence The word is derived either (i) from vavs (a ship) and describes
is prescribed, while in Austria a ten years' residence confers the duty imposed upon each naucrary, of providing one ship
per se the rights of citizenship. In the United States an alien and two (or, more probably, ten) horsemen; or (2) from
desiring to be naturalized must declare on oath his intention vaitiv (to dwell), in which case it has to do with a householder
to become a citizen of the United States; two years afterwards census. The former is generally accepted in view of the fact
must declare on oath his intention to support the constitution that the naucraries were certainly the units on, which the Athenian
of the United States and renounce allegiance to every foreign fleet was based. The view once held (on the strength of a
power, including that of which he was before a subject; must fragment of Aristotle, quoted carelessly by Photius) that the
prove residence in the United States for five years, and in the naucrary was invented by Solon may now be regarded as obsolete
state where his application is made for one year, as a good (see the Aristotelian Constitution, viii. 3). Each of the four
citizen; and must renounce any title of nobility. In France Ionian tribes was divided into three trittyes (" thirds "), each
an alien desiring naturalization, if he has not resided continuously of which was subdivided into four naucraries; there were
in the country for ten years, must obtain permission to establish thus 48 naucraries. The earliest mention of them is in Herodotus
his domicile in France; three years after (in special cases one (v. 71), where it is stated that the Cylonian conspiracy was
"
year) he is entitled to apply for naturalization, which involves put down by the Prytaneis (chief men) of the Naucraries."
the renunciation of any existing allegiance. Although it is generally recognized that in this passage we can
See further, ALLEGIANCE, INTERNATIONAL LAW (Private); also trace an attempt to shift the responsibility for the murder of
Bar, Private International Law (Gillespie's translation) Hansard, ;
the suppliants from the archon Megacles, it is highly improbable
Law relating to Aliens; Cutler, Law of Naturalization; Cockburn,
that the Prytaneis of the Naucraries did not play a part in the
Nationality; Cogordan, Nationalite; Heffter, Europdisches Volker-
recht; Hall, Foreign Jurisdiction of the British Crown; Westlake, tragedy. Thucydides is probably right, as against Herodotus, in
International Law Peace, and Private International Law (4th ed.). asserting that the nine archons formed the Athenian executive at
(JNO. W.) this period. It may be conjectured, however, that the military
NAUARCHIA command), the supreme
(Gr. vavs, ship, dpxi?, forces of Athens were organized on the basis of the naucraries,
command of the Spartan navy. The office was an annual one and that was the duty of the
it presidents of these districts
and could not be held more than once by the same man (Xen. to raise the local levies. remarkable that the
It is certainly
Hell. ii. i. 7). This law might be evaded in special cases; the Aristotelian Constitution of Athens does not connect the naucrary
new admiral might not be sent to take over the command until with the fleet or the army; from chapter viii. it would appear
some time after his election, which took place at midsummer that its importance was chiefly ir> connexion with finance
(Beloch in Philologus, xliii. p. 272 sqq.), and meanwhile his pre- TeTayiJtvri irpos re ras (cat ras The
(apx'ri <r<opds 8o.ira.vas).
decessor remained de facto admiral; or the retiring admiral
naucrary consisted of a number of villages, and was, therefore,
might, after the expiry of his term, hold an appointment as a local unit very much in the power of the naucraros, who was
secretary (eiuoToXeus) to one who, though titular admiral, selected by reason of wealth. The naucraros superintended
was really placed under his orders or even kept at Sparta alto- the construction of, and afterwards captained, the ship, and
gether. Being independent of the kings and hampered by no also assessed and administered the taxes in his own area. In
colleague, the nauarch wielded such power that Aristotle is
the reforms of Cleisthenes, the naucraries gave place to the
hardly going too far when he says (Politics, ii. 9. 22), ri vavapxia. demes as the political unit. In accordance with the new decimal
<r\6o6v irepa jSaertAeia He was subject only to the
K.a.6to-n}Ktv.
system, their number was increased to fifty. Whether they
ephors, who, he proved incompetent, could depose him (Thuc.
if
continued (and if so, how long) to supply one ship and two ' (or
viii. 39), though they usually preferred to send out an advisory
ten) horsemen each is not certainly known. Cheidemus in
committee (oi;t|3ouXoi). An admiral might appoint his eTrioroXew Photius asserts that they did, and his statement is to a certain
to command a portion, or even the whole, of the fleet, and if '
extent corroborated by Herodotus (vi. 89) who records that,
the former died in office the secretary succeeded to his post.
in the Aeginetan War before the Persian Invasion, the Athenian
Fora detailed discussion see J. Beloch, " Die Nauarchie in Sparta,"
in the Rheinisches Museum, xxxiv. (1879) "117- 1 30, where a complete fleet numbered only fifty sail.
listof nauarchs known to us will be found; regarding the time of See Photius (s.v.), who is clearly using the A th. Pol. (he quotes
the election this is corrected by a later article of the same writer from it the last part of his article totidem verbis); Schomann,
(Philologus, loc. cit.). See also A. Solari, Ricerche Spartane
" " Antiq. (p. 326, Eng. trans.) quoted by J. E. Sandys (Ath. Pol. viii.,
(Livorno, 1907), 1-58; G. Busolt, Staats- und Rechtsaltertiimer 13) refutes Gilbert, Greek Constitutional Antiquities (Eng. trans.,
(iwan Muller's Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, iv.), 1895), and in Jahrb. Class. Phil. cxi. (1875) pp. 9 seq.; A. H. J.
96; G. E. Underbill's edition of Xenophon, Hellenica, i., ii., note Greenidge, Handbook of Greek Const. Hist. p. 134; history of Greece
oni. 5. i. (M. N.T.) in general ;for derivation of name, G. Meyer, Curtius' Studien (vii.
175). where Wecklein is refuted. (J. M. M.)
NAUCK, JOHANN AUGUST (1822-1892), German classical
scholar and critic, was born at Auerstadt in Prussian Saxony NAUCRATIS, an ancient Greek settlement in Egypt. The
on the i8th of September 1822. After having studied at Halle site was discovered by Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie in 1884,
and held educational posts in Berlin, he migrated in 1859 to on the eastern bank of a canal, about 10 m. W. of the present
St Petersburg, where he was professor of Greek at the imperial Rosetta branch of the Nile. In ancient times it was approached
historico-philological institute (1869-1883). He died on the by the Canopic mouth, which was farther to the west. The
3rd of August 1892. Nauck was one of the most distinguished identification of the site is placed beyond doubt by the discovery
textual critics of his day, although, like P. H. Peerlkamp, he of inscriptions, with the name of the town, and of great masses
was fond of altering a text in accordance with what he thought of early Greek pottery, such as could not have existed anywhere
the author must, or ought to, have written. else. The site was excavated in 1884-1886 by the Egypt Ex-
The most important of his writings, all of which deal with Greek ploration Fund, and a supplementary excavation was made by
language and literature (especially the tragedians) are the following: the British School at Athens in 1899. A list of the temples of
Euripides, Tragedies and Fragments (1854, 3rd ed., 1871); Studia Naucratis is given by Herodotus (ii. 178); they were the
Euripidea (1859-1862) Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta (1856,
Hellenion, common to all the colonizing cities, and those dedicated
;
last ed., 1889), his chief work; Index to the Fragments (1892);
text of Sophocles (1867) revised edition of Schneidewin's annotated
;
1
See footnote to CLEISTHENES (i), ad fin.
NAUDE NAUHEIM 277
by the Aeginetans to Zeus, by the Samians to Hera, and by the Gassendi and the liberal thinkers of his time, Naude was no
all
Milesians to Apollo. A
temple of Aphrodite is also mentioned mere bookworm; his books show traces of the critical spirit
by Athenaeus. Traces of all these temples, except that of which made him a worthy colleague of the humorists and
Zeus, or at least dedications coming from them, have been found scholars who prepared the way for the better known writers of
"
in the excavations, and another has been added to them, the the siecle de Louis XIV."
temple of the Dioscuri. The two chief sites to be cleared were Including works edited by him, a list of ninety-two pieces is
the temples of Apollo and of Aphrodite, in both of which succes- given in the Naudaeana. The chief are Le Marfore, on discours
centre les libettes (Paris, 1620), very rare, reprinted 1868; Instruction
sive buildings of various date were found. Both were remarkable a la France sur la verite de I'histoire des Freres]de la Roze-Croix
for the great mass of early painted pottery that was found; (1623, 1624), displaying their impostures; Apologie pour tous les
in the temple of Apollo this had been buried in a trench; in grands personnages faussement soupconnez de magie (1625, 1652,
that of Aphrodite itwas scattered over the whole surface in 1669, 1712), Pythagoras, Socrates, Thomas Aquinas and Solomon
are among those defended; Advis pour dresser une bibliotheque (1627,
two distinct strata. A great deal of it was local ware, but there
1644, 1676; translated by J. Evelyn, 1661), full of sound and liberal
were also imported vases from various Greek sites. In addition views on librarianship Addition a I'histoire de Louys XI. (1630),
;
to these temples, there was also found a great fortified enclosure, this includes an account of the origin of printing; Bibliographia
about 860 ft. by 750, in the south-eastern part of the town; politica (Venice, 1633, &c. ; in French, 1642), a mere essay of no
within it was a square tower or fort; a portico of entrance and bibliographical value; De studio liberali syntagma (1632, 1654), a
practical treatise found in most collections of directions for studies;
an avenue of rows of sphinxes was added in Ptolemaic times, De studio militari syntagma (1637), esteemed in its day; Considera-
as is shown by the foundation deposits found at the corners tions politiques sur les coups d'etat (Rome [Paris], 1639; first edition
of the portico; these consisted of models of the tools and materials rare, augmented by Dumay, 1752), this contains an apology for the
massacre of St Bartholomew; Biblioth. Cordesianae Catalogus (1643),
used in the buildings, models of instruments for sacrifice or
classified; Jugement de tout ce qui a. etc imprime centre le Card.
ceremonies, and cartouches of King Ptolemy Philadelphus. Mazarin (1649), Naude's best work, and one of the ablest defences
Professor Petrie naturally supposed this great enclosure to be of Mazarin; it is written in the form of a dialogue between Saint-
the Hellenion or common sanctuary of the Greeks, but Mr. Ange and Mascurat, and is usually known under the name of the
latter.
Hogarth subsequently found traces of another great walled
AUTHORITIES. L. Jacob, G. Naudaei tumulus (1659); P. HallS,
enclosure to the north-east of the town, together with pottery
Elogium Naudaei (1661); Niceron, Memoires, vol. ix. L. Jacob, ;
dedicated ToTsTcoy'EXX^wv fleets, and he claims with reason that Traicte des plus belles bibliotheques (1644) ; Gui Patin, Lettres (1846) ;
this enclosure is more likely than the other to be the Hellenion, Naudaeana et Patiniana (1703); Sainte-Beuve, Portraits Lilt.
since no early Greek antiquities have been found in the southern vol. ii. ; A. Franklin, Histoire de la Bibl. Mazarine (1860).
part of the town, which seems rather to have been a native NAUGATUCK, a township and borough of New Haven
settlement. The cemetery of the ancient town was found county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on the Naugatuck river, 5 m. S.
on two low mounds to the north, but was mostly of Ptolemaic of Waterbury, with an area of 17 sq. m. in 1906. Pop. (1890)
date. 6218, (1900) 10,541, of whom 3432 were foreign-born, (1910
Apart from the historic interest of the as the only Greek
site, census) 12,722. It is served by the New York, New Haven
colony in Egypt in early times, the chief importance of the & Hartford railroad and by interurban electric railways.
excavations lies in the rich finds of early pottery and in the Among the principal public buildings are the Whittemore
inscriptions upon them, which throw light on the early history Memorial Public Library (1892), a fine high school and the
of the alphabet. The most flourishing period of the town was large Salem school (part of the public school system), all given
from the accession of Amasis II. in 570 B.C to the Persian to the borough by John Howard Whittemore of Naugatuck,
invasion of 520 B.C., when the contents of the temples must who in addition endowed the library and the high school. The
have been destroyed. The earlier chronology has been much river furnishes water-power. Among the manufactures are
disputed. There are clear traces of a settlement going back rubber goods, chemicals, iron castings, woollen goods, cutlery,
to the 7th century, including a scarab factory, which yielded &c. The value of the factory products increased from $8,886,676
numerous scarabs, not of native Egyptian manufacture, bearing in 1900 to $11,009,573 in 1005, or 23-9%. The prominence of
the names of the kings that preceded Amasis. Among these the rubber industry here is due to Charles Goodyear (q.v.), who
were fragments of early Greek pottery. It seems a fair inference in 1821 entered into partnership with his father Amasa Goodyear
that the makers of these were Greeks, and that they probably for the manufacture of hardware. Vulcanized rubber overshoes
represent the early Milesian colony, settled here in the time were first made in Naugatuck, and in 1843 the Goodyear's
of Psammetichus I., before the official assignment of the site Metallic Rubber Shoe Company was established here. The
by Amasis to the Greek colonists of various cities. The most township was formed from parts of Waterbury, Bethany and
important of the antiquities found are now in the British Museum. Oxford, and was incorporated in 1844; the borough was
See W. M. F. Petrie, &c., Naukratis I., third Memoir of the Egypt chartered in 1893; and the two were combined in 1895.
Exploration Fund (1886); E. A. Gardner, &c., Naukratis II., sixth NAUHEIM, or BAD-NAUHEIM, a watering-place of Germany,
Memoir of same (1889) D. G. Hogarth, &c., Annual of the British
; in thegrand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, situated on the north-
School at Athens (1898-1899). (E. GR.) Taunus Mountains, 24 m. by rail N. of Frankfort -
east slope of the
NAUDE, GABRIEL (1600-1653), French librarian and scholar, on-Main on the main line of railway to Cassel. Pop. (1905)
was born in Paris on the 2nd of February 1600. He studied 5054. It has three Evangelical, a Roman Catholic and an
medicine at Paris and Padua, and became physician to English church. Its thermal waters (84 to 95 F.), although
Louis XIII. In 1629 he became librarian to Cardinal Bagni at known for centuries, were, prior to 1835, only employed for the
Rome, and on Bagni's death in 1641 librarian to Cardinal extraction of salt. They now yield about 2000 tons annually.
Barberini. At the desire of Richelieu he began a wearisome The town has several parks, the largest being the Kurpark,
controversy with the Benedictines, denying Gerson's authorship 125 acres in extent, in which are the Kurhaus and the two chief
of De ImUatione Christi. Richelieu intended to make Naude springs. The waters, which are saline, strongly impregnated
his librarian, and on his death Naude accepted a similar offer on with carbonic acid, and to a less extent with iron, are principally
the part of Mazarin, and for the next ten years devoted himself used for bathing, and are specific in cases of gout and rheumatism,
to bringing together from all parts of Europe the noble assemblage but especially for heart affections. Three smaller springs,
of books known as the Bibliotheque Mazarine. Mazarin's situated outside the Kurpark, supply water for drinking. In
library was sold by the parlement of Paris during the troubles 1899-1900 a new spring (saline) was tapped at a depth of 682 ft.
of the Fronde, and Queen Christina invited Naude to Stockholm. Another attraction of the place is the Johannisberg, a hill
He was not happy in Sweden, and on Mazarin's appeal that he 773 ft. high, immediately overlooking the town.
should re-form his scattered library Naude returned at once. Nauheim, which was bestowed by Napoleon upon Marshal
But his health was broken, and he died on the journey at Abbe- Davout, became a town in 1854. From 1815 to 1866 it belonged
ville on the 30th of
July 1653. The friend of Gui Patin, of Pierre to the electorate of Hesse-Cassel, but in 1866 it was ceded to
278 NAULETTE NAUPACTUS
the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt. It was the scene of The cathedral, an imposing building in the Romanesque Transi-
between the French and the Germans in 1762 and again
fighting tion style (1207-1242), has a Gothic choir at each end, and
in 1792. contains some interesting medieval sculptures. It is remarkable
See Grodel, Bad Nauheim, seine Kurmittel (gth ed., Friedberg, for its large crypt and its towers, a fourth having been added
1903); Credner, Die Kurmittel in Bad Nauheim (Leipzig, 1894); in 1894, the gift of the emperor William II. There are also
Bode, Bad Nauheim, seine Kurmittel und Erfolge (Wiesbaden, 1889) ;
and Weber, Die Park- und Waldanlagen vom Bad Nauheim (Nauheim, four other Protestant churches (of which the town church,
1906). dedicated to St Wenceslaus and restored in 1892-1894, possesses
NAULETTE, a large cavern on the left bank of the Lesse, two pictures by Lucas Cranach the elder), a Roman Catholic
which joins the Meuse above Dinant, Belgium. Here in 1866 church, a gymnasium, a modern school, an orphanage and three
Edouard Dupont discovered an imperfect human lower jaw, hospitals. A curious feature of the town is the custom, which has
now in the Brussels Natural History Museum. It is of a very not yet died out, of labelling the houses with signs, such as the
" " " "
ape-like type in its extreme projection and that of the teeth swan," the leopard and the lion." The industries of the
sockets (teeth themselves lost), with canines very strong and place mainly consist in the manufacture of cotton and woollen
large molars increasing in size backward. It was found associated fabrics, chemicals, combs, beer, vinegar and leather. On the
with the remains of mammoth, rhinoceros and reindeer. The hills to the north of the town, across the Unstrut, lies Schenkel-
Naulette man is now assigned to the Mousterian Epoch. burg, once the residence of the poet Gellert, and noticeable
See G. de Mortillet, Le Prehistorique (1900) E. Dupont, Etude
; for the grotesque carvings in the sandstone rocks.
sur les fouilles scientifiques executees pendant I'hiver (1865-1866), p. 21. In the loth century Naumburg was a stronghold of the mar-
NAUMACHIA, the Greek word denoting a naval battle (VaOs, graves of Meissen, who in 1029 transferred to it the bishopric of
by the Romans as a term for a mimic
ship, andjuaxi?, battle), used Zeitz. In the history of Saxony it is memorable as the scene of
sea-fight. These entertainments took place in the amphitheatre, various treaties; and in 1561 an assembly of Protestant princes
which was flooded with water, or in specially constructed was held there, which made a futile attempt to cement the
basins (also called naumachiae) The first on record, representing
.
doctrinal dissensions of the Protestants. In 1564 the last bishop
an engagement between a Tyrian and an Egyptian fleet, was given
died, and the bishopric fell to the elector of Saxony. In 1631
by Julius Caesar (46 B.C.) on a lake which he constructed in the the town was taken by Tilly, and in 1632 by Gustavus Adolphus.
Campus Martius. In 2 B.C. Augustus, at the dedication of the It became Prussian in 1814. An annual festival, with a pro-
temple of Mars Ultor, exhibited a naumachia between Athenians cession of children, which is still held, is referred to an apocryphal
and Persians, in a basin probably in the horti Caesaris, where
siege of the town by the Hussites in 1432, but is 'probably con-
subsequently Titus gave a representation of a sea-fight between nected with an incident in the brothers' war (1447-51), between
Corinth and Corcyra. In that given by Claudius (A.D. 52) on the elector Frederick II. of Saxony and his brother Duke William.
the lacus Fucinus, 19,000 men dressed as Rhodians and Sicilians
Karl Peter Lepsius (1775-1853), the antiquary and his more
manoeuvred and fought. The crews consisted of gladiators and son Richard the Egyptologist, were born at
distinguished
condemned criminals; in later times, even of volunteers.
Naumburg.
See L. Friedlander in J. Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, iii.
See E. Borkowsky, Die Geschichte der Stadt Naumburg an der Saale
(1885) p. 558. (Stuttgart, 1897); E. Hoffmann, Naumburg an der Saale im Zeitalter
NAUMACHIUS, Greek gnomic poet. Of his poems 73
a der Reformation (Leipzig, 1900); S. Braun, Naumburger Annalen
vom Jahre 799 bis 1613 (Naumburg, 1892) Puttrich, Naumburg an
hexameters fragments) are preserved by Stobaeus in his
(in three
;
der Saale, sein Dom und andre altertumliche Bauwerke (Leipzig, 1841-
Florilegium; they deal mainly with the duty of a good wife. 1843) ; and Wispel, Entwickelungsgeschichte der Stadt Naumburg an
From the remarks on celibacy and the allusion to a mystic der Saale (Naumburg, 1903).
marriage it has been conjectured that the author was a Christian. NAUNTON, SIR ROBERT (1563-1635), English politician, the
The fragments, translated anonymously into English under the son of Henry Naunton of Alderton, Suffolk, was educated at
title of Advice tcrthe Fair Sex (1736), are in Gaisford's Po'etae minores
Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming a fellow of his college in
Graeci, iii. (1823).
NAUMANN, GEORG AMADEUS CARL FRIEDRICH 1585 and public orator of the university in 1594. Walter
(1797-
German Devereux, earl of Essex, enabled him to spend some time abroad,
1873), mineralogist and geologist, was born at Dresden
on the 3oth of May 1797, the son of a distinguished musician sending information about European affairs. Having returned
to England, he entered parliament in 1606 as member for
and composer. He received his early education at Pforta, studied
at Freiberg under Werner, and afterwards at Leipzig and Jena. Helston, and he sat in the five succeeding parliaments; in 1614
he was knighted, in 1616 he became master of requests and later
He graduated at Jena, and was occupied in 1823 in teaching in
that town and in 1824 at Leipzig. In 1826 he succeeded Mohs surveyor of the court of wards. In 1618 his friend Buckingham
as professor of crystallography, in 1835 he became professor procured for him the position of secretary of state. Naunton's
strong Protestant opinions led him to favour more active inter-
also of geognosy at Freiberg; and in 1842 he was appointed
vention by England in the interests of Frederick V., and more
professor of mineralogy and geognosy in the university of Leipzig.
At Freiberg he was charged with the preparation of a geological vigorous application of the laws against Roman Catholics.
Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador, complained to James, who
map of Saxony, which he carried out with the aid of Bernhard censured his secretary. Consequently in 1623 Naunton resigned
von Cotta in 1846. He was a man
of encyclopaedic knowledge,
and was made master of the court of wards. He died at Lether-
lucid and fluent as Early in life (1821-1822) he
a teacher.
travelled in Norway, and his observations on that country, and ingham, Suffolk, on the 27th of March 1635. Naunton's valuable
account of Queen Elizabeth's reign was still in manuscript when
his subsequent publications on crystallography, mineralogy and
he died. As Fragmenta regalia, written by Sir Robert Naunton,
geology established his reputation. He was awarded the
it was printed in 1641 and again in 1642, a revised edition,
Wollaston Medal by the Geological Society of London in 1868.
He died at Leipzig on the 26th of November 1873. Fragmenta Regalia, or Observations on the late Queen Elizabeth,
He published Beitrage zur Kenntniss Norwegens (2 vols., 1824); her Times and Favourites, being issued in 1653. It was again
Lehrbuch der Mineralogie (1*828) Lehrbuch der reinen und ange-
; published in 1824, and an edition edited by A. Arber was brought
wandten Krystallographie (2 vols. and atlas, 1830); Elemente der out in 1870. It has also been printed in several collections and has
Mineralogie (1846; ed. 9, 1874; the loth ed. [by F. Zirkel, 1877); been translated into French and Italian. There are several
Lehrbuch der Geognosie (2 vols. and atlas, 1849-1854, ed. 2, 1858-
1872). manuscript copies extant, and some of Naunton's letters are in
NAUMBURG, a town of Germany, in the province of Prussian the British Museum and in other collections.
Saxony, the seat of the provincial law courts and court of appeal See Memoirs of Sir Robert Naunton (1814).
for the province and the neighbouring districts. It is situated NAUPACTUS (Ital. Lepanlo, mod. Gr. Epakto), a town in
on the Saale, near its junction with the Unstrut, in the centre the nomarchy of Acarnania and Aetolia, Greece, situated on a
of an amphitheatre of vine-clad hills, 29 m. S.W. from Halle, bay on the north side of the straits of Lepanto. The harbour,
on the railway to Weimar and Erfurt. Pop. (1905) 25,137. once the best on the northern coast of the Corinthian Gulf, is now
NAUPLIA NAUTILUS 279
almost entirely choked up, and is accessible only to the smallest This animal is not uncommon in the Mediterranean, and from
craft. Naupactus is an episcopal about 2500. In
see; pop. its habit of floating at the surface attracted the attention of the
Greek legend it appears as the place where the Heraclidae built fishermen and sailors of the Aegean Sea from the earliest times.
a fleet to invade Peloponnesus. In historical times it belonged The popular belief that the expanded arms are raised above the
to the Ozolian Locrians; but about 455 B.C., in spite of a partial water to act as sails and that the other arms are used as oars
resettlement with Locrians of Opus, it fell to the Athenians, was not based on any actual observation of the living animal, and
who peopled it with Messenian refugees and made it their chief it is now known that although the animal floats at the surface
naval station in western Greece during the Peloponnesian war. it does not sail, the expanded arms being applied to the exterior
In 404 it was restored to the Locrians, who subsequently lost surface of the shell, which is secreted by them. The eggs are
it to the Achaeans, but recovered it through Epaminondas. carried in the shell, and as this structure is entirely absent in the
Philip II. of Macedon gave Naupactus to the Aetolians, who held males, there is good reason to conclude that the habit of carrying
191, when after an obstinate siege it was surrendered to the
it till the eggs and using one pair of arms for that purpose gave rise
Romans. It was still flourishing about A.D. 170, but in Justinian's to the modification of those arms and the secretion of the shell
reign was destroyed by an earthquake. In the middle ages it fell by them. Huxley once expressed the truth of the matter with
into the hands of the Venetians, who fortified it so strongly that characteristic felicity in the remark that if the shell of the
in 1477 it successfully resisted a four months' siege by a Turkish Argonaut is to be compared to anything of human invention or
army thirty thousand strong; in 1499, however, it was taken construction at all, it should be compared, not to a ship or boat,
by Bayezid II. The mouth of the Gulf of Lepanto was the scene but to a perambulator.
of the great sea fight in which the naval power of Turkey was The shell of Argonauta (see fig. i) is spirally coiled and sym-
for the time being destroyed by the united papal, Spanish and metrical, and thus bears a remarkable resemblance to the shell
Venetian forces (October 7, 1571). See LEPANTO, BATTLE oif. In of the pearly nautilus and the extinct ammonites, especially
1678 it was recaptured by the Venetians, but was again restored
in 1699, by the treaty of Karlowitz to the Turks; in the war of
independence it finally became Greek once more (March 1829).
See Strabo ix. pp. 426-427; Pausanias x. 38. 10-13; Thucydides
passim; Livy. bk. xxxvi. passim; E. L. Hicks and G. F. Hill,
i.-iii.
Greek Historical Inscriptions (Oxford, 1901), No. 25.
NAUPLIA, a town in the Peloponnesus, at the head of the
Argolic Gulf. In the classical period it was a place of no import-
ance, and when Pausanias lived, about A.D. 150, it was deserted.
At a very early time, however, it seems to have been of greater
note, being the seaport of the plain in which Argos and Mycenae
are situated, and several tombs of the Mycenaean age have been
found. A hero Nauplius took part in the Argonautic expedition;
another was king of Euboea. The mythic importance of the town
revived in the middle ages, when it became one of the chief cities
of the Morea. It was captured in 1 2 1 1 by Godfrey Villehardouin
with the help of Venetian ships; a French dynasty ruled in it for
some time, and established the feudal system in the country. In
1388 the Venetians bought Argos and Nauplia. In the wars
between Venice and the Turks it often changed masters. It
was given to the Turks at the peace concluded in 1540;
it was recaptured by Venice in 1686, and Palamidhi on the hill
FIG. I. The Argonaut in life. (After Lacaze-Duthiers.)
overhanging the town was made a great fortress. In 1715 it was
taken by the Turks; in 1770 the Russians occupied it for a short Tr, Float; Br.a, ventral or posterior arms; Br.p, dorsal or
anterior arms; V, the expanded portion of them, once called the
time. The Greeks captured it during the War of Independence
sails; B, the beak; C, the shell; En, the funnel.
on the 1 2th of December 1822, and it was the seat of the Greek
administration till 1833, when Athens became the capital of as it is like that of the pearly nautilus coiled towards the dorsal
the country. It is the chief town of the department of Argolis or anterior surface of the animal. It is ornamented by ridges
(pop. in 1907, 81,943). Pop. at>out 6000. and furrows which pass in transverse curves from the inner to
NAUSEA (from Gr. vavs, a ship), sea-sickness, or generally the outer margin of the coils. The outer margin or keel is some-
any disposition to vomit; also used figuratively to denote what flattened and the whole shell is compressed from side to side.
feelings of strong aversion or dislike. It differs entirely from the shell of the pearly nautilus in the
NAUSICAA, in Greek legend, daughter
of Alcinous, king of absence of internal septa and siphuncle and in the absence of
the Phaeacians the island of Scheria (Odyssey, vi. 15-315,
in' any attachment between it and the body. It is in fact entirely
viii. 457.) When Odysseus (Ulysses) was swept into the sea from different in origin and relations to the body from the typical
the raft on which he had left the home of Calypso, he swam molluscan shell secreted by the mantle in other Cephalopods and
ashore to Scheria, where he fell asleep on the bank of a river. other types of Mollusca. It is a structure sui generis, unique
Here he was found by Nausicaa, who supplied him with clothes in the whole phylum of Mollusca.
and took him to her father's palace, where he was hospitably The only description of the living animal by a competent
entertained. She is said to have become the wife of Telemachus. observer which we have is that of Lacaze Duthiers, made on a
The incident of Odysseus and Nausicaa formed the subject of a single specimen on the Mediterranean coast of France, and pub-
lost play by Sophocles and was
frequently represented in ancient lished in 1892, and even this is in some respects incomplete.
art. The specimen after capture was carried in a bucket, and became
NAUTCH (Hindostani nach), an Indian ballet-dance. The separated from its shell. When placed with the shell in a large
nautch is performed by nautch-girls, who move their feet but aquarium tank the animal resumed possession of the shell and
little, and the dance consists of swaying the body and posturing assumed the attitude shown in fig. i. The shell floated at
with the arms. the surface, doubtless in consequence of- the inclusion of some
NAUTILUS. The term nautilus, meaning simply the sailor," "
air in the cavity of the shell. It is not known with certainty
was applied by the ancient Greeks to the genus of that the animal is able in its natural state to descend below the
eight-armed
cuttlefishes or octopods which is now known as the surface; the specimen here considered never did so of its own
paper nautilus,
amf whose scientific name is Argonauta (see CEPHALOPODA). accord, and when pushed down always rose again.
28o NAUVOO
The siphon or funnel is unusually large and prominent, and is the only living genus of Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods. A detailed
chief or only organ of locomotion, the water which is expelled from
The arms are usually turned description of this animal is given in the article Cephalopoda
it driving the animal backwards.
backwards and carried inside the shell, to the inner surface of which (q.v.) it is only necessary to add here a brief account of its mode
;
the suckers adhere, but one or two arms are from time to time of and habits.
life
extended in front. This does not apply to the dorsal arms which are Four species are known from the Indian and Pacific oceans; they
to the outside of the shell, and the expanded membrane are gregarious and nocturnal animals living at some depth and
applied
of these arms covers the greater part of its surface. The dorsal arms apparently always on the bottom. The natural attitude of the
are turned backwards, and each is twisted so that the oral surfaces animal as represented by Dr Willey is with the oral surface down-
face each other and the suckers are in contact with the shell. The wards, the tentacles spread out, and the shell vertical. The chambers
membrane or velum is thin, and is really a great expansion of a dorsal of the shell have no communication with one another nor with the
membrane similar to that which is found along the median dorsal siphuncle. they are air-tight cavities and filled, not with water, but
line of the two posterior arms. The suckers of the originally posterior with a nitrogenous gas. This necessarily very much reduces the
series ofeach dorsal arm lie along the external border of the shell, specific gravity of the animal, but it is still heavier than the water
and the arm with its two rows of suckers extends round the whole and does not seem capable of rising to the surface any more than an
border of the membrane, the arm being curved into a complete loop, octopus. Nautilus is rather abundant at some localities in the East
so that its extremity reaches almost to the origin of the membrane Indian Archipelago, for example at Amboyna in the Moluccas. In
near the base of the arm, the extremity being continued on to the 1901-1902 Dr Arthur Willey of Cambridge University spent some
internal surface of the membrane. The external row of suckers, time in that region for the purpose of investigating the
reproduction
originally the posterior row, are united by membrane which is con- and development of the animal. He stationed himself at New
tinuous with the velum. The smaller suckers on the more distal Britain, known to the Germans as Neu Pommern, an island of the
part of the arm, which extends along the edge of the shell-aperture, Bismarck Archipelago off the coast of Papua. The natives of this
are quite sessile. In the figure of Lacaze-Duthiers the suckers island use the nautilus for food, capturing them by means of a large
(fig. i)
appear to be turned away from the shell, but this is erroneous. fish-trap similar in construction to the cylindrical lobster-traps used
A figure showing the natural position is given in the Monograph of by British fishermen. Fish is used for bait. Dr Willey found the
the Cephalopoda in the series of Monographs issued by the Zoological males much more numerous than the females; of fifteen specimens
Station of Naples. captured on one occasion only two were females. He kept specimens
The animal described by Lacaze-Duthiers lived a fortnight in alive both in vessels on shore and in large baskets moored at the
captivity, during which time it devoured with avidity small fishes bottom of the sea. He found that when they were placed in a vessel
which were presented to it, seizing them, not by throwing out all of sea water numbers of a small parasitic Crustacea issued from the
the ventral arms, but by means of the suckers near the mouth. mantle cavity. Some of the females laid eggs in captivity, but
these were found not to be fertilized; they were about 3-5 centi-
Judging from these observations, Argonauta is a pelagic animal metres long and attached singly by a broad base to the sides of the
which lives and feeds near the surface of the ocean. Several cage in which the animals were confined.
species of Argonauta are known, distributed in the tropical parts LITERATURE. Lacaze-Duthiers,"Observationd'unargonautedela
of all the great oceans. The male is much smaller than the Mediterran6e," Arch. zool. exper. x. (1902), p. 1892. Cephalopoda, by
Jalta Fauna und Flora des Colfes von Neapel, monographs issued by
female, not exceeding an inch or .so in length. no ;
It secretes "
the Zoological Station of Naples. Bashford Dean, Notes on Living
shell and its dorsal arms are not modified. The third arm on '
Nautilus, Amer. Natur. xxxv. (1901). A. Willey, Contribution to
the left side, however, is modified in another way in connexion the Natural History of the Pearly Nautilus; A. Willey 's Zoological
with reproduction. Results, pt. vi. (1902). (J. T. C.)
Argonauta is one of the Cephalopods in which the process known NAUVOO, a city of Hancock county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the
as hectocotylization of one arm is developed to its extreme degree,
Mississippi river at the head of the lower rapids and about 50 m.
the arm affected becoming ultimately detached and left by the male
in the mantle cavity of the female where it retains for some time its aboveQuincy. Pop. (1900) 1321; (1910) 1020. On the opposite
life and power of movement. The hectocotylus or copulatory arm in bank of the river is Montrose, Iowa (pop. in 1910, 708), served
the Argonaut is developed at first in a closed cyst (fig. 2), which by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway. Nauvoo is the
seat of St Mary's Academy and Spalding Institute (1907),
two institutions of the Benedictine Sisters. " Commerce City "
was laid out here in 1834 by Connecticut speculators; but the
first settlement of importance was made by the Mormons (q.v.)
in 1839-1840; they named it Nauvoo, 1 in obedience to a
" "
revelation made to Joseph Smith, and secured a city charter
in 1840. Four years later its population was about 15,000, and
a large Mormon
temple had been built, but internal dissensions
arose, "gentile" hostility was aroused, the charter of Nauvoo
was revoked in 1845, two of the leaders, Joseph Smith and his
brother Hyrum, were killed at Carthage, the county-seat, by
a mob, and in 1846 the sect was driven from the state. Traces of
Mormonism, however, still remain in the ruins of the temple
and the names of several of the streets. Three years after the
expulsion of the Mormons Nauvoo was occupied by the remnant
(some 250) of a colony of French communists, the Icarians,
who had come out under the leadership of Etienne Cabet (q.v.).
For a few years the colony prospered, and by 1855 its membership
FIG. 2.^a, Male of Argonauta argo, with the hectocotylized arm
still contained in its enveloping cyst, four times enlarged (after H. had doubled. It was governed under a constitution, drafted
Mttller). b, Hectocotylus of Tremoctopus violaceus (after Kolliker). by Cabet, which vested the legislative authority in a general
assembly composed of all the males twenty years of age or over
afterwards bursts, allowing the arm to uncoil; the remains of the and the administrative authority in a board of six directors,
cyst form a sac on the back of the arm which serves to contain the three of whom were elected every six months for a term of one
spermatophores. year. Each family occupied its own home, but property was
The animal known as the Pearly Nautilus was unknown to the held in common, all ate at the common table, and the children
ancient Greeks, since its habitat is the seas of the far East, were taught in the community school. In December 1855
but in the middle ages, when its shell became known in Europe, Cabet proposed a revision of the constitution to give him greater
it was called, from its superficial similarity to that of the original authority. This resulted in rending the colony into two irrecon-
nautilus, by the same name. It was Linnaeus who, in order to cilable factions, and in October 1856 Cabet with the minority
" "
distinguish the two animals, took the name nautilus from (172) withdrew to St Louis, Mo., where he died on the 8th of
the animal to which it originally belonged and bestowed it upon November. In May 1858 the surviving members of his faction
the very different East Indian Mollusc, giving to the original together with a few fresh arrivals from France established a new
nautilus the new name Argonauta. Zoological nomenclature 1
The Mormons said the name was of Hebrew origin and meant
dates from Linnaeus, and thus the nautilus is now the name of the " " " "
beautiful place "; Hebrew naveh means pleasant."
NAVAHO NAVARRE 281
Icarian colony at Cheltenham near St Louis, but this survived were left to watch Navarino. The British admiral had barely
only for a brief period. Nauvoo was never intended to be more anchored at Zante before he was informed that the sultan's
than a temporary home for the Icarians. Soon after the schism forces were putting to sea. On the 29th of September a Greek
of 1856 those who had rebelled against Cabet began to prepare naval force, commanded by an English Philhellene, Captain
a permanent home in Adams county, Iowa. There too in 1879 Frank Abney Hastings, had destroyed some Turkish vessels in
the community split into two factions, the Young Party and the Salona Bay, on the north side of the Gulf of Corinth. From
Old Party. Some time before this separation a few members the 3rd to the 5th of October Codrington, who had with him
" "
of the colony removed to the vicinity of Cloverdale, Sonoma only his flagship the Asia (84) and some smaller vessels,
county, California, and here most of the members of the Young was engaged in turning back the Egyptian and Turkish vessels,
Party joined them early in 1884 in forming the Icaria-Speranza a task in which he was aided by a violent gale. He resumed his
Community. This society tried a government quite different watch off Navarino, and on the I3th was joined by de Rigny
from that first adopted at Nauvoo, but it ceased to exist after and the Russian rear-admiral Heiden with his squadron.
about three years. The Old Party also adopted a new constitu- By general agreement among the powers the command was
tion, but it too was dissolved in 1895. entrusted to Codrington, and the allied force consisted of three
See Albert Shaw, Icaria: A Chapter in the History of Communism British, four French and four Russian sail of the line, if the
(New York, 1884) Jules Prudhommeaux, Icaria et son fondateur
; French admiral's flagship the " Sirene " (60), which was technic-
Etienne Cabet (Paris, 1907); and H. Lux, Etienne Cabet und der
"
ally a double banked frigate," be included. There were four
Ikarische Kommunismus (Stuttgart, 1894).
British, one French and four Russian frigates, and six British
NAVAHO,or NAVAJO, a tribe of North American Indians of and French brigs and schooners. The Egyptians and Turks had
Athabascan stock. They inhabit the northern part of Arizona only three line of battleships and fifteen large frigates, together
and New Mexico. The majority live by breeding horses, sheep with a swarm of small craft which raised their total number
and goats. They are well known for their beautiful blanket to eighty and upwards. Ibrahim Pasha, though unable to
weaving. (See INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN.) operate at sea, considered himself at liberty to carry on the war
NAVAN, a market town of county Meath, Ireland, situated at by land. His men were actively employed in burning the
the confluence of the Blackwater with the Boyne. Pop. (1901) Greek villages, and reducing the inhabitants to slavery. The
3839. It is a railway junction of some importance, where the flames and smoke of the destroyed villages were clearly seen
Clonsilla and Kingscourt branch of the Midland Great Western from the allied fleet. On the I7th of October, a joint letter of
railway crosses the Drogheda and Oldcastle branch of the Great expostulation was sent in to Ibrahim Pasha, but was returned
Northern. By the former it is 30 m. N.W of Dublin. Navan with the manifestly false answer that he had left Navarino, and
isthe principal town of county Meath (though Trim is the county that his officers did not know where he was. The admirals,
town), and has considerable trade in corn and flour, some manu- therefore, decided to stand into the bay and anchor among the
facture of woollens and of agricultural implements, and a tannery. Egyptian and Turkish ships. A French officer in the Egyptian
Navan was a barony of the palatinate of Meath, was walled and service, of the name of Letellier, had anchored the vessels of
fortified, and was incorporated by charter of Edward IV. It Ibrahim and the Turkish admiral in a horseshoe formation, of
suffered in the civilwars of 1641, and returned two members to which the points touched the entrance to the bay, and there were
the Irish parliament until the Union in 1800. It is governed by forts on the lands at both sides of the entry. The allies entered in
an urban district council, and is a favourite centre for rod-fishing two lines one formed of the French and British led byCodrington
"
for trout and salmon. in the Asia," the other of the Russians, and began to anchor
NAVARINO, BATTLE OF, fought on the 2oth of October 1827, in the free water in the midst of Ibrahim's fleet. The officer
"
the decisive event which established the independence of Greece. commanding the British frigate Dartmouth " (42), Captain
By the treaty signed in London on the 6th of July 1827 (see Fellowes, seeing a Turkish fireship close to windward of him,
GREECE, History), England, France and Russia agreed to demand sent a boat with a demand that she should be removed. The
an armistice, as preliminary to a settlement. Sir Edward Turks fired, killing Lieutenant G. W. H. Fitzroy, who brought
Codrington, then commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean, the message, and several of the boat's crew. The
"
Dartmouth "
"
received the treaty and his instructions on the night of the then opened a defensive fire," and the action became general
loth/i ith of August at Smyrna, and proceeded at once to Nauplia at once. The allies, who were all closely engaged, were anchored
to communicate them to the Greeks. His instructions were to among their enemies, and the result was obtained by their heavier
demand an armistice, to intercept all supplies coming to the broadsides and their better gunnery. Three-fourths of the
Turkish forces in the Morea from Africa or Turkey in general, Turkish and Egyptian vessels were sunk by the assailants, or fired
and to look for directions to Stratford Canning (Lord Stratford by their own crews. On the allied side the British squadron
de Redcliffe), the British ambassador at Constantinople. The lost 75 killed and 197 wounded; the French 43 killed and 183
ambassador's instructions reached Codrington on the 7th of wounded; the Russians 59 killed and 139 wounded. In the
"
September. He was accompanied to Nauplia by his French British squadron Captain Walter Bathurst of the Genoa " (74)
colleague, Rear-Admiral de Rigny. The Greek government was slain. The loss of the Turks and Egyptians was never
agreed to accept the armistice. Admiral de Rigny left for a accurately reported, but it was certainly very great.
cruise in the Levant, and Sir Edward Codrington, hearing that an In its effects on the international situation Navarino may be
Egyptian armament was on its way from Alexandria, and reckoned one of the decisive battles of the world. It not only
believing thatit was bound for Hydra, steered for that island, made the efforts of the Turks to suppress the Greek revolt hope-
which he reached on the 3rd of September, but on the i2th of less, but it made a breach difficult to heal in the traditional
September found the Egyptians at anchor with a Turkish squadron friendship between Great Britain and Turkey, which had its
at Navarino. The Turkish government refused to accept the effect during the critical period of the struggle between Mehemet
armistice. On the ipth of September, seeing a movement among Ali and the Porte (1831-1841). It precipitated the Russo-
the Egyptian and Turkish ships in the bay, Codrington informed Turkish war of 1828-1829, and, by annihilating the Ottoman
the Ottoman admiral, Tahir Pasha, that he had orders to prevent navy, weakened the resisting power of Turkey to Russia and
hostile movements against the Greeks. Admiral de Rigny joined later to Mehemet Ali.
him immediately afterwards, and a joint note was sent by them See Memoir of Admiral Sir E. Codrington, by his daughter
Lady
on the 22nd of September to Ibrahim Pasha, who held the Bourchier (London, 1873); Naval History of Great Britain, by W.
superior command for the sultan. On the 2$th an interview James and Captain Chamier, vol. vi. (London, 1837). (D. H.)
took place, in which Ibrahim gave a verbal
engagement not to act NAVARRE (Span. Navarra), an inland province of northern
against the Greeks, pending orders from the sultan. The allies, Spain, and formerly a kingdom which included part of France.
who were in want of stores, now separated, Codrington going to The province is bounded on the N. by France (Basses Pyrenees)
Zante and de Rigny to Cervi, where his store ships were. Frigates and Guipuzcoa, E. by Huesca and Saragossa, S. by Saragossa
282 NAVARRETE, J.
F. NAVARRETE, M. F. DE
and Logrono and W. by Alava. It is traversed from east to the passes, and now known as French Navarre; the Basque
west by the Pyrenees and the Cantabrian Mountains, and almost provinces; the Bureba, the valley between the Basque Mountains
the whole of the province is overrun by the ramifications of these and the Monies de Oca to the north of Burgos; the
Rioja and
ranges. From Navarre there are only three practicable roads for Tarazona in the upper valley of the Ebro. In the i2th century
carriages into France those by the Puerta de Vera, the Puerta de the kings of Castile gradually annexed the Rioja and Alava.
Maya and Roncesvalles. The highest summit in the province While Navarre was reunited to Aragon 1076-1134 (see
is the Monte Adi (4931 ft.). The chief river flowing towards the SPAIN: History) it was saved from aggression on the east, but
Atlantic is the Bidasoa, which rises near the Puerta de Maya, did not recover the territory taken by Castile. About the
year
and after flowing southwards through the valley of Baztan takes 1200 Alfonso VIII. of Castile annexed the other two Basque
a north-easterly course, and for a short distance above its outfall provinces, Biscay (Vizcaya) and Guipuzcoa. Tarazona re-
at Fuenterrabia constitutes the frontier between France and mained in possession of Aragon. After 1 234 Navarre,
though the
Spain (Guipuzcoa); by far the larger portion of Navarre is crown was claimed by the kings of Aragon, passed by marriage
drained to the Mediterranean through the Ebro, which flows to a succession of French rulers. In 1516 Spanish Navarre
along the western frontier and crosses the extreme south of the was finally annexed by Ferdinand the Catholic. French Navarre
province. The hilly districts consist almost entirely of forest survived as an independent little kingdom till it was united to
and pasture, the most common trees being the pine, beech, oak the crown of France by Henry IV. founder of the Bourbon
and chestnut. Much of the lower ground is well adapted for dynasty. From 1510 until 1833, when it was fully incorporated
agriculture, and yields grain in abundance; the principal with Spain, Navarre was a viceroyalty.
fruit grown is the apple, from which cider is made in some As originally organized, Navarre was divided into Merindades, or
districts, governed by a Merino (mayorino) as representative of the
districts; hemp, flax and oil are also produced, and mulberries
are cultivated for silkworms. The wine trade is active, and the king.
They were the Ultrapuertos (French Navarre), Pamplona,
Estella, Judela, Sanguesa. In 1407 Olite was added. The Cortes of
products of the vineyards are in great demand in south-west Navarre began with the king's council of churchmen and nobles.
France and at Passages in Guipuzcoa for mixing with French But in the course of the I4th century the burgesses were added.
wines. Navarre is one of the richest provinces of Spain in live Their presence was due to the fact that the king had need of their
co-operation to raise money by grants and aids. When fully con-
stock. Game, both large and small, is plentiful in the mountains,
stituted, the Cortes consisted of the churchmen, the nobles and the
and the streams abound with trout and other fish. Gypsum, representatives of twenty-seven " good towns " that is to say,
limestone, freestone and marble are quarried; there are also towns which had no feudal lord, and, therefore, held directly of the
mines of copper, lead, iron, zinc and rock salt. Mineral and king. In the later stages of its history the Cortes of Navarre included
the representatives of thirty-tight towns. The independence of the
thermal springs are numerous, but none is of more than local
burgesseswas better secured in Navarre than in other parliaments of
fame. The other include manufactures of arms,
industries Spam by the constitutional rule which required the consent of a
paper, chocolate, candles, alcohol, leather, coarse linens and majority of each order to every act of the Cortes. Thus the bmgesses
cloth. The exports both by rail and by the passes in the could not be outvoted by the nobles and the Church. Even in the
1 8th
century the Navarrese successfully resisted the attempt of the
Pyrenees consist of live stock, oil, wine, wool, leather and paper.
kings of the Bourbon dynasty to establish custom houses on the
The Ebro Valley railway, which traverses southern Navarre French frontier. Yet they were loyal to their Spanish sovereigns,
and skirts the western frontier, sends out a branch line from and no part of the country offered a more determined or more skilful
resistance to Napoleon. Navarre was much under clerical influence.
Castejon to Pamplona and Alsasua junction, where it connects
with the Northern railways from Madrid to France. Narrow- This, and the resentment felt at the loss of their autonomy when they
were incorporated with the rest of Spain in 1833, account for the
gauge railways convey timber and ore from the mountains to strong support given by many Navarrese to the Carlist cause.
these main lines. Pamplona, the capital (pop., 1900, 28,886), See Historia Compendiada de Navarra by Don J. M. Yanguas,
and Tudela (9449) are described in separate articles. The only (San Sebastian, 1832).
other towns with more than 5000 inhabitants are Baztan (9234), NAVARRETE, JUAN FERNANDEZ (1526-1579), surnamed
Corella (6793), Estella (5736) and Tafalla (5494). El Mudo (The Mute), Spanish painter of the Madrid school,
History. The kingdom of Navarre was formed out of a part was born at Logrono in 1526. An illness in infancy deprived him
of the territory occupied by the Vascones, i.e. the Basques and of his hearing, but at a very early age he began to express his
Gascons, who occupied the southern slope of the western Pyrenees wants by sketching objects with a piece of charcoal. He received
and part of the shore of the Bay of Biscay. In the course of the his first instructions in art from Fray Vicente de Santo Domingo,
6th century there was a considerable emigration of Basques to a Hieronymite monk at Estella, and afterwards he visited Naples,
the north of the Pyrenees. The cause is supposed to have been Rome, Florence and Milan. According to the ordinary account
the pressure put upon them by the attacks of the Visigoth kings he was for a considerable time the pupil of Titian at Venice. In
in Spain. Yet the Basques maintained their independence. 1 568 Philip II. summoned him to Madrid with the title of king's
The name of Navarre is derived by etymologists from " nava " painter and a salary, and employed him to execute pictures for
a flat valley surrounded by hills (a commonplace name in Spain ; the Escorial. The most celebrated of the works he there pro-
" " " "
cf Navas de Tolosa to the south of the Sierra Morena) and erri
. duced are a Nativity (in which, as in the well-known work on
a region or country. It began to appear as the name of part of the same subject by Correggio, the light emanates from the
Vasconia towards the end of the Visigoth epoch in Spain in the infant Saviour), a "Baptism of Christ" (now in the Madrid Picture
" "
7th century. Its early history is more than obscure. In recent Gallery) and Abraham Receiving the Three Angels
, (one of his
times ingenious attempts have been made to trace the descent last performances, dated 1576). He executed many other
of the first historic king of Navarre from one Semen Lupus, duke altarpieces, all characterized by boldness and freedom in design,
of Aquitaine in the 6th century. The reader may consult La and by the rich warm colouring which has acquired for him the
Vasconie by Jean de Jaurgain (Paris, 1898) for the latest example surname of " the Spanish Titian." He died at Toledo in February
of this reconstruction of ancient history from fragmentary and 1579-
dubious materials. Jaurgain has been subjected to very damag- NAVARRETE, MARTIN FERNANDEZ DE (1765-1844),
ing criticism by L. Barrau-Dihigo (Revue Hispanique, t. vii. Spanish historian, was born at Abalos on the gth of November
141). The king of. Navarre was Sancho Garcia,
first historic 1765, and entered the navy in 1780. He was engaged in the
who ruled at
Pamplona in the early years of the loth century. unsuccessful operations against Gibraltar in 1782, and afterwards
Under him and his immediate successors Navarre reached the in the suppression of Algerine pirates. Ill-health compelled him
height of its power and its extension' (see SPAIN: History, for for a time to withdraw from active service, but he devoted this
the reign of Sancho el Mayor, and the establishment of the :
orced leisure to historical research, and in 1789 he was appointed
Navarrese line as kings of Castile and Leon, and of Aragon). the crown to examine the national archives relating to the
When the kingdom was at its height it included all the modern maritime history of Spain. Rejoining the navy in 1793, he was
province of the name; the northern slope of the western Pyrenees present at the siege of Toulon, and afterwards received command
called by the Spaniards the
" " of a frigate. From 1797 to 1808 he held in succession various
Ultra-puertos or country beyond
NAVARRO NAVE 283
important posts in the ministry of marine. In 1808 the French the choir or the presbytery, reserved for the clergy. In a 14th-
invasion led to his withdrawal to Andalusia, and the rest of his century letter (quoted in Gasquet's Parish Life in Medieval
life was entirely devoted to literature. In 1819 appeared, as an England, 1906, p. 45) from a bishop of Coventry and Lichfield
appendix to the Academy's edition of Don Quijote, his Vida de to one of his clergy, the reason for this appropriation is given.
"
Cervantes, and in 1825 the first two volumes of the Coleccion de Not only the decrees of the holy fathers but the approved
los Viajes y Descubrimientos que hicieron por Mar los Espanoles existing customs of the Church order that the place in which
desde fines del Siglo XV. (3rd vol., 1829; 4th vol., 1837). In the clerks sing and serve God according to their offices be
1837 he was made a senator and director of the academy of divided by screens from that in which the laity devoutly pray.
history. At the time of his death, on the 8th of October 1844, In this way the nave of the church ... is alone to be open to
he was assisting in the preparation of the Coleccion de Docu- lay people, in order that, in the time of divine service, clerics
menlos Ineditos para la Historia de Espana. His Disertacion be not mixed up with lay people, and more especially with women,
sobre la Historia de la Nautica (1846) and Biblioteca Maritima nor have communication with them, for in this way devotion
"
Espanola (1851). were published posthumously. may be easily diminished." The word nave " has been
NAVARRO, PEDRO (c. 1460-1528), Spanish military engineer generally derived from Lat. navis, ship. Du Cange (Glossarium,
"
and general, of obscure parentage, was born probably about 1460. s.v. Navis ") quotes from the Chronicon Moriniacense, of the
He began life as a sailor; and was employed later as mozo de 1 2th century, as to the popular origin of the name, Exterius
espuela, or running footman, by the Cardinal Juan de Aragon; etiam tabernaculum, quod ecclesiae navis a populo wcalur ....
on the death of his employer in 1485 he enlisted as a Salmasius in his commentary on Solinus (1629) finds the origin
mercenary in a war between Florence and Genoa; and was sub- in the resemblance of the vaulted roof to the keel of a ship, and
sequently engaged for some years in the warfare between the refers to Sallust (Jugurlha, 18. 8) where is noticed a similar
Genoese corsairs and the Mahommedans of Northern Africa. resemblance in the huts (mapalia) of the Numidians. The use
Navarro was not more scrupulous than others, for in 1499 he was of the word navis may, however, be due to the early adoption
" "
at Civitavecchia, recovering from a gunshot wound in the hip of the ship as a symbol of the church (see Skeat's note on
received in a piratical attack on a Portuguese trading ship. Piers Plowman, xl. 32). The Greek i>abs, Attic vecos (vaitiv,
When Gonsalvo de Cordoba was sent to Sicily, to take part with to dwell), the inner shrine of a Greek temple, the cella, has also
the French in the partition of Naples, Navarro enlisted under been suggested as the real origin of the word. This derivative
him; and in the expulsion of the Turkish garrison from Cepha- must presume a latinized corruption into navis, for the early
lonia in 1500 he helped by laying mines to breach the walls, application of the word for ship to this part of a church building
though not at first with much success. The Spanish commander is undoubted. 1
gave him a captain's commission. During the campaigns of Architecturally considered the nave is the central and principal
1502 and 1503 he came to the front among the Spanish officers part of a church, extending from the main front to the transepts,
by the defence of Canosa and of Taranto, by his activity in or to the choir or chancel in the absence of transepts. When
partisan warfare on the French lines of communication, and the nave is flanked by aisles, light is admitted to the church
by the part he took in winning the battle of Cerinola. But his through clerestory windows, some of the most ancient examples
great reputation among the soldiers of the time was founded being the basilica at Bethlehem and the church of St Elias,
on the vigour and success of his mining operations against the at Thessalonica, both of the sth century; numerous churches
castles of Naples, held by French garrisons, in 1503, and he was in Rome; and in the 6th century the two great basilicas at
undoubtedly recognized as the first military engineer of his age. Ravenna; in all these cases the sills of the clerestory windows
When the French were expelled from Naples he received from were raised sufficiently to allow of a sloping roof over the side
Gonsalvo a grant of land and the title of count of Olivette. aisles. When, however, a gallery was carried above the side
In 1506 he was in Spain, and for several years he was employed aisles, another division was required, which is known as the
in wars on the north coast of Africa. In 1508 he took Velez de triforium, and this subdivision was retained in the nave even
Gomera, largely by means of a species of floating battery which when it formed a passage, only in the thickness of the wall.
he invented. In 1509 he accompanied Ximenez in the conquest In Late Gothic work in England, the triforium was suppressed
of Oran, and did excellent service. Till 1511 he continued in altogether to give more space for the clerestory windows, and
service in Africa, and took Bougie and Tripoli in 1510. The roofs of low pitch were provided over the side aisles.
disasters at Gerba and Kerkenna did not materially affect his The longest nave in England is that of St Albans (300 ft.), in
reputation. There was some talk of appointing him to command which there are thirteen nave arches or bays on each side; in
the army of the league formed against the French in 1512; Winchester (264 ft.) there are twelve bays; in Norwich (250 ft.)
but his humble birth was thought to disqualify him. He was, fourteen; Peterborough (226 ft.) eleven; and Ely (203 ft.) twelve
bays. Most of these dimensions are in excess of those of the French
however, sent as a subordinate general. At the battle of Ravenna cathedrals; Bourges is 300 ft. long, but as there are no transepts
he covered the orderly retreat of the Spanish foot, and was this dimension includes nave and choir. Cluny was 230 ft. with
struck from his horse by a shot which failed to pierce his armour. eleven bays; Reims is 235 ft. with ten bays; Paris 170 ft. with ten
Being taken prisoner by the French, he was sent to the Castle bays; Amiens 160 with ten bays; and St Ouen, Rouen, 200 ft. with
ten bays. In Germany the nave of Cologne cathedral is only 190 ft.,
of Loches. Ferdinand, whom the soldiers called an Aragonese The cathedral at
including the two bays between the towers.
skinflint, would not pay his ransom, and after three years of Seville in Spain is 200 ft. long, with only five bays. In Italy the
imprisonment he entered the service of Francis I. in a pique. cathedral at Milan is 270 ft. long with nine bays; at Florence, 250 ft.
The rest of his life was spent as a French officer. He distin- long with only four bays; and St Peter's in Rome 300 ft. long with
four bays. On the other hand, the vaults in the nave of the con-
guished himself in the passage of the Alps, at the battle of tinental cathedrals are far higher than those in England, that of
Marignano, by the taking of the citadel of Milan, and in the long Westminster Abbey being only 103 ft. high, whilst the choir of
siege of Brescia. He was at the battle of Pa via, and in 1522 Beauvais is 150 ft. The result is that the naves of the English
was taken prisoner at Genoa by his own countrymen. He was cathedrals not only are longer in actual dimensions, but appear
confined at Naples till the peace of 1526, but beyond the confisca-
much longer in consequence of their inferior height.
tion of his estate at Olivette no punishment was inflicted for his 1
Vessels resembling boats or ships are familiar in medieval art
" "
treason. His last service was in the disastrous expedition of and later. Thus Incense-boats (navettes) somewhat of this shape
Lautrec to Naples in 1527, which was ruined by the plague. He are found in 12th-century sculptures. By the i6th century they
died near the end of 1528.
approximated still more closely to a model of a ship. A large vessel,
also in the shape of a boat or ship, and known as a nef, was used at
A life of Navarro by Don Martin de los Heros, is published in the the table of princes and great personages to contain the knives,
Documentos insditos para la Historia de Espana, vol. xxv. (Madrid, spoons, &c. Some very elaborate examples of these survive, such as
1854). the 15th-century nef of St Ursula in the treasure of the cathedral at
Reims, and that of Charles V. of France in the Muse Cluny. A _
NAVE, ecclesiastically considered, that part of a church 16th-century nef, adapted for use as a cup, is in the Franks Collection
appropriated to the laity as distinguished from the chancel, at the British Museum. (See DRINKING VESSELS.)
284 NAVEL NAVIGATION
NAVEL
( O. Eng. nafela, a word common to Teutonic languages;
The then backward state of navigation is best understood from a
sketch of the few rude appliances which the mariner had, and even
cf. Nabel, Swed. nafvel; the Sanskrit is ndbhila; the
Ger.
these were only intended for the purpose of ascertaining the latitude.
"
English root is also seen in nave," the hub of a wheel), in The mystery of finding the longitude proved unfathomable for many
anatomy, the umbilicus (Gr. 6/Li</>aX6s), the depression in the years after the time of the Armada, and the very inaccurate know-
abdomen which indicates the point through which the embryo ledge existing of the positions of the heavenly bodies themselves fully
justified the quaintly expressed advice given in a nautical work of
mammal obtained nourishment from its mother (see ANATOMY: "
Now there be some
repute at the time, where the writer observes,
section Superficial and Artistic). that are very inquisitive to have a way to get the longitude, but that
NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move), the is too tedious for seamen, since it requireth the deep knowledge of
science or art of conducting a ship across the seas. The term astronomy, wherefore I would not have any man think that the
is also popularly used by analogy of boats on rivers, &c., and of longitude is to be found at sea by any instrument so let no seamen
;
trouble themselves with any such rule, but (according to their
flying-machines or similar methods of locomotion. Navigation, accustomed manner) let them keep a perfect account and reckoning
" '
as an
art applied properly to ships, is technically used in the of the way of their ship." Such record of the way of the ship
restricted sense dealt with below, and has therefore to be appears to have been then and for many years later recorded in
from
" "
or the chalk on a wooden board (log board), which folded like a book, and
distinguished seamanship (?.!>.), general from which each day a position for the ship was deduced, or from
methods of rigging a ship (see RIGGING), or the management which the more careful made abstracts into what was termed the
"
of sails, rudder, &c. journal."
History. A compass, a cross-staff or astrolabe, a fairly good table of the
sun's declination, a correction for the altitude of the pole star, and
The and progress of the art of naviga-
early history of the rise occasionally a very incorrect chart formed all the appliances of a
tion is very obscure, and it is more easy to trace the gradual navigator in the time of Columbus. For a knowledge of the speed of
advance of geographical knowledge by its means than the the ship one of the earliest methods of actual measurement in use
"
was by what was known as the Dutchman's log," which consisted
growth of the practical methods by which this advance was in throwing into the water, from the bows of the ship, something
attained. Among Western nations before the introduction of which would float, and noting the interval between its apparently
the mariner's compass the only practical means of navigating drifting past two observers standing on the deckat a known distance
ships was to keep in sight of land, or occasionally, for short apart. No other method is mentioned until 1577, when a line was
attached to a small log of wood, which was thrown overboard, and
distances, to direct the ship's course by referring it to the sun
the length measured which was carried over in a certain interval of
or stars; this very rough mode of procedure failed in cloudy
time; this interval of time was, we read, generally obtained by the
weather, and even in short voyages in the Mediterranean in repetition of certain sentences, which were repeated twice if the ship
such circumstances the navigator generally became hopelessly were only moving slowly. It is unfortunate that the words of this
bewildered as to his position. ancient shibboleth are unknown. This is mentioned by Purchas as
Over the China Sea and Indian Ocean the steadiness in direc- being in occasional use in 1607, but the more usual method (as we
incidentally see in the voyages of Columbus) was to estimate or guess
tion of the monsoons was very soon observed, and by running the rate of progress. It was customary by one or other of these
directly before the wind vessels in those localities were able to methods to determine the speed of a ship every two hours, " royal "
traverse long distances out of sight of land in opposite directions ships and those with very careful captains doing so every hour.
When a vessel had been on various courses during the two hours, a
at different seasons of the year, aided in some cases by a rough record of the duration on each was usually kept by the helmsman on
compass (q.v.). But it is surprising when we read of the progress a traverse board, which consisted of a board having 32 radial lines
made among the ancients in fixing positions on shore by practical drawn on it representing the points of the compass, with holes at
various distances from the centre, into which pegs were inserted, the
astronomy that so many years should have passed without its mean or average course being that entered on the log board.
application to solving exactly the same problems at sea, but Some idea of the speed of ordinary ships in those days may be
this is probably to be explained by the difficulty of devising "
gathered from an observation in 1551 of a certain shipp which,
instruments for use on the unsteady platform of a ship, coupled without ever striking sail, arrived at Naples from Drepana, in Sicily,
"
with the lack of scientific education among those who would in 37 hours (a distance of 200 m.) ; the writer accounting for
"
such swift motion, which to the common sort of man scemeth
have to use them. "
incredible," by the fact of the occurrence of violent floods and
The association of commercial activity and nautical progress outrageous winds." In 1578 we find in Bourne's Inventions and
shown by the Portuguese in the early part of the i$th century Devices a description of a proposed patent log for recording a vessel's
marked an epoch of distinct progress in the methods of practical speed, the idea (as far as we can gather from its vague description)
being to register the revolutions of a wheel enclosed in a case towed
navigation, and initiated that steady improvement which in astern of a ship (see LOG).
the 2oth century has raised the art of navigation almost to the Whether the property of the lodestone was independently dis-
position of an exact science. Up to the time of the Portuguese covered in Europe or introduced from the East, it does not appear to
have been generally utilized in Europe earlier than about A.D. 1400
exploring expeditions, sent out by Prince Henry, generally " "
known as the " Navigator," which led to the discovery of the (see COMPASS). In Europe the card or flie appears to have been
attached to the magnet from the first, and the whole suspended as
Azores in 1419, the rediscovery of the Cape Verde Islands in now in gimbal-rings within the " bittacle," or, as we now spell the
"
1447 and of Sierra Leone in 1460, navigation had been conducted word, binnacle." The direction of a ship's head by compass was
in the most rude, uncertain and dangerous manner it is possible termed how she " capes." From the accounts extant of the stores
to conceive. Many years had passed without the least improve- supplied to ships in 1588, they appear to have usually had two
compasses, costing 33. 4d. each, which were kept in charge by the
ment being introduced, except the application of the magnetic boatswain. The fact that the north point of a compass does not, in
needle about the beginning of the i4th century (see COMPASS most places, point to the true pole but eastward or westward of it,
"
and MAGNETISM). Prince Henry did all in his power to bring by an amount which is termed by sailors variation," appears to
have been noticed at an early date; but that the amount of variation
together and systematize the knowledge then obtainable upon varied in different localities appears to have been first observed by
nautical affairs, and also established an observatory at Sagres either Columbus or Cabot about 1490, and we find it used to be the
(near Cape St Vincent) in order tc obtain more accurate tables practice to ascertain this error when at sea either from a bearing of
by taking a mean of the compass bearings of the
of the declination of the sun. John II., who ascended the throne the pole star, or sun
at both rising and setting, the deviation of the compass in the ships
of Portugal in 1481, followed up the good work. He employed
of those days being too small a quantity to be generally noticed,
Roderick and Joseph, his physicians, with Martin de Bohemia,
though there is a very suggestive remark on the effect of moving the
from Fayal, to act as a committee on navigation. They calcu- position of any iron placed near a compass, by a Captain Sturmy of
lated tables of the sun's declination, and improved the astrolabe, Bristol in
1679. In order, partially to obviate the error of the
recommending it as more convenient than the cross-staff. The compass (variation), the magnets, which usually consisted of two
steel wires joined at both ends and opened out in the middle, were not
Ordenanzas of the Spanish council of the Indies record the course
placed under the north and south line of the compass card, but with
of instruction prescribed at this time for pilots; it included the the ends about a point eastward of north and westward of south, the
De Sphaera Mundi of Sacrobosco, the spherical triangles of variation in London when first observed in 1580 being about 11 E. ;
the change of the variation year by year at the same base was first
Regiomontanus, the Almagest of Ptolemy, the use of the astrolabe noted
and its mechanism, the adjustments of instruments, cartography by Gellibrand in 1635.
The cross-staff " appears to have been used by astronomers at a
'
and the methods of observing the movements of heavenly bodies. very early period, and subsequently by seamen for measuring
NAVIGATION 285
altitudes at sea. It was one of the few instruments possessed by about which was pierced with a round hole. To use the
this centre,
Columbus and Vasco da Gama. The old cross-staff, called by the instrument, the projection at twelve hours on the inner plate was
"
Spaniards ballestilla," consisted of two light battens. The part turned until it coincided with the day of the month of observation,
we may call the staff was about ij in. square and 36 in. long. The and the instrument held with its plane roughly parallel to the equi-
cross was made to fit closely and to slide upon the staff "
at right
"
noctial or celestial equator, the observer looking at the pole star
angles; its length was a little over 26 in., so as to allow the pinules through the hole in the centre, and turning the long central index bar
or sights to be placed exactly 26 in. apart. A sight was also fixed on until the guards were seen just
the end of the staff for the eye to look through so as to see both those touching its edge; the hour in
on the cross and the objects whose distance apart was to be measured. line with this edge read off on
It was made by describing the angles on a table, and laying the staff the inner plate was, roughly, the
upon it (fig. i). The scale of degrees was marked on the upper face. time. Occasionally the nocturnal
Afterwards shorter crosses were introduced, so that smaller angles was constructed so as to find
could be taken by the time by observations of the
the same instrument. pointers in the Great Bear.
These angles were The rough charts used by a few
marked on the sides of the more expert navigators at
of the staff. the time we refer to will be more
To observe with fully described later(see also MAP
this instrument a andGEOGRAPHY). Nautical maps
meridian altitude of or charts first appeared in Italy at
the sun the bearing the end of the I3th century, but
was taken by com- it is said that the first seen in
pasS| to England was brought by Bar-
when itwas near tholomew Columbus in 1489.
the meridian then
;
Among the earliest authors
the end of the long
staff was placed close
who touched upon navigation
to the observer's eye, was John Werner of Nurem-
and the transver- berg, who in 1514, in his notes
FIG. i.
sary, or cross, moved upon Ptolemy's geography, de-
until one end exactly
scribes the cross-staff as a very
touched the horizon,
and the other the sun's centre. This was continued until the sun ancient instrument, but says
dipped, when the meridian altitude was obtained. that it was only then beginning to be generally introduced
Another primitive instrument in common use at the beginning He recommends measuring the distance
of the loth century was the astrolabe
among seamen.
(g.p.),
which was more con- between the moon and a star as a means of ascertain-
venient than the cross-staff for taking altitudes. Fig. 2 represents
an astrolabe as described by Martin Cortes. It was made of ing the longitude; but this (though developed many years
"
copper or tin, about J in. in thickness and 6 or 7 in. in diameter, after into the method technically known as lunars ") was at
and was circular except at one place, where a projection was provided this time of no practical use owing to the then imperfect know-
for a hole by which it was suspended. Weight was 'considered
desirable in order to keep it steady when in use. The face of the ledge of the true positions of the moon and stars and the non-
metal having been well polished, a plumb line from the existence of instrumental means by which such distances could
point of
suspension marked the vertical line, from which were derived the be measured with the necessary accuracy.
horizontal line and centre. The upper left quadrant was divided
Thirty-eight years after the discovery of America, when
into degrees. The second part was a pointer pt of the same metal
and thickness as the circular plate, about i J in. wide, and in length long voyages had become comparatively common, R. Gemma
equal to the diameter of the circle. The centre was bored, and a line
Frisius wrote upon astronomy and cosmogony, with the use
was drawn across it the full length, which was called the line of of the globes. His book comprised much valuable information
confidence. On the ends of that line were fixed plates, s, s, having to mariners of that day, and was translated into French fifty
each a small hole, both exactly over the line
of confidence, as sights for the sun or stars. years later (1582) by Claude de Bossiere. The astronomical
The pointer moved upon a centre the size of system adopted is that of Ptolemy. The following are some
a goose quill. When the instrument was sus- of the points of interest relating to navigation. There is a good
pended the pointer was directed by hand to description of the sphere and its circles; the obliquity of the
the object, and the angle read on the one
ecliptic is given as 23 30'. The distance between the meridians
quadrant only. Some years later the opposite
quadrant was also graduated, to give the
is to be measuredon the equator, allowing 15 to an hour of time;
benefit of a second reading. The astrolabe was longitude is to be found by eclipses of the moon and conjunctions,
used by Vasco da Gama on his first voyage and reckoned from the Fortunate Islands (Azores). Latitude
round the Cape of Good Hope in 1497; but
p IG 2 should be measured from the equator, not from the ecliptic,
the movement of a ship rendered accuracy "
impossible, and the liability to error was increased by the necessity
as Clarean says." The use of globes is very thoroughly and
for three observers. One held the instrument by a ring passed correctly explained. The scale for measuring distances was
over the thumb, the second measured the altitude, and the third
placed on the equator, and 15 German leagues, or 60 Italian
read off.
For finding latitude at night by altitude of the pole star taken by leagues, were to be considered equal to one degree. The Italian
cross-staff or astrolabe, use was made of an auxiliary instrument league was 8 stadia, or 1000 paces, therefore the degree is taken
"
called the nocturnal." From the relative positions of the two much too small. We are told that, on plane charts, mariners
stars in the constellation of the " Little Bear " farthest from the drew lines from various centres (i.e. compass courses), which
pole (known as the Fore and Hind guards) the positron of the pole
star with regard to the pole could be inferred, and tables were drawn
were very useful since the virtue of the lodestone had become
"
up termed the Regiment of the Pole Star," showing for eight recognized; it must be remembered that parallel rulers were
positions of the guards how much should be added or subtracted unknown, being invented by Mordente in 1 584. Such a confusion
from the altitude of the pole star; thus, " when the guards are in the of lines has been continued upon sea charts till comparatively
N.W. bearing from each other north and south add half a degree,"
&c. The bearings of the guards, and also recently. Gemma gives rules for finding the course and distance
roughly the hour of the
night, were found by the nocturnal, first described by M. Coignet in correctly, except that he treats difference of longitude as
1581. departure. For instance, if the difference of latitude and
The nocturnal (fig. 3) consisted of two concentric circular plates, difference of longitude are equal, the course prescribed is between
the outer being about 3 in. in diameter, and divided into twelve
equal the two principal winds that is, 45. He points out that the
parts corresponding to the twelve months, each being again sub-
divided into groups of five days. The inner circle was courses thus followed are not straight lines, but curves, because
graduated into
twenty-four equal parts, corresponding to the hours of the day, and they do not follow the great circle, and that distances could be
again subdivided into quarters; the handle was fixed to the outer more correctly measured on the globe than on charts. The tide is
circle in such a way that the middle of it
corresponded with the day said to rise with the moon, high water being when it is on the
of the month on which the
guards had the same right ascension as
the sun or, in other words, crossed the meridian at noon. From the meridian and 12 hours later. From a table of latitudes and
^
common centre of the two circles extended a long index bar, which, longitudes a few examples are here selected, by which it appears
together with the inner circle, turned freely and independently that even latitude was much in error. The figures in brackets
286 NAVIGATION
represent the positions according to modern tables, counting
the longitude from the western extremity of St Michael. (Flores
is 5 8' farther west.)
Alexandria 31 o' N. (31'
(37
NAVIGATION 287
the altitude of the pole being found frequently, as the esti- of the ecliptic. He described a cross-staff with three transverse
mated distance run was imperfect. He devised an instrument pieces, which was then in common use at sea. Coignet died in
whereby to tell the hour, the direction of the ship's head, and 1623.
where the sun would set. A very correct table is given of the The Dutch published charts made up as atlases as early as
distances between the meridians at every degree of latitude, 1584, with a treatise on navigation as an introduction.
whereby a seaman could easily reduce the difference of longitude In 1585 Roderico Zamorano, who was then lecturer at the naval
to departure. In the rules for finding the latitude by the college at Seville, published a concise and clearly-written com-
pole star, that star is supposed to be 3 from the pole.
Martin pendium of navigation; he follows Cortes in the desire to obtain
Cortes attributes the tides entirely to the influence of the moon, better charts. Andres Garcia de Cespedes, the successor of
and gives instructions for finding the time of high water at Cadiz, Zamorano at Seville, published a treatise on navigation at Madrid
when by means of a card with the moon's age on it, revolving in 1606. In 1592 Petrus Plancius published his universal map,
within a circle showing the hours and minutes, the time of high containing the discoveries in the East and West Indies and
water at any other place for which it was set would be indicated. towards the north pole. It possessed no particular merit; the
Directions are given for making a compass similar to those then degrees of latitude are equal, but the distances between the
in common use, also for ascertaining and allowing for the varia- meridians are varied. He made London appear in 51 32' N.
tion. The east is here spoken of as the principal point, and and long. 22, by which his first meridian should have been
marked by a cross. more than 3 east of St Michael.
The third part of Martin Cortes's work is upon charts; he For Mercator's great improvements in charts at about this date
laments that wise men do not produce some that are correct, see MAP; from facsimiles of his early charts in Jomard, Les
and that pilots and mariners will use plane charts which are Monuments de la geographic, the following measurements have
"
not true. In the Mediterranean and Channel of Flanders" been made. A general chart in 1569 of North America, from
the want of good charts is (he says) less inconvenient, as they lat. 25 to lat. 79, is 2 ft. long north and south, and 20 in. wide.
do not navigate by the altitude of the pole. Another of the same date, from the equator to 60 south lat.
is 15-8 in. long. The charts agree with each other, a slight
As some subsequent writers have attributed to Cortes the credit
of first thinking of the enlargement of the degrees of latitude on
allowance being made for remeasuring. As compared with
Mercator's principle, his precise words may be cited. In making a J. Inman's table of meridional parts, the spaces between the
chart, it is recommended to choose a well-known place near the parallels are all too small. Between o and 10 the error is 8' at ;
centre of the intended chart, such as Cape St Vincent, which call 20
"
and from thence towards the Arctic pole the degrees increase;
it is 5'; 30, 16'; at 40, 39'; at 50, 61'; at 60, 104';
at
37, at 70, 158' and at 79, 182' that is, over three degrees upon
and from thence to the equinoctial line they go on decreasing, and ;
from the line to the Antarctic pole increasing." It would appear the whole chart. As the measures are always less than the
at first sight that this implied that the degrees increased in length as truth it is possible that Mercator was afraid to give the whole.
well as being called by a higher number, but a specimen chart in the
In a chart of Sicily by Romoldus Mercator in 1589, on which
book does not justify that conclusion. It is from 34 to 40, and the
divisions are unequal, but evidently by accident, as the highest and two equal degrees of latitude, 36 to 38, extend 95 in., the
lowest are the longest. He states that the Spanish scale was formed degree of longitude is quite correct at one-fourth from the top;
by counting the Great Berling as 3 from Cape St Vincent (it is under the lower part is r m. too long. One of the north of Scotland,
af ). Twenty English leagues are equal to 175 Spanish or 25 French,
and to 1 of latitude. Cortes was evidently at a loss to know the published in 1595, by Romoldus, measures 103 in. from 58 20'
to 61 the divisions are quite equal and the lines parallel;
length of a degree, and consequently the circumference of the globe. ;
The degrees of longitude are not laid down, but for a first meridian
"
it is correct at the centre only. A map of Norway, 1595, lat. 60
we are told to draw a vertical line through the Azores, or nearer to 70 = g in., has the parallels curved and equidistant, the
Spain, where the chart is less occupied." It is impossible in such
meridians straight converging lines; the spaces between the
circumstances to understand or check the longitudes assigned to
meridians at 60 and 70 are quite correct.
places at that period. Martin Cortes's work was held in high estima-
tion in England for many years, and appeared in several translations. In 1594 Blundeville published a description of Mercator's
A reprint, with additions, of Richard Eden's (1561), by John charts and globes; he confesses to not having known upon what
Tapp and published in 1609, gives an improved table of the rule the meridians were separated by Mercator, unless upon such
sun's declination from 1609 to 1625 the maximum value being
a table as that given by Wright, whose table of meridional parts
23 to 30'. The declinations of the principal stars, the times of their
passing the meridian, and other improved tables, are given, with is published in the same book, also an excellent table of sines,
a very poor traverse table for eight points. The cross-staff, he tangents and secants the former to seven figures, the latter
said, was in most common use; but he recommends Wright's sea to eight. These are the tables made originally by Regiomontanus
quadrant.
and improved by Clavius.
William Cuningham published in 1559 a book called his In 1594 the celebrated navigator John Davis published a
Astronomical Glass, in which he teaches the making of charts pamphlet of eighty pages, in black letter, entitled The Seaman's
by a central meridional line divided into equal parts, with other Secrets, in which he proposes to give all that is necessary for
meridians on each side, distant at top and bottom in proportion sailors not for scholars on shore. He defines three kinds of
to the departure at the highest and lowest latitude, for which sailing: horizontal, paradoxical and great circle. His horizontal
purpose a table of departures is given very correctly to the third sailing consists of short voyages which may be delineated upon
place of sexagesimals. The chart would be excellent were it not a plain sheet of paper. The paradoxical or cosmographical
that the parallels are drawn straight instead of being curved. embraces longitude, latitude and distance the combining many
"
In another example, which shows one-fourth of the sphere, the horizontal courses into' one infallible and true," i.e. what is
"
meridians and parallels are all curved; it would be good were now called traverse and Mercator's sailings. His paradoxical
"
it not that the former are too long. The hemisphere is also course he describes correctly as a rhumb line which is straight
shown upon a projection approaching the stereographic; but on the chart and a curve on the globe. He points out the errors
the eighteen meridians cut the equator at equal distances apart of the common or plane chart, and promises if spared to publish
"
instead of being nearer together towards the primitive. He a paradoxall chart." It is not known whether such appeared
gives the drawing of an instrument like an astrolabe placed or not, but he assisted Wright in producing his chart on what
horizontally, divided into 32 points and 360 degrees, and carrying is known as Mercator's projection a few years later. Great
a small magnetic needle to be used as a prismatic compass, circle sailing on a globe is clearly described by Davis, and to
or even as a theodolite. render it more practicable he divides a long distance into several
In 1581 Michael Coignet of Antwerp published sea charts, and short rhumblines quite correctly. From the practice of
also a small treatise in French, wherein he exposes the errors of navigators in using globes the principles of such sailing were not
Medina, and was probably the first who said that rhumb lines unknown at an earlier date; indeed it is said that S. Cabot
form spirals round the pole. He published also tables of declina- projected a voyage across the North Atlantic on the arc of a
tion of the sun and observed the gradual decrease in the
obliquity great circle in 1495.
288 NAVIGATION
The list of instruments given by Davis as necessary to a skilful He considered such charts as true as the globe itself; and so
seaman comprises the sea compass, cross-staff, chart, quadrant,
" " they were for all practical purposes. He commenced by dividing
astrolabe, an instrument magnetical for finding the variation of
the compass, a horizontal plane sphere, a globe and a paradoxical a meridional line, in the proportion of the secants of the latitude,
compass. The first three are said to be sufficient for use at sea, the for every ten minutes of arc, and in the edition of his work
astrolabe and quadrant being uncertain for sea observations. The published in 1610 his calculations are for every minute. His
importance of knowing the times of the tides when approaching tidal method was based upon the fact that the radius bears the same
or barred harbours is clearly pointed out, also the mode of ascertain-
ing them by the moon's age. A table of the sun's declination is given proportion to the secant of the latitude as the difference of
for noon each day during four years 1593-1597, from the ephemerides longitude does to the meridional difference of latitude a rule
of J. Stadius. The greatest given value is 23 28'. Several courses strictly correct for small arcs only. One minute is taken as the
and distances, with the resulting difference of latitude and de- unit upon the arc and 10,000 as the corresponding secant, 2'
parture, are correctly worked out. Aspecimen log-book provides one
line for each day, but the columns are arranged similarly to
becomes 20,000, 3' = 30,000, &c., increasing uniformly till 49',
only
those of a modern log. Under the head of remarks after leaving which is equal to 490,001; i is 600,012. The secant of 20
"
Brazil, we read, the compass varied 9, the south point westward." is 12,251,192, and for 20 i' it will be 12,251,192+10,642
He states that the first meridian passed through St Michael, because
practically the same as that used in modern tables.
there was no variation at that place, and therefore that this meridian The principle is simply explained by fig. 5, where b is the pole and
passed through the magnetic pole as well as the pole of the earth. bf the meridian. At any point a a minute of longitude a min. of
:
He makes no mention of Mercator's chart by name nor of Cortes or lat. ea (the semi-diameter of the parallel)
: : :
kf
other writers on navigation. Rules are given for finding the latitude
(the radius). Again ea kf :kf:ki:: radius
: : : sec.
by two altitudes of the sun and intermediate azimuth, also by two akf (sec. of lat). To keepthis proportion on the
fixed stars, using a globe. There is a drawing of a quadrant, with a between points of latitude
chart, the distances
plumb line, for measuring the zenith distance, and one of a modifica- must increase in the same proportion as the
tion of a cross-staff using which the observer stands with his back to secants of the arc contained between those points e
the sun, looking at the horizon through a sight on the end of the and the equator, which was then to be done by the
staff, while the shadow of the top of a movable projection, falls on the "
canon of triangles."
sight; this, known as the back-staff, was an improvement on the
cross-staff. It was fitted with a reflector, and was thus the first
Wright gave the following excellent popular de-
scription of the principle of Mercator's charts.
rough idea of the principle of the quadrant and sextant. This "
Suppose a spherical globe (representing the
remained in common use till superseded in 1731 by Hadley's quad- g
world) inscribed in a concave cylinder to swell
rant. The eighth edition of Davis's work was printed in 1657.
like a bladder equally in every part (that is as FIG. 5.
Edward Wright, of Caius College, Cambridge, published in much in longitude as in latitude) until it joins
work entitled Certain Errors in Navigation itself to the concave surface of the cylinder, each parallel in-
1599 a valuable
creasing successively from the equator towards either pole until
Detected and Corrected. One part is a translation from Roderico it is of equal diameter to the cylinder, and consequently the
Zamorano; there is a chapter from Cortes and one from Nunez. meridians widening apart until they are everywhere as distant
A year later appeared his chart of the world, upon which both from each other as they are at the Such a spherical surface
equator.
is thus by extension made cylindrical, and consequently a plane
capes and the recent discoveries in the East Indies and America
are laid down truthfully and scientifically, as well as his know- parallelogram surface, since the surface of a cylinder is nothing else
but a plane parallelogram surface wound round it. Such a cylinder
ledge of their latitudes and longitudes would admit. Just the on being opened into a flat surface will have upon it a representation
northern extremity of Australia is shown. of a Mercator's chart of the world."
Wright said of himself that he had striven beyond his ability to This great improvement in the principle of constructing charts
mend the errors in chart, compass, cross-staff and declination of sun was adopted slowly by seamen, who, putting it as they supposed
and stars. He considered that the instruments which had then
" to a practical test, found good reason to be disappointed. The
recently come
"
in use
"
could hardly be amended," as thjey were
growing to perfection especially the sea chart and the compass, positions of most places in the world had been originally laid
"
though he expresses a hope that the latter may be freed from that down erroneously, by very rough courses and estimated distances
rude and gross manner of handling in the making." He gives a table
of magnetic declinations (variation) and explains its geometrical
upon the plane chart, and from this they were transferred
to the new projection, so that errors in courses and distances,
construction. He states that Medina utterly denied the existence of
variation, and attributed it to bad construction and bad observa- really due to erroneous positions, were wrongly attributed to the
tions. Wright expresses a hope that a right understanding of the dip
"
new and accurate form of chart.
of the needle would lead to a knowledge of the latitude, as the
When Napier's Canon Mirificus appeared in 1614, Wright at
variation did of the longitude." He gives a table of declination of
the sun for the use of manners four the once recognized the value of logarithms as an aid to navigation,
English during years
greatest given value being 23 31' 30*. The latitude of London he and undertook a translation of the book, which he did not live to
made 51 32'. For these determinations a quadrant
" "
over 6 ft. in publish (see NAPIER). Gunter's tables (1620) made the applica-
radius was used. He also treats of the dip of the sea horizon, tion of the new discovery to navigation possible, and this was
refraction, parallax and the sun's motions. With all this knowledge
the earth is still considered as stationary although Wright alludes
done by Addison in his Arithmetical Navigation (1625), as well as
to Copernicus, and says that he omitted to allow for parallax. by Gunter in his tables of 1624 and 1636, which gave logarithmic
Wright ascertained the declinations of thirty-two stars, and made sines and tangents, to a radius of 1,000,000, with directions for
many improvements or additions to the art of navigation, considering their use and application to astronomy and navigation, and also
that all the problems could be performed trigonometrically, without
globe or chart. He devised sea rings for taking observations, and a
logarithms of numbers from i to 10,000. Several editions
sea quadrant to be used by two persons, which is in some respects followed, and the work retained its reputation over a century.
similar to that by Davis. While deploring the neglected state which Gunter invented the sector, and introduced the meridional line
navigation had been in, he rejoices that the worshipful society at the upon it, in the just proportion of Mercator's projection.
Trinity House (which had been established "
in 1514), under the favour
The means of taking observations correctly, either at sea or
of the king (Henry VIII.), had removed many gross and dangerous
enormities." He joins the brethren of the Trinity House in the on shore, was about this time greatly assisted by the invention
desire that a lectureship should be established on navigation, as at bearing the name of Pierre Vernier, the description of which was
Seville and Cadiz; also that a
grand pilot should be appointed, as published at Brussels in 1631. As Vernier's quadrant was
Sebastian Cabot had been in Spam, to examine pilots (i.e. mates) and
divided into half degrees only, the sector, as he called it, spread
navigators. Wright's desire was partially fulfilled in 1845, when an
Act of Parliament paved the way for the compulsory qualification over 145 degrees, and that space carried thirty equal divisions,
of masters and mates of merchant ships; but such was the opposition numbered from o to 30. As each division of the sector contained
by shipowners that it was even then left voluntary for a few years. 29 min. of arc, the vernier could be read to minutes. The verniers
England was in this respect more than a century behind Holland. now commonly adapted to sextants can be read to 10 sees.
It has been said that Wright accompanied the earl of Cumberland to
the Azores in 1589, and that he was allowed 50 a year by the East Shortly after the invention it was recommended for use by P.
India Company as lecturer on navigation at Gresham College, Tower Bouguer and Jorge Juan, who describe it in a treatise entitled
Street. La Construction, &c., du quadrant nouveau. About this period
The mark which Wright made was the discovery of a
great Gascoigne applied the telescope to the quadrant as used on
and uniform method of dividing the meridional line and
correct shore; and Hevelius invented the tangent screw, to give slow
making charts which are still called after the name of Mercator. and steady motion when near the desired position. These
NAVIGATION 289
practical improvements were not applied to the rougher nautical of the compass and comparing it with that laid down on charts.
In 1674 Charles II. actually appointed a commission to
instruments until the invention of Hadley's sextant in 1731. investigate
the pretensions of a scheme of this sort devised by Henry Bond, and
In 1635 Henry Gellibrand published his discovery of the annual the same idea appears as late as 1777 in S. Dunn's Epitome. But the
change in variation of the needle, which was effected by compar- only accurate method of ascertaining the longitude is by knowing the
ing the results of his own observations with those of W. Borough difference of time at the same instant at the meridian of the observer
and that of Greenwich; and till the invention and perfecting of
and Edmund Gunter. The latter was his predecessor at Gresham
chronometers this could only be done by finding at two such places
College. the apparent time of the same celestial phenomenon.
In 1637 Richard Norwood, a sailor, and reader in mathematics, A class of phenomena whose comparative frequency recommended
published an account of his most laudable exertions to remove
them for longitude observations, viz. the eclipses of Jupiter's
one of the greatest stumbling-blocks in the way of correct satellites, became known through Galileo's discovery of these bodies
(1610). Tables for such eclipses were published by Dominic Cassini
navigation, that of not knowing the true length of a degree or at Bologna in 1688, and repeated in a more correct form at Paris in
nautical mile, in a pamphlet styled The Seaman's Practices. 1693 by his son, who was followed by J. Pound, J. Bradley, P. W.
Norwood ascertained the latitude of a position near the Tower Wargentin, and many other astronomers. But this method, though
useful on land, is not suited to mariners; when W. Whiston, for
of London in June 1633, and of a place in the centre of York
example, in 1737 recommended that the satellites should be ob-
in June 1635, w f-h a sextant of more than 5 ft. radius, and,
i
served by a reflecting telescope, he did not sufficiently consider the
having carefully corrected the declination of the sun and allowed difficulty of using a telescope at sea.
for refraction and parallax, made the difference of latitude Another method proposed was that of comparing the local time
28'. He then measured the distance with a chain, taking of the moon's crossing the meridian of the observer with the predicted
3
time of the same event at Greenwich, the difference of the two de-
horizontal angles of all windings, and made a special table for
pending upon the moon's motion during the time represented by the
correcting elevations and depressions. A few places which he longitude; thus Herne's Longitude Unveiled (1678), proposes to find
was unable to measure he paced. His conclusion was that a the time of the moon's meridian passage at sea by equal altitudes with
the cross-staff, and then compare apparent time at ship with London
degree contained 367,176 English feet; this gives 2040 yds.
time. The accuracy of this, as in the case of lunar problems, would
to a nautical mile only about 12 yds. too much. Norwood's obviously depend upon a more perfect knowledge of the laws of the
work went through numerous editions, and retained its popularity moon's motion than then existed.
over a hundred years. In a late edition he says that, as there The celebrated problem of finding longitude by lunars (or by
"
is no means of discovering the longitude, a seaman must trust
measurement of lunar distances ") occupied the attention of
astronomers and sailors for many years before being superseded by
to his reckoning. He recommends the knots on the log-line the mere simple and accurate modern method by the use of chrono-
to be placed 51 ft. apart, as the just proportion to a mile when meters, and was the principal reason for establishing the Royal
used with the half-minute glass. To Norwood is also attributed Observatory at Greenwich and the subsequent publication of the
" " Nautical Almanac. The principle was simple,
the discovery of the dip of the magnetic needle in 1576. depending upon the
The progress of the art of navigation was and is still of course comparatively rapid movement of the moon with regard to the
heavenly bodies lying in her immediate path in the heavens. It is
inseparably connected with that of map and chart drawing and evident that if the theory of this movement were perfectly under-
the correct astronomical determinations of positions on land. stood and the positions of such heavenly bodies accurately deter-
While as we have seen at an early period simple practical astro- mined, the distances of the moon from those at any instant of time at
Greenwich could be accurately foretold so that if such predictions
nomical means of finding the latitude at sea were known and in were published in advance, an observer at any place in the world, by
use, no mode could be devised of finding longitude except by simply measuring such distances, could accurately determine the
the rough method of estimating the run of the ship, so that the Greenwich time, a comparison of which with the local time (which in
clear weather can be frequently and simply determined) would give
only mode of arriving at a port of destination was to steer so as to
the longitude. This, as previously mentioned, was foreseen
get into the latitude of such a port either to the eastward or west- by J.
Werner as early as 1514, but very great difficulties attended its
ward of its supposed position, and then approach it on the parallel practical application for many years. Until the establishment of
of its latitude. The success of this method would of course greatly national astronomical observatories it was impossible to accumulate
the vast number of observations necessary to fulfil the astronomical
depend upon the accuracy with which the longitude of such
conditions, and until the invention of the sextant no instrument
port was known. Even with the larger and more accurate existed capable of use at sea which would measure the distances
instruments used in astronomical observatories on shore the required with the necessary accuracy, while even up to the time when
means of ascertaining latitude were far in advance of those by the problem had attained its greatest practical accuracy the calcula-
which longitude could be obtained, and this equally applied tions involved were far too intricate for general use among those for
to the various heavenly bodies themselves upon which the
whom it was chiefly intended. The very principles of a theory of the
movements of the moon were unknown before Newton's time, when
terrestrial positions depended, the astronomical element of the lunar problem begins to have a chief place in the history of
declination (corresponding to latitude) being far more accurately navigation; the places of stars were formerly derived from various
determined than that of right ascension (corresponding to and widely discrepant sources.
The study of the lunar problem was stimulated by the reward of
longitude). 1000 crowns offered by Philip III. of Spain in 1598 for the dis-
Almanacs were published on the continent of Europe in
first
covery of a method of finding longitude at sea; the States-general
1457, but the earliest printed work of that kind in England is followed with an offer of 10,000 florins. But for a long time nothing
dated 1497. The only portions of their contents of use to seamen practical came of this; a proposal by J. B. Morin, submitted to
Richelieu in 1633, was pronounced by commissioners appointed to
were tables of the declination of the sun, rough elements of the
judge of it to be impracticable through the imperfection of the lunar
positions of a few stars, and tables for finding latitude by the tables, and the same objection applied when the question was raised
pole star. in England in 1674 by a proposal of St Pierre to find the longitude
by
No accurate predictions of the positions of the moon, stars using the altitudes of the moon and two stars to find the time each
and planets could, however, be made until the laws governing was from the meridian. When the king was pressed by St Pierre,
Sir J. Moore and Sir C. Wren to establish an observatory for the
their movements were known, such laws of course involving a
benefit of navigation, and especially that the moon's exact position
knowledge of their actual positions at different widely separated might be calculated a year in advance, Flamsteed gave his judgment
epochs. that the lunar tables then in use were quite useless, and the positions
of the stars erroneous. The result was that the king decided upon
In 1699 Edmund
Halley (subsequently astronomer royal), in
" establishing an observatory in Greenwich Park, and Flamsteed was
command of the
Paramour," undertook a voyage to improve appointed astronomical observer on March 4, 1675, upon a salary of
the knowledge of longitude and of the variation of the 100 a year, for which also he was to instruct two boys from Christ's
compass.
The results of his voyage were the construction of the first Hospital. While the small building in the Park was in course of
variation chart, and proposals for finding the longitude by erection he resided in the Queen's House (now the central part of
Greenwich Hospital school), and removed to the house" on the hill
occultations of fixed stars.
on the loth of July 1676, which came to be known as Flamsteed
The necessity for having more correct charts being equalled by House." The institution was placed under the surveyor-general of
ie
pressing need of obtaining the longitude by some simple and ordnance perhaps because that office was then held by Sir Jonas
:orrect means available to seamen, many plans had already been Moore, himself an eminent mathematician. Though this was not the
thought of for this purpose. At one time it was hoped that the first observatory in Europe, it was destined to become the most
longitude might be directly discovered by observing the variation useful, and has amply fulfilled the important duties for which it was
XIX. 10
290 NAVIGATION
designed. It was established to meet the exigencies of navigation, Hadley's instrument, on the other band, described to the
as was clearly stated on the appointment of Flamsteed, and on in May 1731 (Phil. Trans.), embodies Newton's
several subsequent occasions; we see now what an excellent foster-
Royal Society
mother it has been to the higher branches of that science. This has idea of bringing the reflection of one object to coincide with the
been accomplished by much labour and patience; for, though direct image of the other. He calls it an octant, as the arc is
originally the most suitable man in the kingdom was placed in actually 45, or the eighth part of a circle; but, in consequence
charge, it was so starved and neglected as to be almost useless during of the angles of incidence and
many years. The government did not provide a single instrument. reflection both being changed
Flamsteed entered upon his important duties with an iron sextant of
7 ft. radius, a quadrant of 3 ft. radius, two telescopes and two clocks, by a movement of the index,
the last given by Sir Jonas Moore. Tycho Brahe's catalogue of 777 it measures an angle of 90, and
stars, formed in about 1590, was his only guide. In 1681 he fitted a
mural arc which proved a failure. Seven years after another mural
is graduated accordingly; the
arc was erected at a cost of 120, with which he set to work in
same instrument has therefore
earnest to verify the latitude, and to determine the position of the been called a quadrant. It was
equinoctial point, the obliquity of the ecliptic and the right ascen- very slowly adopted, and no
sions and declinations of the stars; he obtained the positions of doubt there were numerous
" "
2884 which appeared in the British catalogue in 1723 (see
mechanical difficulties of cen-
FLAMSTEED, and ASTRONOMY).
Flamsteed died in 1719, and was succeeded by Halley, who paid tring, graduating, &c., to be
particular attention to the motions of the moon with a view to the overcome before it reached per-
longitude problem. A
paper which he published in the Phil. Trans. fection. In August 1732, in
(1731) shows what had been accomplished up to that date, and
proves that it was still impossible to find the longitude correctly by
pursuance of an order from the
any observation depending upon the predicted position of the moon. Admiralty, observations were
He repeats what he had published twenty years before in an appendix made with Hadley's quadrant
toThomas Street's Caroline tables, which contained observations on board the " Chatham "
made by him (Halley) in 1683-1684 for ascertaining the moon's FIG. 6.
motion, which he thought to be the only practical method of yacht of 60 tons, below Sheer-
" "
attaining the longitude at sea. The Caroline tables of Street, ness, in rough weather, by persons except the master attendant
though better than those before his time as well as those of Tycho, unaccustomed to the motion; still the results were very satis-
Kepler, Bullialdus and Horrox, were uncertain; sometimes the factory. A year later Hadley published (Phil. Trans., 1733) the
errors would compensate one another; at others when they fell the
same way the result might lead to a position being 100 leagues in description of an instrument for taking altitudes when the
error. He hopes that the tables will be so amended that an error horizon not visible. The sketch represents a curved tube or
is
may scarce ever exceed 3 minutes of arc (equal to I J of longitude). spirit-level,attached to the radius of the quadrant, since which
Sir Isaac Newton's tables, corrected by himself (Halley) and others time many attempts have been unsuccessfully made to construct
up to 1713, would admit of errors of 5 minutes, when the moon was some form of artificial horizon adapted to use at sea on board
in the third and fourth quarters. He blames Flamsteed for neglecting
that portion of astronomical work, as he was at the observatory more ship, a discovery which would greatly facilitate observations at
than two periods of eighteen years. He himself had at this time seen night and at the many times when the natural or sea horizon is
the whole period of the moon's apogee less than nine years during
imperfectly visible.
which he observed the right ascensions at her transit, with great
From the year 1714 the history of navigation in England is
exactness, almost fifteen hundred times, or as often as Tycho Brahe, "
Hevelius and Flamsteed together. He hoped to be able to compute closely associated with that of the Commissioners for the
the moon's position within 2 minutes of arc with certainty, which discovery of longitude at sea," a body constituted in that year
would reduce errors of position to 20 leagues at the equator and 15 in with power to grant annually sums not exceeding 2000 to
the Channel; he thought Hadley's quadrant might be applied to
assist experiments and reward minor discoveries, and also to
measure lunar distances at sea with the desired accuracy. 1
judge on applications for much greater rewards which were
The rise of modern navigation may be fairly dated from the from time to time offered to open competition. For a method .
invention of the sextant in 1731 and of the chronometer in 1735;
of determining the longitude within 60 geographical miles, to
the former a complete nautical observatory in itself, and the. be tested by a voyage to the West Indies and back, the sum of
latter an instrument which in its modern development has
10,000 was offered; within 40 m., 15,000; within 30 m.,
become an almost perfect time-keeper. It was a curious co-
20,000. 10,000 was also to be given for a method that would
incidence that these two invaluable instruments were invented
determine longitude within 80 m. near the shores of greatest
at so nearly the same time. Until 1731 all instruments in use
danger. No action seems to have been taken before 1737;
at sea for measuring angles either depended on a plumb line or
the first grant made was in that year, and the last in 1815, but
required the observer to look in two directions at once. the board continued to exist till 1828, having disbursed in the
Their imperfections are clearly pointed out in a paper by Pierre
course of its existence 101,000 in all. 2 In the interval a number
Bouguer (1729) which received the prize of the Paris Academy of
Sciences for the best method of taking the altitude of stars at sea. of other acts had been passed either dealing with the powers,
Bouguer himself proposes a modification of what he calls the English constitution and funds of the commissioners or encouraging
quadrant, probably the one suggested by Wright and improved by nautical discovery; thus the act 18 George II. (1745) offered
Davis. Fig. 6 represents the instrument as proposed, capable of
20,000 for the discovery by a British ship of the North-West
measuring fully 90 from E to N. A fixed pinule was recommended
to be placed at E, through which a ray from the sun would pass to Passage, and the act 16 George III. (1776) offered the same
the sight C. The sight F was movable. The observer, standing with reward for a passage to the Pacific either north-west or north-
his back to the sun would look through F and C at the horizon, shifting
east, and 5000 to any one who should approach by sea within
the sight F up or down till the ray from the sun coincided with the
one degree of the North Pole. All these acts were swept away
horizon. The space from E to F would represent the altitude, and
the remaining part F to N the zenith distance. The English quad- in 1828, when the longitude problem had ceased to attract
rant which this was to supersede differed in having about half the competitors, and voyages of discovery were nearly over.
arc from E towards N, and, instead of the pinule
being fixed at E, The suggestions and applications sent in to the commissioners were
it was on a smaller arc represented the dotted line eB, and
by naturally very numerous and often very trifling; but they some-
movable. It was placed on an even number of degrees, considerably times furnish useful illustrations of the state of navigation. Thus,
less than the altitude; the remainder was measured on the larger arc, in a memorial by
Captain H. Lanoue (1736), he records a number
of
as described. recent casualties, which shows how carelessly the largest ships were
1 then navigated. Several men-of-war off Plymouth in 1691 were
Halley's observations were published posthumously in 1742, and
2
in 1765 the commissioners of longitude paid his daughter 100 for This total comprises the large sums awarded to Harrison and to
MSS. supposed to be useful to navigation. As the moon passes the the widow of Mayer, the cost of surveys and expeditions in various
stars lying in her course through the heavens at the mean rate of
33' parts of the globe, large outlays on the Nautical Almanac and on
in one minute of time, it is obvious that an error to that amount in subsidiary calculations and tables, rewards for new methods and
measuring the distance from a star would produce an error of 15 m. solutions of problems, and many minor grants to watchmakers or for
in longitude. As the moon's motion with regard to the sun is nearly improvements in instruments. Thus Jesse Ramsden received in
one degree a day less, a similar error in the distance would produce 1775 and later about 1600 for his improvements in graduation
still more effect.
(q.v.), and E. Massey in 1804 got 200 for his log (see LOG).
NAVIGATION 291
wrecked through mistaking the Deadman for Berry Head. Admiral by Dr James Wilson, which has been greatly used by all subsequent
Wheeler's squadron in 1694, leaving the Mediterranean, ran on writers.
Gibraltar when they thought they had passed the Strait. Sir Don Jorge Juan's Compendia de Navegacion, for the use of mid-
Cloudesley Shovel's squadron, in 1707, was lost on the rocks off shipmen, was published at Cadiz in 1757. Chapter i. explains what
Scilly, by erring in their
latitude. Several transports, in 1711, were pilotage is," practical and theoretical. He speaks of the change of
lost near the river St Lawrence, having erred 15 leagues in the variation, which sailors have not believed and do not believe now."
reckoning during twenty-four hours. Lord Belhaven was lost on He describes the lead, log and sand-glass, the latter corrected by
the Lizard on the 1 7th of November 1721, the same day on which he a pendulum, charts plane and spherical.
Supposing his readers to
sailed from Plymouth. be versed in trigonometry, he explains what latitude and longitude
Many rewards were paid by the commissioners for methods by are, and shows a method for finding the latter different from what has
"
which the tedious calculations involved in clearing the lunar been taught. He explains the error of middle latitude sailing, and
distance" could be abbreviated; thus Israel Lyons (1739-1775) shows that the longitude found by it is always less than the truth.
received 10 for his solution of this problem from the commissioners (It is strange that while reckoning was so rough and imperfect in
in 1769; and in 1772 he and Richard Dunthorne (1711-1775) many respects such a trifle as that is in low latitudes should be
each obtained 50. George Whichell, master of the Royal Naval noticed.) After speaking of meridional parts, he offers to explain the
Academy, Portsmouth, conceived a plan whereby the correction English method, which was discovered by Edmund Halley, but omits
could be taken from a table by inspection. In October 1765 the the principles upon which Halley founded his theory, as it was " too
commissioners of longitude awarded him 100 to enable him to embarassing." He gives instructions for allowing for currents and
complete and print 1000 copies of his table. On the following leeway, tables of declination, positions of a few stars, meridional
April they gave him 200 more. The work was continued on the same parts, &c. It is worthy of remark that, after giving a form for a
plan by Antony Shepherd, the Plumian professor of astronomy, log-book, he adds that this had not been previously kept by any one,
Cambridge, with some additions by the astronomer-royal. The total but he thought it should not be trusted to memory. He only re-
cost of the ponderous 4to volume up to the time of publication in quires the knots, fathoms, course, wind and leeway to be marked
June 1772 was 3100, after which 200 more was paid to the Rev. every two hours. He gives a sketch of Halley's quadrant, but
Thomas Parkinson and Israel Lyons for examining the errata. It without a clamping screw or tangent screw.
was a very large and expensive volume ill-adapted for ship's use. To ascertain local time at sea
Considerable sums were paid by the commissioners from time to by astronomical observations
time for other tables to facilitate navigation not always very by the altitude of suitably-situated heavenly bodies was an old,
judiciously. It is sufficient to mention here the tables of Michael well-known and frequently practised operation, so that a
Taylor and those of Mendoza, published in 1815. The proposals comparison could thus be easily made between such local time
submitted to the board to find the longitude by the time of the and the Greenwich time if known at the same instant. The
moon's meridian passage are very numerous. ,
introduction of timekeepers by which Greenwich time can be
One of the first points to which the attention of the com-
carried to any part of the world, and the longitude found with
missioners was directed was the survey of the coasts of Great
which was pressed on them by Whiston in 1737. He ease, simplicity and certainty is due to the invention of John
Britain,
Harrison.
was appointed surveyor of coasts and headlands, and in 1741
received a grant for instruments. An act passed in 1740 The idea of keeping time at sea by watches was no novelty, but the
enabled the commissioners to spend money on the survey of practical difficulty arose from their very irregular rates owing to
" changes of temperature and the motion of the ship. Huygens had
the coasts of Great Britain and the plantations." At a later applied pendulums to the regulation of clocks on shore in 1656, and
date they bore part of the expenses of Cook's scientific voyages, in 1675 his application of spiral springs as regulators of watches
and of the publication of their results. Indeed it is to them made them available for use at sea. William Derham published a
scientific description of various kinds of timekeepers in The Artificial
that we owe all that was done by England for surveys of coasts,
Clock-Maker, in 1700, with a table of equations from Flamsteed to
both at home and abroad, prior to the establishment of the facilitate comparison of mean time with that shown by the sun-dial
hydrographic department of the Admiralty in 1795. But their or apparent time. In 1714 Henry Sully, an Englishman, published
chief work lay in the encouragement they gave on the one hand a treatise at Vienna, on finding time artificially. He went to France,
and spent the rest of his life in trying to make a timekeeper for the
to the improvement of timepieces, and on the other to the
discovery of the longitude at sea. In 1716 he presented a watch of
perfecting of astronomical tables and methods, the latter being his own make to the Academy of Sciences, which was approved;
published from time to time in the Nautical Almanac. Before and ten years later he went to Bordeaux to try his marine watches,
we pass on to these two important topics we may with advantage but died before embarking. Julien le Roy was his scholar, and
take a view of the state of practical navigation in the middle perfected many of his inventions in watchmaking.
Harrison's great invention was the principle of compensation
of the i8th century as shown in two of the principal treatises
through the unequal contraction of two metals, which he first applied
then current. in the invention in 1726 of the compensation (gridiron) pendulum,
still in use, and then modified so as to fit it to a watch, devising at the
John Robertson's Elements of Navigation passed through six
editions between 1755 and 1796. It contains good teaching on same time a means by which the watch retains its motion while being
arithmetic, geometry, spherical trigonometry, astronomy, geography, wound up. With regard to the success of the trial journey (see
winds and tides, also a small useful table for correcting the middle HARRISON, JOHN) to Jamaica in 1761-1762, it may be noted that
time between the equal altitudes of the sun all good, as is also the
" by the journal of the House of Commons we find that the error of
remark that the greater the moon's meridian altitude the greater the watch was ascertained by equal altitudes at Portsmouth and
generally the tides will be." He states that Lacaille recommends Barbados, the calculations being made by Short; these errors came
equal altitudes being observed and worked separately, in order to greatly within the limits of the act. At Jamaica the watch was only
find the time from noon, and the mean of the results taken as the in error five seconds (assuming that the longitude previously found
truth. There is a sound article on chronology, the ancient and by the transit of Mercury could be closely depended on, which as we
modern modes of reckoning time. A long list of latitudes, longitudes now know, was not the case, the observations being too few in number,
and times of high water finishes vol. i. The second volume is said and taken with an untrustworthy instrument). Short at Portsmouth
by the author to treat of navigation mechanical and theoretical by ; found the whole unallowed-for error from November 6th, 1761, till
the former he means seamanship. He gives instructions for all kinds n>
April and, 1762, to be I 54".5
= l8 geographical miles in the latitude
" "
of sailings, for marine surveying and making Mercator's chart. of Portsmouth. During the passage home in the Merlin sloop-of-
There are two good traverse tables, one to quarter points, the other war the timekeeper was placed in the after part of the ship, because
to every 15 minutes of arc; the distance to each is 120 m. There is it was the dryest place, and there it received violent shocks which
a table of meridional parts to minutes, which is more minute than retarded its motion. It lost on the voyage home l
m = 16
" 49' geo-
customary. Book ix., upon what is now called the day's work," graphical miles.
or dead-reckoning, appears to embrace all that is necessary. A great One might have supposed that Harrison had now secured the
many methods, we are told, were then used for measuring a snip's but there were powerful competitors who hoped to gain it
rate of sailing, but among the English the log and line with a y lunars, and a bill was passed through the House in 1763 which
Erize;
half-minute glass were Bouguer and Lacaille pro- left an open chance for a lunarian during four years. A second West
generally used.
posed a log with a diver to avoid the drift motion (1753 and 1760). Indies trial of the watch took place between November 1763 and
Robertson s rule of computing the equation of equal altitudes is as March 1764, in a voyage to Barbados, which occupied four months;
good as any used at the present
day.
He gives also a description during which time it is said, in the preamble to act 5 Geo. III. 1765,
of an equal- altitude instrument,
having three horizontal wires, not to have erred 10 geographical miles in longitude. We only find
probably such as was used at Portsmouth for testing Harrison's in the
public
records the equal altitudes taken at Portsmouth and
timekeeper. The mechanical difficulties must have been great in at Bridgetown, Barbados. William Harrison assumed an average
preserving a perpendicular stem and a truly horizontal sweep for the rate of i' a-day gaining, and he anticipated that it would go slower
telescope. It gave place to the improved sextant and artificial hy I' for every 10 increase in temperature. The longitude of
horizon. The second edition of Robertson's work in 1 764 contains an
Bridgetown was determined by N. Maskelyne and C. Green by nine
excellent dissertation on the rise and progress of modern navigation emersions of Jupiter's first satellite, against five of Bradley's and
NAVIGATION
two at Greenwich Observatory, to be 3 54h m 20" west of Greenwich. a century, were rendered obsoleteby the observations of Halley
In February 1765 the commissioners of longitude expressed an and his successor. At
length, in 1753, in the second volume of
opinion that the trial was satisfactory, but required the principles
to be disclosed and other watches made. Half the great reward was the Commentarii of the Academy of Gottingen, Tobias Mayer
paid to Harrison under act of parliament in this year, and he and his printed his new solar and lunar tables, which were to have so
son gave full descriptions and drawings, upon oath, to seven persons great an influence on the history of navigation. Mayer after-
appointed by the commissioners of longitude. The other half of the
1
wards constructed and submitted to the English government in
great reward was promised to Harrison when he had made other
timekeepers to the satisfaction ot the commissioners, and provided 1755 improved MS. tables. Bradley found that the moon's
he gave up everything to them within six months. The second half place by these tables was generally correct within i', so that the
was not paid till 1773, after trials had been made with five watches. error in a longitude found by lunar would not be much more than
These trials were partly made at Greenwich by Maskelyne, who, as half a degree if the necessary observations could be taken
we shall see, was a great advocate of lunars, and was not ready to
admit more than a subsidiary value to the watch. A bitter contro- accurately at sea. Thus the lunar problem seemed to have at
versy arose, and Harrison in 1767 published a book in which he length become a practical one for mariners, and in England it
charges Maskelyne with exposing his watch to unfair treatment. was taken up with great energy by Nevil Maskelyne " the
The feud between the astronomer-royal and the watchmakers con- "
father," as he has been called, of lunar observations."
tinued long after this date.
Even after Harrison had received his 20,000, doubts were felt In 1761 Maskelyne was sent to St Helena to observe the
as to the certainty of his achievement, and fresh rewards weie transit of Venus. On his voyage out and home he used Mayer's
offered in 1774 both for timekeepers and for improved lunar tables printed tables for lunar determinations of the longitude, and
or other methods. But the tests proposed for timekeepers were very from St Helena he wrote a letter to the Royal Society (Phil.
discouraging, and the watchmakers complained that this was due to
Trans., 1762), in which he described his observations made with
Maskelyne. A fierce attack on the astronomer's treatment of himself
and other watchmakers was made by Thomas Mudge in 1792, in Hadley's quadrant of 20 in. radius, constructed by John Bird,
A Narrative of Facts, addressed to the first lord of the Admiralty, and the glasses ground by Dollond. He took the observations
and Maskelyne's reply does not convey the conviction that full both ways to avoid errors. The arc and index were of brass,
justice was done to timekeepers. Maskelyne at this date still says the frame mahogany; the vernier was subdivided to minutes.
that he would prefer an occultation of a bright star by the moon and
a number of correspondent observations of transits of the moon The telescope was 6 in. long, magnified four times, and inverted.
compared with those of fixed stars, made by two astronomers at Very few seamen in that day possessed so good an instrument.
remote places, to any timekeeper. The details of these controversies, He considered that ship's time should be ascertained within
and of subsequent improvements in timekeepers, need not detain us twelve hours before or after observing the lunar distance, as a
here. In England the names of John Arnold and Thomas Earnshaw
as watchmakers are prominent, each of whom received, up to 1805, good common watch will scarcely vary above a minute in that
3000 reward from the commissioners of longitude. It was Arnold time. This shows that he must have intended the altitudes to
who introduced the name chronometer. The French emulated the be calculated which would lead to new errors. He considered
English efforts for the production of good timekeepers, and favour- that his observations would give the longitude within 1 1 degrees.
able trials were made between 1768 and 1772 with watches by Le
Roy and F. Berthoud.
On the nth of February he took ten observations; the extremes
were a little over one degree apart.
The marvellous accuracy with which the modern chronometer
is constructed is doubtless greatly stimulated by the annual
On his return to England Maskelyne prepared the British
Mariner's Guide (1763), in which he undertakes to furnish
competition at Greenwich, from which the Admiralty purchase
for the British navy. These chronometers are all fitted with complete and easy instructions for finding the longitude at sea
or on shore,within a degree, by observing the distance between
secondary compensation balances, and it is therefore unusual
the moon and sun, or a star, by Hadley's quadrant. How far that
in the navy to apply any temperature correction to the rate.
The perfection obtainable in compensation may be illustrated promise was fulfilled, and the practicability of the instructions,
are points worth consideration, as the book took a prominent
by the performance of a chronometer at the Royal Observatory
in 1886, which at a mean temperature of 50 F. had a weekly place for some years. The errors which he said were inseparable
from the dead-reckoning " even in the hands of the ablest and
rate of 1-6 sees, losing; and on being further tested at a mean
most skilful navigators," amounting at times to 15 degrees,
temperature of 92 F., it only changed its weekly rate to 2-9 sees,
In the mercantile marine cheaper chronometers without appear to be overestimated. On the other hand, the equations
losing.
to determine the moon's position at time of observation from
secondary compensation are more commonly used, and tempera-
ture corrections applied, calculated from a formula originally Mayer's tables, would, he believed, always determine the longi-
tude within a degree, and generally to half a degree, if applied
proposed by Hartnup, formerly of the Liverpool Observatory.
to careful observations. He recommends the two altitudes and
Great success attends this mode of procedure, as illustrated by
distance being taken simultaneously when practicable. The
the following facts. From the discussion of the records of per-
formance of the chronometers of the Pacific Steam Navigation probable error of observation in a meridian altitude he estimated
at one or two minutes, and in a lunar distance at two minutes.
Company during twenty-six voyages from London to Valparaiso He then gave clear rules for finding the moon's position and
and back, by giving equal weight to each of the three chrono-
distance by ten equations, too laborious for seamen to undertake.
meters carried by each ship, the mean error of longitude for an
Admitting the requisite calculations for finding the moon's
average voyage of 101 days was less than three minutes of arc.
As a single instance, in the s.s. Orellana, on applying temperature place to be difficult, he desired to see the moon's longitude
and latitude computed for every twelve hours, and hence
rates during a voyage of 63 days, the mean accumulated error
her distance from the sun and from a proper star on each side of
of the three chronometers was only 2-3 sec. of time.
her carefully calculated for every six hours, and published
While chronometers were thus rapidly approaching their
beforehand.
present perfection the steady progress of astronomy both by the
In 1765 Maskelyne became astronomer-royal, and was able
multiplication and increased accuracy of observations, and
to give effect to his own suggestion by organizing the publication
by corresponding advances in the theory, had made it possible
to construct greatly improved tables.
of the Nautical Almanac. The same act of 1765 which gave
In observations of the
Harrison his first 10,000 gave the commissioners authority
moon Greenwich still took the lead; and it was here that Halley's
successor Bradley made his two grand discoveries of aberration
and funds for this undertaking. Mayer's tables, with his MS.
and nutation which have added so much to the precision of improvements up to his death in 1762, were bought from his
modern astronomy. Kepler's Rudolphine tables of 1627 and widow for 3000; 300 was granted to the mathematician L.
Street's tables of 1661, which had held their ground for almost Euler, on whose theory of the moon Mayer's later tables were
formed; and the first Nautical Almanac, that for 1767, was
'The explanations and drawings are at the British Museum;
and two of his watches, one of which was used by Captain Cook in the published in the previous year, at the cost and under the authority
" of the commissioners of longitude. In 1696 the French nautical
Resolution," are at Greenwich Observatory. In 1767 Harrison
estimates that a watch could be made for 100, and ultimately for almanac for the following year appeared, an improvement on
70 or 80. what had been before issued by private persons, but it did not
NAVIGATION 293
1
In the English Nautical is an improvement on those by Lyons and Dunthorne, and
attempt to give lunar distances. especially
a rule given for clearing the distance, called Dunthorne's improved
Almanac for 1767 we find everything necessary to render it
method, is remarkably short. Maskelyne's rule for finding the
worthy of confidence, and to satisfy every requirement at sea. latitudes by two altitudes and the elapsed time is also good. The
The great achievement was that of giving the distance from the third edition of the Tables was issued in 1802.
moon's centre to the sun, when suitable, and to about seven fixed The publication of the Requisite Tables met a great want, and the
existence of such accurate and conveniently-arranged mathematical
stars, every three hours. The mariner has only to find the
tables for the special purposes of nautical calculations led to the more
apparent time at ship, and dear his own measured lunar distance ;neral use of many refinements which had been previously neglected,
from the effects of parallax and refraction (for which at the end hey formed the original of many subsequent and greatly extended
of the book are given the methods of Lyons and Dunthorne), collections, of which those by J. W. Norie are the more generally used
in modern times in the mercantile marine, and the very accurate and
and then by simple proportions, or proportional logarithms, find
comprehensive tables by James Inman (originally published in 1823)
the time at Greenwich. The calculations respecting the sun and are constantly used in the British navy.
moon were made from Mayer's last manuscript tables under the Until the middle of the I7th century mariners generally employed
"
small collections of Dutch charts, known as
'
inspection of Maskelyne, and were so continued till 1804.* The waggoners from
calculations respecting the planets are from Halley's tables, Waghenair, the name of a celebrated Dutch hydrographer in 1584.
In 1671 appeared the English Pilot by John Sellers, who is styled the
and those of Jupiter's satellites from tables made by Wargentin "
Hydrographer Royal." It forms a collection of rude sketches of
and published by Lalande in 1759 (except those for the fourth the coasts of England, the North Sea, France and Spain, with sailing
satellite). The original Nautical Almanac contained all the directions, and on its appearance the importation of Dutch charts
was prohibited. Private enterprise, for many years after that,
principal points of information which the seaman required, but
supplied both the British navy and the British mercantile marine
the great value of such an authentic publication to the whole with constantly improving charts, especially latterly, under the
astronomical world led soon to a considerable increase to its powerful patronage of the East India Company, whose hydrographer
contents. As much of this was unnecessary for the ordinary (Alexander Dalrymple), in 1795, was selected as the first hydro-
requirements of navigation, since 1903 it has been issued in two grapher of the Admiralty. This post has since been occupied by a
succession of distinguished naval officers under whom have grown
forms, the larger for observatory purposes, the smaller for the up a large school of able nautical surveyors, the results of whose
class for whom it was originally intended. labours are now published in the well-known Admiralty charts.
Various useful rules and tables were appended to early volumes Prior to the issue of charts by the Admiralty, the instructions to
"
of the Almanac. Thus that for 1771 contains a method and table for masters of vessels in the British navy enjoined them to provide such
charts and instruments as they considered necessary for the safe
determining the latitude by two altitudes and the elapsed time (first
published by Cornelius Downes of Amsterdam in 1740). At the navigation of the ship," while on the completion of a voyage of
end of the Almanac for 1772 Maskelyne and Whichell gave three discovery it was customary for the results to be published for the
special tables for clearing the lunar distance; still their rule is
Admiralty by private firms.
neither short nor easily remembered. An improvement of Dun- The establishment of the Admiralty Hydrographic Office in
thorne's solution is also given. In the edition for 1773 a new table
for equations of equal altitude was given by W. Wales. In those for
1
795 marked a great step in the advancement of the art of naviga-
tion. On the 1 2th of August of that year an order in council
1797 and 1800 tables were added by John Brinkley for rendering
the calculations for double altitudes easier. placed all such nautical documents as were^hen in the possession
The plan of the Nautical Almanac was soon imitated by other of the Admiralty in charge of Dalrymple, whose catalogue,
nations. In France the Acaddmie Royale de Marine had all the lunar
compiled for the use of the East India Company in 1786, contained
distances translated from the British Nautical Almanac for 1773 and
347 charts between England, the Cape, India and China; thus
following years, retaining Greenwich time for the three-hourly
distances. The tables were considered excellent, and national pride the germ of the present hydrographic department was estab-
was satisfied by their having been formed on the plan proposed lished. The expense was then limited to 650 a year. The first
by Lacaille. They did not imitate the mode given for clearing the official catalogue of Admiralty charts was issued in 1830, the
lunar distance, considering their own better.
totalnumber being then 962.
Though the Spaniards were leaders in the art of navigation during
the 1 6th and 1 7th centuries, it was not till November 4, After the close of the long devastating war in 1815 both trade
1791, that
their first nautical almanac was printed at Madrid, having been and science revived, and several governments besides that of
calculated at Cadiz for the year 1792. They acknowledge Great Britain saw the necessity of surveying the coasts in various
previously
borrowing from the English and French. The excellent Berlin
Astronomisches Jahrbuch began to appear in 1776, the American parts of the globe; the greater portion of the work fell to the
Ephemeris in 1849. These two ephemerides and the French Con- English hydrographical department, which took under its charge
naissance des temps are independent and valuable works. nearly every place where the inhabitants were not able to do it
A book of Tables Requisite to be Used with the Nautical Ephemeris for themselves. Since that time its career of usefulness has
was published by Maskelyne at the same time as the first Almanac,
and ten thousand copies were quickly sold. A second edition, pre- steadily developed, and it not merely undertakes the constant
pared by Wales, appeared in 1781, an octavo of 237 pages, in the improvement of the charts of the whole world, but periodically
preface of which it is stated that it contains everything necessary for issues for the use of the seafaring community a vast amount of
computing the latitude and longitude by observation. There are in most accurate and practical nautical information on the various
all twenty-three tables, the traverse table and table of meridional
closely allied subjects of navigation, tides, compass adjustment
parts alone being deficient as compared with modern works of the
kind dead-reckoning Maskelyne did not touch. He gave practical
;
and ocean meteorology.
methods for working several problems; that for computing the lunar A knowledge of the times and heights of high and low water and
the directions of the tidal streams due to those phenomena are in
1
The French nautical almanac or Connaissance des temps ap- many parts of the world (and especially round our own coasts) of
peared under letters patent from the king, dated 24th March 1679 vital importance to navigation. The theory of the tides was first
seventeen years before the first issue. The following is a literal trans- laid down by Newton and Laplace, and in Phil. Trans., 1683, there
lation of its advertisement: " This little book is a collection of is an account of Flamsteed's tide table for London Bridge, which
holy
days and festivals in each month. The rising and setting of the gave the times of each high tide on every day in the year. For a
moon when it is visible, and of the sun every day. The aspects of the long subsequent period empirical tide tables for a few places in
planets as with respect to each other, the moon and the fixed stars. England were published by private individuals, but in 1832 the
The lunations and eclipses. The difference of longitude between the researches of Dr W. Whewell and Sir J. W. Lubbock enabled official
meridian of Paris and the principal towns in France. The time of tide tables to be issued by the Admiralty. These have steadily
the sun's entrance into the twelve signs of the zodiac. The true
place
advanced in detail and accuracy, being now in many cases based on
of the planets
every fifth day, and of the moon every day of the year, continuous tidal observations for a whole lunar period of i8i years,
in longitude and latitude. The moon's meridian
passage, for finding
and the practical epitome of our knowledge of the tides
represent
the time of high water, as well as for the use of dials
'
by moonlight.' and tidal currents of the whole world. The formulae and tables on
A table of refraction. The equation of time [this table is strangely which these predictions are based are given in the introduction to
arranged, as though the clock were to be reset on the first of every each annual volume (see TIDE).
month, and the explanation speaks of the premier mobile ']. The
'
time of twilight at Paris. The sun's
right ascension to hours and
MODERN NAVIGATION
minutes. The sun's declination at noon each
day to seconds. The
whole accompanied by
necessary instructions."
Having thus sketched the progress of the art of navigation
Mayer's tables were printed at London under Maskelyne's from an early period to the present time, we will now describe
superintendence in 1770. the modern methods by which it is brought into practical use,
294 NAVIGATION
referring our readers for more technical information to ^he collision between outward and homeward bound ships, has been
professional text-books enumerated at the end of this article. successfully carried out in the North Atlantic. The leading
The great development in both size and speed of modern ships transatlantic steamship companies now agree to follow great
enormously increases the responsibilities of those who command circle routes from the Irish coast to points on the Banks of
and navigate them, and has led to a careful examination of Newfoundland, which vary somewhat in position with the
" "
the existing modes of determining a ship's position at all times season of the year, but are published in advance. These lanes
by day or night, both when in sight of land and on the open ocean. being avoided by sailing vessels, risks of collision are materially
An examination of the present text-books on the subject of lessened.
navigation shows how problems and methods which were formerly Having thus planned the most desirable general track to
considered chiefly as theoretical exercises have now, from the pursue, three methods are employed to ascertain the position
altered conditions of the navigation of very fast ships, become of the ship at any time during such voyage: these are (i) pro-
methods of frequent practice, while corresponding improvements jecting the track on charts; (2) simple trigonometrical calcula-
have been made in the instruments, such as compasses, charts tions where the data are the course steered and distance run;
and chronometers, by the aid of which more satisfactory results and (3) astronomical observations, which form an entirely
are now attained. Much has also been done to advance the independent method.
study of this and its numerous allied subjects by the development Of these the first is the least trustworthy, owing to the usual
of the Royal Naval College at Greenwich and the United Seivice difficulties attending accurate graphic methods and the small
Institution; also by the establishment of shipmasters' societies scales on which ocean charts are necessarily drawn. When
(of which the well-known society in London is typical), where near the land the larger scale coast charts are used, and in the
during the year valuable papers are read and useful discussions approaches to harbours still larger scale plans give increasing
take place among those actually carrying out the practice of accuracy to this record of a ship's position. Index charts of
navigation. all parts of the world are provided, by referring to which the
In planning out in advance a long ocean voyage the experienced navigator ascertains which chart or plan to employ, always
navigator would first, by laying down the track from port to preferably using that on the largest scale.
port on a great circle chart, ascertain the shortest route between On leaving harbour, and while near the coast, the position
them, remembering that the greatest saving in distance over is not found by calculation but by frequently observing (when
other routes is when the ports are far apart in longitude and a variety of objects is in sight) (i) simultaneous sextant angles
both in high latitudes of the same name. On examining such between suitably situated objects subsequently laid down on
a track in conjunction with the wind and current charts it will the chart by a station pointer; (2) simultaneous compass
be seen what modifications the intervention of land, unfavourable bearings of two or more objects (technically known as cross
currents or winds, ice or unduly high latitude render necessary, bearings) or (3) a combination of both methods by employing
;
and such modified route would be finally adopted subject to one bearing and one angle. All such methods are capable of
possible change as the voyage progressed. The judgment considerable accuracy if the observations are made simultane-
formed on the best route to follow would also be largely influenced ously. Should only a small number of objects, or sometimes
" "
by the remarks in the volumes of Sailing directions or Pilots only one, be visible (as frequently occurs at night) other and
relating to the region about to be traversed,while among the rougher methods are practised, depending upon the change
many excellent modern publications of the Hydrographic of bearing of an object while a certain distance in a certain
Office of the Admiralty perhaps the Ocean Passage Book is one direction is traversed by the ship, such knowledge being based
of the most generally useful, since, when used in combination in many cases on an estimate of the action of the tide. When
with the admirable charts of suggested full-powered and auxiliary a ship is steaming at the rate of 20 knots the navigator remembers
tracks, it very greatly assists all navigators in planning out that a mile is passed over in three minutes, and that if in sight
a successful voyage. Finally the intended route would be trans- of land and fixing positions by objects on shore, it is essential to
ferred from the great circle chart to one on Mercator's projection, adopt some rapid method; otherwise when laid down on the
which is the more convenient for purposes of navigation since chart the position shows where the ship was, and not where
in constructing the former for the sake of simplicity a projection she is. This difficulty has led to the more general use of methods
of the coast's surface is adopted on which great circles are of obtaining positions by angles instead of bearings, and laying
correctly shown as straight lines (gnomonic), while for practical them down on the chart by the aid of the station pointer. Many
purposes in navigation such a representation on which a ship's advantages accrue from this, as the observer is not restricted
track when steering a continuous course (technically termed a in position on board, as is the case when using the compass,
rhumb line) is truly shown as a straight line (Mercator) is the and especially if a double sextant (having two index glasses
most convenient, although in high latitudes giving a very and one horizon glass) is employed two angles can be measured
distorted representation of the surface depicted. It is well to simultaneously, the result on the chart being very rapidly
remember that on great circle charts rhumb lines become curves arrived at. An ingenious combination of sextant and station
and great circles straight lines, and, vice versa, on Mercator pointer in one has been proposed, and most simply carried out
charts, the rhumb line on each projection being that nearer by attaching vertical sights to the legs of a station pointer,
to the equator, all meridians and the equator on both projections which is put on a suitable horizontal stand, and the legs moved
are shown as straight lines. until the sights are in line with the objects observed. To assist
Ships rarely steer on great circles, which would generally the navigator in the choice of suitable objects between which
theoretically involve continually altering course, but a series to measure the angles, a very useful pamphlet is issued by the
of chords of such circles are described of lengths such as involve Admiralty, from the diagrams in which' it can be seen at a glance
a practical change of course of one or two degrees on the com- which combination of objects in sight gives the most favourable
pletion of each. result, always remembering as a broad principle that nearer
Great circle charts are very useful for drawing what is known objects are more suitable than distant ones, and that the accuracy
as a composite track where if the great circle route would lead of position determined depends on the relative distances of the
into too high a latitude the shortest route to and from the highest objects as well as on the magnitude of the angles between them.
desirable parallel is readily laid down, the intervening track In these circumstances, which render these rougher methods
being pursued on that parallel. those only available, and especially in hazy weather in many
A method of drawing approximate great circles directly known localities (such as the English Channel), a continuous
on Mercator charts was proposed by Airy in 1858, and is some- line ofdeep sea soundings at fairly even distances apart affords
times very useful. The excellent idea, originally suggested an additional verification of position, remembering that only
" "
by M. F. Maury, of establishing steam lanes in localities an occasional sounding might prove very misleading.
where there is much ocean traffic, so as to minimize the risks of The chronicle of progress in the art of navigation would be ve
NAVIGATION 295
incomplete without reference to the extended use Lord
of tions of moon, stars and planets, the navigator in most parts
Kelvin's sounding machines, either in the original form, where of the world need seldom proceed far without the means of
the increased pressure at different depths is recorded by dis- astronomically rectifying his position either in latitude, longitude
coloration of chemical tubes, or in the later form known as the or both at the same time.
" The practical problems involved are precisely those employed
depth recorder," where similar results are obtained by the
automatic record of the position of a piston forced upwards at astronomical observatories, but it is not possible to attain
in a tube by this increased pressure. Very satisfactory results similar accuracy of results, for though the sextant (the instru-
can be obtained at speeds of 15 or 16 knots, enabling that great ment always employed at sea in making such observations)
safeguard of navigation in many places, viz. a continuous line is capable of marvellous accuracy, yet, as practically all such
of soundings, to be accurately and rapidly obtained. In con- observations depend directly upon altitudes measured above
nexion with this should be mentioned a most ingenious invention the sea horizon, the uncertainty and variability of the true
"
known as the submarine sentry," which on being set for any position of this, due to the changing effects of refraction, much
desired depth and towed overboard remains at that depth what- affect observations made at any one time. This error in practice
ever the speed of the ship may be. On striking bottom it at once is greatly reduced by methods of combining several observations
floats to the surface and rings a warning bell. Such an instru- made at different times and using their mean or average result.
ment is of obvious value in ships where, owing to the small A notable feature of the progress of the art of modern navigation
number of available men, it is difficult to maintain a continuous is the greatly increased practice of star navigation, and many of
line of soundings. To avoid an unnecessarily wide detour in the supposed difficulties of night observations are found to be
rounding points and shoals, extensive use is now made of both removed by experience. Determinations of positions at sea by
horizontal and vertical danger angles ; the former is the angle twilight observations, when the brighter stars become visible
on the arc of a horizontal circle passing through a point at the while the horizon is still well defined, are probably the most
required distance from the danger, and through two previously accurate means we possess; and the careful navigator, by
selected, easily recognized, fixed objects. Should circumstances combining for latitude stars passing north and south of the zenith,
enable the selection to be made of an angle of about 90, the and for longitude those near the prime vertical both east and west,
ship by continually measuring the angle may be steered on the can generally depend upon a good result, especially if suitable
arc of such a circle with great precision, and may even be safely stars can be found for each pair at about the same altitudes.
taken through a channel between two dangers. The vertical For these purposes the armillary sphere is extremely useful:
danger angle enables similar results to be attained by measuring this is a small celestial globe on which are depicted the principal
the vertical angle subtended by a known height; but except stars visible to the naked eye. On elevating the pole to the
where the selected object is one whose height is well determined, approximate latitude of the observer, and turning the sphere
such as a lighthouse, this method is not so trustworthy as the until the sidereal time is under the fixed meridian, a correct
former. representation of the heavens at the time of observation is
Before losing sight of land the latitude and longitude of the last obtained; the stars a re then easily identified by their bearings
well-determined position found by the methods referred to is and altitudes. This valuable instrument is not merely useful
taken from the coast chart, transferred to the ocean or small scale when at twilight, only a few of the brighter stars being visible, the
" "
chart, and considered to be the departure or starting-point of constellations to which they belong are difficult of recognition,
the ocean voyage, and from that point the course and distance but it enables arrangement to be made in advance for such
run by the ship is laid down, being rectified on every occasion observations as are desired to be taken during the night. By
when the position is more accurately determined by astronomical marking in pencil on the globe the positions of the planets in
means. To obviate the inevitable inaccuracies attending this right ascension and declination, the same sphere is also available
graphic method and as a corroboration of the ship's position, for their identification. The heavenly bodies commonly observed
the changes of latitude and longitude involved in each alteration at sea are: The Sun, Moon, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the
of course are daily calculated by plane trigonometry, such Pole star, and the larger (or first magnitude) fixed stars, the
calculations being materially abbreviated by the use of the positions of all of which in the heavens are given in the Nautical
Traverse Table, which is a tabulated expression of the solutions Almanac for fixed epochs at Greenwich, with the requisite data
of right-angled plane triangles. for computing their positions at all other times in all other places.
The foregoing modes of keeping account of a ship's position are The chief astronomical observations made at sea are those for
"
technically known as dead reckoning." The general introduc- ascertaining (i) latitude, (2) time and thence longitude, (3) error of
tion of compasses with short needles and slow periods of vibration compass, and (4) latitude and longitude simultaneously.
has done very much towards improving the accuracy with which To ascertain latitude by itself altitudes of heavenly bodies are
measured above the horizon when they are on or near the meridian
dead reckoning " is kept. The original model of these
"
a ship's and therefore exactly or nearly north or south of the observer; in
was that patented by Lord Kelvin in 1876, and since adopted in the case of the sun, of course, this means at or near noon, and in the
the British navy as the standard. In this instrument we have case of other bodies such local times are previously accurately
a compass specially designed to enable the principles of com- ascertained by a simple calculation made from the Nautical Almanac
or more roughly found from an armillary sphere. The principle
pensation or correction proposed by Sir G. B. Airy in 1837 to involved is the simple one that by subtracting the observed altitude
be accurately carried out, while its slow period of swing renders. when on the meridian from 90 the distance of the zenith or point
it in all circumstances
extremely steady. overhead north or south of the heavenly body is found; then by
The record of distance run is always obtained from the patent combining with this the distance, obtained from the Nautical
Almanac, of the body considered north or south of the celestial
log, usually in the form of the Cherub or Taffrail log introduced
equator at the same instant, it is found how far the zenith is north
in 1878. The common or hand
log has ceased to be regarded as or south of the celestial equator, and this is exactly the same as the
anything but the very roughest of guides, and the patent log latitude of the observer since the celestial equator is merely the
in its original
form, in which it recorded the revolutions of a small imaginary extension of that of the earth. Such observations are not
screw towed by the ship, does not give satisfactory results at necessarily restricted to that which can be taken at the instant when
the body observed is on the meridian (meridian altitude); equally
great speeds, nor can anything more favourable be said of those accurate and multiplied observations can be made on either or both
forms where pressure on known areas is employed. The revolu- sides of the meridian if the body is somewhat near it (ex-meridian
tions of the engines, with due allowance made for the condition and circum-meridian altitudes), and a simple calculation or reference
to a specially constructed table or graphic curve gives the required
of the ship's
bottom, afford now perhaps the best means of result.
estimating speed (see LOG). Errors arising from uncertainty as to the true position of the
Astronomical observations afford the most accurate means horizon are with twilight and night observations largely counter-
of acted by taking the means of results obtained from observations
ascertaining positions at sea, other methods (dead reckoning)
made of heavenly bodies crossing the meridian both north and
being only relied upon when the weather does not admit of the south of the observer, taken as nearly at the same time as convenient.
practice of these, though by utilizing twilight and night observa- In northern latitudes the pole star is so near to the pole that
296 NAVIGATION
observations of it can be taken at any time when it is visible, and instance, it is noon at all places on the meridian of 60 W. when it is
from a convenient table given in the Nautical Almanac the altitude exactly 4 p.m. at Greenwich, and at the one spot on that meridian
of the pole itself (which equals the latitude) is readily obtained. where the observer is as far north or south of the terrestrial equator
Longitude at sea is in modern navigation always found by com- as the sun is north or south of the celestial equator (declination) it will
or ship mean time with Greenwich mean time, the latter not only be noon but the sun will be immediately overhead and will
paring local
being accurately known from the chronometers and the former from have an altitude of 90. This, therefore, at any instant defines the
astronomical observations of suitably placed heavenly bodies. It position where the sun is vertical; its latitude must equal the sun's
may be assumed in all well found modern ships that on applying the declination and its longitude in time equal the time since noon at
known errors and accumulated rates to the times shown by the Greenwich. Now at a distance of 60 m. in every direction on the
chronometers the Greenwich time at any instant is practically surface of the earth from the point thus defined the sun will have an
accurately known, and as the distance east or west of any place is altitude of 89 and in all directions at a distance of 1200 m. its
merely the difference between the two local times at any instant ex- altitude will be 70 ( = 90 20), so that on a globe, by marking the
pressed in degrees, so also is the distance east or west of Greenwich position where at a certain instant the sun is vertical and taking
(longitude) the difference between time at place and Greenwich time that as a centre, a series of concentric circles may be drawn, on all
at any one instant. The connexion between time and degrees depends points of each of which the sun's altitude will be the same. When,
upon the complete rotation of the earth in twenty-four hours, causing therefore, at sea we measure with a sextant at any time the altitude
meridians 15 apart to pass under the same fixed point in the heavens of the sun (say 60 10') we at once know we are somewhere on the arc
at intervals of one hour, those east of Greenwich passing earlier and of a circle having for its centre the spot where the sun is vertical at
those west later, resulting in local time being in advance of Greenwich that instant, and for radius a distance equal to 1790' ( = 90 60' 10').
time in east longitude and vice versa in west longitude. Such information, combined with the best and most recent knowledge
The errors and rates of gaining or losing of the chronometer re- we have of the ship's latitude at the time, will of itself afford valuable
ferred to are known from observations made on shore prior to the information as to the position, but by making two such observations,
beginning of the voyage with a sextant and artificial horizon, and separated by a sufficiently long interval for the position having the
these observations are capable of almost as great accuracy as those sun vertical to have moved considerably (owing to the rotation of
taken at fixed astronomical observatories. As this knowledge is the earth), we are able to consider with certainty that we must be at
absolutely essential every opportunity is taken at each principal port one or other of the widely separated intersections of two such
visited of either repeating such observations or obtaining the infor- circles, the movement of the ship in the interval between the two
mation from time balls dropped from observatories on shore at the observations being duly allowed for. The dead reckoning affords
Greenwich times indicated in the Time-ball pamphlet. Local or ship information as to which of these intersections is the true position.
time can only be found with fair accuracy from calculations based on Now even on a large globe it would be practically impossible to
altitudes of heavenly bodies, when they are nearly east or west of the obtain very accurate results from this problem by drawing such
observer or technically on the prime vertical. Such times can be circles, but on a large scale chart (or ordinary squared paper) much
approximately seen from the azimuth diagrams or from tables of true greater accuracy is obtainable. The method commonly used on a
bearings of heavenly bodies, and the error involved by uncertainty M creator chart involves two suppositions: (i) that the concentric
as to the position of the horizon can be greatly obviated in twilight or circles we have referred to will be
correctly represented as circles on
at night by taking the mean of results arising from nearly simultane- the chart, and (2) that these are of such diameters, that a portion of
ous observations of bodies bearing both east and west. In the usual say 100 m. of arc may be considered to be a straight line coincident
case of determining time by observations of the sun the results arising with the tangent to the circle and therefore at right angles to the
from morning observations are compared with those similarly ob- direction of the sun. Except in high latitudes (above 60) Mercator's
tained in the afternoon. It will of course be remarked that should projection fulfils the first condition sufficiently well for practical
any unallowed-for error in the chronometer exist it will affect the purposes, and, except when the altitude is greater than 70, the
resulting longitude by its full amount. second condition is also approximately true since the radii of such
In considering the foregoing methods of astronomically fixing a circles will exceed 1200 m.
ship's position we notice that always when the two elements of Premising these conditions, suppose that on a certain day at 9 a.m.
latitude and longitude are determined at different times, and gener- when the ship's approximate position, known from previous observa-
ally, as we shall presently see, when they are determined together tions and laid down on the
(though usually for a shorter time) the navigator has to depend for chart, is supposed to be at A
some time on the accuracy of the course steered and estimated (fig. 7), an observation of the
distance run; also when cloudy weather prevails he has to depend sun is made from which the
entirely on those elements for a knowledge of the ship's position. longitude is calculated, the
The frequent astronomical observation of the error of the compass is result being that on the sup-
therefore a most important and fortunately simple duty. In practice position that the latitude of
the error is found by a comparison between the compass bearing of a A is correct, the ship's position
heavenly body and its true bearing, obtained either by calculation, or is probably at B. Now by
more generally from a graphic diagram (Weir's azimuth diagram) or drawing a
straight line ab
tables from which at practically any time when above the horizon the through B
at right angles to
true bearings of the principal heavenly bodies are taken by in- the true bearing of the sun
spection. These important observations are most accurately made at the time of observation
when the body observed is bearing nearly east or west true, if not (which is most readily known
too high, but if clouds prevent observations at such times, fairly good from the azimuth tables) we
FIG. 7.
results can be obtained by observing the
compass bearing when the are obviously right in assum-
object is on the meridian (if not too high) and therefore lying north ing the ship's position tc be somewhere on that line if we consider
or south true. it as approximately an arc of a large circle having the place where
The causes of the changing errors of a compass in an iron ship the sun is then vertical as a centre, the direction of such place being
are described elsewhere (see COMPASS), but by making comparisons indicated by an arrow.
as above the navigator can at once ascertain what is termed the If our supposed latitude be right the position will be at B, but if
" "
total error, and if he takes from that the portion of error due to not correct it must still be on the line 06, and if near land or any
the earth, or what is termed variation (known from a chart of such danger the direction of this line, even if no subsequent observation
elements), the remaining error is that caused by the iron of the ship, be available, will often give most valuable information. If, while
technically known as deviation. The latter method of procedure has waiting for the sun to change its bearing, the ship runs from B to C,
the great advantage of enabling the navigator to ascertain during a a line cd drawn through C parallel to ab will represent an arc on which
voyage whatever magnetic changes in the ship are taking place other the position lies when she is probably at C, which at tnis instant
than those he would expect to occur on change of position. The (10-30 a. m.) is the most probable position of the ship.
total error is that applied to If another observation of the sun for longitude is now made and
compass courses.
Deviations greater than a few degrees are not merely inconvenient the resulting position is D (lying of course in the same latitude as C),
but in modern compasses produce unsteadiness or oscillation of the on drawing through D a line ef at right angles to the bearing of the
compass card, so that, especially in new ships, the skilful navigator sun (indicated by an arrow) we are right in assuming the position to
reduces such errors by adjusting the compensating magnets when be somewhere on such an arc as is represented by this line.
favourable occasions offer. Recognizing the great value of a sound Hence E, the intersection of the two arcs on which the position lies
knowledge of compass adjustment, the British Board of Trade have at the same instant, must be the true place when the last observation
included this among the compulsory subjects of examination for the was taken at the supposed position D, the discrepancies being entirely
rank of^ master, thus following the
example of the navy, where all due to the original unknown error in the assumed latitude of A, for
navigating officers have to attend a practical course of study on the had that been accurate the position on the original line ab would
subject. have been such that on laying off the course and distance from that
The practical problem of finding both latitude and longitude at the position C would have coincided with E.
same time isthe most important of all in modern navigation, and is Errors in the assumed latitude of as much in many cases as 30 m.
rapidly_ superseding
other modes of ascertaining a ship's position. will often be found to produce no practical difference in the resultant
The p^nciple involved depends upon the fact that every heavenly position, but of course the accuracy of the longitude found is entirely
body is at each particular instant of time directly overhead or in the dependent upon the chronometer, and in such cases as arise when the
zenith of some place on the earth. Thus, if we take the sun as an intersecting arcs make a small angle with each other great accuracy
NAVIGATION 297
is required in the course and distance run between the times of
observation.
This method of finding both latitude and longitude at the same
" "
time is commonly known as Sumner's method from the publicity
given to it in 1847 by the publication of an excellent pamphlet on the
subject by a master of that name in the American mercantile marine,
although in a modified form it was practised at a much earlier date
"
in the British navy under the name of cross bearings of the sun."
Prior to the publication of azimuth tables in 1866 the calculation
was more lengthy and troublesome, the work being practically
doubled.
We have taken an illustration from observations of the sun, but
the method is obviously applicable to all heavenly bodies provided
they are so situated that the arcs drawn will intersect at a good
angle; this in twilight or at night-time is readily done by selecting
two heavenly bodies whose bearings differ considerably, and in such
cases the small complication of allowing for the run of the ship is
often obviated by making the observations simultaneously. The
armillary sphere or star globe is useful in selecting objects suitably
situated. Course
The Sumner's method has of recent years received a made good.
principle of
very
" important and valuable development under the name of the
new navigation." In this method, originally proposed by Marc St
Hilaire, a comparison is made between the altitude of a heavenly
body as actually observed and that calculated from the supposed
position
of the ship. For instance, the position of an observer at the
instant of observing a (true) altitude of the sun of 40 10' must be
somewhere on a portion of the circumference of a circle (usually of
such size that the portion considered may be represented on a chart
by a straight line) having its centre in latitude equal to the sun's
declination, and in longitude equal to the Greenwich apparent time
at the instant, the radius of such a circle being equal to the sun's
zenith distance of 49 50'. If at the same time the true altitude of
the sun is from the estimated position of the ship calculated to be
40 5', it is evident that the greater observed altitude must be owing
to the ship being nearer to the centre of the circle than was supposed,
and a line of position drawn through the estimated position at right
angles to the bearing of the sun must be transferred parallel to itself
through a distance of 5' towards the direction of the sun's bearing.
The second line of position, obtained when the sun's bearing has
altered some 25, is dealt with in a similar way, and the intersection
of the two lines so obtained gives the position of the ship at the time
of second observation. This mode of procedure enables all observa-
tions, whether near or far from the meridian, to be similarly dealt
with; in all cases the altitude the heavenly body should have is
computed and compared with what it actually has. The practice of
problems such as the foregoing is greatly facilitated by the extended
means of finding at any moment the azimuth or true bearing of a
heavenly body. When the azimuth was only required for the de-
termination of compass error, the valuable tables from which the
computed results could be obtained by inspection were limited to
those cases of most practical importance, but from the ingenious and
simple graphical form known as Weir's azimuth diagram azimuths
of all heavenly bodies, whose declinations extend from 60 N. to
60 S., can be obtained during the whole time they are above the
horizon, thus greatly facilitating the laying down lines of position.
A careful record of everything pertaining to the navigation of the
ship, with the results of all observations and calculated positions, is
kept in the ship's log, an official book of great importance, a rough
original of which is kept on deck with entries made in it of all such
events at the time of their occurrence. A copy of the headings of a
page of this as transferred into the official log is here given :
The course entered here is that which would be indicated by the
" "
standard compass of the ship (placed in the most favourable
magnetic position on board) that actually steered by is the one
;
most conveniently seen by the helmsman. Comparisons between
the latter and the " standard " are frequently made, their indications
generally varying somewhat owing to the difference of deviation in
hfferent positions on the ship. The compass card is
usually gradu-
ated into points and degrees, but the course is always estimated in
degrees. The speed is ascertained from the indication of the patent
log, the hand log being generally only used as a rough check on this.
Wind direction and force are the result of estimation; as the speed
and course of the ship so greatly affect the apparent direction and
velocity no practical anemometer for use on board ship exists. Wind
force is estimated in terms of what is known as the " Beaufort "
scale, based on the supposed amount of sail a vessel could
carry at
time. The height of the mercurial barometer is
carefully read at
!
the end of each watch, as also is the
thermometer; the more sensitive
aneroid barometer is kept in a
very accessible position and more
requently referred to by the officer of the watch. When
m navigating
localities and during seasons at which circular storms or hurricanes
298 NAVIGATION LAWS
largely used in the British navy, gth ed. (1854); E. Riddle, Naviga- to evoke the Mare Liberum of Grotius and the Mare Clausum of
tion and Nautical Astronomy (3rd ed. 1824, gth ed., by Escott, 1871), John Selden. It may be noted that in 1893 the Court of Arbitration
still worthy of its high reputation ; J. T. Towson, Tables for Reduction on the Bering Sea Fisheries found that Russia had never claimed or
of Ex-meridian Altitudes (4th ed. 1854), very useful; H. Raper, exercised exclusive jurisdiction over the Bering Sea outside terri-
Practice of Navigation (1840, loth ed. 1870), an excellent book; torial waters and that the United States had no further
right than
H. Evers, Navigation and Great Circle Sailing (1850), other works on had Russia at the time of the cession of Alaska in 1867. Rules for
the same subject by Merrifield and Evers (1868) and Evers (1875); the navigation of the high seas may still be promulgated by
R. M. Inskip, Navigation and Nautical Astronomy (1865), a useful any
government. In Great Britain such rules, generally known as the
"
book, without tables; T. H. Sumner, A Method of finding a Ship's Sailing Rules," have been made by order in council under the
Position by two Observations and, Greenwich Time by Chronometer powers of the Merchant Shipping Act 1862; the rules at present in
this is set forth as a novelty, but was published by Captain R. Owen, force are those contained in the order of the 27th of November 1896,
R.N., early in the century, and practised by many officers; H. W. L.G. No. 1082, as amended by subsequent orders in council. The
Jeans, Navigation and Nautical Astronomy (1858); Harbord, order of 1896 was extended by the order of 1897, L.G. No. 572, to the
Glossary of Navigation (1863, enlarged ed. 1883), a very excellent ships of most foreign countries, with a special provision as to China.
book of reference W. C. Bergen, Practice and Theory of Navigation
; In the case of a state which has not assented to them, the only rules
(1872); Sir W. Thomson, Navigation, a Lecture (1876), well worth enforceable are the general rules of the sea, gradually ascertained by
reading; Lecky, Wrinkles in Navigation (1880); Martin, Navigation individual cases before courts of admiralty.
and Nautical Astronomy, sanctioned for use in the British navy. 2. For the navigation of its tidal waters as far as they are
(W. R. M.*) territorial a state may legislate without the assent of other states.
NAVIGATION LAWS. The laws grouped under this title are An example of such legislation is afforded by the Territorial Waters
a branch rather of municipal law than of the general maritime Jurisdiction Act 1878, a measure passe3 in consequence of the
law. They are based upon the right of a state to regulate the celebrated case of R. v. Keyn, L.R. 2 Ex. D., 126 (the " Franconia "
case), in 1876. Under the head of territorial waters would fall the
navigation of its own waters and to protect its own commerce. "
narrow seas
"
(as the Bristol Channel, Great Belt or Straits of
One of the most curious early books on the subject is Captain G. Messina), bays and harbours, estuaries and arms of the sea, navigable
St Lo, England's Safetie or a Bridle to the French King, proposing tidal rivers, and the sea for- the distance of a marine league from the
a sure Method for encouraging Navigation (London, and ed. shore. Such waters being res publicae though not res communes, as
are the high seas, are prima facie subject to the jurisdiction of the
1693). Navigation laws may be divided into two classes. The state. In England the soil under such waters, or at least under all but
first class includes all laws designed to secure a commercial the last kind, is prima facie vested in the crown, subject to the public
monopoly to the state which enacted them. In Great Britain rights of fishery and anchorage. For the distance of a marine league
the object was attained by the Navigation Acts, the earliest of from low-water mark the crown has certainly jurisdiction for police
which were those of 1381 and 1390, ordaining that no merchandise and revenue purposes. This is a rule of general international law.
It may be noted that the Institut de Droit International proposed to
should be shipped out of the realm except in British ships on double this limit. See Hall, International Law (sth ed.), p. 154. In
pain of forfeiture. The principal Navigation Act was that of England the navigation of most of the principal tidal waters is
1660 (Scottish, 1661, c. 45). Up to 1854 coasting trade was governed by rules contained in acts of parliament and orders in
council, the latter for the most part promulgated under the authority
wholly restricted to British ships, and a British ship must have
given by the Merchant Shipping Act 1862. For instance, there are
been navigated by a master who was a British subject, and by numerous orders relating to the Thames, Mersey, Tees and other
a crew of whom a certain proportion must have been British important rivers.
subjects. After 1854 the only relics of such restrictions were 3. Non-tidal waters, even though navigable, are in Great Britain
found in the provisions of the Customs Consolidation Act 1853, prima facie private waters, in which the right of navigation does not
exist as a public franchise, but can only be acquired by prescription
324, by which, in order to secure reciprocity, prohibitions or founded on a presumed grant by an owner. In Roman law and in
restrictions may by order in council be imposed upon the ships the Code Napol6on it is otherwise. Navigable rivers in those systems
of any country in which British ships are liable to similar pro- are always publici juris, whether tidal or norf-tidal. Navigation of
hibitions or restrictions. Subject to these exceptions, a foreign non-tidal waters in the United Kingdom, whether natural or artificial,
is now almost entirely regulated by various Navigation and Con-
ship is in the same position as a British ship with regard to
British trade. This right of foreign ships is expressly recognized servancy Acts, e.g. the Thames Conservancy Acts, the Shannon,
Trent, Lee, &c., Navigation Acts, and the various Canal Acts,
by the Customs Law Consolidation Act 1876; by 141 of that especially the Manchester Ship Canal Act 1885. It may be noticed
act foreign ships engaged in the coasting trade are not to be that the crown is empowered by the Merchant Shipping Act 1862
to make rules for the navigation of inland waters, even when artificial,
subject to higher rates than British ships. Any advantages on the application of the proprietors. Examples of such rules are
which a British ship has, e.g. the right of claiming protection
the orders in council regulating the Mersey and Irwell navigation and
for her flag, the non-attachment to her of a maritime lien for the Bridgewater navigation, i8th May 1870. Such waters being
necessaries supplied in a British port, are not directly connected private property, the application for the rules by the proprietors is
with the policy under which the Navigation Acts have become recited in the order in council.
obsolete. These advantages are not secured to a British ship The distinction drawn in the United States between navigable and
boatable rivers seems to be peculiar to that country, unless indeed it
until she is registered. United States law agrees with British " "
is analogous to the fleuves et rivieres navigables ou flottables of
"
in this respect. The United States have imitated the policy the Code Napoleon, 538. It is at least unknown in Great Britain.
of England and other commercial nations in conferring peculiar Remedies for Obstruction and Pollution. These may be either
criminal or civil the criminal by indictment or information, the
privileges upon American-built ships and owned by our own
civil by action for damages or for an injunction, in addition to the
citizens. . The object of the Registry Acts is to encourage
. .
criminal remedy, where special damage has been sustained. Pollu-
our own trade, navigation and shipbuilding by granting peculiar tion is expressly provided for by the Rivers Pollution Prevention
or exclusive privileges of trade to the flag of the United States, Act 1876, which gives jurisdiction to county courts in cases within
and by prohibiting the communication of those immunities the act.
" International Law. The international law as to the navigation of
to the shipping and mariners of other countries (Kent, the high seas has been sketched above. Reference should also be
"
Comm. iii. 139). It may be noticed that an alien is generally made to what is known as the " Rule of the War of 1756 to the
incapable of becoming the owner of a ship. This incapacity was effect that where a colonial or coasting trade is prohibited to other
nations in time of peace, a neutral by engaging in this trade by
specially preserved in the case of British ships by the Naturaliza-
aermission of a belligerent in time of war is liable to the other
tion Act 1870, 14.
Belligerent. The leading case is The Immanuel (1799), 2 C.
The second class of navigation laws includes those which deal Robinson's Rep. 186. Regulations for the coasting trade may be
with the navigation of any waters over which a state has any made by the government of India under the powers of the Customs
control,and embraces all that is necessary for the due use of such Consolidation Act 1853, 329, and by the legislature of a British
aossession under the Merchant Shipping Act 1894, 736. As to
waters, as rules of the road, management of harbours and light- :erritorial waters, it is the general though not the universal opinion
houses, and licensing and control of pilots. Such laws may deal of jurists that the state to which the territorial waters belong has a
with (i) the high seas, (2) tidal waters other than the high seas, right to forbid their navigation by foreigners. The free navigation
of
(3) non-tidal waters. rivers has often been the subject of treaties, almost necessarily so
i. The claims of various nations to dominion over parts of the high where a river is the boundary between two states. In such a case, .
seas have now become matters of merely historical interest. Such if a state were to maintain the strict letter of its rights, navigation
claims have been at different times advanced by Great Britain, would be almost impossible, as each state is proprietor down to the
Holland, Spain and Portugal, and were once sufficiently important middle line of the bed of the river, the medium filum aquae or thalweg.
NAVIUS NAVY AND NAVIES 299
" "
By the treaty of Vienna in 1815 it was provided that the navigation admiral, admiral. There is also the rank of
admiral of the fleet :
of all rivers separating or traversing the states that were parties such an officer, if in command, would carry
the union flag at the main.
thereto should be open for commercial purposes to the vessels of all All flag-officers, commanders-in-chief are considered as responsible
,
nations, subject to a uniform system of police and tolls. The treaty for the conduct of the fleet or squadron under their command. They
of Paris, 1856, extended this principle to the Danube. In America
'
are bound to keep them in perfect condition for service; to exercise
the cases of the Mississippi and the St Lawrence are important. By them frequently in forming orders of sailing and lines of battle, and
"
the treaty of Versailles, 1783, it was provided that the navigation of in performing all such evolutions as may occur in the presence of an
the Mississippi shall for ever remain free and open to the subjects enemy; to direct the commanders of squadrons and divisions to
of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States." But the inspect the state of each ship under their command to see that the ;
United States afterwards acquired Louisiana and Florida; and, the established rules for good order, discipline and cleanliness are ob-
stipulation as to British subjects not being renewed in the treaty of served; and occasionally to inquire into these and other matters
Ghent, 1814, the United States maintains that the right of navigat- themselves. They are required to correspond with the secretary of
ing the Mississippi is vested exclusively in its citizens. As to the St the admiralty, and report to him all their proceedings.
Lawrence, after disputes for a long period between Great Britain and Every flag-officer serving in a fleet, but not commanding it, is
the United States, the right of free navigation for purposes of required to superintend all the ships of the squadron or division
commerce was secured to the United States by the treaty of Washing- placed under his orders to see that their crews are properly
ton, 1871. There are some waters, such as the Suez Canal and the disciplined, that all orders are punctually attended to, that the
Panama Canal, which are subject to peculiar engagements by treaty stores, provisions and water are kept as complete as circumstances
or convention. The former depends on the Convention of Con- will admit, that the seamen and marines are frequently exercised,
stantinople, zgth of October 1888, the latter as far as regards the and that every precaution is taken for preserving the health of their
United Kingdom and the United States on the Hay-Pauncefote crews. When at sea, he is to take care that every ship in his division
Treaty, l8th of November 1901. But as a rule it may be said that in preserves her station in whatever line or order of sailing the fleet
time of peace the territorial waters of a state are open to foreigners may be formed; and in battle he is to observe attentively the
for commercial purposes, subject to observance of any rules as to conduct of every ship near him, whether of the squadron or division
police, pilotage, &c., imposed by the state. Tolls may be imposed by under his immediate command or not and at the end of the battle
;
in most
the state
upon foreigners. This right is expressly recognized he is to report it to the commandtr-in-chief in order that commenda-
,
commercial treaties. A notable instance was "
the claim of Denmark tion or censure may be passed, as .he case may appear to merit and
" ;
to charge what were called the Sound dues from all vessels passing he is empowered to send an officer to supersede any captain who may
Elsinore, though the Sound was not strictly her territorial water. misbehave in battle, or whose ship is evidently avoiding the en-
The right was not universally recognized, though it had prescription gagement. If any flag-officer be killed in battle his flag is to be kept
in its favour and was invariably paid. In 1857 the dues were
flying, and signals to be repeated, in the same manner as if he were
abolished, and compensation paid to Denmark for the loss of her still alive, until the battle shall be ended; but the death of a flag-
alleged right. (J. W.) officer,or his being rendered incapable of attending to his duty, is to
NAVIUS, ATTUS, in Roman
legendary history, a famous be conveyed as expeditiously as possible to the commander-in-chief .
augur during the reign of Tarquinius Priscus. When the latter
The captain of the fleet is a temporary rank, where a commander-
in-chief has ten or more ships of the line under his command it may
desired to double the number of the equestrian centuries, Navius ;
be compared with that of adjutant-general in the army. He may
opposed him, declaring that it must not be done unless the either be a flag-officer or one of the senior captains; in the former
omens were propitious, and, as a proof of his powers of divination, case, he takes his rank with the flag-officers of the fleet in the latter,
;
cut through a whetstone with a razor. Navius's statue with he ranks next to the junior rear-admiral, and is entitled to the pay
veiled head was afterwards shown in the comitium; the whet-
and allowance of a rear-admiral. All orders of the commander-in-
chief are issued through him, all returns of the fleet are made through
stone and razor were buried in the same place, and a puteal him to the commander-in-chief, and he keeps a journal of the pro-
placed over them. Hard by was a sacred fig-tree, called after ceedings of the fleet, which he transmits to the admiralty. He is
him the Navian fig-tree. It was reported that Navius was subse- appointed and can be removed from this situation only by the lords
commissioners of the admiralty.
quently put to death by Tarquinius. According to Schwegler, A commodore is a temporary rank, and of two kinds the one
the puteal originally indicated that the place had been struck
having a captain under him in the same ship, and the other without a
by lightning, and the story is a reminiscence of the early struggle captain. The former has the rank, pay and allowances of a rear-
between the state and ecclesiasticism. admiral, the latter the pay and allowances of a captain and special
allowance as the lords of the admiralty may direct. They both carry
.See Livy i. 36; Dion. Halic. iii. 70; Aurelius Victor,' De viris
ittustribus, 6; Schwegler, Romische Geschichte, bk. xv. 16. distinguishing pennants.
When a captain is appointed to command a ship of war he com-
NAVVY, a labourer employed in the digging and excavating missions the ship by hoisting his pennant; and if fresh out of the
of earth, &c., in the construction of railways, docks, canals or dock, and from the hands of the dockyard officers, he proceeds im-
other engineering operations. The word is a shortened form of mediately to prepare her for sea, by demanding her stores, provisions,
" guns and ammunition from the respective departments, according
navigator," applied, during the i8th and early part of the igth to her establishment. He enters such petty officers, leading seamen,
centuries to a labourer at work on canals, to which the name able seamen, ordinary seamen, artificers, stokers, firemen and boys
" "
navigation is often applied. Power-machines (excavators) as may be sent to him from the flag or receiving ship. If he be
"
for performing such work are consequently known as steam- appointed to succeed the captain of a ship already in commission, he
navvies." passes a receipt to the said captain for the ship's books, papersand
stores, and becomes responsible for the whole of the remaining stores
NAVY and NAVIES. The navy of a country was in its
and provisions.
original meaning the total body of its shipping, whether used The duty of the captain of a ship, with regard to the several books
for war, for oversea and coasting traffic, or for fishing the and accounts, pay-books, entry, musters, discharges, &c., is regulated
total in fact of its ships (Lat. naves). custom, however, the
By by various acts of parliament; but the state of the internal discipline,
the order, regularity, cleanliness and the health of the crews will
word has come to be used only of that part of the whole which
depend mainly on himself and his officers. In all these respects the
is set aside for
purposes of war and police. Every navy consists general printed orders for his guidance contained in the King's
of a material part (see SHIP), i.e. the vessels, with their means Regulations and Admiralty Instructions are particularly precise and
of propulsion and their armament, and of a human organization, minute. And, for the information of the ship's company, he is
directed to cause the articles of war, and abstracts of all acts of
namely the crews of all ranks, by which the vessels are handled.
parliament for the encouragement of seamen, and all such orders and
Ships and men are combined in divisions, and are ruled by an regulations for discipline as may be established, to be hung up in
organ of the government to which they belong (see ADMIRALTY some public part of the ship, to which the men may at all times have
access. He is also to direct that they be read to the ship's company,
ADMINISTRATION).
all the officers being present, once at least in every month. He is
PERSONNEL desired to be particularly careful that the chaplain have shown to
The personnel of the British navy is composed of two different him the attention and respect due to his sacred office by all the
bodies of men, the seamen and the marines, each of which has its officers and men, and that divine service be performed every Sunday.
appropriate officers. The marines are the subject of a separate He is not authorized to inflict summary punishment on any com-
article. missioned or warrant-officer, but he may place them under arrest,
The the navy are classed as follows in the order of their
officers of and suspend any officer who shall misbehave, until an
opportunity
rank: (see ADMIRAL), commodores, captains, staff
flag-officers shall offer of trying such officer by a court-martial. is enjoinedHe
captains, commanders, staff commanders, lieutenants, navigating to be careful not to suffer the inferior officers or men to be
very
lieutenants, sub-lieutenants, chief gunners, chief boatswains, chief treated with cruelty and oppression by their superiors. He is the
carpenters, gunners, boatswains, carpenters, midshipmen, naval authority who can order punishment to be inflicted, which he is
cadets. never to do without sufficient cause, nor ever with greater severity
Flag-officers are divided into three ranks, viz. rear-admiral, vice- than the offence may really deserve, nor until twenty-four hours after
300 NAVY AND NAVIES ANCIENT
the crime has been committed, which must be specified in the warrant Reports of the Secretary of the Navy in the United States, and the
ordering the punishment. He may delegate this authority to a Reports of the Budget Committees of the French-Chamber contain
limited extent to certain officers. All the officers and the whole masses of information. The Naval Annual, founded by Lord Brassey
ship's company are to be present at every punishment, which must in 1886, is the model of publications which appear in nearly every
be inserted in the log-book, and an abstract sent to the admiralty country which possesses a navy. Mr F. T. Jane's All the World's
every quarter. Fighting Ships is a survey of the materiel of navies since 1898.
The commander has the chief command in small vessels. In larger
vessels he is chief of the staff to the captain and assists him in main-
HISTORY OF NAVIES
taining discipline, and in sailing and fighting the ship.
The lieutenants take the watch by turns, and are at such times Every navy was at its beginning formed of the fighting men
entrusted, in the absence of the captain, with the command of the of the tribe, or city, serving in the ship or large boat, which was
ship. The one on duty is to inform the captain of all important
occurrences which take place during his watch. He is to see that the used indifferently for fishing, trade, war or piracy. The develop-
whole of the duties of the ship are carried on with the same punctu- ment of the warship as a special type, and the formation of
ality as if the captain himself were present. In the absence of the
organized bodies of men set aside for military service on the sea
captain, the commander or senior executive officer is responsible for came later. We can follow the process from its starting-point
everything done on board.
The navigating officer receives his orders from the captain or the in the case of the naval powers of the dark and middle ages,
senior executive officer. He is entrusted, under the command of the the Norsemen, the Venetians, the French, the English fleet and
captain, with the charge of navigating the ship, bringing her to others. But centuries, and indeed millenniums, before the
aftchor, ascertaining the latitude and longitude of her place at sea, modern world emerged from darkness the nations of antiquity
surveying harbours, and making such nautical remarks and observa-
tions as may be useful to navigation in general. who lived on the shores of the Mediterranean had formed
The warrant-officers of the navy may he compared with the non- navies and had seen them culminate and decline. The adven-
commissioned officers of the army. They take rank as follows, viz. tures of the Argonauts and of Ulysses give a legendary and
gunner, boatswain, carpenter; and, compared with other officers, " "
sub-lieutenarts and before midshipmen. poetic picture of an age of the Vikings which was coming
they take rank after to an end two thousand years before the Norsemen first vexed
The midshipmen are the principal subordinate officers, but have no
specific duties assigned to them. In the smaller vessels some of the the west of Europe. At a period anterior to written history
senior ones are entrusted with the watch; they attend parties of necessity bad dictated the formation of vessels adapted to the
men sent on shore, pass the word of command on board, and see that
the orders of their superiors are carried into effect; in short, they are purposes of the warrior. Long ships built for speed Qj.aKpal VT\K,
exercised in all the duties of their profession, so as, after five years' naves longae) as distinguished from round ships for burden
service as cadets and midshipmen, to qualify them to become (aTpoyyii\ai i>ij, naves onerariae) are of extreme antiquity
lieutenants, and are then rated sub-lisutenants provided they have (see SHIP). Greek tradition credited the Corinthians with the
passed the requisite examination. invention, but it is probable that the Hellenic peoples, in this
The duties and relative positions of these officers remain practi-
as in other respects, had a Phoenician model before them. So
cally unaffected by recent changes; but a profound modification was
made in the constitution of the corps of officers at the close of 1902. little is known of the other early navies, whether Hellenic or
" "
Up to the end of that year, officers who belonged to the executive non-Hellenic, that we must be content to take the Athenian
branch, i.e. from midshipmen to admiral, to the marines and the as our example of them all, with a constant recognition of the
engineers, had entered at different ages, had been trainecf in separate
fact that it was certainly the most highly developed, and that
schools, and had formed three co-operating but independent lines.
For reasons set forth in a memorandum by Lord Selborne (December we cannot safely argue from it to the rest.
16, 1902) from the desire to give a more scientific character The Athenian navy began with the provision of warships
to naval education, and to achieve complete unity among all classes
of officers it was decided to replace the triple by a single system of
by the state, because private citizens could not supply them
in sufficient numbers. The approach of the Persian
entry, and to coalesce all classes of officers, apart" from the purely Att
civil lines surgeons and paymasters (formerly pursers ") into attack in 483 B.C. drove Athens to raise its establish-
one. Lads were in future to be entered together, and at one training ment from 50 to 100 long ships, which were paid for out of
establishment at Osborne in the Isle of Wight, on the distinct under- the profits of the mines of Moroneia (see THEMISTOCLES). The
standing that it was to be at the discretion of the admiralty to assign Persian danger compelled the Greeks to form a league for their
them to executive, marine or engineer duties at a later period. After
two years' training at Osborne, and at the Naval College at Dart- common naval defence. The League had its first headquarters
mouth, all alike were to go through the rank of midshipman and to at Delos, where its treasury was guarded and administered by
pass the same examination for lieutenant. When in the intermediate the 'EXXTjiwa/uai (Hellenotamiai), or trustees of the Hellenic
position of sub-lieutenant, they were to be assigned to their respec-
tive branches as executive officer, marine or engineer. The engineers
fund. Her superiority in maritime strength gave Athens a
under this new system were to cease to be a civil branch, as they had predominance over the other members of "the League like that
been before, and become known as lieutenant, commander, captain which Holland enjoyed for the same reason in the Seven United
or rear-admiral E. (Engineer). Provinces. The Hellenotamiai were chosen from among her
The crew of a ship of war consists of leading seamen, able seamen,
citizens, and Pericles transferred the fund to Athens, which
ordinary seamen, engine-room artificers, other artificers, leading
stokers, stokers, coal-trimmers, boys and marines. The artificers became the mistress of the League. The allies sank in fact to
and stokers and the marines are always entered voluntarily, the subjects, and their contributions, aided by the produce of the
latter in the same manner as soldiers, by enlisting into the corps, the
mines, went to the support of the Athenian navy. The hundred
former at some rendezvous or on board particular ships. The supply
of boys for the navy, from whom the seamen class of men and petty long ships of the Persian War grew to three hundred by the end
officers is recruited, is also obtained by voluntary entry. of the 5th century B.C. (see PELOPONNESIAN WAR), and at a
Merchant seamen are admitted into the royal naval reserve, receive later period (when, however, the quality of ships and men alike
an annual payment by way of retainer, perform drill on board His had sunk) to three hundred and sixty. The ancient world did
Majesty's ships, and are engaged to serve in the navy in case of war not attain to the formation of a civil service at least until the
or emergency.
There are two schemes for forming reserves. The Royal Naval time of the Roman Empire and Athens had no admiralty
Reserve scheme draws men from the mercantile marine and fishing or navy office. In peace the war-vessels were kept on slips under
population of the United Kingdom. The Royal Fleet Reserve cover in sheds. In war a stralegos was appointed to the general
scheme, introduced in 1901, while it gave a better system of training
to the pensioners, was mainly designed to obtain the services in war command, and he chose the trierarchs, whose duty it was to
of the men who had quitted the navy after the expiration of their commission them partly at their own expense, under supervision
twelve years' service. of the state exercised by special inspectors (cbroerToXels). The
So far as other countries are concerned, the staff of officers does not and pay of the crews were provided by the
hulls, oars, rigging
differ materially from one navy to another. In all it consists of
admirals, captains, lieutenants, midshipmen and cadets receiving state, but it is certain that heavy charges fell upon the trierarchs,
their training in special schools. With the exception of the navy of who had to fit the ships for sea and return them in good condi-
the United States, all the important naval forces of the world are tion. The burden became so heavy that the trierarchies were
raisedby conscription. divided, first between two citizens in the Peloponnesian War,
The strength and general condition of navies at any given time
must be learnt from the official publications of the various powers, and then among groups (synteleiai) consisting of from five to
and from privately composed books founded on them. The yearly sixteen persons. Individual Athenians who were wealthy and
statements of the First Lord of the Admiralty in Great Britain, the patriotic or ambitious might fit out ships or spend freely on
BRITISH] NAVY AND NAVIES 301
their command. But these voluntary gifts were insufficient eastern caliphs had fleets for purposes of conquest, and so had
to maintain a great navy. The necessity which compelled the emirs and caliphs of Cordova. The Byzantine navy reached
modern nations to form permanent state navies, instead of its highest point under the able sovereigns of the Macedonian
relying on a levy of ships from the ports, and such vessels as dynasty (867-1056). It was divided into the imperial fleet,
English nobles and gentlemen sent to fight the Armada, prevailed commanded by the Great Drungarios, the first recorded lord high
in Athens also. The organization of the crews bore a close admiral, and the provincial or thematic squadrons, under their
resemblance in the general lines to that of the English navy as strategoi. Of these there were three, the Cibyrhaeotic (Cyprus
it was till the i6th and even the lyth century. The trierarch v and Rhodes), the Samian and the Aegean. The thematic
either the citizen named to discharge the duty, or some one whom squadrons were maintained permanently for police purposes.
he paid to replace him, answered to the captain. There was The imperial fleet, which was more powerful when in commission
a sailing master (<cv/3pJ^T7/s), a body of petty officers, mariners than all three, was kept for war. A peculiar feature of the
and oarsmen (tnrr;pe<Tia) with the soldiers or marines (rt/3ar(u).
, Byzantine navy was the presence in it of a corps answering to the
As the ancient warship was a galley, the number of rowers seaman gunners and gunnery officers of modern navies. These
required was immense. A hundred triremes would require were the siphonarioi, who worked the siphons (auf&vts) used for
"
twenty thousand men in all, or more than the total number of discharging the Greek fire." When the Turkish invasions
crews of the twenty-seven British line of battleships which disorganized the Eastern Empire in the I2th century, the
fought at Trafalgar. And yet this would not have been a great Byzantine navy withered, and the emperors were driven to rely
fleet, as compared with the Roman and Carthaginian forces, on the help of the Venetians.
which contended with hundreds of vessels and multitudes of The Italian republics of the middle ages, and the monarchical
men, numbering one hundred and fifty thousand or so, on each states bordering on the Mediterranean, always possessed fleets
side, in the first Punic War. which did not differ in essential particulars from that
Medieval.
Until the use of broadside artillery and the sail became of Athens. There is, however, one fact which must not
universal at the end of the i6th century, all navies were forcibly be overlooked. It is that the seamen of some of them, and
organized on much the same lines as the Athenian, even in the more especially of Genoa, served the powers of western Europe
western seas. In the Mediterranean the differences were in from a very early date. Diego Gelmirez, the first archbishop of
names and in details. The war fleets of the successors of Santiago in Gallicia, employed Genoese to construct a dockyard
Alexander, of Carthage, of Rome, of Byzantium, of the Italian and build a squadron at Vigo in the i2th century.
republics, of the Arabs and of Aragon, were galleys relying on Edward III. of England employed Genoese, and others were
their power to ram or board. Therefore they present the same engaged to create a dockyard for the French kings at Rouen.
elements a chief who is a general, captains who were soldiers, By them the naval science of the Mediterranean was carried
or knights, sailing masters and deck hands who navigate and to the nations on the shores of the Atlantic. The Mediterranean
tend the few sails used, marines and rowers. A few words may, naviesmade their last great appearance in history at the battle
however, be said of Rome, which transmitted the tradition of ofLepanto (1571). Thenceforth the main scene of naval activity
the ancient world to Constantinople, and of the Constantino- was on the ocean, with very different ships, other armaments
politan or Byzantine navy, which in turn transmitted the tradi- and organizations.
tion to the Italian cities, and had one peculiar point of interest. Thegreat navies of modern history may best be discussed by
As a trading city Rome was early concerned in the struggle taking first certain specially important national navies in their
for predominance in the western Mediterranean between the earlier evolution, and then considering those which are of present
Etruscans, the Greek colonies and the Carthaginians. day interest in their relations to one another.
Its care of its naval interests was shown by the appoint-
ment of navy commissioners as early as 31 1 B.C. (Duoviri navales). The British Navy.
In the first Punic War it had to raise great fleets from its own The Royal Navy of Great Britain stands at the head of the
resources, or from the dependent Greek colonies of southern Italy. navies of the modern world, not only by virtue of its strength,
After the fall of Carthage it had no opponent who was able to force but because it has the longest and the most consistent historical
it to the same efforts. The prevalence of piracy in the ist century development. The Norse invasions of the gth century forced the
B.C. again compelled it to attend to its navy (see POMPEY). The English people to provide for their defence against attack from
obligation to keep the peace on sea as well as on land required oversea. Though their efforts were but partially successful,
the emperors to maintain a navy for police purposes. The and great Norse settlements were made on the eastern side of
organization was very complete. Two main fleets, called the the island, a national organization was formed. Every shire was
"
Praetorian, guarded the coasts of Italy at Ravenna and Misenum called upon to supply ships in proportion to the number of
(classes Praetoriae), other squadrons were stationed at Forum hundreds and from the produce of what had been the folkland
"
Julii (Frejus), Seleucia at the mouth of the Orontes (Nahr-el-Asy), contained in (Stubbs, Const. Hist. i. 116). Alfred and his
it
tailed the classis Syriaca, at Alexandria (classis Augusta Alex- successors had
also ships of their own, maintained out of the
andrine), at Carpathos (Scarpanto, between Crete and Rhodes), royal revenue of which they had complete control. Before the
Aquileia (the classis Venetum at the head of the Adriatic), Conquest the system of contribution by the shires had largely
the Black Sea (classis Pontica), and Britain (classis Brilannica). broken down. Yet in its main lines the method of providing a
River flotillas were maintained on the Rhine (classis Germanica) , navy adopted by Alfred and his immediate successors remained
on the Danube (classis Pannonica and Maesica) and in later days in existence. There were the people's ships which represented the
at least on the Euphrates. All these squadrons did not exist naval side of the fyrd i.e. the general obligation to defend the
at the same time. The station at Forum Julii was given up realm; and there were the king's own vessels which were his
soon after the reign of Augustus, and the classis Venetum was property. By the nth century a third source of supply had
formed later. But an organized navy always existed. A body been found. This was the feudal array. Towns on the sea coast
of soldiers, the classici, was assigned for its service. The were endowed with privileges and franchises, and rendered
commander was the Praefectus Classis. definite services in return.
When Constantine founded his New Rome on the site of The Norman Conquest introduced no fundamental difference.
Byzantium, the navy of the Eastern Empire may be said to have In the 2th century the kings of the Angevine dynasty made the
1
De 8 un
' - Its history is obscure and it suffered several military resources of their kingdom available in three ways;
B zaatiae '
eclipses. While the Vandal kingdom of Carthage the feudal array, the national militia and the mercenaries.
lasted (428-534), the eastern emperors were compelled to Dover, Sandwich, Romney, and the other towns on the south-
attend to their fleet. After its fall their navy fell into neglect east coast which formed the Cinque Ports represented the naval
till the rise of the Mahommedan
power at the end of the 7th part of the feudal array. In the reign of Henry III. (1216-1272)
century again compelled them to guard their coasts. The their service was fixed at 57 ships, with 1197 men and boys, for
302 NAVY AND NAVIES [BRITISH
fifteen days in any year, to count from the time when they weighed it was to navigate the ship, and the soldiers who were put in
anchor. During these fifteen days they served at the expense to fight. Until the vessel had been developed and the epoch of
of the towns. Beyond that date they were maintained by the ocean voyages began, the first were few and subordinate. As
king. The Cinque Ports Squadron has been spoken of as the the seas of Britain were ill adapted for the use of the galley
foundation of the Royal Navy. But a feudal array is wholly in the proper sense, though the French employed them, English
alien in character to a national force. The Cinque Ports, after ships relied mainly on the sail. They used the oar indeed but
playing a prominent part in the I3th century, sank into in- never as a main resource, and had therefore no use for the
" "
significance. They were always inclined to piracy at the expense turma (ciurma in Italian, chiourme in French, and chusma
of other English towns. In 1 297, during one of the expeditions to in Spanish) of rowers formed in the Mediterranean craft. Crews
Flanders, they attacked and burnt twenty ships belonging to were obtained partly by free enlistment, but also to a great
Yarmouth under the eyes of Edward I.
(1272-1307). The extent, by the press (see IMPRESSMENT). The code of naval
national militia had a longer life. The
obligation of the coast discipline was the laws of Oleron (see SEA LAWS), which embodied
"
towns and counties to provide ships and men for the defence the general custom of the sea." By the reign of Edward III.
of the realm was enforced till the I7th century. Nor did the (1327-1377) the duties and jurisdiction of the admiral were
method of enforcing that obligation differ materially. In the fixed. He controlled the returns of the ships made by the
reign of King John (1199-1216), when the records began to be reeves, selected them for service, and chose his officers, who
regularly kept, but when there was no radical change in system, had their commission from him. A rudimentary code of signals
the reeves and bailiffs of the seaports were bound to ascertain by lights or flags was in use.
by a jury_the number, size and quality of all ships belonging to The history of the middle ages bears testimony to the general
the port. When the ships were required for the king's service efficiencyand energy of the navy. Under weak kings, and at
they were embargoed. The local authorities were then bound certain periods, for instance in the latter years of Edward III.
to see that they were properly equipped and manned. It was and the reign of his grandson Richard II. (1377-1399), it fell
the duty of the reeves and bailiffs to arrange that they should into decay, and the coast was ravaged by the French and their
reach the place named by the king as rendezvous at the time allies the Basque seamen, who manned the navy of Castile.
fixed by him. These embargoes inflicted heavy loss even when Henry IV. (1399-1413), though an astute and vigorous ruler,
they were honestly imposed, and loud complaints were heard was driven to make a contract with the merchants, mariners
in Parliament from the later years of Edward III. (1327-1377) and shipowners, to take over the duty of guarding the coast
that they afforded the king's officers many openings for oppression in 1406-1407. Their admirals Richard Clitherow and Nicholas
and corruption. Blackburne were appointed, and exercised their commands.
The true ancestors of the modern navy must be sought in But the experiment was not a success, and was not renewed.
the third element of the navy of the middle ages the king's Apart from these periods of eclipse, the navy in all its elements,
"
ships and his mercenaries." Under King John we find the feudal national and royal, was more than a match for its enemies.
,
full record of a regular organization of a Royal Navy as apart The destruction of the fleet prepared by Philip Augustus, the
from the feudal array of the Cinque Ports or the fyrd. In 1 205 French king, for the invasion of England in 1213 at Damme,
" "
he had in all 50 galleys long ships for wardistributed in the defeat of Eustace the Monk in 1217 off Dover, the victory
various ports. William of Wrotham, archdeacon of Taunton, over the French fleet at Sluys in 1340, and the defeat of the
one of the king's " clerks," or ecclesiastical persons who formed Spaniards off Winchelsea in 1350, were triumphs never quite
his civil is named, sometimes in combination with
service, counterbalanced by any equivalent overthrow. Still better
" "
others, as keeper of the king's ships," keeper of the king's proofs of the ability of any navy to discharge its duties
"
galleys and " keeper of the king's seaports." The royal were the long retention of Calais, and the constant success
vessels cannot have differed from the 57 warships of the Cinque of the rulers of England in their invasions of France. The
Ports, and at first his navy was preferable to the feudal array, claim to the sovereignty of the seas has been attributed on
or the levy from the counties, mainly because it was more fully insufficient evidence to King John, but it was enforced by
under his own control. They were indeed so wholly his that Edward III.
he could hire them out to the counties, and at a much later Under the sovereigns of the Tudor dynasty (1485-1603) the
period the ships of Henry V. (1413-1422) were sold to pay his development of the navy was steady. Though Henry VII.
personal debts after his death. Yet though the process by which (1485-1509) made little use of his fleet in war, he built sh'ps.
the king's ships became the national navy was slow, the affilia- His son Henry VIII. (1509-1547) took a keen interest in his
tion is direct from them to the fleet of to-day, while the permanent navy. Shipbuilding was improved by the importation of Italian
officials at Whitehall are no less the direct descendants of workmen. The large resources he obtained by the plunder of
William of Wrotham and the king's clerks of the i3th century. the Church enabled Henry VIII. to spend on a scale which had
When on active service the command was exercised by repre- been impossible for his predecessors, and was to be impossible
sentatives of the king, who were not required to be bred to the for his successors without the aid of grants from Parliament.
sea or even always to be laymen. In the crusade of 1190 the But the most vital service which he rendered to the navy was the
fleet of Richard the Lion Hearted (1189-1199), drawn partly formation of, or rather the organization of existing officials
from England and partly from his continental possessions, was into, the navy office. This measure was taken at the very end
governed by a body of which two of the members were church- of his reign, when the board was constituted by letters patent
men. They and their lay colleagues were described as the dated 24th of April 1546. It consisted of a lieutenant of the
ductores el gubernatorcs tolius navigii Regis. The first commanders admiralty, a treasurer, a comptroller, a surveyor, a clerk of the
of squadrons were known as justiciarii navigii Regis, ductores et ships, and two officials without special title. A master of the
constabularii Regis. ordnance for the ships was also appointed. Henry's board,
The crusade of 1190 doubtless made Englishmen acquainted commonly known as the navy board, continued, with some
with the title of "admiral"; but it was not till much later periods of suspension, and with the addition of different de-
that the word became, first as " admiral and captain," then as partments the victualling board, the transport board, the
" "
admiral alone, the title of an officer commanding a squadron. pay office, &c., added at various times to be the administrative
The first admiral of all England was Sir John Beauchamp, machinery of the navy till 1832. They were all theoretically
appointed for a year in 1360. The permanent appointment subject to the authority of the lord high admiral, or the com-
of a lord admiral dates from 1406, when John Beaufort, natural missioners for discharging his office, who had the military and
son of John of Gaunt, and marquess of Somerset and Dorset, political control of the navy and issued all commissions to its
was named to the post. The crews consisted of the two elements officers. In practice the boards were very independent. The
which, in varying proportions and under different names, have double government of the navy, though it lasted long, was
been and are common to all navies the mariners whose business undoubtedly the cause of much waste partly by the creation
BRITISH] NAVY AND NAVIES 303
of superfluous officials, but more by the opening it provided Ships were rotting, and money was yearly drawn for vessels
for corruption. which had ceased to exist. The committee undertook to meet
The 1 6th century in England as elsewhere saw a great develop- the whole ordinary and extraordinary charges of the navy
ment in the size and capacity of ships, in the length of voyages, (upkeep and new building) for 30,000 a year. The ships in
and consequently in the sciences of navigation and seamanship, commission at that time during peace were confined to the
which brought with them the predominance of the seaman diminutive winter and summer guards, whose duty was to
element hitherto subordinate. In the reign of Henry VIII., transport ambassadors to and fro across the Channel and to
when a squadron was commissioned in 1512, out of a total of hunt the pirates who still swarmed on the coast. Buckingham
3000 men, 1750 were soldiers. By the end of the reign of his left the administration of the navy in the hands of the com-
daughter Elizabeth (1558-1603) it was calculated that of the missioners, who by dismissing superfluous officers and paying
^346 men required to man her fleet 5534 were seamen, 804 better salaries had by 1624 fulfilled their promise to restore
were gunners, and only 2008 were soldiers. In the early years the fleet. The establishment they proposed was only of 30 ships,
of his reign Henry VIII. equipped his squadrons on a system but they were larger in aggregate tonnage by 3050 tons than
which bears some resemblance to the Athenian trierarchies. Queen Elizabeth's.
He made a contract with his admiral Sir Edward Howard (1477- Charles I. (1625-1649) carried on the work of his father as far
1513)1 by which the king supplied ships, guns and a sum of as his limited resources allowed. The pay of the sailors, fixed
"
money. The admiral, who had full power to press," named the in 1585 at ios., was increased to 155. Acaptain received from
officers and collected the crews. Among them are named 4, 6s. 8d. a month of 28 days (the standard of the navy) to 14,
contingents from particular towns the representatives of the according to the size of his ship. Lieutenants, who were only
fyrd. With the exception of the captain, who
received eighteen carried in the larger ships, received from 2, i6s. to 3, ios., the
pence a day, all were paid at the same rate, 53. wages and 55. for sailing-master from 2, 6s. 8d. to 4, 133. gd., and the warrant
" officers from i, 33. to 2, 43. The rating of ships by the number
rations per month. Extra sums called dead shares," the
wages of so many imaginary men, and rewards, were provided of men carried was introduced in this reign. Vessels of good
for the master and warrant officers. Until the regular returns quality were built for the king, and he showed a real understand-
known as the " weekly progress of the dockyards" and the ing of the necessity for maintaining a strong fleet.
" " were established in But the time was coming when the hereditary royal revenue
monthly lists of ships in sea pay 1773,
no constant strict account of the strength of the navy was kept. was no longer adequate to meet the expense of a navy. By the
The figure must therefore be accepted as subject to correction, middle of the I7th century a costly warship, far larger than the
but King Henry's navy is estimated to have consisted of 53 trading-ship in size and much more strongly built, had been
vessels of 11,268 tons, carrying 237 brass guns and 1848 of iron. developed. The extension of British commerce called for
It sank somewhat during the agitated reigns of his successors protection which an establishment of 40 to 50 vessels could not
Edward VI. (I547-I5S3) and Mary (i553-i55 8 )- B Y Elizabeth give. When the Great Rebellion broke out in 1641 the navy
it was well restored. In mere numbers her navy never equalled of King Charles consisted of only 42 vessels of 22,411 tons. At
her father's. At the end of her reign it was composed of 42 the Restoration (1660) it had grown to 154 ships for sea service,
vessels, but they were of 17,055 tons, and therefore on the average of 57,463 tons. Such a force could only be maintained out of
much larger. The military services rendered by the great taxes granted by the parliament. The efforts of King Charles
queen's fleet were brilliant. No organic change was introduced, to obtain funds for his navy had a large influence in provoking
and fleets continued to be made up by including vessels belonging the rebellion (see SHIP MONEY). The government of the navy
to the different ports. during this reign remained in the hands of the committee of
The two most notable advances in organization were the 1618, under the lord high admiral Buckingham, till he was
establishment of a graduated scale of pay by rank in 1582, and murdered in 1628. It was then entrusted to a special commission,
the formation of a fund for the relief of sick and wounded who were to have held it till the king's second son James, duke
seamen. This was not a grant from the state but a species of of York, was of age. In 1638 the king restored the office of lord
" "
compulsory insurance. All men employed by the navy, including high admiral during pleasure in favour of Algernon Percy,
shipwrights, were subject to a small deduction from their pay. loth earl of Northumberland, by whom the fleet was handed
The amount was kept in the chest at Chatham, from which the over to the parliament.
fund took its name, and was managed by a committee of five, During the Great Rebellion and the Protectorate the navy
each of whom had a key, and of whom four were elected by the was governed by parliamentary committees, or by a committee
contributors. The commissioner of the dockyard presided. named by the Council of State, or by Cromwell. The need,
It was between the accession and the fall of the House of first for cutting the king off from foreign support, and then for
Stuart (1603-1688) that the navy became a truly national force, conducting successive struggles in Ireland, or with the king's
maintained out of the revenue voted by parliament, and acting partisans on the sea, with the Dutch and with the Spaniards
without the co-operation of temporary levies of trading ships. during the Protectorate, led to a great increase in its size. These,
The reign of James I. (1603-1625) is a period of great importance too, were years of much internal development. Blake and the
in its history. The policy of the king was peaceful, and he only other parliamentary officers found that the pressed or hired
once sent out a strong fleet in 1620 when an expedition was merchant ships were untrustworthy in action. The ships were
despatched against the Barbary pirates. He took, however, not strong enough, and the officers had no military spirit.
a lively interest in shipbuilding, and supported his master ship- Parliament therefore provided its own vessels and its own
wright Phineas Pett (1507-1647) against the rivals whom he officers. The staff was strengthened by the appointment of
offended by disregarding their rules of thumb. Under the lax second lieutenants. The Dutch War of 1652-53 may be said
administration of the lord high admiral Nottingham, better to have seen the last of the national militia, fyrd or levy of ships
known as Lord Howard of Effingham, many abuses crept into from the ports for warlike purposes. After the war a code of
" "
the navy. Though more money was spent on it than in the fighting instructions was issued. During it a code of discipline
reign of the queen, it had sunk to a very low level of effective in 39 articles was established. Both embodied ancient practices
strength in 1618. In 1619 the old lord admiral was persuaded rather than new principles, yet it marked a notable advance in
to retire, and was succeeded by George Villiers, duke of Bucking- the progress of the navy towards complete organization that
ham, the king's favourite. Nottingham's retirement was made it should pass from the state of being governed by traditional
compulsory by the report of a committee appointed to inquire use and wont, cr by the will of the commander for the time
into the condition of the
navy in 1618. They reported that being, to the condition of being ruled by fixed and published
while numbers of new offices had been created at a cost treble codes to which all were subject. The high military command
the whole expense of the permanent staff of Queen Elizabeth's during the interregnum 1640-1660 was entrusted to committees
time, the dockyards had become nests of pilfering and corruption. of admirals and generals at sea.
NAVY AND NAVIES [BRITISH
With the restoration of Charles II. (1660-1685) the modern indicating only the seniority of the flag-officers. It was the
period in the history of the navy began. The first steps were intention of parliament to confine the flag list to these nine
taken to form a corps of officers. Lads of gentle birth were officers, but as the navy grew this was found to be impossible.
sent on board ships in commission with a letter of service from The rank of admiral of the fleet remained a solitary distinction.
" "
which came their popular name of king's letter boys to The captains, commanders and lieutenants were the com-
the captain, instructing him to treat them on the footing of missioned officers and received their commissions from the
gentlemen and train them to become officers. After the Dutch admiralty. Promotion from them to flag rank was not at first
War of 1664-67 a body of flag-officers were retained by fixed limited by strict rules, but it tended to be by seniority. During
allowances from the crown. This was the beginning of the half- the war of the Austrian Succession, in 1747, a regular system
pay list, which was extended by successive steps to include was introduced by which when a captain was promoted for
select bodies cf captains and lieutenants, and then all com- active service to hoist his flag, as the phrase went he was made
missioned officers. The process of forming the corps was not rear-admiral of the Blue squadron. Captains senior to him
complete till the end of the reign of Queen Anne (1702-1714). were promoted rear-admiral in general terms, and were placed on
" "
Special training and a right to permanent payment are the the retired list. They were
familiarly called yellow admirals,
"
essentials of a state service. The fleet was, at least in the earlier and to be promoted in this way was to be yellowed." Pro-
part of the reign, used for the promotion of British interests and motion to a lieutenant's commission could be obtained by any one
the protection of trade in distant seas. One squadron was sent who had served, or whose name had been on the books of a sea-
to take possession of Bombay, which formed part of the dower going ship, for five years. Whether he entered with a king's letter
of Queen Catherine. Tangier, which was acquired in the same of service or from the naval academy at Portsmouth, as a sailor
way, was occupied as a naval station till the ccst of maintaining or as a ship's boy, he was equally qualified to hold a commission
it proved excessive and it was evacuated in 1685. A series if he had fulfilled the necessary conditions and could pass an
of effective attackswas made on the Barbary pirates, and ships examining board of captains, a test which in the case of lads who
were stationed in the West Indies to check piracy and buccaneer- had interest was generally a pure formality. He was supposed
ing. Until 1673, when he was driven out of office by the Test to show that he knew some navigation, and was a practical sea-
Act, the king's brother James, duke of York, afterwards James man who could hand, reef and steer. As captains were allowed
II., held office as lord high admiral. He proved an able admini- a retinue of servants, a custom arose by which they put the
strator. The navy office was thoroughly organized on the lines names of absent or imaginary lads on the books as servants
laid down by the earl of Northumberland, and revised " sailing and drew the pay allowance for them. It was quite illegal,
and fighting instructions," as well as a code of discipline, were and constituted the offence known as " false musters," punish-
issued. During the latter years of the reign of Charles II. the able by dismissal from the service. But this regulation was even
administrative corruption of the time affected the navy severely. less punctually observed than the rule which forbade the carry-
The and extraordinary expenses which
fixed charge for ordinary ing of women. Till the beginning of the igth century many
had risen to 300,000 a year was mostly wasted, under the lax distinguished officers were borne on a ship's books for two or
or dishonest supervision of the commission appointed by the three years before they went to sea. The navigation was en-
king after his brother left office. James II. (1685-1688), who trusted to the sailing-master and his mates. He had often been
kept the admiralship in his own hands and governed largely a merchant captain or sailor. The captains and lieutenants
through his able secretary, the diarist Samuel Pepys, did much were supposed to understand navigation, but it was notorious
to restore its efficiency. The navy he left was estimated to that many of them had forgotten the little they had learnt in
consist of 173 ships of 101,892 tons carrying when in commission order to pass their qualifying examination. As the navy was
42,003 men and armed with 6930 guns. cut down to the quick in peace, the supply of officers was in-
The evolution
of the navy was completed by the Revolution sufficient at the beginning of a war, and it was found necessary
of 1688. now, though still called royal, became a purely
It to give commissions to men who were illiterate but were good
national force, supported by the yearly votes of parliament, practical seamen. Officers who had not begun as gentlemen
"
and governed by parliamentary committees, known as the com- on the quarter deck " were said to have come in " through
"
mission for discharging the office of lord high admiral. A lord the hawse hole the hole by which the cable runs out at the
high admiral has occasionally been appointed, as in the case bow. Some among them rose to distinction. The accountant's
of Prince George of Denmark, husband of Queen Anne, or the work was done by the purser, who in bad times was said to be
duke of Clarence, afterwards King William IV. But these were often in league with the captain to defraud both the government
formal restorations. As no organic change was made till 1832, and the crew. The medical service in the navy during the
it will now be enough to describe the organization as it was 1 8th century was bad. The position of the surgeons who were
during this century and a half. appointed by the navy office was not an enviable one, and the
The discipline of the navy was based on the Navy Discipline medical staff of the navy was much recruited from licentiates
Act of 1660 (i3th of Charles II.). The act was found to require of Edinburgh, or Apothecaries Hall. Finally it is to be observed
amending acts, and the whole of them were combined, and that when a ship was paid off only the commissioned officers,
revised by the 22nd of George II., passed in 1749. Some scandals masters and surgeons were entitled to half-pay, or had any
of the previous years had caused great popular anger, and the further necessary connexion with the navy.
alternative to death was taken from the punishment threatened The crews were formed partly by free enlistment and partly
against officers who failed to show sufficient zeal in the presence by impressment. When these resources failed, prisoners,
of the enemy. It was under this severe code that Admiral Byng criminal and political, were allowed to volunteer or were drafted
was executed. In 1780 an amending act was passed which from the jails. The Patriotic Society, formed at the beginning
allowed a court martial to assign a lighter penalty. of the Seven Years' War, educated boys for the navy. During
The government, political and military, was in the hands of the the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars the counties were called
admiralty. The administration was carried on in subordination upon to supply quotas, which they commonly secured from the
to the admiralty by the navy board and the other civil depart- debtors' prison or the workhouse. A ship was supposed to
ments, the victualling board, the board of transport, the pay be well manned when she had one-fifth of her crew of marines,
office, the sick and hurt office and some others. At the head and one-third of men bred to the sea. This proportion of seamen
were the flag-officers, who were divided as follows: was rarely reached. As the navy did not train its men from
Admiral of the Fleet, " "
Vice-Admiral Red. Rear-Admiral Red. boyhood in peace, the genuine sailors, known as prime seamen
i. ,, White. White. White. and " sailormen," who were the skilled artificers of the time,
Blue. Blue. Blue.
had to be sought for among those who had served their apprentice-
The Red, White and Blue squadrons had been the divisions of the ship in the merchant service. They never enlisted voluntarily,
great fleets of the I7th century, but they became formal terms for they disliked the discipline of the navy, and the pay was
FRENCH] NAVY AND NAVIES 305
both bad and given in an oppressive way. The pay of a seaman only for harbour work, or ordered to be built, but not actually in
existence. The number of men varied enormously from a peace to
was 22s. 6d. a month for able seamen, the rate fixed in the reign war establishment. Thus in 1755 on the eve of the Seven Years'
of Charles II., and igs. for ordinary seamen. This sum was not War parliament voted 12,000 seamen. In 1762 the vote was for
first only at the end of a commission,
paid at fixed dates, but at 70,000 men, including 19,061 marines the corps having been created
in the interval. In 1775, on the eve of the American War of Inde-
and after 1758 whenever a ship which had been a year in com-
mission returned home up to six months before the date of her pendence, the vote was for 18,000 men for the sea service, including
4354 marines. At the close of the war in 1783 the vote was for 1 10,000
arrival, the balance being kept as a security against desertion, men, including 25,291 marines, from which it fell in 1784 to 26,000
which was then incessant and enormous. As men were often (marines 4495 included) and in 1786 to 18,000 men, of whom 3860
turned over from ship to ship they had a sheaf of pay notes to were marines. In 1812, when the navy was at the highest level of
strength it reached, the vote was for 113,000 seamen and 31,400
present on reaching home. The task of making up accounts marines. Frooi this level it fell in 1816 to 24,000 seamen and 9000
was slow, and the men were often driven to sell their pay notes marines. These figures represent paper strength. Owing to the
to low class speculators at a heavy discount. Discipline was prevalence of desertion, and the difficulty of obtaining men, the
actual strength was always appreciably lower.
mainly enforced by the lash, and the abuse of their power by
captains was often gross.
The French Navy.
These grievances led to a long series of single ship mutinies,
which culminated in the great mutiny of 1797. The fleets at Before the French monarchy could possess a fleet, its early kings,
Spithead, the Nore, Plymouth, the South of Ireland and Cape of whose rule was effective only in the centre of the country, had
Good Hope mutinied one after another. The government had first to conquer their sea coast from their great vassals. Philip
aggravated the danger by drafting numbers of the United Augustus (1180-1223) began by expelling King John of England
Irish into the fleet, and the quotas from the counties contained from Normandy and Poitou. The process was not completed
many dangerous characters. The crisis which seemed to threaten until Louis XII. (1498-1515) united the duchy of Brittany to the
the country with ruin passed away. Concessions were made crown by his marriage with the duchess Anne. Long before the
to the just claims of the men. When political agitators en- centralization of authority had been completed the French kings
deavoured to make use of the discontent of the sailors for treason- possessed a fleet, or rather two fleets of very distinct character.
able ends, the government stood firm, and the patriotism of the Her geographical position has always compelled France to draw
great bulk of the men enabled it to restore discipline. The her navy from two widely different sources from the Channel
"
breeze at Spithead," as the mutiny was nicknamed in the navy, and the coast of the Atlantic on the north and west and on
was the beginning of the reforms which made the service as the south from the Mediterranean. This separation has imposed
popular as it was once hateful. on her the difficult task of concentrating her forces at times of
The administration navy throughout the i8th century,
of the crisis, and the concentration has always been hazardous. Like
and in a less degree after1806 up to 1832, was in many respects their English rivals, the French kings of the middle ages drew
slovenly, and was generally corrupt. The different branches, their naval forces from the feudal array, the national levy and
military and civil, were scattered and worked in practical their own ships. But the proportion of the elements was not the
independence, though the board of admiralty was supposed to same. Many of the great vassals owed the service of ships, and
have absolute authority over all. The admiralty was at White- their obedience was always less certain than that of the Cinque
hall, the navy office in Seething Lane near the Tower, and after Ports. The trading towns were less able, and commonly less
1780 at Somerset House. The victualling office was on Tower willing, than the English to supply the king with ships. He was
Hill, the pay office in Broad Street, where also was the Sick and thus driven to trust mainly to his own vessels and they were
Hurt office. In 1749, when the state of the navy excited just drawn at first exclusively, and always to a great extent, from the
discontent, the admiralty first established regular visitations Mediterranean seaboard. His own territories in the south were
of the dockyards which in a time of general laxity had become insufficiently provided with seamen, and the French king had
nests of corruption. These visitations were, however, not therefore to seek his captains, his men and his vessels by purchase
regularly made. By the end of the century, and in spite of or by subsidies from Genoa, or in a less degree from Aragon.
sporadic efforts at reform, the evil had become so generally When Saint Louis (1226-1270) sailed on his first crusade in 1249,
recognized that Earl St Vincent, then first lord, persuaded he formed the first French royal fleet, and created the first French
parliament in 1802 to appoint a parliamentary commission of dockyard at Aigues Mortes. Ships and dockyard were bought
inquiry. Its reports, thirteen in number, were given between from, or were built by, the Genoese at the king's expense. His
1804 and 1806. They revealed much waste, bad management admirals, the first appointed by the French crown, Ugo Lercari
and corruption. The tenth report showed that money voted and Jacobo di Levante, were Genoese. Saint Louis created the
for the navy was used by the then treasurer, Henry Dundas office of admiral of France. When in later times Aigues Mortes
(Lord Melville), for purposes which he refused to reveal. In was cut off from the sea by the encroachment of the land,
1806 another commission was appointed to revise and digest the Narbonne and Marseilles were used as ports of war. This fleet
civil affairs of the navy, and a considerable improvement was was purely Mediterranean in character. It consisted of galleys,
"ffected. Much remained to be done. There was no strict and though the sail was used it was dependent on the oar, and
ppropriation of money. Accounts were kept in complicated, therefore on the
"
turma " (chiourme) of rowers, who in earlier
Id-fashioned ways which made it impossible to strike a balance. times were hired men, but from the middle of the isth century
f In 1832 Sir James Graham, first lord in Earl Grey's adminis-
tration, obtained the support of parliament for his policy of
began to be composed of galley slaves prisoners of war, slaves
purchased in Africa, criminals and vagabonds condemned by the
sweeping away the double administration of the navy, by magistrate to the chain and the oar. Philip IV. le Bel (1285-
admiralty and navy office, and combining them into one divided 1314) was led by his rivalry with Edward I. of England to create
into five departments. With this great organic change the navy a naval establishment on the Channel. He found his materials
entered on ics modern stage. in the existing Mediterranean fleet. A dockyard was built for
Subject to the warning that for the reason given above, the figures him at Rouen, again by the Genoese Enrico Marchese, Lanfranc
do not deserve absolute confidence, the material strength of the
British navy from the death of Queen Anne to the fail of Napoleon
Tartaro and Albertino Spinola. It was officially known as the
Tons. Tersenal or Dorsenal, but was commonly called the clos des gallles
Ships.
At the death of or galley yard, and it existed from 1294 to 1419. The French
Queen Anne, 1714 247 167,219
George I., 1727 233 170,862 navy has always suffered from alternations of attention and
,,
George II., 1760 412 321,104 neglect. In times of disastrous wars on land it has fallen into
In 1783 617 500,781
In 1793 confusion and obscurity. Except when Francis I. (1515-1547)
411 402,555
In 1816 776 724,810
made a vigorous attempt to revive it at the very close of his.
The figures for 1783, and for 1816, are swollen by prizes and worn reign, the French navy languished till the 1 7th century. Its very
out ships. All the figures include vessels unfit for service, or useful unity of administration disappeared in the isth century, when
306 NAVY AND NAVIES [SPANISH
the jurisdiction of the admiral of France was invaded and defied towards the officiers bleus. By Louis XV. (1715-1774) the navy
by the admiralties of Guyenne, Brittany and the Levant. These was neglected till the last years of his reign, when it was revived
local admiralties were suppressed by Francis I.
by the due de Choiseul. Under Louis XVI. (1774-1792) when
Richelieu, the great minister of Louis XIII., found the navy the Revolution broke out the long accumulated hatred felt for
extinct. He was reduced to seeking the help of English ships the noble officers had free play. Louis XVI. had indeed relaxed
igainst the Huguenots. From him dates the creation of the the rule imposing the presentation of proofs of nobility on all
modern French navy. In 1626 he abolished the office of admira naval officers, but the change was made only in 1 786 and it came
of France, which had long been no more than a lucrative place helc too late. The majority of the noble officers were massacred
by
by a noble who was too great a man to obey orders. He himseli the Jacobins or driven into exile.
assumed the title of grand mattre et surinlendant de la navigation, The Revolution subjected the French navy to a series of
and the military command was entrusted to the' admirals du disorganizations and reorganizations by which all tradition and
Ponant, i.e. of the west or Atlantic and Channel, and du Levant, discipline were destroyed. Old privileges and the office of Grand
i. e. of the Mediterranean. But Richelieu's establishment Admiral were suppressed. The attempt to revive the navy in
shrivelled after his death. It was raised from its ruins by the the face of the superior power of England was hopeless. Neither
pride and policy of Louis XIV. (1643-1715). Under his direc- the Republic nor the Empire was able to create an effective navy.
tion a numerous and strongly organized navy was created. A
They had no opportunity to form a new body of officers out of
very full code of laws the ordonnance was framed by Colbert the lads they educated.
and Lyonne with the advice of the ablest officers, and was The strength of the French Royal Navy is difficult to estimate,
_
promulgated on the sth of April 1689. Though modified by other since for long periods of the 1 8th century it was rotting in harbour
ordonnances in 1765, 1772, 1774, 1776 and 1786, in the main lines and its ships were rarely commissioned. Louis XIV. is credited with
it governed the French navy till the Revolution.
95 ships of the line and 29 frigates, together with many smaller
vessels, in 1692. At the close of the Seven Years' War it had sunk
By this code the French navy was based on the Inscription to 44 ships of the line and 9 frigates. By 1778 the French
navy
maritime, a very severe law of compulsory service, affecting the had risen to 78 of the line with frigates and smaller vessels which
inhabitants of the coast and of the valleys of rivers as far up as brought the total to 264. In 1793 on the outbreak of the revolution-
ary war, it was estimated to consist of 82 ships of the line, mostly
they were capable of floating a lighter. The whole body of fine vessels, and of frigates with lesser craft which brought it to a
officials and officers was divided into the civil branch known as total of 250. Under Napoleon the mere number was vbry much
la plume, and the military branch called I'epie. The first had more considerable and included ships built in the annexed territories,
the entire control of the finances, and the dockyards of Toulon, but they were largely constructed of green timber, were meant
Brest and Rochfort, with an intendant de la marine at the head merely to force England to maintain blockades, and were never sent
to sea.
of each. The general chief was the sous secretaire au departement
de la marine, the title of the French minister of marine till the Spanish Navy.
Revolution. Under Louis XIV. a civil officer, the intendant des The
administrative history of the Spanish navy is singularly
armies navales, who ranked as an admiral, sat on councils of war confused and broken. It might almost be said that the country
and reported on the conduct of the naval officers. He must not had no navy in the full sense of the word that is to say, no
be confused with the intendant de la marine. The military branch organized maritime force provided and governed by the state
had at its head the admiral of France, the office having been for warlike purposes only until one was created on the French
re-created in 1669 by Louis XIV. in favour of his natural son the model by the sovereigns of the Bourbon dynasty i.e. after 1700.
due de Vermandois. In theory the admiral was the administra- Yet the kings of the Spanish peninsula, whether they wore the
tive military and judicial head of the admiralty. In practice crown of Castile and Leon or of Aragon, had fleets, formed, like
the admirals were princes of the blood, who drew pay and fees, allthe others of the middle ages, partly of ships supplied by the
but who never went to sea, with the one exception of the count coast towns and populations, partly cf the royal vessels. Aragon
of Toulouse, another natural son of Louis XIV. Two vice- was a purely Mediterranean power. Its fleets, which were chiefly
admirals of France du Ponant and du Levant commanded in the supported by Barcelona, a flourishing commercial city, were
Mediterranean and on the ocean. A third office of vice-admiral composed of galleys. With the union of the crown in 1479
of France was created for Suffren. The lieutenant general (vice- Aragon fell into the background, and its navy continued to be
admiral) came next, and below him -the chef d'escadre (rear- represented only by a few galleys, for service in the Mediterranean
admiral), capilaine de vaisseau (post captain), capitaine de brulot against the pirates. The dominions of Castile stretched from
(fireship) or defregale (commander), and the major, a chief of the the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean. Its kings, therefore,
staff on board who commanded all landing parties. There was had need both and galleys. The first beginnings
of ships (naos)
no permanent body of marines in the French navy, the infanterie of the Castiliannavy were not due to the king, but to the foresight
de la marine being troops for service in the colonies, which were and enterprise of Diego Gelmirez, bishop and afterwards first
administratively connected with the navy and governed by archbishop of Santiago in Gallicia. In or about 1 1 20 he employed
naval officers. The lieutenant needs no explanation, and the the Genoese Ogerio to form a dockyard at Iria, and to build
enseigne was a sub-lieutenant. The corps of officers was recruited vessels. The naval activity of the coast of the Bay of Biscay
from les gardes de la marine, answering more or less to the English developed so rapidly that in 1147 a squadron from the northern
midshipmen who received a careful professional education and ports took part in the conquest of Almeria by Alfonso VII.
were required to be of noble birth. Besides the grand corps (1120-1157) in alliance with the Pisans. A century later (1248)
de la marine there was a fleet of galleys with a general at its head, another squadron constructed at the expense of the king
and a staff of officers also of noble birth. It was suppressed in Fernando III. El Santo (1217-1252), and commanded by Count
1748 as being a useless expense. Officers not belonging to the Ramon Bonifaz of Burgos, the first admiral of Castile, took a
grand corps were sometimes taken in from the merchant service. decisiv e part in the conquest of Seville. The annexation of Anda-
They were known as officiers bleus, because their uniform was .ucia and the necessity for guarding against invasions from Africa
all blue, and not, as in the case of the noble corps, blue and red. called for a great extension of the navy of Castile. Alfonso X.
On paper the organization of the French royal navy was very El Sabio (1252-1284) founded the great galley dockyards of
thorough. In reality it worked ill; the severity of the inscription Seville the arenal. It was also the work of Genoese builders
maritime made it odious, and owing to the prevailing financial and administrators. In the course of the i3th century the
embarrassment of the crown after 1692 the sailors were ill-paid, towns of the northern coast formed one of the associations so
ill-fed and defrauded of the pensions promised them. They fled common in Spanish history, and known as hermandades (brother-
abroad, or went inland and took up other trades. The military icods). The first meeting of its delegates took place at
and civil branches were always in a state of hostility to one 'astrourdiales near Bilbao in 1296, when the towns of Santander,
another, and their pay also was commonly in arrears. The noble L,aredo, Bermeo, Guetaria, San Sebastian and Vitoria were
corps was tenacious of its privileges, and extremely insolent represented. The hermandad de la marisma (of the seafarers)
DUTCH] NAVY AND NAVIES 307
of Castile supplied the squadrons which took an active part of efficiency.During the Peninsular War the new navy all
in the wars of the i4th and isth centuries between France and but disappeared as the old had done. The want of pecuniary
England as allies of the French. Its history is obscure, and resources and internal instability have prevented its revival
it came to an end with the establishment of the full authority on any considerable scale.
of the crown by the Catholic sovereigns Ferdinand and Isabel. The navy created by Patino consisted in 1737 of 56 ships in all, of
The discovery of America, the acquisition by marriage or which 28 were of the line, of from 50 to 80 guns, with one of 114
conquest of Sicily, Naples and Flanders, gave the kings of guns. In 1746 the number of ships of the line had increased to 37.
In 1 759 the list of line of battle was 50 of which the majority,
Spain a yet stronger motive for maintaining a powerful navy. ships
if not all, had been constructed by English shipbuilders, in the service
The maxim that their ships were the bridges which joined their of the Spanish government. In 1778, when at the height of its power,
widely scattered dominions was fully accepted by them and it contained 62 ships of the line.
their servants. But neither the Catholic sovereigns nor the
Dutch Navy.
Habsburgs who held the throne till 1700, made any attempt
to organize a common navy. The sources from which the naval The Dutch fleet arose out of the great struggle with Spain in
armaments of Spain were drawn during the greatness and the i6th century. The Netherlanders had been a maritime
decline of the country were these. Galleys were maintained people from the earliest antiquity. Under their medieval
in the Mediterranean, but they were mainly found by Sicily rulers, the counts of Holland and of Flanders and the House of
and Naples, or by the contracts which the kings of Spain made Burgundy, they had rendered service at sea. The freemen
with the Genoese house of Doria. On the ocean the chief object owed the service known as the tiemtal (riem, an oar). An
of the Spanish government was to conduct and protect the severely admiralty office was established in 1397. But during the revolt
regulated trade with America. Thus it was mainly concerned against Philip II. of Spain, new naval forces were formed which
for long to obtain the lumbering and roomy vessels called had no connexion with the medieval navy, save in so far as the
"
galleons," first designed by Alvaro de Bazan, marquess of governments established in the different states which afterwards
Santa Cruz, which were rather armed traders than real warships. formed the Seven Provinces took possession of the jurisdiction
The crown did not build its own ships, but contracted for and the dues of the medieval admiralty. The naval part of
them with its admirals. The American convoys sailed from and the war with Spain was for long conducted by the adventurers
returned to the Bay of Cadiz. One squadron, the flola, known as the " beggars of the sea," and was mainly confined
carried the trade, was navigated by the admiral, with whom was to the coasts and rivers. In 1597, when the Confederation was
associated a general, who commanded the few warships proper, formed and had provided itself with a common government
and was answerable for the protection of the whole. Another in the states-general, the need for a regularly organized sea-
squadron, called of Cantabria, was maintained on the north going fleet was felt. In that year the banner of the states-
coast, and was employed to see the convoy on its way and meet general, the red lion with the arrows in its paw, was first hoisted
it on its return home. It had its own admiral and general. during the expedition to Cadiz in alliance with England. On
The ships were always treated as if they were transports for the i3th of August 1597 the states-general issued the decree
carrying soldiers. The seamen element was neglected. The (Instructie) which regulated the naval administratfon of the
command was divided between the capitan de mar (sea captain) Republic until 1795. The attachment of the Netherlanders
who was responsible for the navigation and the capitan de guerra to their local franchises was too strong to permit of tKe establish-
(soldier captain) who fought the ship. The same division went ment of a central authority with absolute powers. It was
through all ranks. The soldiers would neither help to work therefore necessary to make a compromise by which some
the ship nor fight the guns. They used musketry only, or measure of unity was secured while the freedom of the various
relied on a chance to board with sword and pike. Properly confederate states was effectually guarded. Five boards of
speaking there was no class of naval officers, and the overworked admiralty (Admiraliteits collegien) were recognized. They were:
and depressed seamen could not supply good gunners. No South Holland, or the Maas, sitting at Rotterdam; North
general naval administration existed. The office of admiral Holland, or Amsterdam; Westfriesland (the western side of
of Castile became purely ornamental and hereditary in the the Zuyder Zee), at Hoorn or Enkhuizen on alternate years;
family of Henriquez. It was not replaced by a navy office. Zealand at Middleburg; and Friesland
at^Dokhum, or after
One of the innumerable juntas or boards, through which the 1645 at Harlingen. These^bodies enjoyed all the rights of the
Spanish kings governed, looked after the making of contracts, admiralty and collected the port dues, out of which they provided
and co-operated with the council of the Indes which was specially for the current expenses of their respective squadrons. Extra-
concerned with the American convoys. After the disasters ordinary charges for war were met by grants from the province
of the later years of Philip II. (see ARMADA) some efforts at to which each board belonged. Some measure of unity was
improvement were made. Better ships were built and something
,
secured among these five independent authorities by three
was done to raise the condition of the seamen. But no thorough- devices. Each board consisted of seven persons, of whom four
going organization was ever created, and in the utter decadence were named by the province and required confirmation by the
of the 1 7th century the Spanish navy and seafaring population states-general, while three were chosen from other provinces
alike practically disappeared. to secure a representation of the common wealth. J The members
Under the Bourbon dynasty which attained the throne in of the boards took an oath of fealty to the states-general. The
1700 the Spanish navy was revived, or rather a navy was created stadtholder was admiral-general. He presided at the board,
on the French model. Don Jose Patifio, a very able man, was and commanded the squadron. In his absence his place was
named inlendenie de la marina in 1715, and in 1717 he drew up taken by his lieutenant admiral-general. An oath of fealty
a draft naval organization and code, founded on the French was also taken to him, and all armed ships whether men-of-war
ordonnance of 1689. Patino's draft was the basis of the or privateers sailed with his commission. He chose the captains
ordenanzas generates (general code) issued in 1 748. The Spaniards from two candidates presented to him by the board. Delegates
even set up a squadron of galleys with a separate staff of officers, from the boards met twice a year to consult on the general
also on the French model, which When the stadtholdership was suspended in 1650
was, however, suppressed in interest.
the year of the issue of the ordenanzas generates. Fine arsenals the powers of the admiral-general were absorbed by their high
were organized at Ferrol and Carthagena. The navy thus mightinesses (Hunne Hogen Mogeri) of the states-general.
created produced some distinguished officers, and fought some The staff of officers began with the lieutenant admiral-general
brilliant single ship actions. But the embarrassments of the and descended through the vice-admiral, the quaintly named
treasury, the tendency of several of the kings to sacrifice their Schoul-bij-nacht, who was and is the rear-admiral, and whose
" officers were
navy to political schemes requiring mainly the employment title means commander by night." These flag
of troops and the ruin of the the named by the admiral-general or states-general. The captain
seafaring population during
(Zeecapildn) was selected from the provincial list. The lieutenants
1 7th century, prevented it from ever attaining to a high level
3 o8 NAVY AND NAVIES [UNITED STATES
were appointed by the local boards. No regular method of the number of vessels was reduced one-half, and no additions
" "
recruiting the corps of officers existed. were made until 1797, when the Constitution," United
"
This compromise was in itself a bad system. With the States
"
and " Constellation were built. The navy was at
first placed under the war department, but a navy department
exception of the board of North Holland, which was supported
with a secretary of its own was created in 1798. From 1815
by the wealth of Amsterdam, the admiralties were commonly
distressed for money. Unity of action was difficult to obtain. to 1842 the secretary was aided by a board of commissioners
Much of the work of convoy which the state squadrons should chosen from among the naval officers, but in the latter year the
have performed was thrown in the I7th century on directorates department was reorganized into five bureaus, which were
(Direction) of merchants who fitted out privateers at their own
increased to eight in 1862. Each has a naval officer at its head.
expense. When there was no stadtholder, the local governing They deal with navigation, ordnance, equipment, navy yards,
bodies trenched on the authority of the states-general, and medicines, provisions, steam engineering and construction.
indulged in a great deal of favouritism. In one respect the navy The excellent naval academy at Annapolis was founded in 1845
of the Dutch republic might have been taken as a model by its by the then secretary of the navy, G. Bancroft. The war college
neighbours. The feeding of the crews was contracted for by the for officers at Coasters Harbor, Newport, R.I., dates from 1884.
captains, who were required to enter into securities for the The Balance of Navies in History.
execution of the contract, and who had a reputation for probity.
The Dutch crews, being better fed and looked after than the The five navies above discussed claim special notice on various
English, suffered less from disease. The clumsy organization grounds: the British, Dutch and French because they have
of the Dutch navy put it at a disadvantage in its wars with been leaders and models; the Spanish because it has been
closely associated with the others; the American because it
England, but the seamanship of the crews, their good gunnery,
and the great ability of many of their admirals made them at was the first of the extra-European sea forces. But these great
all times formidable enemies. No organic change was made examples by no means exhaust the list of navies, old and new,
till1795, when the victories of the French revolutionary armies
which have played or now play a part. Every state which has
led to the formation of the Batavian republic. The five a coast has also desired to possess forces on the sea. Even the
admiralties were then swept away and replaced by a committee papacy maintained a fighting force of galleys which took part
for the direction of naval affairs, with a unified administration, in the naval transactions of the Mediterranean for centuries.
organized by Pieter Paulus, a former official of the board of the The Turkish sultans have fitted out fleets which once wej-e a
Maas. As Holland was now swept into the general convulsion menace to southern Europe. But in a survey of general naval
of the French Revolution, it followed the fortunes of France. history it is not necessary to give all these navies special mention,
Its navy, after belonging to the Batavian republic, passed to even though some of them have a certain intrinsic interest.
the ephemeral kingdom of Holland, created by Napoleon in Some, the Scandinavian navies for instance, have been confined
favour of his brother Louis in 1806 and annexed to France in to narrow limits, and have had no influence either by their
1810. The Dutch navy then became absorbed in the French. organization, nor, save locally, by action. Others again have
After the fall of Napoleon a navy was created for the kingdom been the purely artificial creation of governments. Instances of
of the Netherlands out of the Dutch fragments of the Imperial these on a small scale are the navies of the grand duchy of
force. Tuscany, or of the Bourbon kings of Naples.
A much greater instance is the navy of Russia. Founded by
- The United States.
Peter the Great (1689-1725), it has been mainly organized and
The American navy came into existence shortly after the has been most successfully led by foreigners. When
Declaration of Independence. As early as October 1775 Congress the Russian government has desired for political
authorized the construction of two national cruisers, and, at the reasons to make a show of naval strength, it has been numerous.
same time, appointed a marine committee to administer naval In 1770, during the reign of Catherine II. (1762-1796), a Russian
affairs. The first force, consisting of purchased vessels, badly fleet, nominally commanded by the empress's favourite Orloff,
fitted and built, and insufficiently equipped and manned, but in reality directed by two former officers of the British
embraced two ships of 24 guns each, six brigs carrying from navy, John Elphinston (1722-1785) and Samuel Greig (1735-
10 to 12 guns, two schooners each with 8 guns, and four sloops, 1788), gained some successes against the Turks in the Levant.
three of 10 guns and one of 4 guns. On December 22nd a But when opposed to formidable enemies, as in the Crimean
personnel of officers was selected, one of the lieutenants being War, it has either remained in port, or has, as in the case of the
the well-known Paul Jones. Esek Hopkins was made com- war with Japan (1904-1905), proved that its vitality was not
mander-in-chief, but, having incurred the censure of Congress, in proportion to its size.
he was dismissed early in 1777, and since then the title has never The innumerable navies of South American republics are
been revived except in the person of the president. In November small copies of older forces.
1776 the grades of admiral, vice-admiral, rear-admiral and The 1 9th century did indeed see the rise of three navies, which
commodore were assimilated in rank and precedence to relative are of a very different character the Italian, which was the result
army titles, but they were never created by law until 1862. of the unification of Italy, the German, which followed ltal
During the war a number of spirited engagements occurred, the creation of the German Empire, and the Japanese. Germany,
but there was a great lack of efficient material at home, and But all three are contemporary in their origin, and Japan,
agents abroad were not able to enlist the active sympathies have inevitably been modelled on older forces the Auatrla-
of nations or rulers. Benjamin Franklin did manage to equip British and the French. With them must go the Austrian navy,
one good squadron, but this was rendered almost useless by excellent but unavoidably small.
internal dissensions, and it required the victory of Paul Jones If we look a-t the relations which the navies of the modern
" "
in the Bon Homme Richard " over the Serapis " to bring world have had to one another, it will be seen that the great
about any tangible result for the risk taken. During the war discoveries of the later isth century shifted the seat
800 vessels of all classes were made prizes, but the navy lost of naval power to the ocean for two reasons. In the
(j^"**"*
by capture n vessels of war and a little squadron of gunboats first place they imposed on all who wished to sail the
power.
on the lakes; and, with 13 ships destroyed to avoid capture wider seas opened to European enterprise by Vasco
by the British, 5 condemned, and 3 wrecked at sea, the country de Gama and Columbus the obligation to use a vessel which
was practically without a naval force between 1780 and 1785. could carry water and provisions sufficient for a large crew during
Owing to the depredations upon commerce of the Barbary a long voyage. The Mediterranean states and their seamen
powers, Congress in 1794 ordered the construction of six frigates, were not prepared by resources or habit to meet the call. But
prescribing that four of them should be armed with 44 guns there was a second and equally effective reason. The powers
and two with 36 guns; but, the Berbers having made peace, which had an Atlantic coast were incomparably better placed
BALANCE OF NAVIES] NAVY AND NAVIES 309
than the Italian states, or the cities of the Baltic, to take fleet at Sebastopol, and proving the weakness of the Baltic
advantage of the maritime discoveries of the great epoch which fleet, and having, moreover, been conducted by an alliance of
stretches from 1492 to 1526. In the natural course the leadership France and Great Britain against Russia, would seem to have
fell to Portugal and Spain. Both owed much to Italian science shown that the anxieties of 1838 were exaggerated. But the
andcapital, but the profit fell inevitably to them. The reasons rivalry which is inherent in the very position of states possessing
why Spain failed to found a permanent naval power have been sea coasts and maritime interests could not cease. The French
given, and they apply equally to Portugal. Neither achieved imperial government was anxious to develop its navy. By the
the formation of a solid navy. The claim of both to retain a construction of the armoured floating batteries employed in
monopoly of the right to settle in, or trade with, the New World bombardment of Kinburn in October 1855, and by the launch
"
and Asia was in due course contested by neighbouring nations. of the first seagoing ironclad La Gloire " in 1859, it began a
France was torn by internal dissensions (the Wars of Religion and new race for superiority at. sea, which has shown no sign of
" "
the Fronde) and could not compete except through a few private slackening since. The launch of the Gloire was followed by
adventurers. England and Holland were able to prove the political events in Europe which brought forward new com-
essential weakness of the Spaniards at sea before the end of the petitors, while great navies were developed in America and Asia.
i6th century. In the i7th century the late allies against Spain The year 1871 was the beginning of a vast growth of naval
now fought against one another. Her insular position, her armaments. It saw the completion of the unity of Italy and the
security against having to bear the immense burden of a war formation of the German empire, two powers which
on a land frontier, and the superiority of her naval organization could not dispense with strong fleets. But for some mo ae m
over the divided administration of Holland, gave the victory to years the Italian and German navies, though already rivalry la
Great Britain. She was materially helped by the fact that the in existence, were still in a youthful stage. The rapid arma -
French monarch attacked Holland on land, and exhausted its growth of the United States navy dates from about
resources. Great Britain and France now became the com- 1890, and the Japanese is a few years younger. France, Russia
petitors for superiority at sea, and so remained from 1689 till and Great Britain, in answer to them, began the race in which
the fall of Napoleon in 1815. the efforts of each had a stimulating effect on the others. Though
During this period of a century and a quarter Great Britain the alliance between France and Russia was not formed till
had again the most material advantage: that her enemy was not later, their common interests had marked them out as allies
only contending with her at sea, but was engaged in endeavouring from the first, and it will be no less convenient than accurate to
to establish and maintain a military preponderance over her treat Great Britain and the partners in the Dual Alliance as for
neighbours on the continent of Europe. Hence the necessity for some time opposed to one another.
her to support great and costly armies, which led to the sacrifice In the genera) reorganization of her armaments undertaken
of her fleet, and drove Holland into alliance with Great Britain by France after the war of 1870-71, her navy was not neglected.
(Wars of the League of Augsburg, of the Spanish Succession, Large schemes of construction were taken in hand. a laad
and the Seven Years' War). During
of the Austrian Succession The instability of French ministries, and the differences and the
the War of American Independence France was in alliance with of principle which divided the authorities who favoured Dual
the construction of battleships from those who were Alliance.
Spain and Holland, and at peace on land. She and her allies
were able to impose terms of peace by which Great Britain partisans of cruisers and torpedo-vessels, militated against a
surrendered positions gained in former wars. But the strength coherent policy. Yet the French navy grew in strength, and
of the British navy was not broken, and in quality it was shown Russia began to build strong vessels. As early as 1874 the
to be essentially superior. approaching launch of a coast-defence ironclad at Kronstadt
" "
The French Revolution undid all that the government of (the Peter the Great designed by the English constructor
" "
France had gained between 1778 and 1783 by attention to its Sir E. J. Reed) caused one of the successive naval scares
navy and abstinence from wars on land. The result of the which recurred frequently in the coming years. It was, however,
upheaval in France was to launch her into schemes of universal largely fictitious, and passed away without producing much
conquest. Other nations were driven to fight for existence with effect. In 1878 the prospect of a war arising out of the Russian
the help of Great Britain. In that long struggle all the navies and Turkish conflict of that year, again stirred doubts as to the
of Europe disappeared except the French, which was broken sufficiency of her naval armaments in England. Yet it was not
by defeat and rendered inept by inaction, and the victorious till about 1885 that an agitation for the increase of the British
British navy. When Napoleon fell, the navy of Great Britain fleet was begun in a consistent and continuous way. The con-
was not merely the first in the world; it was the only powerful troversy of the succeeding years was boundless, and was perhaps
navy in existence. the more heated because the controversialists were not con-
The pre-eminent position which the disappearance of possible trolled by the necessity for using terms of definite meaning, and
rivals had given to Great Britain lasted for several years un- because the lists published for the purpose of making comparisons
challenged. But it was too much the consequence of a com- were inevitably of doubtful value; when ships built, building
bination of circumstances which could neither recur nor endure. and ordered to be built, but not begun, were counted together
The French navy was vigorously revived under the Restoration or as not infrequently happened, were all added on one side,
and the government of Louis Philippe (the periods from 1815 but not on the other. The belief that the British navy was not
to 1830 and 1830 to 1848). The emperor Nicholas I. of Russia so strong as it should be, in view of the dependence of the British
(1825-1853) built ships in considerable numbers. As early as empire on strength at sea, spread steadily. Measures were first
1838 the fear that the naval superiority of Great Britain would taken to improve the opportunities for practice allowed to the
be destroyed had already begun to agitate some observers. fleet by the establishment of yearly naval manoeuvres in 1885,
The " extremely reduced state " of the British navy, and the and the lessons they afforded were utilized to enforce the necessity
danger that an overwhelming force would be suddenly thrown for an increase of the British fleet. In 1888 a committee of three
on the English coast, were vehemently set forth by Commander admirals (Sir W.Dowell, Sir Vesey Hamilton and Sir R. Richards),
W. H. Craufurd, and by an anonymous flag-officer. The peril appointed to report on the manoeuvres of that year, gave it as
to be feared, it was argued, was an alliance between France and "
their opinion that no time should be lost in placing the British
Russia. In 1838 the British navy contained, built and building, navy beyond comparison with that of any two powers." This
90 ships of the line, 93 frigates and 12 war steamers; the French, verdict met a ready acceptance by the nation, and in 1889
49 of the line, 60 frigates and 37 war steamers, including armed Lord George Hamilton, then first lord of the admiralty, intro-
packets; Russia, 50 of the line, 25 frigates and 8 steamers; the duced the Naval Defence Act, which provided for the addition to
United States, 15 of the line, 35 frigates and 16 war steamers. the navy within four and a half years of 70 vessels of 318,000 tons
The agitation of 1838 passed away, and the Crimean War, at a cost of 21,500,000. The object was to obviate the risk of
entailing as it did the destruction of a great part of the Russian sudden reductions for reasons of economy in the building vote.
310 NAVY AND NAVIES [BALANCE OF NAVIES
Later experience proved that the practice of fixing the amount to of war in 1866 very ill. The conditions in which the unity of
be spent for a period of -years operated to restrict the freedom of the country had been achieved during the Franco-Prussian War
government to make Additions, for which the necessity had not of 1870-71, together with the obvious need for a navy
competi-
been foreseen when the money was voted. But the act of 1889 in the case of a nation with a very extended sea coast, /
did effect an immediate addition to the British fleet, while as was animated the Italians to great and even excessive Ben-
inevitable it stimulated other powers to increased efforts. efforts. Their policy was controlled by the knowledge navies;
ltajy '
The rivalry between Great Britain and the states composing that they could not hope to rival France in numbers,
the Dual Alliance may be said to have lasted till 1904, when the and they therefore aimed at obtaining individual vessels of a
course of the war in the Far East removed Russia from the field. high level of strength. Italy may be said to have set the example
It must be borne in mind that during the latter part of these of building monster ships, armed with monster guns. But she
twenty years Russia was largely influenced by the desire to arm was unable to maintain her position in the race. The too hopeful
against the growing navy of Japan. Comparisons between the finance in which she had indulged in the first enthusiasm of
additions to the fleets made on either side, even when supported complete political unification led to serious embarrassment in
by a great display of figures, are of uncertain value. Number 1894. Her naval budget sank from 4,960,000 in 1891 to
is no sufficient test of strength when taken apart from quality, 3,776,845 in 1897-1898, and only rose slowly to 5,037,642 in
distribution, the command of coaling stations which are of 1905-1906. As a candidate in the race for naval strength she
extreme value to a modern fleet and other considerations. necessarily held a subordinate place, though always to be ranked
But the respective lists of battleships supply a rough and ready among the important sea powers. In 1903, when the rivalry of
standard, and when taken with the number of men employed Great Britain and the Dual Alliance was at its height, her
and the size of the budgets (both subject to qualifications to strength in battleships was 18, of 226,630 tons. In number,
be mentioned) does enable us to see with some approximation to therefore, they did more than cover the balance in favour of
accuracy how far the rivals have attained their desired aims. Great Britain as against the Dual Alliance, but not in tonnage,
In 1889, before the passing of the Naval Defence Act, the British in which the difference in favour of Great Britain was 259,870.
navy contained 32 battleships of 262,340 tons. The united The history of the German navy is one of foresight, calculation,
French and Russian fleets had 22 of 150,653 tons: of these 17 consistency and therefore steady growth. The small naval force
were French, 7 being vessels of wood plated with iron and maintained by Prussia became the navy of the North
therefore of no value when exposed to the fire of modern ex- German Federation after the war of 1866, and the
plosives. This is but one of many examples which might be Imperial navy after 1871. Until 1853 it had been wholly de-
given of the fallacious character of mere lists of figures. In 1894, pendent on the war office. In that year an admiralty was created
when the Naval Defence Act had produced its effect, the com- in favour of Prince Albrecht, but this office was abolished in 1861,
parative figures were: for Great Britain, 46 ironclads (or battle- and the navy was again placed under the war office. The first
ships) of 441,640 tons, and for the Dual Alliance 35 of 270,953 in ministers of the navy under the North German Federation were
which, however, the seven wooden vessels were still included. generals; so was the first imperial minister, General Stosch (1871).
France and Russia had then large schemes of new construction Admiral Tirpitz, appointed in 1897, was the first minister who
60,300 tons of ships over 10,000 tons for France, and 78,000 tons was bred a seaman. His predecessor, General Stosch, had been
for Russia. The British figure was 70,000 tons. But the French an excellent organizer and had done much for the efficiency of
and Russian list included mere names of vessels, of which the the service. It has been the rule of the German government,
plans were not then drafted. both before and since the foundation of the empire, to advance
The rivalry in building went on as eagerly after 1894 as before. by carefully framed plans, without adhering to them pedantically
At the beginning of 1904 Great Britain had 67 battleships of when circumstances called for a modification of their lines. As
895,370 tons, as against 57 of 635,500 belonging to the powers early as 1867 a. scheme had been formed for the construction of
of the Dual Alliance. The difference in favour of Great Britain a navy of 16 ironclads and 50 smaller vessels, at a cost of
was therefore 10 battleships, and 259,870 tons. Vessels not s,39S,833. was not sufficiently advanced in execution to
It
ready for service were included in the list, which therefore in- allow Germany make any efforts at sea in the war of 1870-71.
to
cludes potential as well as actual strength. The balance in favour In 1872 a supplementary grant of 3,791,666 was made for
of Great Britain was less in 1904 than it had been in 1885 in mere construction in view of the increased cost of armour and arma-
numbers. During this period the naval budget of Great Britain ments. In 1882 a revised scheme was made which contemplated
had risen from 12,000,000 in 1885 to 34,457,500 in 1903-1904. the construction of 100 vessels, and it was completed in 1888
The number of men employed had grown from 57,000 to 127,000. by another which provided for the construction of 28 vessels,
The figures for the Dual Alliance cannot be given with equal of which 4 should be battleships of the largest size, within the
confidence. France had transferred the troupes de la marine or next six years. In 1894 and for some years afterwards the Reich-
colonial troops from the navy to the army, which introduced stag showed itself hostile to a heavy expenditure on the navy,
a confusing element into the comparison, and the figures for and refused many votes asked for by the government. Under
Russian expenditure are very questionable. The total credit the pressure of ambition and of the real needs of a nation with
demanded Frerh navy in 1890, the year after the passing
for the an extensive and growing maritime commerce, the expenditure
of the British Naval Defence Act, was frs. 217,147,462. By grew in spite of the opposition of the Reichstag. Between 1874
1903 the sum had risen to frs. 351,47^524. The Russian figures and 1889 it rose from 1,950,000 to 2,750,000, and was increased
for 1890 are not attainable, but her budget for 1903 was in the following year to 3,600,000, from which figure it advanced
11,067,889 sterling. A comparison in numbers of men available by 1898 to 5,756,135. Another building scheme was framed
is wholly misleading, since the British navy contains a large in that year, but it was swept aside in 1900, under the combined
number o{ voluntarily enlisted men who serve for many years, influence of the exhortations of the emperor W'illiam II., and of
and a small voluntary reserve, while France and Russia include the anger caused in Germany through the arrest by a British
all whoare liable to be called out for compulsory service during cruiser of a German steamer (the " Bundesrath ") on the coast of
a short period. There is no equality between them and the highly Africa on a charge of carrying contraband of war to the Boers.
trained men of the British navy. The immense increase in its The emperor was now able to obtain the consent of the Reichstag
staff represents an addition to real power to which there is to an extended Naval Defence Act. By the terms of this measure
nothing to correspond in the case of continental states. it was proposed to spend 74,000,000 on construction, and
While this vast growth of naval power was going on in Great 20,000,000 on the dockyards. With this money, by the year
Britain, France and Russia, other rivals were entering into the 1917 Germany was to be provided with a fleet of 38 battleships,
lists with various fortunes. Italy may be said to have been the together with a proportionate number of cruisers and other
first comer. Her national navy, formed out of the existing smaller vessels. Rapid progress was made not only with the
squadrons of Sardinia, Tuscany and Naples, had stood the strain programme itself but with the equipment of German dockyards
BALANCE OF NAVIES] NAVY AND NAVIES 3 11
and other establishments for providing the materiel of a great ships of the line; France 49; Russia 50; the United States
navy. In the spring of 1909 the serious menace to British 15. In 1903 the number of vessels recognized as battleships,
supremacy at sea, represented by the growth of the new German possessed by the great powers, was for Great Britain 67; for
" "
fleet of battleships, led in England to a scare which recalled France 39; for Russia 18; for the United States 27; for Germany
that of 1888, and to an energetic campaign for additional 27; for Italy 18; for Japan 5. At the first date the British
expenditure on the British navy. fleet was among great powers as 90 to 114. At the latter it
During the years following on the American Civil War (1862- was as 67 to 134.
66) the United States paid small attention to the navy. In Such comparisons, however, as these become much more
1 88 1 a board was appointed to advise on the needs complicated in later years, when the importance of the preponder-
United " "
of the navy, and in 1890, the board recommended ance of Dreadnoughts the new type of battleship (see
States.
the formation of a fleet of 100 vessels of which 20 SHIP and SHIPBUILDING) was realized. By the invention
should be battleships of the largest class. The reviving interest of this type Great Britain appeared to obtain a new lead; and
in the navy was greatly stimulated by the diplomatic difference in 1907, when it was calculated that by 1910 there would be
" "
with Great Britain which arose over the frontier question between ten British Dreadnoughts actually in commission while
her and the republic of Venezuela in 1896. Resolutions were neither in Europe nor America would a single similar ship have
passed in -congress approving of an increase of the navy. The been completed by any foreign power, the situation seemed
war with Spain in 1898 completed the revival of American to be entirely in favour of complete supremacy at sea for the
interest in the navy. The acquisition of Porto Rico, and the British fleet. But the progress of German and American con-
protectorate of Cuba in the West Indies, together with the annexa- struction, and particularly the experience gained of German
tion of the Philippines, and the visible approach of the time ability to build and equip much more rapidly than had been
" "
when the relations of the powers interested in the Pacific would supposed, showed by 1909 that, so far as Dreadnoughts
call for regulation, confirmed the conviction that a powerful were concerned at all events, the lead of Great Britain could only
fleet must be maintained. In 1889 the United States possessed be maintained by exceptional effort and exceptional expenditure.
no modern battleship. In 1899 there were 4 built and 8 building. It was admitted in parliament by the prime minister, first lord
At the close of 1903 there were built and building 27 of 353,260 of the admiralty and foreign secretary themselves Liberals
tons, only two of them being of less than 10,000 tons. From who had flirted with proposals for disarmament, and who de-
5,119,850 in 1890 the expenditure grew to 16,355,380 in 1903. pended for office on the support of more extreme "pacifists" who
The navy of Japan, the last comer among the great naval objected on principle to heavy military and naval expenditure
" "
forces of the world, may be said to date from 1895, from, in that, while for the moment the British two-power standard
Ja an
^ act t 'le eve
'
^ t 'le war w' tn China. As an insular was still in existence, the revelations as to German shipbuilding
power with a large seafaring population, Japan is showed that it could only be maintained in the future by the
called upon to possess a fleet. Even in the days of its voluntary creation of a new fleet on a scale previously not contemplated.
isolation it had a known
capacity for maritime warfare. Its The supremacy of Great Britain in ships of the older types
capacity for assimilating the ideas and mastering the mechanical would be of no avail as years went by and other powers were
skill of Europe have been in no
respect better shown than in equalling her in the output of ships of the new type, and a new
naval matters. From the moment it was compelled to open race thus began, of which it is impossible here to indicate more
its it began not only to
ports acquire steamers but to apply than the start. It was no longer a question of completed ships,
itselfunder European guidance to learning how to make and but one still more of programmes for building and of the rate
use them. A navy on the western model was already organized at which these programmes could be accomplished. At the
"
by 1895, but it was still of trifling proportions. In 1896 the beginning of 1910, while Great Britain had her ten Dread-
Japanese navy had become an object of serious attention to noughts," it was not the case that other powers had none:
the world. A plan was drafted in that year, and confirmed Germany already had four and the United States two; and
in the next, by which Japan arranged to a knowledge of the naval programmes of both these countries,
supply itself, mainly
by purchase in Europe, with a fleet containing 4 of the most to speak of no others, showed that, unless either their policy
powerful battleships. The scheme was modified in detail in changed or the British shipbuilding programme was modified
1898, when the decision was taken to increase the tonnage of the so as to keep up with their progress, it would not take many
vessels. A little later additions were arranged for, and vessels years before the theory of the equality of the British fleet in
" "
building for South America states in English ports were purchased. capital ships to those of the next two naval powers would
The British model was carefully followed in naval organization, have to be abandoned. In England this situation created a pro-
the alliance with England giving special facilities for this. And found sensation in 1909, since it was common ground that her
by 1904, when the war with Russia began, the unknown Japanese fleet was her all in all, on which her empire depended; and the
fleet proved its
competence by victories at sea which put the result was seen, not only in a considerable increase in the Naval
seal on her position as a naval power. Estimates of 1910-1911, but also in the beginning of a serious
Conclusion. When we look over the whole period from attempt to organize their fleets on the part of the British colonial
the end of the Napoleonic wars, one great fact is patent to our dominions, which should co-operate with the mother country.
view. It is that this was an epoch of revival or
development The British Admiralty figures for the state of the principal
in the naval power of the whole
world, in the course of which fleets as on March 3ist, 1910, are summarized below. The
the position held by Great Britain in 1816 was partially lost letters at the heads of the columns have the following significa-
simply by the growth of other powers. The situation in that tion: E., England; F., France; R., Russia; G., Germany;
year was by its very nature temporary, and a quotation of the I., Italy; U., United States; and J., Japan:
respective numbers of warships then possessed by the world SHIPS BUILT
would have no value. An instructive comparison can, however,
E. F. R. G. I. U. J.
be made between the year 1838, when Great Britain began to
be seriously concerned with the rise of
Battleships 56 17 7 33 10 30 H
possible enemies at sea, Armd. C.D. Vessels
'
and the eve of the war between Russia and Japan. Battleships Armd. Cruisers
Protected Cruisers, I.
may again be taken as the test of strength, since nothing happened II.
in the
Russo-Japanese War
to show that they do not still form HI.
the most vital element of naval
power. We
may also leave Unprotected Cruisers
aside the many small fleets which cannot act Scouts
collectively, and
.
which individually do not weigh in the balance. The Torpedo Vessels
figures T.B. Destroyers
for 1838 are
given above, but may be repeated for comparison.
In that year Great Britain
Torpedo Boats
possessed, built and building, 90 Submarines
312 NAVY AND NAVIES [STRATEGY AND TACTICS
SHIPS BUILDING
E.
STRATEGY AND TACTICS] NAVY AND NAVIES 313
fixed on the bulwarks, bows and arrows, weights dropped from by side for the object was to bring all the rams, or all the
a yard or pole rigged out, and the various means of setting an boarders into action at once. It was quite as necessary to strike
enemy alight; by shooting arrows with burning tow or by with the prow when boarding as when ramming. If the vessels
Greek fire or wild fire, blown through tubes (cannae, whence were laid side by side the oars would have prevented them
" cannon
") The nature of the " Greek fire " is still an unsettled from touching. It may be added that this rule prevailed equally
is believed by some authorities that the Byzan-
question, and it
with the sailing ship of later times, since they were built with
tines of the middle ages were acquainted with the use of gun- what is technically called " a tumble home," that is to say, their
sides sloped inwards from the water line, and the space from
powder. However that may be, it is certain that even after
the introduction of artillery in the I4th century, the the top of the bulwarks of one to the other was too great to be
means of injuring an enemy at a distance were nil, or jumped. The extent to which ramming or boarding would be
were very feeble. All actions, therefore, were fought used respectively would depend on the skill of the rowers. The
at close quarters, where ramming and boarding were possible. highly trained Athenian crews of the early Pelopon-
nesian War relied mainly on the ram. They aimed at
~ DC*11 '
But the use of the ram was only available for a vessel driven by
oars. A sailing vessel could not ram unless she were running dashing through an enemy's line, and shaving off the methods.
before a good breeze. In a light wind her charge would be oars from one side of an opponent. When successfully
ineffective, and it could not be made at all from leeward. There- practised, this manoeuvre would be equivalent to the dismasting
fore, while fleets depended on the methods of battle at close of a sailing line of battle ship. It was the Sit/wrXous, and it
quarters, two conditions were imposed on the warship. She enabled the assailant to turn, and ram his crippled enemy in
must be small and light, so that her crew could row her with the stern (Trepi^Xous) But an attack with the ram might be
effect, and she must carry a numerous crew to work her oars exceedingly dangerous to the assailant, if he were not very
and board or repel boarders. Sails were used by the triremes solidly built. His ram might be broken off in the shock. The
and other classes of warship, ancient and medieval, when going Athenians found this a very real peril, and were compelled to
from point to point to relieve the rowers from absolutely construct their triremes with stronger bows, to contend with the
exhausting toil. They were lowered in action, and when the more heavily built Peloponnesian vessels whereby they lost
combatant had a secure port at hand, they were left ashore much of their mobility. In fact success in ramming depended
before battle. These conditions applied alike to Phormio, the so much on a combination of skill and good fortune that it
Athenian admiral of the sth century B.C., to the Norse king Olaf played a somewhat subordinate part in most ancient sea fights.
Tryggveson of the loth century A.D., and to the chiefs of the The Romans baffled the ramming tactics of the Carthaginians
Christian and Turkish fleets which fought the battle of Lepanto by the invention of the corva or crow, which grappled the prow
in A.D. 1571. There might be, and were, differences of degree of the rammer, and provided a gangway for boarders. After
in the use made of oar and sail respectively. Outside the the introduction of artillery in the i4th century, when guns
Mediterranean, the sea was unfavourable to the long, narrow were carried in the bows of the galley, it was considered bad
and light galley of 1 20 ft. long and 20 ft. of beam. But the Norse management them until the prow was actually touching
to fire
ship found at Gokstad, though her beam is a third of her length, the enemy. they were discharged before the shock there
If
and she is well adapted for rough seas, is also a light and shallow was always a risk that they would be fired too soon, and the guns
craft, to be easily rowed or hauled up on a beach. Some medieval of the time could not be rapidly reloaded. The officer-like course
vessels were of considerable size, but these were the exception; was to keep the fire moment, and use it to clear the
for the last
they were awkward, and were rather transports than warships. way for the boarders. As a defence against boarding, the ships
Given a warship which is of moderate size and crowded with of a weaker fleet were sometimes tied side to one another, in the
men, it follows that prolonged cruises, and blockade in the full middle ages, and a barrier made with oars and spars. But this
sense of the word, were beyond the power of the sea commanders defensive arrangement, which was adopted by Olaf Tryggveson of
of antiquity and the middle ages. There were ships used for Norway at Swolder (A.D. 1000), and by the French at Sluys
trade which with a favourable wind could rely on making six (A.D. 1340), could be turned by an enemy who attacked on the
knots an hour that is to say, twice the average speed attained flank. To meet the shock of ramming and to ram, medieval
"
by Captain Cook in his voyages of exploration. But a war fleet ships were sometimes bearded," i.e. fortified with iron bands
could not provide the cover, or carry the water and food, needed across the bows.
to keep the crews efficient during a long cruise. So long as galleys The principles of naval warfare known to the ancient world
were used, that is to say, till the middle of the i8th century, they descended through Byzantium to the Italian Republics and from
were kept in port as much as possible, and a tent was rigged over them to the West. With the growth of ships, the
the deck to house the rowers. The fleet was compelled to hug development of artillery, and the beginning of the great
the shore in order to find supplies. It always endeavoured to sailing fleetscapable of keeping the sea for long
secure a basis on shore to store provisions and rest the crews. periods together, came the need for a new adaptation of old
Therefore the wider operations were slowly made. Therefore principles. A ship which depended on the wind for its motive
too, when the enemy was to be waited for, or a port watched, power could not hope to ram. It could still board, and the
some point on shore was secured and the ships were drawn up. Spaniards did for long make it their main object to run their
It was by holding such a point that the Corinthian allies of the bow over an enemy's sides, and invade his deck. In order to
Syracusans were able to pin in the Athenians. The Romans carry out this kind of attack they would naturally try to get
watched Lilybeum in the same way, and Hannibal the Rhodian to windward and then bear down before the wind in line abreast
could run the blockade before they were launched and ready to ship upon ship. But an opponent to leeward could always baffle
stop him. The Norsemen hauled their ships on shore, stockaded this attack by edging away, and in the meantime fire with his
them and marched inland. The Greeks of Homer had done the broadside to cripple his opponent's spars. Experience soon
same and could do nothing else. Roger di Lauria, in A.D. 1285, showed the more intelligent sea officers of all nations, that a
waited at the Hormigas with his galleys on the beach till the ship which relied on broadside fire, must present her broadside
French were seen to be coming past him. Edward III. in to the enemy; it was also soon seen that in order to give full
A.D. 1350, stayed at Winchelsea till the
Spaniards were sighted. play to the guns of the fleet, the ships must follow one another.
The allies at Lepanto remained at anchor near Dragonera till Thus there arose the practice of arranging ships in the line
the last moment. ahead, one behind the other. For a time sea-officers were
Given again that the fighting was at close quarters with ram, inclined to doubt whether order could be maintained among
stroke of sword, crossbow bolt, arrow, pigs of iron or lead and vessels subject to the forces of wind and tide. But in the very
wild fire blown through tubes, it follows that the formations first years of the i6th century, a Spanish writer of the name of
and tactics were equally imposed on the combatants. The Alonso de Chaves argued with force that even an approach to
formation was inevitably the line abreast the ships going side order is superior to none and that, given the accidents of
3*4 NAVY AND NAVIES [STRATEGY AND TACTICS
wind and tide, the advantage would rest with him who took and gunnery were fully equal to the British, its authors were
his precautions. The truth was so obvious that it could not but justified in prescribing the safe course. Unhappily they added
be universally accepted. The line ahead then became the direction that a British admiral was to keep his fleet, through-
" out the battle, in the order in which it was begun. Therefore
battle."'
the Une of 'battle." This term has a double mean-
ing. It may mean the formation, but it may also he could take no advantage of any disorder which might occur
mean the ships which are fit to form parts of the line in action. in the enemy's lines. When therefore the conflict came to be
The practice of sorting out ships, so as to class those fit to be between the British and the French in the i8th century, battles
in a line of battle apart from others, dates from the second between equal or approximately equal forces were for long
half of the lyth century. Its advantages had been seen before, inconclusive. The French, who had fewer ships than the British,
but the classification was not made universal till then. The were anxious to fight at the least possible cost, lest their fleet
excessive number of ships collected in those naval wars, their should be worn out by severe action, leaving Great Britain
variety in size, and the presence in the fleets of a large proportion with an untouched balance. Therefore, they preferred to engage
of pressed or hired merchant ships had led to much bad execu- to leeward, a position which left them free to retreat before the
tion. But in the final battles of the first war between England wind. They allowed the British fleet to get to windward, and,
and the Dutch Republic (1652-53), the Parliamentary admirals when it was parallel with them and bore up before the wind to
enforced the formation of the line by strong measures. On the attack, they moved onwards. The attacking fleet had then to
conclusion of the war, they drew up the first published code of advance, not directly before the wind with its ships moving
fighting instructions. These give the basis of the whole tactical along lines perpendicular to the line attacked, but in slanting
"
system of the i7th and i8th centuries in naval warfare. The or curving lines. The assailants would be thrown into a bow
"
treatises of Paul Hoste, Bigot de Morogues and Bourde de and quarter line that is to say? with the bow of the second
Villehuet, which were the text-books of the time, all French in level with the after part of the first and so on from end to end.
origin but all translated into other languages, are commentaries In the case of a number of ships of various powers of sailing, it
upon and developments of this traditional code of practice. was a difficult formation to maintain. The result was that the
The governing principles were simple and were essentially ships of the assailing line which were steering to attack the
sound. The ships were arranged in a line, in order that each enemy's van came into action first and were liable to be crippled
should have her broadside free to fire into the enemy in the rigging. If the same formation was to be maintained,
w' tnout running the risk of firing into her own friends. the others were now limited to the speed of the injured vessels,
actcs. In order to remove the danger that they would and the enemy to leeward slipped away. At all times a fleet
touch each other, a competent space, to allow for a advancing from windward was liable to injury in spars, even if
change of course in case of need, was left between them. It the leeward fleet did not deliberately aim at them. The leeward
was fixed at two cables that is, 200 fathoms, or 400 yds. ships would be leaning away from the wind, and their shot would
though less room was occasionally taken. To reduce the always have a tendency to fly high. So long as the assailant
number of men required to handle the sails, and leave them remained to windward, the ships to leeward could always slip
free to fight the guns, the ships fought under reduced canvas. off.
But itwas necessary to retain the power to increase the speed of The inconclusive results of so many battles at sea excited
a ship rapidly. This was secured by not sheeting home one of the the attentions of a Scottish gentleman, Mr Clerk of Eldin (1728-
sails that is to say, it was left loose, and the wind was "spilt 1812), in the middle of the i8th century. He began a
out of it." When the vessel was required to shoot ahead it was series of speculations and calculations, which he em-
"
easy to sheet the sail home, and let all draw." The fleets would bodied in pamphlets and distributed among naval
" "
fight on the wind that is to say, with the wind on the side, officers. They were finally published in book form in 1790 and
because they were then under better control. With the wind 1797. The hypothesis which governs all Clerk's demonstrations
blowing from behind they would take the wind out of one isthat as the British navy was superior in gunnery and seaman-
another's sails. When the course had to be altered, the ships ship to their enemy, it was their interest to produce a melee.
turned by tacking that is, head to wind or by wearing He advanced various ingenious suggestions for concentrating
that is, stern to wind, either together or in succession. To tack superior forces on parts of the enemy's line by preference on
or wear a large fleet in succession was a very lengthy operation. the rear, since the van must lose time in turning to its support.
The second ship did not tack, or wear, till she had reached the They are all open to the criticism that an expert opponent could
place where the first had turned, and so on, down the whole line. find an answer to each of them. But that must be always the
By tacking or wearing together the order of a fleet was reversed, case, and victory is never the fruit of a skilful movement alone,
the van becoming the rear, and the rear the van. It must be but of that superiority of skill or of moral strength which enables
remembered that a fleet was divided into van, centre and rear, one combatant to forestall or to crush another by more rapid
which kept their names even when the order was reversed. movement or greater force of blow. Clerk's theories had at
Orders were given by signals from the flag-ship, but as they least this merit that they must infallibly tend to make battles
could not be seen by the ships in a line with her, frigates were decisive by throwing the combatants into a furious mingled
stationed on the side of the line opposite to that facing the strife.
"
enemy to repeat signals." The unsatisfactory character of the accepted method of
A main object which the admirals who drafted the orders fighting battles at sea had begun to be obvious to naval officers,
had before them was to obviate the risk that the enemy would both French and English, who were Clerk's contemporaries.
double on one end of the line and put it between two fires. The great French admiral Suffren condemned naval tactics as
It is obvious that if two fleets, A and B, are sailing, both with being little better than so many excuses for avoiding a real
the wind on the right side, and the leading ship of A comes fight. He endeavoured to find a better method, by concentrating
into action with the seventh or eighth of B, then six or seven superior forces on parts of his opponent's line in some of his
leading ships of B's line will be free to turn and surround the actions with the British fleet in the East Indies in 1782 and 1783.
head of A's line. This did actually happen at the battle of But his orders were ill obeyed, and the quality of his fleet was
Beachy Head. Therefore, the orders enjoin on the admiral the not superior to the British. Rodney, in his first battle in the
strict obligation to come into action in such a way that his leading West Indies in 1780, endeavoured to concentrate a superior
ship shall steer with the leading ship of the enemy, and his rear force on part enemy's line by throwing a greater number
of his
with the rear. The familiar expression of the British navy was on the rear of the French line. But his directions
of British ships
"
to take every man his bird." were misunderstood and not properly executed. Moreover he
The regular method of fighting battles was thus set up. In did not then go beyond trying to place a larger number of ships
itself it was founded on sound principles. As it was framed when in action to windward against a smaller number to leeward by
the enemies kept in view were the Dutch, who in seamanship arranging them at a less distance than two-cables length. But
STRATEGY AND TACTICS] NAVY AND NAVIES 3*5
an enemy who took the simple and obvious course of closing his the conduct of war at sea. The time of revolution in means of
line could baffle the attack, and while the retreat to leeward propulsion, armament and construction was also a time of much
remained open could still slip away. On the I2th of April 1782 speculation. Doubts and obscurities remained unsolved because
(battle of Dominica) Rodney was induced, by the disorder
in the they had never been brought to the test of actual fighting on
French line, to break his own formation and pass through the an adequate scale. As the igth century drew to a close, another
enemy. He took the French flag-ship and five other vessels. element of uncertainty was introduced by the development of
The favourable result of this departure from the old practice of the torpedo. A weapon which is a floating and moving mine,
keeping the formation intact throughout the battle ruined the capable up to a certain point of being directed on its course,
moral authority of the orthodox system of tactics. In the French invisible or very hard to trace, and able to deliver its blow
war which began in 1793 Lord Howe (battle of ist of June) beneath the water-line, was so complete a novelty that its action
ordered his fleet to steer through the enemy, and to put them- was hard indeed to foresee and therefore particularly liable to
selves on his line only as a means of bringing his fleet into action, be exaggerated. From the torpedo sprang too the submarine
and then played to produce a melee in which the individual vessel, which aims at striking below the surface, where it itself
superiority of his vessels would have free play. Throughout the is,like its weapon, invisible, or nearly so.
war, which lasted, with a brief interval of peace, from 1793 Howto solve the problems which science has set has been the
to 1815, British admirals grew constantly bolder in the method task of thoughtful naval officers and of the governments which
they adopted for producing the desired melee (battles of St the military seaman serves. The questions to be solved may be
Vincent, Camperdown, Trafalgar) It has sometimes been argued
. stated in the following order. What would be the effect: ist,
that their line of attack was rash and would have proved of the employment of steam, or of any substitute for steam other
disastrous if tried against more skilful opponents. But this than the wind or the oar; 2nd, of the development of the gun;
is one of those criticisms which are of value only against those 3rd, of the use of metal as a material of construction; 4th, of
who think that there can be a magic efficacy in any particular the use of a weapon and a vessel acting below the surface of the
attack, which makes its success infallible. That the tactics of water, and if not wholly invisible at least very much hidden?
British admirals of the great wars of 1793-1815 had in themselves The belief that steam had given the lesser fleet an advantage
no such virtue was amply demonstrated at the engagement over the greater that it had, in a phrase once popular among
"
off Lissa in 1811. They were justified because the reliance of Englishmen, bridged the Channel," need only be touched
admirals on the quality of their fleets was well founded. It on for its historical interest. It was an intelligible, perhaps
should be borne in mind that a vessel while bearing down on an pardonable, example of the confusion produced by a novelty of
enemy's line could not be exposed to the fire of three enemies improved capacity on the minds of those who were not prepared
at once when at a less distance than 750 yds., because the guns to consider it in all its bearings. A mo.nent's thought ought to
could not be trained to converge on a nearer point. The whole have shown that where both sides had the command of steam,
range of effective fire was only a thousand yards or a very little the proportion between them would remain what it was before.
over. The chance that a ship would be dismasted and stopped The only exception would be that the fleet which was steering in
before reaching the enemy's line was small. a direction already laid down would have a somewhat greater
The improvements in the construction of ships, which had so advantage than of old, over another which was endeavouring to
much influence on the development of tactics, had its effect also detect its presence and course. Its movements would be more
influence
on strategy. The great aims of a fleet in war must be rapid, could steam through a fog by which it would be
and it
ofim- to keep the coast of its own country free from attack, hidden in a way impossible for a sailing ship. On the other
proved to secure the freedom of its trade, and to destroy hand, such a fleet could be much more rapidly pursued and
'
t ^le enemv s fl eet or connne it to port. The first and interrupted when once its course was known. The influence
second of these purposes can be attained by the which the freedom and certainty of movement conferred by
successful achievement of the third the destruction or paralysis steam would have on the powers of fleets and ships presented
of the hostile fleet. But till after the end of the I7th century a problem less easy to dispose of. Against the advantage they
it was thought impossible, or at least very rash, to keep the great conferred was to be set the limitation they imposed. The
ships out of port between September and May or June. Therefore necessity for replacing indispensable fuel was a restriction
continuous watch on an enemy by blockading his ports was unknown to the sailing ship, which needed only to renew its
beyond the power of any navy. Therefore too, as the opponent provisions and water stores more easily obtained all the world
might be at sea before he could be stopped, the movements of over than coal. Hence doubts naturally arose as to how far a
fleets were much subordinated to the need for providing convoy state which did not possess coaling stations in all parts of the
to the trade. It was not till the middle of the i8th century that world could conduct extensive operations over great distances.
the continuous blockade first carried out by Lord Hawke in The events of the recent Russo-Japanese War lead to the con-
1758-59, and then brought to perfection by Earl St Vincent clusion that the obligation to obtain coal has not materially
and other British admirals between 1793 and 1815, became limited the freedom of movement of fleets. By carrying store
possible. vessels with him, by coaling at sea, and taking advantage of the
Modern Times. The interval of ninety years between 1815 friendly neutrality of certain ports on his route, the Russian
and 1904 (the opening of the Russo-Japanese conflict) was admiral, Rojdesvensky, reached the Far East in 1905 in less time
marked by no naval war. There was fighting at sea, and there and with less difficulty than he could have done in days when
were prolonged blockades, but there were no encounters between he would have been liable to delay by calms, contrary winds and
large and well appointed navies. During this period an entire loss of spars in gales. The amount of skill on the part of the
revolution took place in the means of propulsion, armament and crews required to carry a fleet t long distance would even appear
material of construction of ships. Steam was applied to war- to be less than it was of old. From
would seem to follow
this it
ships, at first as an auxiliary force, in the second quarter of the that modern fleets possess no than the old sailing
less capacity
igth century. The Crimean War gave a great stimulus to the fleets for the great operations of war at a distance, or for main-
development of the guns. It also brought about the application taining blockades. Advantage and disadvantage counterbalance
of iron to ships as a cuirass. Vfcry soon metal was adopted as the one another, and the proportion remains the same. Blockade
material out of which ships were made. The extended use of is only another name for the maintenance of a watch on an
shells, by immensely increasing the danger of fire, rendered so enemy's squadron in port by a force capable of fighting him if
inflammable a substance as wood too dangerous for employment he comes out. Admiral Togo blockaded the Russian squadron at
in a war-ship. France has the honour of having set the
example Port Arthur in 1904 as effectually as any admiral has done the
of employing iron as a
cuirass, while England was the first to work in the past. The mobility given to the blockaded fleet by
take it as the sole material. Changes so sweeping as these could steam has been exactly counterbalanced by the increased
not take place without affecting all the established ideas as to mobility of the watch. The proportions remain the same.
316 NAVY AND NAVIES [STRATEGY AND TACTICS
But if the power to undertake far-ranging operations, and to below expectations, even when allowance is made for the fact that
confine an enemy to port by keeping him under observation, the Russian squadron at Port Arthur had the means of repair close
and driving him back when he comes out remains the same, the at hand. In the sea fights of the war it was of subordinate use,
strategy of war at sea cannot have undergone any material altera- and indeed was not employed except to give the final stroke to,
tion. possession of ports where stores can be accumulated
The or force the surrender of, an already crippled ship. This war
and repairs effected is an advantage as it always was. But a (and as much may be said for the war between the United States
powerful fleet when operating far from its own country can supply and Spain) confirmed an old experience. A resolute attempt
with a store-house (a base) on the enemy's coast, or can be
itself was made by the Americans to block or blind (in the modern
"
served at sea by store-ships, as of old. If beaten, it will suffer phrase to bottle-up ") the entrance to Santiago de Cuba by
from the want of places of refuge as it always did. sinking a ship in it. The Japanese renewed the attempt on a
Among the "speculations of recent years, a good deal has been great scale, and with the utmost intrepidity, at Port Arthur;
heard of the fleet in being." If this phrase is only used to but though a steamer can move with a speed and precision im-
that, so long as any part of an enemy's navy
mean possible to a sailing ship, and can therefore be sunk more surely
.
capable of acting with effect, its existence cannot be
g at a chosen spot, the experiment failed. Neither Americans
ignored with the certainty of safety, then the words nor Japanese succeeded in preventing their enemy from coming
convey a truth which applies to all war whether by land or out when he wished to come.
sea. If it means, as it was at least sometimes clearly intended Since neither ram nor torpedo has established the claim made
"
to mean, that no such operation as the transport of troops for it, the cannon remains the queen of battles at sea." It
oversea can be undertaken with success, so long as the naval can still deliver its blows at the greatest distance, and _
forces of an opponent are not wholly destroyed, it is con- in the greatest variety of circumstances. The change
trary to ancient experience. The Japanese in' the beginning of has been in the method in which its power is applied. Now,
1904 began transporting troops to Korea before they had beaten as in former times, the aim of a skilful officer is to concentrate
.the Russians, and they continued to send them in spite of the a superior force on a part of his opponent's formation. When
risk of interruption by the Vladivostok squadron. There was a the range of effective fire was a thousand or twelve hundred
risk, but risk is inseparable from war. The degree which can be yards, and when guns could only be trained over a small segment
incurred with sanity depends on the stake at issue, the nature of of a circle because they were fired out of ports, concentration
the circumstance and the capacity of the persons, which vary could only be effected by bringing a larger number of ships into
infinitely and must be separately judged. close action with a smaller. To-day when gun-fire is effective even
of 1904-05 may also be said to have shown that the
The war at seven thousand yards, and when guns fired from turrets and
vast change in the construction of ships, together with the develop- barbettes have a far wider sweep, concentration can be effected
_ .
" ag'
ment of old and the invention of new weapons, has from a distance. The power to effect it must be sought by a
done far less to alter the course of battles at sea than judicious choice of position. It is true that greater rapidity and
had been thought likely. Two calculations have been successively precision of fire produce concentration in one way. If of two
made and have been supported with plausibility. The first was forces engaged one can bring forty guns to bear on a chosen
that steam would enable the ship herself to be used as a projectile point of its opponent's formations, while that opponent can
and that the use of the ram would again become common. bring fifty guns to bear on a part of it, the superiority would
The sinking of the
"
Re d'ltalia " by the Austrian ironclad seem to be with the larger number. But this is by no means
Ferdinand Max at the battle of Lissa in 1866 seemed to give necessarily the case. The smaller number of guns may give
force to this supposition. Accidental collisions such as those the greater number of blows if fired with greater speed and
"
between the British war-ships Vanguard
"
and " Iron Duke," accuracy. Yet no commander has a right to rely on such a
" "
"
Victoriaand " Camperdown have also shown how fatal a superiority as this till it has been demonstrated, as it had been
wound may be given by the ram of a modern ship. But the in the case of the British fleet by the time that Trafalgar was
sinking of the
"
Re d'ltalia " was largely an accident. As fought. Therefore an able chief will always play for position.
between vessels both under full control, a collision is easily He will do soall the more because an advantage of position adds
avoided where there is space to move. In a melee, or pell-mell to any other which he may possess. He may dispense with it
battle, to employ Nelson's phrase, opportunities would occur for for a particular reason at a given moment and in reliance on
the use of the ram. But the activity of science has developed other sources of strength, but he will not throw it away.
one weapon to counterbalance another. The torpedo has made When position is to be secured the first condition to be thought
A vessel " "
it very dangerous for one fleet to rush at another. of is the order in which it is to be sought for. The line ahead
cannot fi re torpedoes ahead, and when charging home was imposed on the sailing fleets by the peremptory _
To does
'*'
at an opponent presenting his broadside would be liable need for bringing, or at least retaining the power to
to be struck by one. The torpedo may be said therefore to have bring, all their broadsides into action. Experiments made during-
excluded the pell-mell battle and the use of the ram except manoeuvres by modern navies, together with the experience
on rare occasions. But then arose the question whether the gained in the war of 1904-05 in the Far East, have combined to
torpedo itself would not become the decisive weapon in naval show that no material change has taken place in this respect.
warfare. It is undoubtedly capable of producing a great effect It is still as necessary as ever that all the guns should be so placed
when power can be fully exerted. A school arose, having
its as to be capable of being brought to bear, and it is still a condition
its most convinced partisans in France, which argued that, as a imposed by the physical necessities of the case that this freedom
small vessel could with a torpedo destroy a great battle-ship, the can only be obtained when ships follow one another in a line.
first would drive the second off the sea. The battle-ship was to When in pursuit or flight, or when steaming on the look-out for
"
give place to the torpedo-boat or torpedo-boat-destroyer which a still unseen enemy, a fleet may be arranged in the line
was itself only a torpedo-boat of a larger growth. But the abreast." A pursuing fleet would have to run the risk of being
torpedo is subject to close restrictions. It cannot be used with struck by torpedoes dropped by a retreating enemy. But it
effect at more than two thousand yards. It passes through would have the advantage of being able to bring all its guns
a resisting medium, which renders its course uncertain and which can fire ahead to bear on the rear-ship of the enemy.
comparatively slow, so that a moving opponent can avoid it. When an opponent is prepared to give battle, and turns his broad-
The vessel built to use it can be easily sunk by gun-fire. By side so as to bring the maximum of his gun-fire to bear, he must
night the risk from gun-fire is less, but science has nullified be answered by a similar display of force in other words,
what she had done. The invention of the search-light has made the line ahead must be formed to meet the line ahead.
it possible to keep the waters round a
ship under observation Both fleets being in this formation, how is the concentration
all night. In the war between Russia and Japan the torpedo of a superior force to be effected? If the opponents are equal
was at first used with success, but the injury it produced fell in number, speed, armament, gunnery and the leadership of the
NAWAB NAWANAGAR 3 1
?
chiefs, accident alone can confer an advantage on either of them. British navy. The example of France was followed by other
Where equal weights are tried on accurate scales one cannot powers, and particularly by Great Britain; but their value
force up the other, but this evenness of power is rarely met as weapons of war is necessarily a matter of speculation.
in war by land or sea. The knowledge that it existed would BIBLIOGRAPHY. Naval strategy can hardly be said to have been
dealt with at all till Captain Mahan published his Influence of Sea
probably prevent an appeal to arms between nations, since Power on History. The tactics of the ancient world are only very
no decisive result could be hoped for. It is needless to insist briefly dealt with in the De re Militari of Vegetius, in book iv.
that superior numbers make the task of concentrating com- V'egetius was much copied and read in the middle ages, and was
translated in 1284 by Jean de Meung, one of the authors of the Roman
paratively easy, unless counterbalanced by a great inferiority
de la Rose. His translation is printed, together with the verse
in speed. Speed is the quality which an admiral will wish his Naval
paraphrase of Priprats, in the Anciens Textes franc,ais.
fleet to possess, in order that he may have the power to choose tactics are dealt with in the treatise of Leo VI. the Tactician, and
his point of attack. The swifter of two forces, otherwise equal, his son Constantine VII., or perhaps Constantine VIII., printed in
can always get ahead of its opponent, and then by Meursius' Opera Omnia, vol. vi. They were emperors of the Mace-
~^ a donian dynasty. The tactics of the medieval galleys are described,
turning inwards bring the leading ship of the force with references to authorities, both by A. Guglielmotti in Marine
it is attacking into a curve of fire. The leader of the slower
Pontificia, and by Admiral Jurien de la Graviere in Les Dernier s
fleet can avoid the danger by also turning inwards. By so doing jours de la marine a rames (1885). The chief writers on the tactics
he will keep the assailant on his beam, opposite his side. Then of the sailing fleets were French. At the head of them, in time and
in merit, must be put Paul Hoste, whose folio on Naval Evolutions
the two fleets will tend to swing round in two circles having
a common centre, the swifter going round the outer circumference appeared in 1697. Hoste was a Jesuit who was secretary to the Count
of Tourville. Hoste's treatise was translated into English and
and the slower round the inner. As the difference in length published in Edinburgh in 1834 with numerous and excellent illustra-
of these two lines would be always great and perhaps immense, tions by Captain J. D. Boswall, A Treatise on Naval Tactics. Captain
the less speedy fleet could easily avoid the risk of being headed. Boswall also made use of the passages relating to naval tactics in the
On the other hand the outer fleet will be in a concave formation, History of the Art of War by J. G. Hoyer, an officer in the Prussian
army (1797-1800). Another excellent French treatise is Le
and therefore able to bring all its guns to bear on the same point, Manaeuvrier of Bourde de Villehuet (1765), translated into English
while the inner fleet will be in a convex line, so that it will be in 1788 under the title of The Man&uvrer, or Skilful Seaman.
unable to bring the guns of both van and rear to bear on the Particular attention is due to the Essay on Naval Tactics by Mr Clerk
of Eldin, first published in a collected form in 1804, but known in
same mark. The advantage is obvious, but it may perhaps
parts since 1780. Clerk was original in speculation and lucid in
be easily exaggerated. The swifter fleet on the larger circle can exposition. A French treatise, L Art de la guerre sur mer, by the
in theory concentrate all its fire on one point, but all' its ships Vicomte de Grenier (1787), was less famous or influential, but was
"
will still be under fire, and in practice it is found very difficult able and original. An exhaustive collection of Fighting Instruc-
"
to make men neglect the enemy who is actually hitting them, tions and other material necessary to an intelligent understanding
of the naval tactics of sailing fleets is the Fighting Instructions 1530-
and apply their attention entirely to another. Moreover the 1816, edited by Mr Julian S. Corbett for the Navy Record Society
ships on the outer circle, having the larger line to cover, cannot (1905). Admiral Ekin's Naval Battles (1824) has some passages of
allow themselves the same margin of steam-power to make value. It is comparatively easy to give authorities for the warfare
of galleys and sailing ships. The case is altered when we have to
good speed by injury from shot. A fleet would not go
loss of
deal with the tactics of steam fleets. Vast quantities of speculation
at its maximum rate of common speed in action. A blow on have been written in every country which possesses a fleet, but, no
the water-line might fill part of the ship's watertight compart- test having been applied on a sufficient scale till the Russo-Japanese
ments and reduce her speed. She must be able to make good War of 1904, little of it can be said to possess approved authority.
the loss by putting on a greater pressure of steam, which she The facts of such wars as there have been are collected in Captain
Mahan's Life of Farragut (1893) and Lessons of the War with Spain
would not be able to do if already going at her maximum rate.
(1899), and in Mr H. W. Wilson's Ironclads in Action, 1855-1895. A
In actual battle very much will depend on the respective skill standard work on evolutions and formations is Elementary Naval
of the gunnery. The swifter fleet might well find its superiority Tactics, by Captain Wm. Bainbridge Hoff of the United States navy,
first published in 1894, but reprinted since with enlargements.
neutralised by the crippling of two or three of its leading ships.
The Naval Warfare of Admiral P. H. Colomb is a collection of
In such an action as this be, if not impossible, at least
it will
historical examples meant to illustrate the principles of naval
exceedingly orders by signal. An admiral will
difficult to give
strategy for application in modern conditions. The third edition,
therefore have to direct by example, which he cannot do except revised and corrected, with additions, appeared in 1899. (D. H.)
by placing his flag-ship at the head of the line. In that place NAWAB, a Mahommedan title for a native ruler in India,
he will be marked out as a target for the enemy's concentrated answering to the Hindu raja. Nawab originally means a deputy,
fire. He may indeed decide to direct the battle by signal from being the honorific plural of the Arabic naib, and it was applied
outside the line. Yet the difficulty he will find in seeing what to a delegate of a supreme chief, the viceroy or governor under
is happening, as well as the difficulty the captains will find the Great Mogul, e.g. the nawab of Oudh. From this use it
in seeing the signals, will always be so great, that in all probability became a title of rank, without office, and is now sometimes
the admirals of the future, will, like Nelson, be content to lay conferred by the British government on Mahommedan gentlemen
down the general principles on which the battle is to be fought, for distinguished service.
and trust the captains to apply them as circumstances arise. NAWABGANJ, the name of three towns of British India,
A large measure of independence must needs be allowed to the (i) The most important is the headquarters of Bara Banki
captains in the actual stress of battle. Ships must be placed district in the United Provinces, on the Oudh and Rohilkhand
at such a distance apart as will allow them room to manoeuvre railway, 17 m. E. of Lucknow; pop. (1001) 14,478. It has
so as to avoid collision with their own friends. The interval a considerable trade in sugar and cotton goods. It was the
cannot be less than 800 yds. When the length of the vessels scene of a victory by Sir Hope Grant during the Mutiny. (2) A
themselves is added, it will be seen that a line of twelve vessels town in Malda district, Eastern Bengal and Assam, on the
will stretch six miles. Modern powder is nominally smokeless, Mahananda near its junction with the Ganges, a centre of river
and it certainly does not create the dense bank of smoke produced trade; pop. (1901) 17,016. (3) A town in Gonda district,
by the old explosives. Yet it does create a sufficient haze to United Provinces, on the Bengal and North- Western railway;
obscure the view from the van to the rear of an extended line. pop. (1001) 7047.
The movements must be rapid, and there will be little time NAWANAGAR, or JAMNAGAR, a native state of India, in
indeed in which to take decisions. The torpedo may not be Kathiawar, within the Gujarat division of Bombay, situated
used during the actual battle. Its part will be to complete the on the south of the Gulf of Cutch. Area, 3791 sq. m. Pop.
destruction or enforce the surrender of a beaten enemy, and to (1901) 336,779, showing a decrease of n%
in the decade due to
cover retreats. famine. Estimated revenue, 170,000; tribute, 8000. The
The submarine and submergible vessel were brought into chief, whose title is Jam, is a Jareja Rajput of the same clan
prominence by France in the hope that by diminishing the as the rao of Cutch. Prince Ranjitsinjhi (b. 1872), well known
value of battleships they would reduce the superiority of the in England as a cricketer, was educated at the Rajkumar College,
NAWAWI NAYLER
Rajkot, and Trinity College, Cambridge. He had been adopted Archegetes, at which all sacred embassies that left Sicily sacrificed
by his uncle, the Jam Shri Vibhaji, but the adoption was set before their departure (Thuc. vi. 3).
aside, with British sanction, in favour of a son by a Mahommedan NAY, or NEY, the long flute of the ancient Egyptians, held
mother. This son succeeded, but died in 1906 aged twenty-four, obliquely and played by directing the breath, as in the pipes
and Ranjitsinjhi obtained the throne in March 1907. A branch of the syrinx, across the open end, which had no embouchure
railway, constructed at the expense of the state, was opened of any kind. Performers on the nay are represented on many
in 1898 from Rajkot to Nawanagar town. of the frescoes which decorated the tombs at Thebes, their
The town of Nawanagar is about 5 m. from the seaport of flutes reaching nearly to the ground while they are in the familiar
Bedi. Pop. (1901) 53,844. Founded by Jam Rawal in 1540, half-kneeling posture. The acoustic principles involved in the
it is and has manufactures of silk and gold
built of stone, production of sound are the same as for the flute. The narrow-
embroidery, and perfumed oils and red powder for ceremonial ness of the bore in proportion to the length would facilitate the
purposes. Its water is supplied from a reservoir covering 600 production of harmonics and so give the nay an extended
1
acres and an aqueduct 8 m. long. compass. Victor Loret has compiled a list of all the real pipes
NAWAWl [ABU ZAKARIYYA IBN SHARAF UN-NAWAWI] (1233- of ancient Egypt which have survived, having for the most
1278), Arabian writer, was born at Nawa. near Damascus. In part been preserved in mummy cases. The nay was not restricted
the latter city he studied from his eighteenth year, and there, to ancient Egypt, but has remained in general use in various
after making the pilgrimage in 1253, he settled as a private parts of the East until the present day. (K. S.)
scholar until 1267, when he succeeded Abu Shama as professor NAYAGARH, a native state in India, in the Orissa division
of tradition at the Ashrafiyya school. He died at Nawa from of Bengal. Area, 588 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 140,779; revenue,
overwork. 8000. It contains hills rising to 5000 ft.; and exports much
His manual of Moslem law according to the Shafi'ite school has been agricultural produce.In 1894 a revolt of the hill tribe of Khonds
edited wkh French translation by van den Bergh, 2 vols., Batavia
against the raja required the intervention of British military
(1882-1884), and published at Cairo (1888). The Tahdhib ul-Asma'i
has been edited as the Biographical Dictionary of Illustrious Men police. Nayagarh village (pop. 3340) is connected by road with
chiefly at the Beginning of Islam by F. Wustenfeld (Gottingen, 1842-
Khurda in Pun district.
1847). The Taqrib wa Taisir, an introduction to the study of NAYAR, or NAIR, a caste or tribe on the W. coast of S. India,
tradition, was published at Cairo, 1890, with Suyuti's commentary. who form the dominant race in Malabar. Traditionally they are
It has been in part translated into French by M. Marcais in the
soldiers, but many have taken to professions, and one was in
Journal asiatique, series ix., vols. 16-18 (1900-1901). Nawawl's
collection of the forty (actually forty-two) chief traditions has been 1910 a judge of the high court at Madras. Their total number in
frequently published with commentaries in Cairo. For other works all India in 1901 was just over one million. Their most peculiar
"
see C. Brockelmann's Gesch. der aralischen Litteratur, vol. i. (Weimar, customs are: (i) marumakkattayam = descent through sister's
1898), pp. 395-397- (G. W. T.)
children," or inheritance in the female line; and (2) sambandham,
NAXOS, the largest of the Cyclades (about 22 m. by 16 m.), a loose form of union, taking the place of marriage, without any
a fertile island in the Aegean Sea, east of Paros, with which, and
responsibility of the husband towards either wife or children.
adjacent smaller islands, it forms an eparchia. In ancient times In 1896 an act of the Madras legislature enabled a sambandham
it was also called Dia or Strongyle. It was rich in vines and to be registered, and have the force of a legal marriage. Little
famous for its wine, and a centre of the worship of Bacchus.
advantage has been taken of this act, while it is alleged that
The god found Ariadne asleep on its shore, when she was deserted the sambandham now usually lasts for a lifetime.
by Theseus. The sculptors of Naxos formed an important See Malabar District Gazetteer (Madras, 1908).
school of early Greek art; several unfinished colossal statues NAYLER (or NAYLOR), JAMES (1618-1660), English Puritan,
are still to be seen in the quarries, notably one in Apollona Bay, was born at Andersloe or Ardsley, in Yorkshire, in 1618. In
to the N.E. of the island. A tyrant Lygdamis ruled Naxos in 1642 he joined the parliamentary army, and served as quarter-
alliance with Peisistratus of Athens during the 6th century B.C. master in John Lambert's horse. In 1651 he adopted Quakerism,
In 501 a Persian fleet unsuccessfully attacked
but in 490 it
it, and gradually arrived at the conviction that he was a new
was captured and treated with great Four Naxian
severity. incarnation of Christ. He gathered round him a small band of
ships took part in the expedition of Xerxes, but deserted and disciples, who followed him from place to place. At Appleby
fought on the Greek side at Salamis in 480. Naxos was a member in 1653 and again at Exeter in 1655 he suffered terms of imprison-
of the Delian League (?..); it revolted in 471, was captured ment. In October 1655, in imitation of Christ's procession into
by Athens, and remained in her possession till her empire was "
Jerusalem, he entered Bristol on horseback riding single a
destroyed. In later times the most remarkable event was its rawboned nude figure, with lank hair reaching below his cheeks "
capture, in A.D. 1207, by the Venetian Marco Sanudo, who attended by seven followers, some on horseback, some on foot,
founded the duchy of Naxos, which flourished till the Turks took he in silence and they singing " Hosanna! Holy, holy! Lord
the island in 1566. Since the War of Independence it has God of Sabaoth!" At the High Cross he and his followers
belonged to the Greek kingdom. The only ancient remains of were arrested. His trial occupied the second parliament of
any importance are those of a temple (Palati), supposed to be Cromwell for several days, and on the i6th of December 1656
that of Dionysus, on an island just off the town. Naxos is still he was convicted of blasphemy and sentenced to be whipped
rich in fruit trees, and also exports corn, wine and oil, as well from the Palace Yard to the Old Exchange, to be branded in
as emery, its richest and most important mineral product. Pop. "
the forehead with B" (for blasphemer), to have his torgue
(1907) 25,185 (province), 2064 (commune). bored with a red-hot iron, to be whipped through the streets
NAXOS, the earliest Greek colony in Sicily, was founded by of Bristol, and to suffer imprisonment with hard labour for two
Theocles from Chalcis in 735 B.C., on the E. coast, S. of Tauro- On his release he was readmitted into the commurion
years.
menium (mod. Taormina) in a low-lying situation just N. of the
, of the Quakers, and spent some time in Westmorland with
mouth of the river Alcantara, where the castle of Schiso now
George Whitehead (1636?-! 723). In October 1660 Nayler
stands. The adoption of the name of Naxos, the island in the set out to visit his long-forsaken family in Yorkshire, but died
Aegean Sea, seems to indicate that there were Naxians among on the journey in Huntingdonshire.
its founders. Within a few years it became strong enough to A collected edition of the Tracts of Nayler appeared in 1716.
found Leontini and Catana. Naxos was the warmest ally of See A Relation of the Life, Conversion, Examination, Confession, and
Athens in the Sicilian expedition. In 403 B.C. it was destroyed Sentence of James Nayler (1657); a Memoir of the Life, Ministry,
Trial, and Sufferings of James Nayler (1719); and a Refutation of
by Dionysius and handed over to the Sicels, but was never some of the more Modern Misrepresentations of the Society of Friends
rebuilt. Its place was supplied in 358 by Tauromenium.
Scanty commonly called Quakers, with a Life of James Nayler, by Joseph
traces of its walls are to be seen, of irregular blocks of
lava, Gurney Sevan (1800).
especially on the south, parallel to the river (E. A. Freeman,
'"Les Flutes e'gyptiennes antiques," in Journal asiatique, Seme
Hist, of Sic. i. 323). Without the city stood the altar of
Apollo sdrie, tome xiv. (Pans, 1889).
NAZARENES NEAGH
NAZARENES (Nafcopeuoi), an obscure Jewish-Christian sect, however, is not called a Nazarite), the head remains unshorn
existing at the time of Epiphanius (fl. A.D. 370) in Coele-Syria, throughout life, and in these times the ceremonial observances
Decapolis (Fella) and Basanitis (Cocabe). According to that as to uncleanness must have been less precise. Samson's mother
authority (Panarion, xxix. 7) they dated their settlement in is forbidden to eat unclean things during pregnancy, but Samson
Pella from the time of the flight of the Jewish Christians himself touches the carcass of a. lion and is often in contact with
from Jerusalem, immediately before the siege in A.D. 70; he the slain, nor does he abstain from giving feasts. 1
characterizes them as neither more nor less than Jews pure and In the cases of Samuel and Samson the unshorn locks are a
simple, but adds that they recognized the new covenant as well as mark God (Judges xiii. 5) for a particular
of consecration to
the old, and believed in the resurrection, and in the one God and service one case the service of the sanctuary,' in the other
in the
His Son Jesus Christ. He cannot say whether their christological the deliverance of Israel from the Philistines. Since, moreover,
views were identical with those of Cerinthus and his school, or the Hebrew root n-z-r is only dialectically different from n-d-r,
"
whether they differed at all from his own. But Jerome (Ep. 79, to vow," both corresponding to the same original Semitic root
to Augustine) says that they believed in Christ the Son of God, (Arab, n-dh-r), it would seem that the peculiar marks of the
born of the Virgin Mary, who suffered under Pontius Pilate, and Nazarite are primarily no more than the usual sign that a man is
"
rose again, but adds that, desiring to be both Jews and under a vow of some kind. To leave the locks unshorn during an
Christians, they are neither the one nor the other." They used arduous undertaking in which the divine aid was specially
the Aramaic recension of the Gospel according to Matthew, implored, and to consecrate the hair after success, was a practice
which they called the Gospel to the Hebrews, but, while adhering among various ancient nations, but the closest parallel to the
as far as possible to the Mosaic economy as regarded circumcision, Hebrew custom is found in Arabia.2 There the vow was generally
sabbaths, foods and the like, they did not refuse to recognize the one of war or revenge, and, till it was accomplished, the man who
apostolicity of Paul or the rights of heathen Christians (Jer., vowed left his hair unshorn and unkempt, and abstained from
Comm. in Isa., ix. i). These facts, taken along with the name wine, women, ointment and perfume. Such is the figure of
(cf. Acts xxiv. 5) and geographical position of the sect, lead Shanfara as described in his Lamiya. The observances of the
to the conclusion that the Nazarenes of the 4th century are, in ihrdm (period of consecration) belong to the same usage (see
spite of Epiphanius's distinction, to be identified with the MECCA), and we find that at Taif it was customary to shear the
Ebionites (<?..). hair at the sanctuary after a journey. The consecration of Samuel
NAZARETH (mod. en-Na$ira), a town in Galilee, in a hollow has also its Arabic parallel in the dedication of an unborn child
of the hills on the southern border of the plain of Esdraelon. by its mother to the service of the Ka'ba (Ibn Hishara, p. 76;
It first appears as a village (John i. 46) in which Joseph and Mary AzrakI, p. 128). The spirit of warlike patriotism that character-
lived (Luke i. 26) and to which they returned from Egypt ized the old religion of Israel could scarcely fail to encourage such
(Matt. ii. 23). Here the unrecorded years of Christ's boyhood vows (cf. 2 Sam. xi. ii, and perhaps i Sam. xxi. 4 seq.), and from
were spent. From the name of the town comes nasara (i.e. the allusion in Amos we are led to suppose that at one time the
Nazarenes "), the ordinary oriental word for " Christians."
"
Nazarites had an importance perhaps even an organization
There was here a synagogue (Matt. xiii. 54) in which Christ parallel to that of the prophets, but of a very different religious
preached the sermon that led to his rejection by his fellow towns- type from the Canaanite nature-worship.
men. The growth of legends and traditional identifications can See RECHABITES; Encyc. Bibl. col. 3362 seq.; G. B. Gray,
be traced in the writings of the pilgrims who have visited the Numbers, pp. 56-61; E. Kautzsch (I.e. n. i below); VV. R. Harger,
Amos and Hosea, p. Ii. sq., with references. (W. R. S. S. A. C.) ;
town from Jerome's time till our own. For none of these can
NAZARIUS (4th century A.D.), Latin rhetorician and pane-
anything be said, save that it is possible that the village spring
"
St Mary's Well ") is the same as that used in the time of gyrist, was, according to Ausonius, a professor of rhetoric at
(called
Christ. A large basilica stood here about A.D. 600: the crusaders Burdigala (Bordeaux). The extant speech of which he is un-
transferred here the bishopric of Scythopolis. It was taken by doubtedly the author (in E. Bahrens, Panegyrici Latini, No. 10)
Saladin in 1187. In 1517 it was captured by the Turks. The
was delivered in 321 to celebrate the fifteenth anniversary of the
accession of Constantine the Great, and the fifth of his son
population is now estimated at about 3500 Moslems and 6500
Constantino's admission to the rank of Caesar. The preceding
Christians; there are numerous schools, hospitals, &c., conducted
speech (No. 9), celebrating the victory of Constantine over
by Greeks, Latins and Protestants. Visitors are shown the
"
Church of the Annunciation " with caves (including a fragment Maxentius, delivered in 313 at Augusta Trevirorum (Trier),
of a pillar hanging from the ceiling, and said to be miraculously
has often been attributed to Nazarius, but the difference in style
and vocabulary, and the more distinctly Christian colouring of
supported) which are described as the scene of the annunciation,
" " Nazarius's speech, are against this.
the workshop of Joseph," the synagogue," and a stone table, See M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Litteratur, iii. (1896);
said to have been used by Christ.
Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans., 1900),
NAZARITE, or rather NAZIRITE, the name given by the 401. 6.
Hebrews to a peculiar kind of devotee. The characteristic "
NEAGH, LOUGH, the largest lake (Irish, lough ") in the
marks of a Nazarite were unshorn locks and abstinence from British Isles, situated in the north-east of Ireland, in the province
wine (Judges xiii. 5; i Sam. i. n; Amos ii. n seq.); but full of Ulster, its waters being divided between counties Antrim
regulations for the legal observance of the Nazarite vow are (N. and E.), Down (S.E.), Armagh (S.), Tyrone and Londonderry
given in Num. vi., where every product of the grape-vine is (W.). Its shape is an irregular oblong, its extreme measurements
forbidden, and the Nazarite is enjoined not to approach a dead being 18 m. from N.E. to S.W. 16 from N. to S., and ii from E.
body, even that of his nearest relative. The law in question is to W. minor indentations,
Its circumference, without including
in its present form post-exilic, and is plainly directed to the
is about 64 m., and area 98,255 acres or about 153 sq. m. The
its
regulation of a known usage. It contemplates the assumption shores are generally flat and marshy, or very gently sloping, but
of the vow for a limited period only, and gives particular details
flat-topped hills rise near the northern shore, where the lake
as to the atoning ceremonies at the sanctuary by which the vow
reaches its extreme depth of 102 ft. The mean height above sea-
must be recommenced if broken by accidental defilement, and the receives a large number of
level is 48 ft. Though the lough
closing sacrifice, at which the Nazarite on the expiry of his vow 1
The
prohibition to Samson's mother to abstain from wine does
cuts off his hair and burns it on the altar, thus returning to
not appear to belong to the original narrative (see E. Kautzsch,
ordinary life. Among the later Jews the Nazarite vow, of course, Hastings's D.B. v. 65700!. 6, following Bohme). John the Baptist is
corresponded with the legal ordinance, which was further a later example of lifelong consecration (Luke i. 15); cf. also the
tradition as to James the Just (Euseb. H.E. ii. 23).
developed by the scribes in their usual manner (Mishna, tractate 2
On consecration of the hair, see Spencer, De Legibus Hebr. iii.
Nazir; cf. i Mace. iii. 49; Acts xxi. 23 seq.; Joseph. Ant. xix.
6. i, Wars ii.
i. 6; I. Goldziher, Rev. Hist. Rel. xiv. 49
sqq. (1886); J. G. Frazer,
15. i). On the other hand, in the earliest historical Golden Bough*, i. 368 sqq.; and W. R. Smith, Rel. Sem. 1 Index, ,
"
case, that of Samson, and in the similar case of Samuel (who, s.v. hair."
320 NEAL, D. NEANDER, JOACHIM
streams, the river Bann alone carries off its waters, flowing speaking, a poor man. He was closely associated with the
northward. The principal feeders are the Main on the north,
movement which resulted in the Industrial and Provident
the Crumlin (whose waters have petrifying powers) on the east, Societies Act of 1876, and the passing of the Consolidation Act of
the Bann and Blackwater on the south, and the Ballinderry and 1862 v/as almost entirely due to his efforts. Besides publishing
Moyola on the west. Antrim and Toome, at the N.E. and N.W. pamphlets on co-operation he served on the executive com-
on the shores. mittee which afterwards developed into the Central Co-operative
respectively, are the only towns immediately
The islands are few and near the shores; namely, Skady Tower Board, and took an active part in the formation of the North of
on the north, Ram's Island (with a ruined round tower) on the England Co-operative Wholesale Society in 1863. One of the
east, Ready and Coney Islands on the southwest.
The lough founders of the Cobden mills in 1866, and the Agricultural and
abounds in fish, including gillaroo trout, char and pullen or Horticultural Association in 1867, he also promoted the annual
fresh-water herring. A tradition that the lough rose suddenly co-operative congress, afterwards becoming general secretary
from a fountain, inundating a populous district, and that remains of the Central Board. He was also a director of the Co-operative
of buildings may be seen below the waters, finds place in T >mas Insurance Company and a member of the Co-operative News-
Moore's ballad Let Erin remember. paper Society for many years. He visited America in 1875 with
NEAL, DANIEL (1678-1743), English historian, born in a deputation whose object was to open up a direct trade between
London on the I4th of December 1678, was educated at the the farmers of the western states and the English co-operative
Merchant Taylors' School, and at the universities of Utrecht stores. After resigning the post of secretary to the congress
and Leiden. In 1704 he became assistant minister, and in 1706 board in 1891, he became a member of the Oxford University
sole minister, of an independent congregation worshipping in branch of the Christian Social Union. He died on the i6th of
Aldersgate Street, and afterwards in Jewin Street, London, September 1892.
where he remained almost until his death on the 4th of April NEALE, JOHN MASON (1818-1866), English divine and
1743. He married Elizabeth Lardner (d. 1748), by whom he had scholar, was born in London on the 24th of January 1818, and
one son, Nathanael, and two daughters. In 1720 Neal published was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. Here he was
his History of New England, which obtained for its author the affected by the Oxford movement, and helped to found the
honorary degree of M.A. from Harvard college. He Camden (afterwards the Ecclesiological) Society. Though he
also undertook to assist Dr John Evans in writing a history of took orders in 1841, ill-health prevented his settling in England
Nonconformity. Evans, however, died in 1730, and, making till 1846, when he became warden of Sackville College, an alms-
use of his papers for the period before 1640, Neal wrote the house at East Grinstead, an appointment which he held till his
whole of the work himself. This History of the Puritans deals death on the 6th of August 1866.
with the time between the Reformation and 1689; the first Neale was strongly high-church in his sympathies, and had to
volume appearing in 1732, and the fourth and last in 1738. endure a good deal of opposition, including a fourteen years'
The first volume was attacked in 1733 for unfairness and in- inhibition by his bishop. In 1855 he founded a nursing sisterhood
accuracy by Isaac Maddox, afterwards bishop of St Asaph and named St Margaret's. He occupies a high place as a hymn-
of Worcester, to whom Neal replied in a pamphlet, A Review of ologist, but principally as a translator of ancient and medieval
"
the principal facts objected to in the first volume of the History of hymns, the best known being probably Brief life is here our
the Puritans; and the remaining volumes by Zachary Grey portion," "To thee, O dear, dear country," and "Jerusalem,
(1688-1766), to whom the author made no reply. the golden," which are included in the poem of Bernard of
The History of the Puritans was edited, in five volumes, by Dr Cluny, De Conlemplu Mundi, translated by him in full. He also
Joshua Toulmin (1740-1815), who added a life of Neal in 1797. published An Introduction to the History of the Holy Eastern
This was reprinted in 1822, and an edition in two volumes was Church (1850, 2 vols.); History of the so-called Jansenist Church
published in New York in 1844. of Holland (1858); Essays on Liturgiology and Church History
NEAL, DAVID DALHOFF (1838- ), American artist, was (1863); and many other works.
born at Lowell, Massachusetts, on the 2oth of October 1838. See Life by his daughter, Mrs Charles Towle (1907) the Memoir
;
He was a pupil of the Royal Academy, Munich, under Max. by his friend, R. F. Littledale and the Letters of John Mason Neale
;
E. Ainmiller, whose daughter he subsequently married. Later (1910), selected and edited by his daughter. For a complete list of
Neale's works see article in Diet, of Nat. Biog. xl. 145.
he entered the studio of Piloty, with whom he remained from
"
1869 to 1876. His picture, The First Meeting of Mary Stuart NEAMTZU (Neamtu), a town in Rumania, situated among
and Rizzio," won for him the great medal of the Royal Bavarian the lower slopes of the Carpathian Mountains, and on the left
"
Academy of Art. Besides portraits his canvases include James bank of the river Neamtzu, an affluent of the Moldova. Pop.
Watt," a large historical composition shown at the Royal (1900) 8578, about half being Jews. Neamtzu gives its name
" "
Academy, 1874, Chapel of the Kings at Westminster (collec- to the Department of which Piatra is the capital. Lying ism.
"
tion of F. Cutting, Boston) and Cromwell visiting Milton " S. by E. of Falticheni, the nearest railway station, it has little
(Hurlbut collection, Cleveland, Ohio). trade. Near the ruined fortress of Neamtzu, constructed
it is
NEALE, EDWARD VANSITTART English
(1810-1892), early in the I3th century by the Teutonic knights of Andrew II.,
co-operator and Christian Socialist, was born at Bath on the king of Hungary, in order to repel the incursions of the
2nd of April 1810, the son of a Buckinghamshire clergyman. Cumanians. An hour's drive to the west of the town is the
After receiving his earlier education at home he went to Oriel monastery of Neamtzu, founded in the I4th century, and con-
College, Oxford. In 1837 he was called to the bar at Lincoln's taining two churches and many ancient and interesting relics.
Inn. He became a member of the Christian Socialists in 1850 Before the secularization of the monastic lands in 1864, it was one
and also joined the council of the Society for Promoting Working of the richest and most important of the Rumanian monasteries.
Men's Associations. His wealth enabled him to carry out Baltzatesti, 10 m. W. by S. of Neamtzu, is locally famous for its
experiments in co-operation on a larger scale than had been mineral springs and baths.
previously attempted. He founded the first co-operative store NEANDER, JOACHIM (1650-1680), German hymnwriter, was
in London, and advanced the capital for two builders' associations, born at Bremen. The family name, Neumann, had,
originally
both of which failed. In 1851, though strongly opposed by other according to the prevailing fashion a century earlier, been
members of the promoting " Council," he started on his own Graecized as Neander. After studying at Heidelberg and
initiative the Central Co-operative Agency, similar in many Frankfort, where he formed friendships with Friedrich Spanheim
respects to the Co-operative Wholesale Society of a later day. (1632-1701) and Philipp Jakob Spener (1635-1705), he settled
The failure of this scheme, together with that of the operatives' at Diisseldorf as rector of the Latin school in connexion with
cause in the engineering lock-out of 1832 is said to have cost him the Reformed Church. In 1676 he incurred church censure
40,000. It is certain that until in later life he inherited the for abstaining and inducing others to abstain from joining
estate of Bisham Abbey in Berkshire he was, comparatively in the celebration of the communion. It was during the term of
NEANDER, JOHANN A. W. NEAP 321
his suspension from his teaching office that many of his hymns Kirche, and in 1837 his Das Leben Jesu Christi, in seinem
were written. He ultimately renounced his connexion with the gcschichtlichen Zusammenhang und seiner geschkhtlichen Enl-
separatists, and in 1679 returned to Bremen as one of the wickelung, called forth by the famous Life of David Strauss.
In addition to all these he published Denkwurdigkeilen aus der
preachers of St Martin's church. In the same year
he published
the Bundeslieder and Dankpsalmen, a collection of 71 hymns, Geschichte des Chtistentums (1823-1824, 2 vols., 1825, 3 vols.,
of which many are still in use. He died on the 3ist of May 1846); Das Eine und Mannichjallige des christlichen Lebens
1680. The Neanderthal, near Diisseldorf, takes its name from (1840); papers on Plotinus, Thomas Aquinas, Theobald Thamer,
him. For his place in hymnology see HYMNS. Blaise Pascal, J. H. Newman, Blanco White and T. Arnold,
See J. F. Iken, Joachim Neander, sein Leben und seine Lieder and other occasional pieces (Kleine Gelegenheitsschriften, 1829),
(1880). mainly of a practical, exegetical and historical character. He
NEANDER, JOHANN AUGUST WILHELM (1789-1830), died on the 'i4th of July 1850, worn out and nearly blind with
German theologian and church historian, was born at Gottingen inces-.^lt study. After his death a succession of volumes,
on the 17th of January 1789. His father, Emmanuel Mendel, representing his various courses of lectures, appeared (1856-
is said to have been a Jewish pedlar, but August adopted the 1864), in addition to the Lectures on the History of Dogma (Theo-
name of Neander on his baptism as a Christian. While still logische Vorlesungen), admirable in spirit and execution, which
very young, he removed with his mother to Hamburg. There, were edited by J. L. Jacobi in 1857.
as throughout life, the simplicity of his personal appearance Neander's theological position can only be explained in connexion
and the oddity of his manners attracted notice, but still more, with Schleiermacher, and the manner in which while adopting he
his great industry and mental power. From the grammar-school modified and carried out the principles of his master. Character-
istically meditative, he rested with a secure footing on the great
(Johanneum) he passed to the gymnasium, where the study of central truths of Christianity, and recognized strongly their essential
Plato appears especially to have engrossed him. Considerable reasonableness and harmony. Alive to the claims of criticism, he no
interest attaches to his early companionship with Wilhelm "
less strongly asserted the rights of Christian feeling. Without it,"
"
Neumann and certain others, among whom were the writer he emphatically says, there can be no theology; it can only thrive
Karl August Varnhagen von Ense and the poet Adelbert von in the calmness of a soul consecrated to God." This explains his
"
favourite motto: Pectus est quod theologum facit."
Chamisso. His Church History (Allgemeine Geschichte der christlichen Religion
Baptized on the 25th of February 1806, in the same year und Kirche) remains the greatest monument of his genius. In this
"
Neander went to Halle to study divinity. Here Schleiermacher Neander's chief aim was everywhere to understand what was
was then lecturing. Neander found in him the very impulse which individual in history. In the principal figures of ecclesiastical
he needed, while Schleiermacher found a pupil of thoroughly history he tried to depict the representative tendencies of each age,
and also the types of the essential tendencies of human nature
congenial feeling, and one destined to carry out his views in a generally. His guiding principle in treating both of the history and
higher and more effective Christian form than he himself was of the present condition of the church was that Christianity has
room for the various tendencies of human nature, and aims at per-
capable of imparting to them. But before the year had closed
the events of the Franco-Prussian War compelled his removal meating and glorifying them all; that according to the divine plan
these various tendencies are to occur successively and simultaneously
to Gottingen. There he continued his studies with ardour, and to counterbalance each other, so that the freedom and variety
made himself yet more master of Plato and Plutarch, and of the development of the spiritual life ought not to be forced into
"
became especially advanced in theology under the venerable a single dogmatic form (Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology,
p. Several of his books have passed into new and revised
i.8o).
G. J. Planck (1751-1833). The impulse communicated by
editions and have been translated into English. Among these
Schleiermacher was confirmed by Planck, and he seems now English versions may be mentioned General History of the Christian
to have realized that the original investigation of Christian Religion and Church, translated by J. Torrey (1850-1858); History
history was to form the great work of his life. of the Planting and Training of the Church by the Apostle, by J. E.
Having finished his university course, he returned to Hamburg, Ryland (1851); Julian and his Generation, by G. V. Cox (1850);
Life of Jesus, by J. M'Clintock and C. E. Blumenthal (1848); and
and passed his examination for the Christian ministry. After Memorials of Christian Life in the Early and Middle Ages, by J. E.
an interval of about eighteen months, however, he definitively Ryland (1852).
" " in See O. C. Krabbe, August Neander (1852), and a paper by C. F.
betook himself to an academic career, habilitating
Kling (1800-1861) in the Stud. u. Krit. for 1851; J. L. Jacobi,
Heidelberg, where two vacancies had occurred in the theological
Erinnerungen an August Neander (1882); Philipp Scnaff, Erinne-
faculty of the university. He entered upon his work here as a rungen an Neander (1886) Adolph Hamack, Rede auf.A ugust Neander
;
theological teacher in i3n; and in 1812 he became a professor. (1889); A. F. J. Wiegand, Neanders Leben (1889); L. T. Schulze,
In the same year (1812) he first appeared as an author by the August Neander (1890); and K. T. Schneider, August Neander
(1894). Cf. Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, and P. Schafi, Germany:
publication of his monograph Uber den Kaiser Julianus und sein its Universities and Theology (1857).
Zeitalter. The fresh insight into the history of the church
evinced by this work at once drew attention to its author, and NEANDERTHAL, a ravine near the village of Hochdal between
even before he had terminated the first year of his academical Diisseldorfand Elberfeld, Rhenish Prussia. Here in 1856 were
labours at Heidelberg, he was called to Berlin, where he was discovered in a Quaternary bed in the Feldhofen Cave human
appointed professor of theology. remains which have been referred to a type commcnly called
In the year following his appointment he published a second Neanderthal Man. The bones found were a brain-cap, two
monograph Der Heilige Bernhard und sein Zeitalter (Berlin, 1813), femora, two humeri and other fragments, now in the Fuhlrott
and then in 181$ his work on Gnosticism (Genelische Enltvickelung Collection, Elberfeld. The cranium, pronounced by Huxley to
der vornehmslen gnostischen Systeme). A still more extended be the most ape-like yet discovered, was remarkable for its
an elaborate monograph than either of the preceding followed enormous superciliary ridges. Professor Virchow and others
in 1822, Der Heilige Johannes Chrysostomus und die Kirchc, contended that the remarkable shape was pathological or caused
besonders des Orients in dessen Zeitalter, and again, in 1824, by disease during the lifetime of the individual. The subsequent
another on Tertullian (Antignoslikus). He had in the meantime, discovery of two other skulls, almost identical in form, at Spy
however, begun his great work, to which these several efforts in Belgium, have helped to prove its typical character. The now
were only preparatory studies. The first volume of his generally accepted view is that the Neanderthal skull represents
'
Allgemeine Geschichte der christlichen Religion und Kirche the oldest known dolichocephalic race of Europe.
embracing the history of the first three centuries, made its NEAP, a word only used of tides in which the high-water mark
appearance in 1825. The others followed at intervals the is at its lowest, there being the least difference in level between
fifth, which appeared in 1842, bringing down the narrative high and low water, opposed to "spring tides" (see TIDE).
to the pontificate of Boniface VIII. A posthumous volume, The word is obscure in origin. It appears in O. Eng. in ntpflod,
edited by C. F. T. Schneider in 1852, carried it on to the period and only once alone in the expression forthganges nep, " without
of the council of Basel. Besides this great work he published "
power of advancing." It may possibly be connected with nip,"
" "
in 1832 his Geschichte der
Pflanzung und Leitung der christlichen in the sense of pinched," scanty."
xrx. ii
322 NEARCHUS NEBO
NEARCHUS, one of the officers in the army of Alexander the
|
copper, iron and tin, mostly shipped from nieghbouring ports,
Great. A native of Crete, he settled at Amphipolis in Macedonia. while the principal imports are timber and general merchandise.
In 325, when Alexander descended the Indus to the sea, he Neath is included in the Swansea parliamentary district of
ordered Nearchus to conduct the fleet to the head of the Persian boroughs.
Gulf. The success with which Nearchus accomplished this The town perhaps occupies the site of the ancient Nidus or
arduous enterprise led to his selection by Alexander for the more Nidum of the Romans on the Julia Maritima from which a vicinal
difficult task of circumnavigating Arabia from the mouth of the road branched off here for Brecon. No traces of Roman anti-
Euphrates to the Isthmus of Suez. But this project was cut quities, however, have been found. Neath is a borough by
short by the illness and death of the king (323). In the troubles prescription and received its first charter about the middle of
that followed Nearchus attached himself to Antigonus, under the 1 2th century from William, earl of Gloucester, who granted
whom he held the government of his old provinces of Lycia and itsburgesses the same customs as those of Cardiff. Other charters
Pamphylia, and probably therefore shared in the downfall (301) were granted to it by successive lords of Glamorgan in 1290, 1340,
of that monarch. 1359, 1397, 1421 and 1423. By the first of these (1290) the town
He wrote a detailed narrative of his expedition, of which a full was granted a fair on St Margaret's Day (July 20) and as the
abstract was embodied by Arrian in his Indica one of the most abbey had extensive sheep walks the trade in wool was consider-
interesting geographical treatises of antiquity. able. In 1685 James II. granted a charter, which, however,
The text, with copious geographical notes, is published in C.
was not acted upon except for a short time.
Miiller's Geographi Graeci Minores, i. (1856) on the topography see
; NEBO, or NABU (" the proclaimer "), the name of one of the
W. Tompschek, " Tppographische Erlauterung der Kiistenfahrt chief gods of the Babylonian pantheon, the main seat of whose
Nearchs \om Indus bis zum Euphrat" in Sitzungsberichte der K. K.
Acad. der Wissenschaften, cxxi. (Vienna, 1890). See also E. H. worship was at Borsippa opposite the city of Babylon. It is
Bunbury, Ancient Geography, i. ch. 13 and ALEXANDER THE GREAT.
;
due to the close association of Borsippa with Babylon after
Ancient authorities. Arrian, Anab. vi. 19, 21; vii. 4, 19, 20, 25; the period when Babylon became the centre of the Babylonian
Plutarch, Alexander, 10, 68, 75; Strabo xv. pp. 721, 725; Diod. Sic. empire that the cult of Nebo retained a prominence only some
xvii. 104; Justin xiii. 4.
degrees less than that of Marduk. The amicable relationship
NEATH (Welsh, Castell-NMd), a municipal and contributory between the two was expressed by making Nebo the son of
parliamentary borough, seaport and market-town of Glamorgan- Marduk. In this case the expression of the relationship in this
shire, south Wales, prettily situated near the mouth of the form was intended to symbolize the superiority of Marduk,
Neath or Nedd, on the Great Western and the Rhondda and different, therefore, from the view involved in making Marduk
Swansea Bay railways, i\ m. E.N.E. of Swansea and 1835 m. the son of Ea (q.v.), which meant that the prerogatives of Ea
by rail from London, via Badminton. The Neath and Brecon were transferred to Marduk by the priests of Babylon.
railway has a terminus in the town. Pop. (1901) 13,720. The Borsippa became in the course of time so completely a mere
principal buildings are the parish church of St Thomas (restored adjunct to Babylon that' one might fairly have expected the
1874), the church of St David (1866), a Roman Catholic Nebo cult to have been entirely absorbed by that of Marduk.
church, and Baptist, Calvinistic, Methodist, Congregational Since that did not happen, the legitimate inference is that
and Wesleyan chapels; the intermediate and technical schools other deterrent factors were at play. One of these factors was
the position that Nebo had acquired as the
" "
(1895), Davies's endowed (elementary) school (1789), the Gwyn god of wisdom
Hall (1888), the town hall, with corn exchange in the basement to whom more particularly the introduction of writing was
storey, and the market-house. According to tradition lestyn- ascribed. He takes his place, therefore, by the side of Ea as
ap-Gwrgan, the last prince of Glamorgan, had a residence a cultural deity. The wisdom associated with him had largely
somewhere near the present town, but Fitzhamon, on his con- to do with the interpretation of the movements in the heavens,
quest of Glamorgan, gave the district between the Neath and and the priests of Nebo at an early age must have acquired
the Tawe to Richard de Granaville (ancestor of the Granvilles, widespread fame as astrologers. Assuming now, for which
marquesses of Bath), who built on the west banks of the Neath there is a reasonable amount of confirmatory evidence, that the
first a castle and then in 1129 a Cistercian abbey, to whose monks priestly school of Nebo had acquired a commanding position
he later gave all his possessions in the district. All traces of before Babylon rose to political importance we can understand
have disappeared. Another castle, built in the same
this castle why the worshippers of Marduk persisted in paying homage to
century, on the east bank, was held direct by the lords of Nebo, and found a means of doing so without lowering the
Glamorgan, as the westernmost outpost of their lordship. It was dignity and standing of their own god. If Assur-bani-pal, the
frequently attacked by the Welsh, notably in 1231 when it was king of Assyria (668-626 B.C.), in the subscripts to the copies
taken, and the town demolished by Llewelyn ab lorwerth. The of Babylonian literary tablets invokes as he invariably does
portcullis gate and a tower are all that remain of it; of the abbey Nebo and his consort Tashmit as the gods of writing to whom
which was at one time the finest in Wales, there still exist the all wisdom is traced, it is fair to assume that in so doing he was
external walls, with parts of the chapel, vaulted chapter-house, following ancient tradition and that the priests of Marduk
refectory and abbot's house. This abbey was the spot where likewise were dependent upon the school at Borsippa for their
Edward II. found shelter after from Caerphilly. At
his escape knowledge and wisdom.
the dissolution the abbey and the manor
of Cadoxton (part of Nebo is therefore an older god than Marduk in the sense
its possessions) were sold to Sir Richard Williams or Cromwell. that his specific prerogative as the god of wisdom was too firmly
Its cartulary has been lost. Copper smelting has been carried on recognized when Marduk became the head of the Babylonian
in or near the town since 1584 when the Mines Royal Society set pantheon to be set aside.
up works Neath Abbey; the industry attained huge propor-
at The temple school at Borsippa continued to flourish until
tions a century later under Sir Humphrey Mackworth, who from the end of the neo-Babylonian empire, and school texts of
1695 carried on copper and lead smelting at Melincrythan. various contents, dated in the reigns of Artaxerxes, Cambyses
Besides its copper works the town at present possesses extensive and Darius, furnish the evidence that the school survived even
tinplate, steel and galvanized sheet works as well as iron and the conquest of Babylonia by Cyprus (538 B.C.). The original
brass foundries, steam-engine factories, brick and tile works, character of Nebo can no longer be determined with any degree
engineering works, flannel factories and chemical works. In of definiteness. He may have been a solar deity, but there are
the neighbourhood there are numerous large collieries, and coal also decided indications which point to his being a water-deity
is shipped from wharves on the
riverside, vessels of 300 or 400 like Ea. It may be, therefore, that if he shows the traits of a
tons being able to reach the quays at high tide. The Neath solar deity, this may be due to the influence of the neighbouring
Canal, from the upper part of the Vale of Neath to Briton Ferry Marduk cult, just as in return Marduk takes on attributes that
(13 m.) passes through the town, which is also connected with belong of right to Nebo. Thus, as the god of writing, Nebo
Swansea by another canal. There is a large export trade in coal, has charge of the tables of fate on which he inscribes the names
NEBRASKA 323
broken
of men and decides what their lot is to be. If in the systematized lands,
by canyons, dotted with buttes, and dominated by
some bold and lofty ridges. Pine Ridge, a picturesque escarpment
religious system, Marduk appears as the arbiter of human of the Great Plains, cuts across the N.W. corner of Nebraska from
fates, the conclusion is warranted that Marduk is here imbued Wyoming into South Dakota. A ridge of low hills and bluffs, often
with the authority which originally was in the hands of his son. precipitous, marked by buttes and deeply cut in places by canons, it is
A reconciliation between the rival claims was effected by con- the most striking surface feature of the state. The altitude in this
region varies from 3500 to 5000 ft. In the fork of the North and
tinuing Nebo in the r61e of scribe, but as writing at the dictation South Platte are the Wild Cat Mountains with contours rising to
of the gods, thus recording what the divine assembly, gathered
5300 ft., in which Wild Cat Mountain, long reported as the highest
in the
"
chamber of fates " (known as Ubshu Kinakku) within point in the state, attains 5038 ft., Hogback Mountain 5082 ft., and
the precincts of E-Saggila Marduk's temple at Babylon under various other hills Gabe Rock (5006), Big Horn Mountain (4718),
the presidency of Marduk, had decided.
Coliseum Rock (5050), Scotts Bluff (4662) &c. rise to heights of
4500 to 5000 ft. In the extreme N.W. the White river and Hat
Nebo also does homage to his father by paying him an annual Creek have carved canyons in deep lacustrine deposits, creating
visit during the New Year celebration, when the god was solemnly fantastic cliffs and buttes, bare of vegetation, gashed with drainage
carried across to Babylon, and in return Marduk accompanied channels, and baked by the sun. The buttes bare, pyramidal or
his son part way back to his shrine at Borsippa. Within E- conical, flat-topped, precipitous hills, and often fantastic, towering
pinnacles are rather widely distributed through the foot-hill
Saggila, Nebo had a sanctuary known, as was his chief temple
" '
region. They are never more than 600 to 1000 ft. above the sur-
at Borsippa, as E-Zida, the legitimate (or firm ') house," and rounding country. Nature is not grand in any part of Nebraska,
the close bond existing between father and son was emphasized but the Bad Lands are imposing, and in the wooded foot-hills there
is an abundance of bold and attractive scenery, particularly in Sioux
by providing for Marduk within theprecinct of E-Zida, a sanctuary
" county, and in Cherry county around Valentine and on the canyon of
which bore the same name, E-Saggila, the lofty house," as the Snake river. East of the Bad Lands is the sand-hill region, which
Marduk's temple at Babylon. The kings, and more particularly includes an area of possibly 20,000 sq. m. The sand-hills proper are
those of the neo-Babylonian dynasty, devote themselves assidu- scattered over an area of perhaps 15,000 sq. m., between the meridians
of 98 and 103 W. long., lying mainly N. of the Platte; though there
ously to the worship and embellishment of both E-Saggila and
are some along the Republican river. In places they rise in tiers,
E-Zida. In their inscriptions Marduk and Nebo are invoked one above another, like miniature mountains, and are 200 to 300 ft.
together and the names of the two temples constantly placed high; but in general they are very low (25-50 ft. high) and are
side by side. The symbols of the two gods are similarly combined. scattered over a plain. Their present contours are wholly the result
On boundary stones and cylinders, when Marduk's symbol of wind action. Save in rare instances, however, they have long
ceased to be shifting dunes; for, with the cessation of prairie fires
the lance is depicted, Nebo's symbol the stylus is generally and the increase of settlement, they have become well grassed over
found adjacent. The dragon, though of right belonging to and stable; although sand-draws, and even occasional " blow-outs"
Marduk (<?..), as the conqueror of Tiamat, also becomes the scooped by the winds in the summits or sides of the hills are still
characteristic landmarks. All about and inter-penetrating the foot-
symbol of Nebo, and similarly in other respects the two form hill and sand-hill regions are the prairies, which include three-fourths
a close partnership. Such is the relation between the two of the state. They are sometimes characteristically flat over wide
that occasionally, as in the official reports of astrologers and areas, but are usually gently rolling. Stream valleys and bottom
in official letters, Nebo is even mentioned before Marduk without lands are the conspicuous modifying feature of the prairie region;
fear of thereby offending the pride of the priests of Marduk. but in general, owing to the gentle slope of the streams and the great
breadth of the plains, erosion has been slight; and indeed the
In Assyria the Nebo cult likewise enjoyed great popularity,
streams, overloaded in seasonal freshets, are building up their
and there is a record of one Assyrian ruler who made Nebo his valley floors. The water-partings are characteristically level
specific deity and called upon his subjects to put their whole trust uplands, often with shallow depressions, once lakes, and some of them
One may still so. The valleys of the greatest streams are huge shallow troughs.
in him. discern, indeed, a tendency in Assyria to take
The valley floor of the North Platte in the foot-hills, the flood-plain
advantage of the almost equal plane on which Nebo stands of an older river, is in places 700 ft or more below the bounding
with Marduk in Babylonia, to play off Nebo as it were against tableland, and 10 to IS m. wide; the present flood-plain being from
Marduk. The Assyrian kings in this way, by glorifying at I to 4 m. in width. Hundreds of small tributaries to the greater
times Nebo at the expense of Marduk, paid their debt of homage streams (especially along the Republican and the Logan) complicate
and beautify the landscape. No farming country is richer in quiet
to the south without any risk of lowering the grade of their
and diversified scenic charm than the prairies of the eastern half of
own chief deity Assur. Marduk was in a measure Assur's rival. the state. The Missouri is noteworthy for high bluffs cut by ravines,
This was not the case, however, with Nebo, and they accordingly which border it almost continuously on at least one side. In the foot-
showed a desire to regard Nebo rather than Marduk as the hills there are typical canyons, as along the Platte forks, and in the
northern edge of the sand-hills Those of the upper Republican are
characteristic representative of the southern pantheon. In the
the largest, those of the Bad Lands are the most peculiar; and the
astral-theological system Nebo was identified with the planet Niobrara tributary system is the most developed.
Mercury. His consort, known as Tashmit, plays no independent Rivers. The Missouri skirts the eastern border for perhaps 500 m.
It is not navigated, and save at Sioux City and Omaha serves
part, and is rarely invoked except in connexion with Nebo.
See also BABYLON, BORSIPPA, BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN practically no economic purposes, irrigation being unnecessary in the
counties on which it borders. Its bluffs, cut for the most part in the
RELIGION. (M. JA.) loess but at places in the rock, are frequently from 100 to 200 ft.
NEBRASKA, a state just N. of the centre of the U.S.A., lying high. At Vermilion, South Dakota, its alluvial plain, 1131 ft. above
approximately between 40 and 43 N. and between 18 18' W., the sea, is 330 ft. above the mouth of the Nemaha. The current is
and 27 W. from Washington. It is bounded on the N. by South always rapid and heavily loaded with sediment, and its axis is
1
forever shifting. Large areas of soil are thus shifted back and forth
Dakota, on the E. by Iowa and a corner of Missouri, on the
between Nebraska and the bordering states, to the encouragement
S. by Kansas, on the S. and W. by a corner of Colorado, and
of border lawlessness and uncertainty of titles; some portions E. of
on the W. by Wyoming. The Missouri river extends along the the thread and apparently well within Iowa remain under the
eastern and north-eastern border. The extreme length of the jurisdiction of Nebraska, or vice versa; and Yankton has been
state is about 430 m., and extreme breadth about 210 m. The seriously threatened with a sudden transfer from the South Dakota
to the Nebraska side. The Platte system is also heavily loaded with
area is 77,520 sq. m., of which 712 are water surface.
sediment in Nebraska. The North and South forks both rise in
Physical Features. The state lies partly in the physiographic Colorado; each, especially the latter, has a rapid primary descent,
province of the Great Plains (covering more than four-fifths of its
very gradual fall down the
and. a foot-hills of the Great Plains.*
area) and partly in that of the Prairie Plains, and slopes gently from Across Nebraska it maintains a remarkably straight course and an
the N.W. to the S.E. The altitudes of extreme geographical points
extraordinarily even gradient (about 6 ft. per mile). In the spring
are as follows: Rulo, in the S.E. corner of the state, 842 ft.; Dakota freshets it is a magnificent stream, but in summer its volume greatly
city, in the N.E., 1102; Benkelman, in the S.W in Dundy county, shrinks, and it is normally a broad, shallow, sluggish, stream, flowing
2968; Kimball, in the S.W. in Kimball county, 4697; Harrison, in through interlacing channels among the sand-bars it heaps athwart
the N.W. corner, 4849 ft. There are three physiographic sub- its course. The underflow is probably much greater than the summer
divisions; the foot-hills (and Bad Lands), the sand -hills and the
all three being
prairie portions of three great corresponding regions
of the Great Plains and Prairie Plains
provinces.
1
About 52 grains per gallon at low water, 404 at high.
The western portion of the state lies in the foot-hills of the Rocky 1
The North Platte falls 3700 ft. in 510 m., the South. 7?oo ft. in
Mountain system, and is much rougher than western Kansas. The 427 m., above their junction; the latter falling 2692 ft. ID 308 m.
surface of western Nebraska is characterized by high, barren table- after leaving its canyon in the Rockies.
324 NEBRASKA
surface flow in volume. The Loup system is remarkable for the even the Cretaceous extends across the state from N. to S. between 98
dip of its parallel feeders, which once joined the Plattt separately, and 99 W. long. Its groups include the Dakota formation, char-
until the latter banked up its deposits across the mouths of their acterized by a very peculiar rusty sandstone, and the Benton, both
more sluggish currents. The Republican and South Platte the of which are rather widely accessible and heavy; the Niobrara; the
former an intermittent stream suffer in their flow from the drain Pierre shales, which underlie about three-quarters of the
apparently
made upon their waters in Colorado for irrigation. The upper course state in a deep and heavy bed; and, in the extreme west, the
of the Niobrara above the Keya Paha is in a narrow gorge. Its Laramie. There are almost no Cretaceous outcrops except on the
immediate bluffs and the shores of some of its tributaries, notably streams, especially the Niobrara, Republican and Platte rivers
the Snake, are modified by canons. This system is also notable and in the Bad Lands. The superficial Miocene and Pliocene
among Nebraska streams for a number of pretty water-falls. The deposits in the west, above referred to, are underlaid by the White
White river, heading on Pine Ridge, falls noo ft. in 20 m. Some river groups of the Oligocene, whose outcrops of Brule clay and
streams wholly dry up in the dry seasons, and in the foot-hills and Chadron formation also have been mentioned. The Bad Lands are
sand-hills there are a few that disappear by sinking or evaporation. essentially nothing but fresh-water mud excessively weathered and
Surface Water. Swamps and bogs, apart from purely temporary eroded. They are often intersected by dikes of chalcedony, formerly
weather ponds, are confined to a few restricted regions of the mistaken for lava. The Bad Lands and the Arikaree are famous
"
Missouri river bottoms and the prairies of the S.E. There are some fossil fields, the latter being the source of the Daemonelix, or Devil's
cut-offs or oxbow lakes along the Missouri, and many lakelets origin- cork-screw," a large spiral fossil, apparently a lacustrine alga. It
ally such are scattered along the Platte, Elkhorn, Big Blue and other was once generally supposed that the Pliocene epoch in Nebraska
rivers. Scores of lakes are scattered about the heads of streams was distinguished by the activity of geysers; but the so-called
rising in the sand-hills, especially in Cherry county. Some of them
"
geyserite
"
now known commonly and correctly as " natural
" "
are fresh and some alkaline. Springs also are numerous in the sand- pumice and volcanic ash," which is found in the Oligocene and
hills, where they form considerable streams. They often" flow with" later formations, has no connexion whatever with geysers, but is
force and are known locally from this peculiarity as
"
artesian produced by the shattering of volcanic rock. It occurs widely in
springs, or sometimes, from this and their large size, as mound " Nebraska and adjoining states.
springs. The state fish-hatchery is on springs at South Bend; at Minerals. Mineral resources are decidedly limited; the total
Long Pine springs of large flow supply the town and railway shops value of the mineral output (excluding coal) in 1907 was$i, 383,916,
with water, and led to the establishment here of Chautauqua grounds. of which $953,432 was the value of clay products, $324,239 of stone,
Underground Water. The so-called blowing-wells are peculiar. and $54,227 of sand and gravel. The state, however, is particularly
They occur over much of the state, but most frequently S. of the rich in good clays, which are probably its greatest mineral resource.
Platte, and are evidently sensitive to barometric conditions; alter- Calcite of excellent quality is the commonest mineral. Gravel is
nately "blowing" or '"sucking" as these vary; so that, in cold widely obtainable, and sand of the finest quality is available in
weather water-pipes may be frozen looor more feet below the surface inexhaustible quantities, and is an important article of export.
of the ground. Atmospheric is probably the cause Flint (valuable for railway ballast) occurs in immense quantities
pressure principal "
of their action ; they are therefore termed
'
weather wells in about Wymore and Blue Springs. The underground salt water flow
some localities. Nearly all counties have a practically inexhaustible promised once to be a resource of value, especially in the vicinity
supply of ground water. Well-depths vary from 15 to 20 ft. in the of Lincoln, but has proved of little or no value in comparison with
stream valleys and from 30 to 35 ft. on the loess prairies to 100-400 ft. the great salt-beds of Kansas. A native plaster is yielded by the
in the western foot-hill region and isolated prairie areas. Artesian Arikaree and Ogallala rocks, but though otherwise of excellent
water is also available in many parts of the state. At Niobrara, in qualities it is ruined by slight exposure to the water. A diatomaceous
Knox county, a well 656 ft. deep, drilled in 1896, yielded for a time earth in central Nebraska, occurring especially in the region of Loup,
2500 gallons per minute at 95-lt> pressure (in 1903 1900 gallons at is a good polishing powder, and is used for packing steam pipes.
65-lb pressure), and furnishes power for a flour-mill and municipal Limonite in the form of ochre occurs in considerable quantity. Of
water and electric lighting works; the pressure forces the water building stones limestones are the most abundant" and important, "
about 210 ft. above the mouth of the well, i.e. to a height of 1450 ft. the best comes from the Benton beds and when green can be
Another (1430 ft. deep), in the environs of Omaha, supplies a daily sawed into blocks. The Dakota formation, though its sand-stones
flow of 1,100,000 gallons under a pressure of 15 Ib. In some small are in general coarse or otherwise inferior, yields some of splendid
and exceptional regions the water is very alkaline, and in the counties quality. Its clays, which are of all colours, are the most valuable of
of the south-east it is so generally saline that it is difficult, below the state. The finest building stone is a beautiful green quartzite
150 ft., to avoid an inflow of salt water. Saline wells at Lincoln rock of dense, fine texture and lasting quality. It is related to the
(2463, 1050 and 570 ft. deep) and at Beatrice (1260 ft.) are notable Ogallala beds and occurs only in smallareas. The quarries and clay
in this regard. pits of the state are mainly in the Carboniferous region of the S.E.
Geology. The eastern part of the state is covered with a thick Cretaceous lignite occurs in small quantities in the N.E., and peat
mantle of Quaternary (Pleistocene), and the greatest part of the more widely. The Carboniferous formations carry only thin seams
western portion with very thick deposits of Miocene and Pliocene of coal, never thicker than about 2 ft., and rarely readily accessible,
(Tertiary). To the Pleistocene belong the alluvium, loess and glacial and they can never be of more than small and merely local import-
drift, and in part the sand-hills. The drift covers the eastern fifth ance.
of the state. In striking contrast to Iowa, the Nebraska deposit is Flora. Nebraska lies partly in the arid, or Upper Sonoran, and
very thin, seldom thicker than I or 2" ft. Above the" drift there is partly in the humid, or Carolinian, area of the Upper Austral life-
usually a heavy covering of loess or bluff deposit (particularly zone; the divisional line being placed by the United States Biological
typical in the neighbourhood of Omaha and Council Bluffs). Though Survey at about 100 W. long. The most marked characteristic of
thin and worn out in places, it averages probably 100 ft., and is often Nebraskan vegetation is its immigrant character, and the state has
"
as much as 200 ft. in thickness, and runs diagonally across the state been called one of the finest illustrations of the commingling of
"
from the N.E. to the Colorado inset. The opinion that it is of contiguous species to be found anywhere in America (C. E. Bessey).
aqueous origin (and probably dates from the close of the glacial time) Immigrant species have even come from Texas and New Mexico,
has the weight of authority. It was spread by the rivers: some from the Dakotas and the Rockies. From the last-named various
e"idences of wind action may be attributed to a later period. The species have crept two-thirds of the way across the state, one (the
sand-hills, which overlap the loess N. of the Platte, are probably buffalo berry) wholly covers it, and some have barely crossed into
mainly derived from the Arikaree, but probably also in part from the the border foot-hills from Wyoming. A very few trees and shrubs,
early Pleistocene. West of 102 long, there are beds several hundred and some grasses, are strictly endemic to the plains and to Nebraska.
feet thick of late Tertiary sands and clays. The Arikaree (Miocene) Four floral regions lying in north to south belts across the state, and
and Ogallala (Pliocene) formations of the North Loup beds are super- closely corresponding to though in boundaries by no means coincid-
ficial over much of the western half of the state, the former to the N., ing with its great topographic divisions are distinguished in the
the latter to the S. The buttes are characteristically Arikaree or regions of the Missouri border, the prairies, sand-hills and foot-hills.
Gering formations topping Brule clay. The same is true of at least In 1896 some 3196, and by 1905 fully 3300 species had been listed,
"
considerable parts of Pine Ridge. In the Bad Lands there are
" representing
" every branch and nearly every class of the vegetable
scanty outcrops of the Chadron formation (known also as Titano- kingdom (C. E. Bessey). There are at least 64 trees and at least
therium beds ), the oldest of the Tertiary beds. The thick super- 77 shrubs growing native in the state; but of their joint number a
ficial coverings over the state make difficult the determination of the mere half-dozen or so can be classed as strictly endemic. Small
underlying strata. There are only very scanty outcrops except woods of broad-leaf trees (and red cedars) grow very generally along
along the rivers. No Archean roclcs are exposed in Nebraska, and all the water-courses of the state and coniferous species grow along
;
the sedimentary formations are undisturbed in situ. The Palaeozoic Pine Ridge and the Wild Cat Mountains. In the East, various trees
era is represented only by the Pennsylvanian series of the Upper are readily grown on the uplands; in the West the honey-locust, the
Carboniferous and a scanty strip of Kansas-Nebraska Permian, and Osage orange and Russian mulberry for windbreaks; the green ash,
is confined to the S.E. counties. and red cedar are perhaps the most valuable drought resisting
But, though small in area, the
Carboniferous is by far the most important formation as regards species. The conifers are spreading naturally. In the sand-hills the
mineral resources within the state. It is buried probably 2000 or sand-bar willow of the rivers and the cottonwoo.d growing naturally,
3000 ft. in central Nebraska, outcropping again only in the Rocky evidence the good conditions of moisture; and the forestation of
Mountains. Upon it, in the trough thus formed, rest conformably much of the region is undoubtedly possible. Forest reserves were
the basal strata of the Cretaceous; the Jurassic and Triassic being established on the Dismal river in 1902 and millions of seedlings had
wholly absent (unless in the extreme north-west). The E. limit of been grown by 1906 for transplantation in Nebraska and other states
NEBRASKA 325
of the Great Plains. Arbor Day (the loth of April) was instituted wrung dry of its moisture and so hot that in a day or two it shrivels
by the Nebraska State Board of Agriculture in 1872 at the instance of and ruins the crops in its path. Such calamities are, however,
J. Sterling Morton, later secretary
of agriculture of the United uncommon, and the belief that Nebraska is often visited by tornadoes
States (see ARBOR DAY). It has been yearly observed by the public is erroneous.
schools of the state, and no state has done more than Nebraska for The normal mean-annual temperature of the state is about 48-7 F,
the forestation of its waste and prairie lands. In such a purely and the normals approximately equal weather sections into
for the six
agricultural state" a large wooded
"
area is not desired. Plums, grapes which the state is divided by the National Weather Service are
and the dwarf sand-cherry (Prunus demissa) of the sand-hills respectively about 48, 50-5, 48-6, 50-4, 47-9 and 46-6 F. This
are prominent among many wild fruits. The flora is decidedly rich illustrates the extraordinary homogeneity of climatic conditions.
in species as
compared with other states, but less so in the number But there is a considerable difference in the averages for different
of individuals. Grasses are perhaps the most noteworthy vegetable months the normal means of January and July through 30 years
forms. Nebraska claims a greater variety of native hay and forage being 20-9 and 74-6 F., and the means of spring, summer, autumn
species than grow in any other state of the Union. No less than and winter respectively about 48, 72, 53 and 23-5 F. Thus there
200 grasses, at least 154 being wild or commonly cultivated, had been is for any particular locality a wide range in absolute
temperature
listed in 1904. Of the total 200 species 150 (130 indigenous) are valu- through the year, which averages for the state probably about 120
able for forage, 34 (20 indigenous) are classed economically as weeds, (1897-1905). Similarly, the range is large through the day, especially
10 are non-indigenous cereals and 6 are ornamental. The short in the higher altitudes, where the nights are almost invariably cool
buffalo-grass wasoriginally everywhere abundant, but it had practi- and refreshing after even the hottest day. The number of continu-
cally disappeared by 1890 from the eastern half of the state, and since ous days with a mean temperature above
50 F., averages probably
then has steadily become more restricted in habitat. The native about 175 for the state. The actual growing-season between frosts
prairie grasses
have been in considerable part displaced by grasses is, however, not so great.
Temperature is of course lower as one
introduced from more humid regions. Weeds are very numerous moves to the N. and N.W., the initial planting and harvesting of each
(about 125); and some, notably the sand-bur (Soianum rostratum) crop progressing wave-like across the state in from one to two weeks.
cockle-bur, and tumble-weeds among indigenous, and the Russian Especially in the W. and N.W. there are in some winters occasional
thistle (Salsola tragus) and purslane among non-indigenous species, anti-cyclonic or high-area storms known as blizzards wind-storms
are agricultural pests. Nothing can surpass in beauty the rank preceded or accompanied by snow-fall which are very severe.
grasses and bright flowers that grow on the lowlands and rolling They continue from one to three days, and are habitually followed
uplands of a virgin prairie now hardly to be found in the state. by very low temperature. They are the cause of great loss to
The common sunflower (the most conspicuous weed of the state) the cattle owners. Such storms are, however, rare. In the S.E.
and allied flowers, which spring up in myriads even in the midst of portion of the state the winters are characteristically mild and open.
unbroken prairie wherever this is disturbed, line the roads with Temperatures below zero are rare for any locality; and the same
yellow bands from horizon to horizon, enclose the broken fields may be said of temperatures above 95 in summer.
and choke waste places. The normal mean-annual precipitation for the whole state is about
Fauna. The fauna of the state is not known with the same 23-84 in. in rain and melted snow, the actual yearly fall varying
thoroughness and detail as the flora, but it too is varied. This is through 30 years between 13-30 and 31-65 in. Such rainfall might
notably true of birds and of insects. Of the latter there are seem inadequate for an agricultural country: moreover, the eastern
probably 12,000 to 15,000 species, including 140 butterflies, at least half of the state is more favoured than the western, which belongs,
"
180 grasshoppers, several hundred bees, &c. The so-called grass indeed, to the semi-arid Great Plains on which the Reclamation
hoppers," true locusts, have done great damage at times in Nebraska. Service of the United States Government is active. But aridity is a
About a third of all the species known in the United States are found matter of the efficiency rather than of the mere quantity of rainfall-,
within the state or close to its borders, and of these, 9 or 10 are so and in this regard Nebraska is
very fortunately situated. Rain is
common that their increase under conditions favourable to their most plenteous in the critical months of the year. Seven-tenths of
development may be a danger Such conditions are found in dry all precipitation falls in the growing season, giving the state, especi-
years, unfavourable to their chief parasitic enemies, favourable to ally in the east, a greater amount at this time than many other states
their own breeding, and the cause of their migrations. There were whose aggregate yearly rainfall is greater; so that Nebraska has an
locust plagues in 1874, 1876 and 1877. Fungus parasites have been abundance for the safest cultivation. Moreover, nine-tenths of the
used with some, but on the whole rather slight, success, and rainfall is absorbed by the loess and sandy soils, only one-tenth being
"
mechanical appliances with perhaps greater success, in combating run-off." It is a widely spread but unfounded belief in Nebraska
these pests. Birds are more effective. As in the case of plants, that the rainfall has been increasing since the settlement of the
western, eastern, northern and southern avian species meet in state. That its storage has very greatly increased as cultivation has
Nebraska. In 1905 some 415 to 420 species had been found within been extended (the prairie sod sheds water like a roof) is true;
its borders, and more than half of these were known to nest in the moreover, the spread of scientific principles of farming has increased
state; 120 had been counted in the winter. The lakes of the sand- the advantage derived from the ground-water stored. Efficient
hills are the breeding-place less so as settlement increases of rainfall has thus been greatly increased. Intermittent streamlets
myriads of water-fowl. Before the advent of the white man Neb- may well become perennial, and many are probably, as reported,
raska was full of wild mammals, the buffalo, .elk, black and white becoming so. It is even conceivable that the settlement of the state
tailed deer, antelope, bears, timber wolves, panthers (pumas), lynx, may affect the seasonal distribution of precipitation; and that an
otter and mink being common. Almost all that remain are black advantageous alteration has in fact resulted is believed by many.
bears, foxes, coyotes (prairie wolves), mink, musk-rats, raccoons and The climate of Nebraska is exceptionally healthy. Its beneficial
prairie dogs (or gophers). Antelope were not uncommon in the west qualities must be attributed to the state's inland situation, its dry
and northwest until after 1890. The coyote is still so common even and pure air, constant winds and splendid drainage, to which its
in the east as to be a nuisance to the farmer; in 1907 a bounty law even slope and peculiar soil alike contribute. In some people,
was in force which provided for the payment of a state bounty of $5, however, nervousness is induced and the winds, in particular, often
;
on every grey wolf, $1-25 on every coyote and $1 on every lynx have this effect. Autumn is perhaps the finest season the fields are
;
(wild cat). A few rodents have increased in numbers; the prairie green into the winter, the air is pure and fresh, though dry and
dog especially is a pest in the alfalfa fields of the arid lands (as are warm, and the long season is delightfully mild and beautiful. The
pocket-gophers at places in the east). arid portion, as compared with the eastern portion, of the state has
Climate. The climate of Nebraska is typically inland or contin- alike the advantages and disadvantages of a climate more sharply
"
ental; i.e. it is characterized by winters of considerable severity, characterized.
summers of unusual warmth, rainfall in limited quantities, marked Soil. Geologically Nebraska is one of the most typical agricultural
and sudden changes of temperature, large seasonal and daily tempera- states of the Union although in the present distribution of industrial
;
ture ranges, and dry, salubrious atmosphere, with a small percentage interests agriculture is
by no means so predominant as in some
of cloudiness, and a large percentage of sunshine." 1 The average southern states. The basis of the soils is sands (coarse, fine or silt) ;
wind velocity for the High Plains of Nebraska and adjoining states clay beds, though economically important, are in quantity relatively
is about 10 to 12 m. ; 25 m. is not uncommon and a velocity of 40 m.
;
scant. In the eastern half silt, and in the western fine sand, form the
and over is recorded a half-dozen or more times every year. In bulk of the soil. There are five well-defined soil regions correspond-
spring velocities of 15 to 20 m. are common. The average velocity ing to the geologic-topographic divisions already indicated of drift
"
of winds for the entire state for II years preceding 1906 was 9-8 m. and Bad Lands. The loess is a salt, fine
loess, sand-hills, foot-hills
per hour. The prevailing directions are those common to a large part saudy loam with a large percentage of sand or silt, and considerable
of the western Mississippi valley. The prevailing wind of the year is calcareous matter, and usually a small amount of clay." It contains
N.W. but in the spring, the summer and much of the autumn its
; considerable humic matter, discolouring rapidly in the air (when
predominance is greatly reduced or overcome by S. and S.W. winds exposed it is characteristically a bright buff). It is of extraordinary
blowing from the Gulf of Mexico (but deflected by the rotation of the fertility, and its great depth (in Lincoln and Dawson counties bluffs
earth). Sometimes these winds blow in the winter causing the 200 ft. thick are found) is a guarantee of almost inexhaustible re-
curious phenomenon of melting snows on the coldest days of the sources. The glacial drift is also a useful deposit, coarse ingredients
year; in the summer in seasons of drought, especially in the western in it being of small amount (rare boulders, and some gravel). The
part of the state, this wind from the GuK sometimes reaches Nebraska superficial soil over most of the state, and everywhere in the E. except
rarely where the loess or drift is bare, is a rich, black vegetable mould,
'Senate Executive Document 115 (vol. 10), 51 Congress, I I to 5 ft. thick on the
uplands. The sand-hills are not inherently
-.sion (1890), Climate of Nebraska. infertile; the soil never bakes, is always receptive of moisture,
326 NEBRASKA
absorbing water like a sponge and holding it well. There is a great in 1906 the crop was 249,782.500 bushels, and
1
(12-4 in 1901) -,
amount of fertile valley land, adequately watered. Alfalfa and other the average yield per acre 34-1 bushels; in 1907 the crop was
cultivated grasses are encroaching on the whole region, and even the 179,328,000 bushels, and the average yield only 24 bushels per acre.
natural arid-land bunch grasses make excellent grazing. The According to the report of the state Board of Agriculture, Custer,
" "
butte soil of the W. is a line sandy r nl, characteristically cal- Lancaster and Saunders counties produced the largest amounts
careous, derived from the Arikaree. With it also moisture is a great (each more than 5,000,000 bushels) of Indian corn in 1908. Since
factor in its productivity. The Bad Lands are by no means infertile 1900 Nebraska has become one of the foremost winter wheat states,
(their name, it should be noted, was originally Mauvaises terres d second only to Kansas. Little spring wheat is now sown except in
traverser) but they are almost destitute of ground water, though the northern counties, the state being on the northern edge of the
;
" "
containing many green pockets where surface water can be winter wheat belt. From 1880 to 1890 the acreage devoted to wheat
stored. They contain much clay and marls, non-absorbent and greatly diminished, because the spring variety was not relatively
subject to such excessive wash that vegetation cannot gain a foot- remunerative, but the acreage trebled in the next decade as autumn
hold. In various parts of the west are small tracts of so-called
"
planting increased. The winter varieties have the advantages of
"
gumbo soil; they are due to the Pierre shale, are poorly drained larger yield, earlier ripening and lesser loss from insects, and afford
and characteristically alkaline. Small alkaline areas also occur about protection to the soil. The growth of durum (macaroni) wheat is
lakes in the sand-hills. Where surface water is adequate the regions also increasing, but is hampered by the uncertainty of market, which
of the Pierre shale make splendid grazing lands; but in general they is for the most part foreign. The wheat crops of the decade 1895-
are not very useful for agriculture. Salt lands occur about Salt Creek 1904 averaged 33,208,805 bushels a year; or ranged from a minimum
notably around Lincoln. The stream bottoms of alluvium are modi- of 9-8 to a maximum of 20-9, averaging 15-8 bushels to the acre;
fied by loess and humic deposits, and are of course very fertile; in 1906 the crop was 52,288,692 bushels, and the average yield
but hardly more so than the loess of the uplands. 22 bushels per acre; and in 1907 the crop was 45.911,000 bushels,
Agriculture. Agriculture is not only the chief industry but is and the average yield 18-1 bushels per acre. In 1908 Clay, Adams
also the foundation of the commerce and manufactures of the state. and Hamilton were the principal wheat-growing counties in the
In 1900, of the total area 60-8% was reported as included in farms, state. The corresponding figures for oats were: average yield for
and 37-5% as actually improved. The rank of the state in the the decade, 48,145,185 (range, 28,287,707 in 1901 to 66,810,065 in
Union was I3th in value of farm property, and loth in value of farm 1904); range of yield per acre, 17-9 to 34-0, and average 27-6
products. The farm value was $747,950,057, an increase since 1890 bushels per acre; in 1906 the crop was 72,275,000 bushels and the
of 46-1%; while the total product-value was $162,696,386 an average yield per acre 29.5 bushels; in 1907 the crop was 51,490,000
increase (partly factitious) of 143-4 % in the same period. A greater bushels, and the average yield 20-4 bushels per acre. In the decade
part of the state was reported improved in 1890 than in 1900; the 1890-1900 the state did not rise above the loth rank in the Union;
change was due to the increase of stock-raising in the West. Simi- after 1900 her rise was rapid. The same is even more markedly true
larly, the size of the average farm increased
from 156-9 acres in 1880 of rye; in 1907 the crop was 1,502,000 bushels (from 88,400 acres), a
to 190-1 in 1890, and 246-1 in 1900, although in eastern Nebraska yield exceeded in only five states in the country. Apples are raised in
there was a contrary tendency. Under the Kincaid law, which th% N.E. and S.E. sections of the state, and are much the most im-
permits entire sections instead of quarter sections (160 acres) to be portant fruit grown. Peaches are next in importance, and horti-
homesteaded, this movement has been fostered. In the years 1880 cultural enthusiasts believe that the possibilities ot this crop are very
1900 the number of farms operated by cash tenants rose from 3-1 to great. Other fruits are raised with much success, and in 1904 at
9-6%; of share tenants from 14-9 to 27-3% of the total. There is St Louis the horticultural exhibit of the state led those of all other
no appreciable tendency toward management for absentee owners. states in the medals received for excellence; but nevertheless its
The census of 1900 showed that not less than two-fifths of the total relative rank in the Union as a fruit-producing state is still low.
net income came from live stock or from hay, grain and forage on In a period of 30 years (18691898) there were, according to the
farms representing together 96% of the farm- value of the state state Board of Agriculture, four seasons whose crops could reasonably
"
live stock being a trifle more important; dairying was similarly be classed as failures, three more as short," one as fair, eighteen as
predominant for 1-6%, and beet-sugar for o-l %. Other crops were good, and four as great. Compared with adjoining states Iowa,
unimportant sources of revenue. Sugar-beet culture has developed Minnesota, South Dakota, Kansas, Missouri- none shows a greater,
since about 1889; it is localized largely in Lincoln county, near if indeed any shows sc great an average value per acre in the yield
North Platte, though beets are raised over a large part (especially the of Indian corn, wheat, oats, barley and rye; and this despite the
western part) of the state. In 1907 about 11,000 acres were planted assumed handicap of the western half of the state. In fact the yield
to sugar beets. The principal factory for the slicing of the beets of this section relatively to cultivated acreage is normally fully equal
is one built at Grand Island, Hall county, in 1890. The dairy to that of the eastern section; a result quite consistent with the
interest is rapidly growing, but is still exceeded in other states. scientifically proven fertility of semi-arid lands. The real handicap
Omaha is a great dairy market. Nebraska ranks very high in the of the western counties would be shown in comparing aggregate yields
production of cattle and hogs. A fourth of all animal products are per given area; for much land is normally
"
inarable. Alfalfa, stock
"
represented by milk, butter and cheese, eggs and poultry; the rest raising and dairying, afforestation, dry-farming and irrigation are,
by animals killed on the farm or sold for slaughter, most of them however, proving that the West can maintain prosperity by not
going to supply the meat-packing industry of South Omaha. Wild, relying upon ordinary agriculture. Alfalfa is not easily started,
salt and prairie grasses make up the bulk of the forage acreage, but however, on the uplands of the extreme western part of the state;
the cultivated crops especially millet and Hungarian grasses and and dry-farming (the Campbell dust-mulch system) has the expensive-
alfalfa are more important. Holt county in the Elkhorn valley, ness in labour of intensive cultivation. The above-mentioned
and Sheridan county in the foot-hills, produce more than half the delusion that climate is changing and adapting itself to agriculture,
hay-crop of the state. Alfalfa can be grown with more or less success thus relieving the farmer of accommodating his methods to the
in every county of the state, not excepting areas where clay or sand climate, has considerably handicapped him in progress. Systematic
form the sub-soil but on the uplands of the central part of the state
;
experiments in dry-farming throughout the Great Plains were pro-
it is produced with the greatest success and in the greatest quantities. vided for on a great scale by Congress in 1906. By attention to crop
In 1908, according to the reports of the state Board of Agriculture, rotation, soil physics and world-wide search for plants adapted to the
the crop of Custer, Dawson and Buffalo counties was about 15% of Great Plains (such as the U.S. Department of Agriculture has long
the total crop (1,846,703 tons) of the state. The product was been conducting), a very great deal can be accomplished no one
quintupled between 1899 and 1905, and between 1905 and 1908 the can say how much; but certainly the Western must long remain at
increase was about 40 %. It has been a great aid to western Nebraska a great disadvantage in comparison with the Eastern portion of the
as to other portions of the Great Plains. Sorghum and kafir corn are state as regards the growth of cereals.
also excellent, and broom-corn fairly good, as drought-resistant Irrigation. Water for the western part of the state is a resource
crops; the last, which is of lessening importance, is localized in Cass, therewith a fundamental
of primary importance, and irrigation
Saunders and Polk counties. Cereals are by far the most important Very generally, especially in the butte regions, the country
problem.
crops, representing in 1899 four-fifths "
of farmed land and
crop fends itself to the impounding of surface water. The lakes are of
Allowing for variations in off years," but speaking with
values. great importance for the stock ranges of the sand-hills.
It is
as much exactness as is possible, Nebraska has established her commonly believed that of underground water, and generally of
position since about 1900 in the'third, fourth and fifth rank respec- artesian water, even the driest counties have an abundance. This is
tively among the states of the Union, in the production of Indian great exaggeration. Though both in central and western Nebraska
corn, wheat and oats. Of these, Indian corn is by far the most im- there are strata that generally yield a considerable flow, the supply is
portant, representing normally about two-thirds of the total crop usually limited and the expense is great. Up to 1906 dependence
value; while wheat and oats each represented in 1906 about one- was mainly upon the streams, which it is estimated might furnish
seventh of the total crop, and rye, barley, kafir-corn and buckwheat 3 or 4 million acre-feet enough to irrigate between 10 and 15%
make up the small remainder. Indian corn is grown to some extent of the arid section were all the water available, and the land
all over the state, except in the north-west, but the great bulk of the
crop is produced east of the 99th meridian. It is rarely cut, but is
1
Data of the State Bureau of Labor and Industrial Statistics,
left to mature and dry on the stalk in the field. The yearly yield in which are lower than those of the state Board of Agriculture, and
the decade 1895-1904, according to the most conservative state (in census years) the Federal Census. The yearly average given by
statistics, varied from 298,599,638 to 72,445,227 bushels, and the the Board of Agriculture for 1895-1904 is 219,196,000 bushels.
average was 178,941,084 bushels, or 190,773,957, omitting the failure The statistics for 1906 and 1907 are taken from the Year-books of the
of 1901 the yield per acre being similarly 26-35 or 2 7'9 bushels
; Department of Agriculture.
NEBRASKA 327
irrigable.
of Colorado, where irriga-
As compared with the streams and 43-3% natives of other states than Nebraska. The latter
tion is the streams of Nebraska have a very
much more advanced, came mainly from the north-central states. Of the foreigners,
constant flow; the relative supply-capacities of the Arkansas and
Poudre in Colorado, and the Loup and North Platte in Nebraska Germans, Scandinavians and British (including English Canadians)
being about as l-ooo, 1-193, 3'34? and 4-632 respectively, according
made up four-fifths of the total. The most numerous individual
to the estimates of the state engineer (Nebraska Public Documents races were Germans (65,506), Swedes (24,693), Bohemians
1901-1902, vol. iii. p. 144). An irrigation law was first passed by (16,138), Danes (12,531), Irish (11,127), English (9757), Russians
Nebraska in 1895. One of the greatest improvement projects under-
(8083) and English Canadians (8010). In 1900 three cities
taken by the national Reclamation Service is one on the North
Platte, begun in 1903, which contemplates a reservoir in Wyoming of had a population above 25,000 Omaha, 102,555; Lincoln,
sufficient capacity to store all the surplus waters of that stream, 40,169; South Omaha, 26,001 and seven others had a popula-
about 600 m. of canals, and the reclamation of 107,000 acres in tion between 5000 and 8000 Beatrice, Grand Island, Nebraska
Nebraska; it was 74% completed 1909.
in The work of the national
City, Fremont, Hastings, Kearney and York. The population
service began in Nebraska in 1902. Some farmers on the uplands
of Nebraska was 28,841 in 1860, 122,993 in 1870, 452,402 in
between the valleys in western Nebraska irrigate by means of
wind-mills, and although the underground water is 175 ft. or more 1880 and 1,062,656 in 1890. The increases of population
below the surface one wind-mill often supplies sufficient water to by decades following 1860 were 326-5, 267-8, 134-1, 0-3, and
irrigate ten acres. The extent of irrigated acreage increased about
thirteen-f old from 1 889 to 1 899. In the latter year there were 1 701 m.
n-8%. From 1880-1890 the absolute increase was exceeded
in only four states, and was greater than in any state W. of
of ditch costing about $751.00 per m., irrigating 148,538 acres,
which yielded crops averaging $6.61 per acre in value. The greatest the Mississippi except the enormous state of Texas; from
part of the irrigated acreage is in the valley of the North Platte and 1890-1900 it was less than in any state of the Union except
the Upper Platte probably nine-tenths in 1906 in Scotts Bluff, Nevada (whose population decreased). In this decade 35
Lincoln, Cheyenne, Dawson, Keith and Deuef counties. There is,
counties out of 90 in the state showed a decrease: the shrinkage
however, a large ditch in Platte county the farthest E. of any large
ditch in the country; and though agriculture is normally quite was mainly in the first half of the decade, and was due to the
" "
successful here without irrigation, nevertheless it is more profit- cumulative effects of national hard times, a reaction from
"
able with it. In fact, in 1899 about a quarter of the irrigated acreage an extraordinarily inflated land boom " of the late 'eighties,
lay E. of the section classed as arid. and a remarkable succession of drought years, and consequent
Manufactures. The rank of Nebraska among the states of the
Union in 1900 in population, in value of agricultural products, and in crop failure in the West. Between 1885 and 1895 Kansas and
value of manufactured products, was respectively twenty-seventh, Colorado went through much the same experience, due to a too
tenth and nineteenth. In the decade 1890-1900 the state increased
rapid settlement of their arid areas before the conditions of
the value of its manufactures somewhat more than half. The per
successful agriculture were properly understood. Many homes,
capita product-values for agriculture and manufactures in 1000 were
$153 and $135 (as compared with $63 and $88 in 1890). Only
and even small settlements in Nebraska though not to the
2-3% of the population were engaged in manufacturing in 1900. same extent as in Colorado and Kansas were abandoned.
Of the total factory product (in 1900, $130,302,453; in 1905, Urban population (the population in places having 4000 or
$154,918,220), 84-7 % were urban (i.e. were for the three cities which
more inhabitants) also fell, constituting 25-8% in 1890, and in
in 1900 had a population of at least 8000) in 1900, and 81-7 in 1905;
the percentage for these cities being 53-3 in 1900 and 43-5 in 1905 for 1900 only 20-8% of the total population of the state. In the
South Omaha, 29-2 in 1900 and 34-9 in 1905 for Omaha, and 2-1 in case of some cities that showed a great decrease (e.g. Lincoln
1900 and 3-4 in 1905 for Lincoln; Nebraska City, Fremont, Grand 27-2%, and Omaha 27%) notoriously "padded" censuses
Island, Beatrice, Hastings, Plattsmouth and Kearney were the only in 1890 were in part responsible for the bad showing ten years
other manufacturing centres of any importance. In 1907 there was
later.
a beet-sugar factory at Grand Island; at Nebraska City there are
several distinctive industries; at South Omaha very important In 1906 there were in the state 345,803 communicants of
meat-packing houses;
and the other cities have interests rather various religious denominations; of these 100,763 were Roman
extensive or varied than distinctive. As yet manufactures are
Catholics, 64,352 Methodists, 59,485 Lutherans, 23,862 Presby-
insignificant except in lines immediately dependent upon agriculture,
the combined output of the packing, flour and grist mill, dairy and terians, 19,121 Disciples of Christ, 17,939 Baptists and 15,247
malt-liquor establishments constituting in 1900 nine-tenths of the Congregationalists.
total state output. Meat-packing is by far the most important In 1890 there were in the state 2893 untaxed and 3538
single interest, South Omaha being the third greatest packing centre taxed Indians, the latter being citizens; in 1900 there were
of the country, employing in 1900 and in 1905 a quarter of all wage-
earners and yielding nearly one-half the total product-value of the 3,322 altogether, all of them taxed; and in 1008 there were
state ($71,018,339 in 1900; $69,243,468 in 1905). The malt- 3720, of whom 1270 were Omaha, 1116 Santee Sioux, 1060
liquor industry is favoured by the great production of barley in Winnebago and 274 Ponca.
Iowa; the value of malt liquors manufactured in 1900 was Among the Indians who occupied Nebraska immediately before the
$i.433.5 OI and in 1905 $1,663,788. Nebraska wheat, like that of
> advent of the whites and thereafter, the only families of much im-
Kansas, combines for milling the splendid qualities of winter wheat portance in the state's history were the Caddoan and the Siouan.
with those characteristic of grain grown on the edge of the semi-arid The Caddoan family was represented by the Middle or Pawnee
West; flour and grist-mill products were valued at $7,794,130 in Confederacy; the Siouan family by its Dakota, Thegiha, Chiwere
1900 and at $12,190,303 in 1905. The first creamery in Nebraska and Winnebago branches. Included in the Dakota branch were the
was established in 1 88 1. A creamery at Lincoln is said to be the Santee and Teton tribes, the latter comprising the Brul6, Blackfeet
largest in the United States. Many co-operative dairies have per- and Oglala Indians; in the Thegiha branch were the Omaha and
sisted since the early days of farmers' granges. The value of Ponca tribes; and in the Chiwere branch, the Iowa, Oto and the
cheese, butter and other dairy products was $2,253,893 in 1900 and Missouri tribes. Other tribes were of less importance; and tribes of
$3,326,110 in 1905. Of manufactures not dependent upon agri- other families with the exception of the Cheyennes and Arapahoes
culture perhaps the most promising is that of brick and tile products of the Algonquian family, whose permanent hunting grounds em-
(valued at $839,815 in 1900 and at $1,131,913 in 1905), and the braced the foot-hill country of the West were of negligible im-
largest in 1905 was the manufacture and repair of steam railway cars portance, being only reamers within the borders of the state. The
(valued at $2,624,461 in 1900 and at $4,394,685 in 1905). Pawnees contested the plains against the Sioux with undying
Communications. There is no longer any river navigation. There enmity. Before the Civil War there were no very general troubles
were 6,101-5 m. of railway in the state at the end of 1907; the great between Indians and whites, despite constant frontier difficulties,
" "
period of railway building was 1870-1890, the mileage in 1870 being except the bloodless Pawnee War of 1859-60; but in 1863-
705, in 1880, 1953, and in 1890, 5407. The eastern half of the state 64 the Indians rose rather generally along the frontier, and many
is much better covered settlers were killed. In was another war with the
by railways than the western. Six great east 1890-91 there
and west trunk-lines connecting the Rocky Mountain Sioux marked by the battle of Wounded Knee, just across the line
region and
Chicago enter the state at Omaha (q.v.), and two others, giving rather in South Dakota. In dealings with the Indians there have been in
an outlet southward, enter the same Nebraska the usual discreditable features of administration. The
city and serve the eastern part
the state. In 1908 all but counties out of maltreatment of the Poncas, a fine and peaceable tribe, was peculiarly
5 90 had railway outlets.
A marked tendency toward north and south railway lines is of great and inexcusably harsh. Segregation on reservations was generally
romise to the state, as outlets towards the Gulf of Mexico are im- accomplished in 18701880. There were in 1900 small reservations
'rtant, especially for local freight. Omaha and Lincoln are Federal for Omahas and Winnebagoes in Thurston county and for the Sioux
ports of entry for customs. in Sheridan county, and an agency for the Santees and Poncas near
In 1900 the population of the state was the mouth of the Niobrara; and at Genoa, where the Pawnee agency
Population. 1,066,300
and m and reservation had been located, there was in 1908 an Indian school
1910, 1,192,214. In 1900 16-6% were maintained by the United States government with 350 boarding
foreign-born,
3 28 NEBRASKA
pupils.
In 1908, however, ajmost all the tribal lands had been distri- elections materially affectedby them. In 1907, under a direct
buted in severally: the Niobrara Reservation (under the Santee
primary law, the nomination of candidates for United States
government boarding school for the Santee Sioux and the Ponca) had senator was transferred from the party convention directly
only 1130-7 acres reserved for agency, school and mission purposes; " "
the Ponca Reservation (under the same school) had only 1 60 acres to the people; and in 1909 the Oregon plan was adopted,
reserved for agency and school buildings; the Omaha Reservation whereby each candidate for the legislature must go on record
(under the Omaha School) had 12,421 acres unallotted; the Sioux as promising, or not, always to vote for the people's choice
Reservation (under the Pine Ridge Agency) for Oglala Sioux had
for United States senator; on the ballot which bears the name
640 acres; and the Winnebago Reservation (under the Winnebago
School) had 1710-8 acres unallotted and 480 reserved for agency, &c. of each candidate for the legislature there appears a statement
" "
Government. The present constitution, adopted in 1875, that he promises," or that he will not promise," to vote
"
replaced one adopted in 1866. In 1871 a convention framed for the people's choice." In the same year the state
a constitution that was rejected by the people. It provided enacted a law providing for the non-partisan nomination of all
for compulsory education, and for the taxation of church judges, of all superintendents of public instruction and of
property; prohibited the grant by counties or cities of financial regents of the state university; nominations are by petition,
aid to railway or other corporations, and enjoined that railways and there is a separate " official non-partisan ballot " bearing
should have an easement only in their right of way. The last the names and addresses of the nominees and the titles of the
two provisions were mainly responsible for the defeat of the office for which they are nominated. The legislature of 1909
constitution. The instrument of 1875 presents a few variations also provided for open and for the framing
election primaries
from the normal type, and under it a few interesting problems of state party platforms by convention before the time of the
have arisen. The constitution provides two methods for amend- primary.
ment. A convention for revising or amending the constitution
The governor is the chief executive officer of the state, but quite
is to be held in case a recommendation to that effect made by the
independent of him are a lieutenant-governor, a secretary of state,
legislature (a three-fifths vote of all the members of each house an auditor of public accounts, a treasurer, a superintendent of public
being required) is accepted by a majority of the electors voting instruction, an attorney-general and a commissioner of public lands
at the next election for members of the legislature, but no
and buildings, who, as well as the governor, are elected for a term of
two years. The governor's appointing power is almost entirely
amendment agreed upon by the convention is to take effect until limited to officers of state institutions, and for every appointment
approved by a majority of electors voting on it. Without he makes the approval of the Senate is required; but he need not
calling a convention, however, the legislature may, by a three-
ask the consent of that body to remove for incompetency, neglect of
"
fifths vote of all the members of each house, adopt an amendment, duty or malfeasance in office any officer whom he may appoint."
His constitutional power to pardon is regulated
which is to come into effect only if approved by a majority by an act of the
legislature (1907) which requires that he shall in no instance grant a
of electors voting at the next election of senators and repre- pardon until the attorney-general shall have investigated the case and
sentatives the publication of the proposed amendment in some conducted a public hearing. His veto power extends to items in
appropriation bills, but any bill or item may be passed over his veto
newspaper in each county once a week for three months before
the election being required. This has been interpreted by the
by three-fifths of the members elected to each house of the legis-
lature. The most important board of which he is chairman is the
courts as requiring a majority of the votes actually cast for state board of equalization. As the present constitution was adopted
senators and representatives. As there is less interest in amend- in the year after a
grasshopper plague,
which had caused great
financial loss, it limited the salary of the governor, auditor of public
ments than in the election of members of the legislature, only
accounts and treasurer, as well as that of the judges of the supreme
two out of a large number of amendments proposed from time and district courts, to $2500 each and that of other important
to time by three-fifths of the members elected to each house officers (including the secretary of state, the attorney-general and
have been adopted. The first of these, increasing the pay per the superintendent of public instruction) to $2000. This economy
has somewhat hampered the growing state. Salaries have been too
day to the members of the legislature and providing for longer low to attract the ablest men; and as the constitution forbade the
sessions, was declared lost by the official canvassers, but when
1
creation of new offices, and no amendment of this clause could be
" "
(1886) the ballots had been recounted by the legislature it was secured, resort was had to the creation of additional secretaries
declared adopted. The second (1906), creating a railway com- and of boards constituted of existing state officials or their secretaries.
The legislature consists of a Senate of 33 members and a House of
mission, was endorsed by a political party in state convention,
Representatives of 100 members, and meets in regular session on the
was printed on the same ballot-paper with the names of the first Tuesday in January of every odd-numbered year at Lincoln, the
" "
party candidates for office in order to secure for it all straight capital. Both senators and representatives are apportioned accord-
party votes, and by this procedure, which was upheld by the ing to population, and are elected by districts in November of each
state supreme court in 1907, it was adopted. All male persons even-numbered year for a term of two years. They are paid at the
rate of five dollars a day during 60 days of a regular session and not
who are citizens of the United States or have declared their
exceeding 100 days during their entire term. No bill or joint resolu-
intention to become such at least thirty days before an election tion may be introduced at a regular session after its fortieth day
have the right of suffrage provided they have attained the age except at the request of the governor. Special legislation of various
of twenty-one years, have resided in the state six months, are kinds is expressly prohibited, and in the bill of rights it Is declared
"
that all powers not herein delegated remain with the people."
not of unsound mind, and have not been convicted of treason
This clause would seem to leave the state government with no powers
or felony. Women who have either children or taxable property not expressly granted, and to make the rule for interpreting the
may vote on questions relating to schools. The general election Nebraska constitution similar to that for interpreting the Federal
of state and local officers is held annually on the first Tuesday constitution; but in their practice the Nebraska courts have been
little influenced by it, and it is chiefly of historical interest. 1
succeeding the first Monday in November, but municipal and The administration of justice is vested in a supreme court, 15
school district elections may be held at other times. The secret district courts, county courts and courts of justices of the peace and
ballot was adopted in 1891; the use of the voting machines police magistrates. The supreme court consists of three judges
was authorized in 1899; and the nomination of candidates elected for a term of six years, one retiring every two years; each
district court consists of one to seven judges elected for a term of four
by primaries was made mandatory in 1907. By a provision years, and each county court consists of one judge elected for a term
unique in 1875, the constitution authorized the legislature of two years. The county courts have exclusive original jurisdiction
to provide that the electors might express their preferences in the probate of wills and the administration of estates, concurrent
for United States senators; but this was not treated as mandatory jurisdiction with the district courts in civil suits for sums not ex-
on the legislature, and though votes were at times taken (1886, ceeding $1000, and important jurisdiction in criminal cases. Perhaps
the most unique provision of the Nebraska constitution is that
1 894), they were not
officially canvassed, nor were any senatorial
1
The amendment increased the
pay of members from three dollars 5
An
almost identical clause was inserted in the Ohio constitution
"
to five dollars a dayduring their sitting," and provided that sessions of 1802, and one in exactly the same language appears in the present
should last at least
" sixty days, and that members should not receive (1851) constitution of that state; it appears also in the Kansas
pay for more than sixty days at any one sitting " the original
; constitutions of 1855, 1858 and 1859 (present), in the Nebraska
constitution had provided that they should " not receive pay for constitution of 1866, in the North Carolina and South Carolina
more than "
days at any one session
forty and had prescribed no constitutions of 1868, and was retained in the present constitution of
minimum length for a session. North Carolina as amended ia 1876.
NEBRASKA 329
relating "to appeals; it appears in the bill of rights and reads as been no bonded debt whatever. The constitution also prohibited
follows: The right to be heard in all civil cases in the court of last state aid to railways and other corporations, leaving this to cities
resort, by appeal, error or otherwise, shall not be denied." Regard- and counties under limitations. In 1903 the assessed valuation of
less of this provision, however, the civil code denies the right of an property was $188,458,379; in 1905, $304,470,961; in 1906,
appeal from an inferior court in cases that have been tried by a jury, $313,060,301; in 1907, $328,757,578, and m 1908, $391.529-673.
and in which the amount claimed does not exceed $20, and the courts The increase was due largely to a new revenue law of 1903 ordering
have decided that this denial is not in conflict with the constitution ; property to be assessed at one-fifth of its actual value. The average
but in at least one instance an appeal was allowed because of the tax-rate in the year 1904 was 6| mills; in 1905, 1906 and 1907, 7
constitutional guaranty, and that guaranty has doubtless had much mills; and in 1908, 6} mills.
influenceon judicial legislation. Education. The public schools have been endowed by the United
County government exists under both the district-commissioner States, beginning in 1854, and by the state; in 1909 the permanent
system and the township supervisor system, the latter being rare. school funds derived from the sale of educational lands amounted to
Cities are governed in classes according to population. $8,450,557, invested in state securities, county, school district and
Except in Omaha there is no great field for social economic legis- municipal bonds. The percentage of illiterate population (i.e. popu-
lation; bjt the record of the state has been normally good in this lation unable to write) above 10 years of age was in 1880 and 1890
respect. Railways have given rise to the most notable laws. Regu- smaller than that in any other state in the Union, and in 1900, when
lation has been a burning political question since 1876, the constitu- it was 2-3% (for native whites, foreign whites and negroes re-
"
tion making it the duty of the legislature to correct abuses and spectively 0-8, 6-8 and n-8), was smaller than that in any other state
prevent unjust discriminations and extortions "
in all charges of except Iowa (whose percentage was also 2-3); the percentage for
express, telegraph and railroad companies within the state. The males of voting age (2-5 %) being the least in the Union. There are
influence of the railways has been very great, and a constant drag four state normal schools one at Peru (opened 1867), one at
on just taxation and other legislative reforms. In 1885, 1887 and Kearney (1905), one at Wayne (originally private; purchased by the
1897 the legislature created a Board of Transportation consisting of state in 1909) and one, provided for by the legislature of 1909,
existing state executive officers or their secretaries, but this could do situated in the north-western part of the state. The university of
littleexcept gather statistics, investigate alleged abuses, and advise Nebraska at Lincoln was established in 1869 by an act of the state
the legislature, upon which the regulation of rates remained man- legislature, and was opened in 1871. The university is governed by
datory by the constitution. The Board was eventually declared a board of six regents, elected by the electors of the state at large,
unconstitutional by the state supreme court. In 1893 a maximum each for six years, two going out of office each year. The revenue of
freight-rate Act was passed, but the rates thus fixed were declared the university is from the income of Congressional land grants under
by the United States" Supreme Court to conflict with the Fourteenth the Morrill Acts and from a one mill per one dollar tax on the current
Amendment, unreasonable." The right of the state to fix assessment roll of the state. 1 Connected with it and governed by
" "being
reasonable rates remained unquestioned, but American ex- the same regents are the State College of Agriculture (including the
perience has not found such laws efficacious. In 1906 all political School of Agriculture) and the Agricultural Experiment Station,
parties conducted campaigns on promises of radical legislation on on the university farm of 320 acres, 2j m. E. of the university,
railway rates, passenger and freight; and a constitutional amend- which receive support from the United States government, and an
ment creating a railway commission was adopted in the manner experimental sub-station at North Platte. The botanical and
above described. A result of this campaign was a remarkable series geological surveys of the state are carried on by the university; the
of enactments in 1907 for the regulation of railways. The legislature former has been largely under the supervision of Charles Edwin
framed a stringent anti-pass law, reduced passenger fares and express Bessey (b. 1845), professor of botany. The university as reorganized
and freight charges, provided for equitable local taxation of railway in 1909 embraces a college of arts and sciences, a graduate college,
terminals, regulated railway labour in the interest of safe travel, fixed a college cf agriculture, a college of engineering, a teachers' college
upon railways the responsibility for the death or injury of their (1908), a college of law (1891), a college of medicine, a school of
employes, and gave to the newly-created railway commission pharmacy, a school of fine arts, an affiliated school of music and a
complete jurisdiction over all steam-railways in the state, over the summer session. The medical school is in Omaha. The university
street railways of the cities, and over express companies, telegraph has no preparatory department. Its library in 1909 had about
companies, telephone companies and all other common carriers. 85,000 volumes. In 1908-1909 the university had an enrolment of
In 1909 provision was made for an annual corporation licence tax 3611 students (2077 men and 1534 women). The granting of uni-
and for the physical valuation of railways. In the same year, versity degrees is conditioned by a "credit-hour" system; 125
following the example of Oklahoma, Nebraska passed a law credit hours are required for a bachelor's degree. Elisha Benjamin
guaranteeing bank deposits from a fund created by an assessment on Andrews 2 (b. 1844) became chancellor of the university in 1900;
the basis of total deposits. Useful child-labour and pure-food laws in 1909 he was succeeded by Samuel Avery (b. 1865). Most of the
were enacted in 1907. Prohibition of the liquor traffic had been educational institutions of the state are coeducational. Among the
established in the Territory in 1855, but liquor licences were intro- private educational institutions of the state are Nebraska Wesleyan
:
duced in 1858; in 1909 the licence fee was fixed at $1000. A law University (1888, Methodist Episcopal), at University Place, a
enacted in 1907 made it illegal for breweries to own retail liquor suburb of Lincoln; Union College (1891, Adventist), at College View,
houses, and one of 1909 required all saloons to close from 8 P.M. to suburb of Lincoln; Creighton University (1879, Roman Catholic),
7 A.M. A homestead law exempts from judgment liens and forced at Omaha; York College (1890, United Baptist), at York; Cotner
sale a homestead not exceeding $2000 in value and consisting either University (1889; legally "The Nebraska Christian University"),
of a farm not exceeding 160 acres or of property not exceeding two at Bethany, a suburb of Lincoln; Grand Island College (1892,
lots in a city or village the exemption, however, does not extend to
; Baptist), at Grand Island; Doane College (1872, Congregational), at
mechanics', labourers' or vendors liens upon said homestead or to a Crete; Hastings College (1882, Presbyterian), at Hastings; and
mortgage upon it that has been signed by both husband and wife or Bellevue College (1883, Presbyterian), at Bellevue. State penal and
by an unmarried claimant. A woman's rights to her property are not charitable institutions include soldiers' and sailors' homes at Grand
affected by marriage, except that it becomes liable for payment of Island and Milford, an Institute for the Blind at Nebraska City
debts contracted for necessaries to the family when a judgment (1875), an Institute for the Deaf and Dumb at Omaha (1867), an
against the husband for the payment of the same cannot be satisfied. Institute for Feeble Minded Youth at Beatrice (1885), an Industrial
The rights of dower and courtesy have been abolished, and husband School for Juvenile Delinquents (boys) at Kearney (1879), a Girls'
and wife have instead equal rights to inherit property from the Industrial School at Geneva (1881), an Industrial Home at Milford
other; but the portion of the property of a deceased spouse that (1887) for unfortunate and homeless girls guilty of a first offence,
descends to the survivor varies from one-fourth to all according to asylums or hospitals for the insane at Lincoln (1869), Norfolk (1886)
whose and how many are the children concerned. The grounds for a and Hastings (1887), an Orthopedic Hospital (1905) for crippled,
divorce are adultery, incompetency at the time of marriage, sentence ruptured and deformed children and a state penitentiary (1867),
to imprisonment for a term of three years or more, abandonment both at Lincoln. A Home for the Friendless, at Lincoln, incor-
without just cause for two years, habitual drunkenness, extreme porated in 1876, was taken over by the_ state in 1897; admission
cruelty, and refusal or neglect of the husband to provide a suitable was restricted to children, and in 1909 its name was changed to
maintenance for his wife. The period of residence in the state re- the State Public School.
quired to secure a divorce was formerly six months, but in 1909 it
was made two years. 1
In 1909 the state legislature refused to accept for the university
Finance. The constitution limited the debt that the state might the Carnegie education pensions.
contract to meet casual deficits to $100,000, unless in time of war, 2
He was born in Hinsdale, New Hampshire, on the loth of January
and required taxes to be laid to maintain interest on such debt 1844; served in the Union army during the Civil War; graduated
(bonds). These provisions were construed to mean that not more at Brown University in 1870 and at Newton Theological Institution
than $100,000 of debt could be contracted in addition to appropria- in 1874; taught homiletics at Newton in 1879-1882, history and
tions made by the legislature. There was from the beginning a economics at Brown in i882-i888,and political economy and finance
constant issue of state " warrants " on the general fund, dependent on at Cornell in 1888-1889; and was president of Brown University
taxation. These warrants when issued and presented for payment in 1889-1898. He was an ardent bi-metallist, and in 1892 was a
were paid by the state treasurer, were sold to the permanent school member of the International Monetary Conference at Brussels.
fund, and drew 4% interest until cancelled from the general fund. He wrote on the currency question, and published a History of the
The floating debt of warrants was practically cancelled in 1909, after United States in our Own Times (1904) and other works on American
a one-mill levy for four years for this and economics.
purpose. Since 1900 there has history
330 NEBRASKA
History. Local pride has prompted some Nebraskans to the Missouri, following the river valleys and the freighting
begin the history of the white race in their state with"the march routes. Many who had migrated to Pike's Peak in 1859, stopped
of Coronado, in 1541, across the buffalo plains to Quivira," in Nebraska on their return eastward; and settlement was
N. of the Arkansas river in Kansas but the claim is not warranted
;
stimulated by the national Homestead Act of 1862 (one of the
first patents granted thereunder, on the ist of January 1863,
by the evidence. Marquette mapped the Platte from hearsay
in 1673; French explorers followed it to the Forks in 1739; was for a claim near Beatrice, Nebraska), and by the building
and, after Nebraska passed to the United States in 1803 as part and land-sales of the Union Pacific and Burlington railways
of the Louisiana Purchase, successive American exploring following 1863. Thus in 1861 there were probably 30,000
expeditions left traces in its history. Major Stephen H. Long, inhabitants in the Territory, and 3300 men were sent into the
in particular, followed the Platte and South Platte across the field for the Union army in the Civil War. Until well into the
state in 1819, and his despairing account of the semi-arid buffalo 'sixties freighting across the plains was a great business. The
plains whence arose the myth of the Great American Desert "Oregon Trail," the "Old California Trail," and the "Old Salt
finely contrasts with the later history and latter-day optimism Lake Trail " all nearly identical in Nebraska ran along the
of dry-farming and irrigation. Meanwhile, fur traders who drew Platte across the entire state with various terminal branches
their goods from the country of the Platte had long been active near the eastern border, to the Missouri river towns; while
on the Missouri. Trading posts were probably established in branches from St Joseph, Missouri and Leavenworth, Kansas,
Nebraska in 1795, 1802, 1807 and 1812; the last two near ran up the valleys of the Big Blue and Little Blue rivers and
the present towns of Ft. Calhoun (about 20 m. N. by W. from joined the Nebraska roads near Ft. Kearney. The Oregon and
Omaha) and Bellevue. Manuel de Lisa, a noted Cuban trader California migration was of large magnitude by 1846. St Joseph,
and plainsman, was probably the first white settler (1807). Leavenworth and Nebraska City (<?..) were the great freighting
In 1823 Bellevue became an Indian agency, and in 1849 the terminals of the West. Over these roads was run in 1860-1861
" "
first United States post-office in Nebraska. Ft. Atkinson was the famous pony express whose service ended with the com-
maintained near the present town of Ft. Calhoun in 1819-1827; pletion of the overland telegraph in the latter year; it covered
in 1825 the government acquired the first Indian lands, and the distance from St Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California,
in the 'thirties of the igth century missionaries began to settle in eight days, and even less. Freighting ended when the Union
among the tribes; the first Ft. Kearney was maintained where Pacific was extended across Nebraska between 1863 and 1867.
Nebraska City now stands in 1847-1848, and in the latter year Political interest in the Territorial period centred mainly
was re-established on the Platte, some 175 m. inland from the in a fight for the capital, waged between the towns of the
Missouri. Meanwhile there had begun the passage of the Mormons Missouri river front, Bellevue, Brownville, Nebraska City,
across the state (1845-1857), marked by important temporary Plattsmouth, Omaha and Florence, those of the North Platte
settlements near Omaha (q.v.) and elsewhere, the travel to Oregon, interior, and of the South Platte. This struggle engendered
and to California, for which dep6ts of supplies were established extraordinary bitterness, since success might mean continued
at Bellevue, Plattsmouth, Nebraska City and old Ft. Kearney, life, and defeat prompt demise, to competing towns. As popula-
Dobey Town. Thus the country was well and favourably tion increased the question of the capital was complicated by
1
or
known before Congress organized it as a Territory in 1854. the question of statehood. Both were involved in the agitation
Movements in Congress for the creation of a new Territory in 1858-1859 for the annexation of the South Platte to Kansas
on the Platte began in 1844, several attempts at organization (q.v.), which gained considerable strength; annexation promising
failing in the succeeding decade. In 1852-1853 lowans and to the former much earlier statehood than continued union
Missourians along the border of what are now Kansas and with the backward region of the North Platte, and to northern
Nebraska held elections W. of the Missouri and sent delegates Kansas also promising earlier statehood, and an advantage
to Congress. A provisional Territorial government formed in the sectional struggle with southern Kansas. As the expenses
by Wyandot Indians and licensed white residents on Indian of Territorial government were partly borne by the United
lands in Kansas (q.v.) forced Congress to take action. With States, statehood was voted against in 1860, and again (virtually)
what followed, the rivalry of the Platte and Kansas river valleys in 1864 after Congress had passed an Enabling Act; but in
for the Pacific railway route, and the opposing interests of 1866 a constitution framed by the legislature was declared
pro-slavery Missouri and anti-slavery Iowa, and possibly the carried by the people by a majority of 100 votes in 7776, and
personal ambitions of Stephen A. Douglas and Thomas H. Nebraska was admitted as a state (in spite of President Johnson's
Benton, had important relations. In the outcome Nebraska veto) in 1867, after her legislature had accepted a fundamental
was one of the two Territories created by the Kansas-Nebraska condition imposed by Congress removing the limitation of the
Bill of 1854. This creative act bore evident traces of the pro- suffrage to whites by the new constitution. Fraud was charged
slavery sentiments of the Congress that passed it in the limitation in the Territorial election. At any rate the Republican party
of the suffrage to whites, and the explicit application of the had worked for admission because it needed senators in Congress,
national fugitive-slave laws for the last time in a federal statute. and it got them. During part of 18661867 there were two
Under the provision of " popular-sovereignty " it was thought de facto governments, the Territorial and the state.
that Nebraska, as the more northerly Territory, would become The capital of the Territory remained always at Omaha,
a " free " state, if not a free Territory. There were slaves although in 1858 a majority of the legislature removed to Florence
within its borders from the beginning, and anti-slavery ideas leaving the governor and a legislative rump at Omaha. In
were embodied in several legislative bills, until a territorial 1867 the South Platte region, having obtained a predominance
law of 1861 excluded slavery. But the future of slavery was in population capable of overcoming a gerrymander that had
settled in Kansas, and events in Nebraska throw only a small favoured the North Platte (and incidentally the Democrats),
side-light on that struggle. John Brown and James H. Lane secured the appointment of a legislative committee to locate
spent considerable time in the south-eastern counties, and the state capital S. of the Platte. Several of the old Missouri
" "
across these an underground railroad ran, by which slaves river contestants had as representatives of their previous
were conducted from Kansas to Iowa and freedom. claims young towns located at strategic points in the interior.
As organized in 1854 Nebraska extended from 40 N. lat. The committee avoided these and selected the site of Lincoln.
to British America, and from the Missouri and White Earth Just ten years earlier the legislature had considered removal
"
rivers to the summit " of the Rockies; but in 1861 and 1863 to another site on the Salt, to be called
" "
Douglas in honour
it was reduced, by the creation of other of Stephen A. Douglas, then still in the heyday of his popularity.
Territories, to its present
boundaries. By 1860 settlement had spread 150 m. W. from The decade 1870-1880 was marked by the work of the two
' In 18 months of constitutional conventions described above. The first legislature
1849-1850 it was officially reported that 8000
wagons, with 80,000 draught-animals and 30,000 people, passed under the constitution of 1875 met in 1877. The following
Ft. Kearney on the way to Oregon, California or Utan. decade was marked by a tremendous growth in population,
NEBRASKA CITY NEBUCHADREZZAR 33 1
BIBLIOGRAPHY. N. H. Darton, Professional Paper No. 17 (in
by a feverish activity railway construction (the mileage
in
U.S. Geological Survey) (1903), Geology and Water Resources of
in the state being increased from 1953 to 5407 m. in the ten
(western) Nebraska, and No. 32 (1905), Geology and Underground
rise in land values, urban and
years), and by an extraordinary Water Resources of the Central Great Plains; G. E. Condra, Geology
rural. Farm-land prices were raised to a basis of maximum and Water Resources of the Republican River Valley and Adjacent
Areas (Washington, 1007), being Water Supply and Irrigation Paper
productiveness when the best interests, especially of the western No. 216 of the United States Geological Survey; id., Water Supply
section, demanded steady growth based on average crop results
Paper No. 2 1 5, Geology and Water Resources of a Portion of the Missouri
under average conditions. The early 'nineties were marked River Valley in North-Eastern Nebraska (Washington, 1908); J. C.
by an economic collapse of false values, and succeeding years Stevens, Surface Water Supply of Nebraska (Washington, 1909)
Water Supply Paper 230; E. H. Barbour, Nebraska Geological
by a painful recovery of stable conditions.
Survey (Lincoln, 1903) G. E. Condra, Geography of Nebraska (Lincoln,
The Democratic and Republican parties were first effectively ;
1906); R. Pound and F. C. Clements, Phytogeography of Nebraska,
organized in opposition, as parts of national bodies, in the vol. (Lincoln, 1898); general scientific sketches by C. E. Bessey,
i.
territorial campaigns of 1858. Till then there were practically L. Bruner and G. A. Loveland in the Morton history and agricultural
and horticultural reports; Annual Reports of the State Board of
only Democratic factions; after 1861 the Republicans held
After about 1890 the national Agriculture and State Horticultural Society; Publications of the
the state securely until 1890. State Bureau of Statistics and Labor; and Bulletins 52 (1904) and
tendencies towards a re-alignment of political parties on social- 66 (1905) of theUnited States Bureau of Forestry. For government
economic issues were sharply displayed in Nebraska. This consult the biennial legislative Public Documents, embracing reports
was main only an indication of the general Farmers'
in the of state officers and boards; also J. A. Barrett, History and Govern-
ment of Nebraska (Lincoln, 1891), Nebraska and the Nation (Chicago,
Movement 1
but this found in Nebraska special stimulus
(q.v.), "
1898); and C. S. Lobinger, The Nebraska Constitution, some of its
in large losses (almost $900,000) suffered by the state from Original and Peculiar Features," in Proceedings and Collections of the
the negligence and defalcation of certain Republican office- Nebraska State Historical Society, Series 2, vol. v. (Lincoln, 1902).
" " For early history see bibliography under article KANSAS. See
holders. Following 1890 the Fusion movement the fusion,
of the Nebraska State
that Populists, Democrats and (after 1896) of Silver
of especially the publications (since 1885)
is,
Historical Society; and J. Sterling Morton, Albert Watkins and
Republicans was of great importance. The only year in which others, Illustrated History of Nebraska (3 vols., Lincoln, 1905 sqq.),
these elements carried the state against the Republicans for which has superseded H. Johnson, History of Nebraska (Omaha, 1880).
presidential electors was in 1896, when William J. Bryan of
Lincoln was their presidential candidate; although the state NEBRASKA CITY, a city and the county-seat of Otoe county,
delegation of representatives and senators in Congress was Nebraska, U.S.A., situated on the high W. bank of the Missouri
for a time divided. The Fusionists practically controlled the river, about 40 m. below Omaha. Pop. (1880) 4183; (1890)
It is
state government from 1897-1899; they held the legislature from 11,494; (1900) 7380 (882 foreign-born); (1910) 5488.
served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the Missouri
1891-1895 and from 1897-1899, the supreme court from 1899-
1901, and the governorship and executive departments from
Pacific railway systems. A railway and wagon bridge spans
1895-1901; they elected a Democratic governor also for 1891-
the Missouri. The city is the seat of the state Institute for
the Blind (1875), and has three public parks and a public library.
1893; but he was not of the true Fusion type, and vetoed a
maximum railway freight-rate bill, although his Republican The city is a distributing centre for a beautiful farming region,
successor approved one. The year 1891 was the most feverish the trade in grain being especially large. In 1900 Nebraska City
ranked third among the manufacturing cities of the state, the
political year of this period. Apart from these temporary Fusion
successes the Republicans have always controlled the state. manufactures including canned fruits and vegetables, packed
The governors of Nebraska have been as follows : pork, flour, oatmeal, hominy, grits, meal, starch, cider-vinegar,
Territorial Period. agricultural implements, windmills, paving bricks, concrete,
Francis Burt II days, Oct. 1854 sewer pipe, beer, over-alls and shirts. It is one of the oldest
" "
Thomas B.Cuming (secretary, acting governor) Oct. l854~Feb. 1855 settlements of the state. The first old Fort Kearney was
Mark W. Izard Feb. i8ss-Oct. 1857 established on the site of Nebraska City in 1847, but was
Thomas B.Cuming (secretary, acting governor) Oct. 1857-Jan. 1858
abandoned in 1848, and the fort was re-established farther W. on
William A. Richardson Jan. i858-Dec. 1858
Morton (secretary, acting governor) Dec. i858-Mayi859 the Platte river (see KEARNEY). Otoe county was organized in
LSterling
muel W. Black
*
May 1855, original Nebraska City was incorporated and
and the
Alvin Saunders May i86i-Mar. 1867 made the county-seat in the same year. This city, together
Algernon S. Paddock (secretary, several times with Kearney City, incorporated in 1855 adjacent to the first
acting governor, 1861-1867). " "
Stale. old Fort Kearney and South Nebraska City, were con-
David Butler (impeached and removed from solidated by the legislature into the present Nebraska City in
" " "
office 1871) 1867-1871 Republican 1858. (Twelve other city additions and so-called towns,"
W. H. James (lieut -governor, succeeding) 1871-1873 allwithin or closely adjacent to the present city, were in existence
Robert W. Furnas 1873-1875
Silas Garber in 1857.) Nebraska City was for some years the largest city
1875-1879
Albinus Nance 1870-1883 of the state. In 1858 it became the headquarters of a great
ames W. Dawes 1883-1887 freighting-firm that distributed supplies for the United Stages
ohn M. Thayer
ames E. Boyd *
1887-1891 government among the army posts between the Missouri river
Democrat
ohn M. Thayer (acting governor) and the Rocky Mountains; in seven months in 1859 this one
1891-1892
lames E. Boyd 1892-1893 firm employed 602 men, used 517 wagons, 5682 oxen, and 75
Lorenzo Crounse 1893-1895 Republican mules, and shipped 2,782,258 Ib. of freight. Nebraska City was
Silas A. Holcombe 1895-1899 Fusion the initial point of several roads, parts atone time or another
William A. Poynter 1899-1901 " " "
Charles H. Dietrich (elected U.S. Senator) of the" Oregon," Old California," and Great Salt Lake trails.
1901 Republican
Ezra P. Savage (lieut.-governor, succeeding) 1901-1903 (See NEBRASKA (State) History.) Nebraska City became a city
:
John H. Mickey 1903-1907 of the second class in 1871 and a city of the first class in 1901.
George L. Sheldon 1907-1909 NEBUCHADREZZAR, or NEBUCHADNEZZAR, king of Babylon,
A. C. Shallenberger 1909-1911 Democrat
Chester H. Aldrich the Na/3ou/co5p6<ropos of the Greeks. The first and last are
1911- Republican
1
nearer to the original name as it is found on the cuneiform
Nebraska was one of the states in which the collapse of the co- "
operative enterprises of the Grange was particularly severe. The monuments, viz. Nabu-kudurri-usur, Nebo, defend the
Farmers' Alliance was organized for the state in 1887, became a landmark." Nebuchadrezzar seems to have been of Chaldean
secret organization in 1889, and, as in other states, was a power origin. He
married Amuhia, daughter of the Median king,
by 1890. The membership of Grange, Alliance and Knights of
Labour went over generally speaking into the People's party. according to Abydenus, and in 605 B.C. defeated Necho at
*
Removed by decision of state supreme court on grounds of non- Carchemish, driving the Egyptians out of Asia and annexing
citizenship, sth of May 1891 reinstated by decision of U.S. Supreme
; Syria to the Babylonian empire. In, the following year h,e
Court, 1st of February 1892. succeeded his father Nabopolassar on the Babylonian throne,
332 NEBULA
which he made one " "
and continued the restoration of Babylon, the Omega nebula (M. 17); (2) Annular nebulae, example:
" "
of the wonders of the world. His new palace there was M. 37 in Lyra; (3) Double nebulae, example: the dumb-bell
built in fifteen days; temples were erected to the gods, the nebula (M. 27) in Vulpecula; (4) Planetary nebulae, examples:
"
great walls of the city were constructed with a moat surrounding the owl " nebula (M. 97) in Ursa Major, M. i in Taurus; (5)
them, the Euphrates was lined with brick and a strong fortress Elliptical nebulae, example: the great nebula of Andromeda
erected. Canals were dug throughout the country and a great (M. 31); (6) Spiral nebulae, example: M. 51 in Canes Venatici;
reservoir excavated near the capital. Only a fragment of his (7) Nebulous stars; (8) Diffused nebulosities. Most of these names
annals has been preserved, recording his campaign against require little explanation. The first class have ill-defined irregular
Amasis (Ahmosi) of Egypt in his thirty-seventh year (567 B.C.) boundaries; their forms often suggest the appearance of curdled
when he defeated the soldiers of " Phut of the lonians." Tyre liquid or wreaths of smoke. The annular nebulae have a ringed
revolted in the seventh year of his reign, and was besieged for appearance, the centre being much darker than the outer parts,
thirteen years; a contract-tablet dated in his fortieth year though it is filled with faintly luminous matter. Double nebulae
shows that at that time it was under Babylonian officials. After have two principal centres of condensation. The planetary
the investment of Tyre Nebuchadrezzar marched against nebulae are nearly uniformly illuminated compact patches
Jerusalem, put Jehoiakim to death and placed Jehoiachin of light generally circular or elliptical in shape; they were so
on the throne. Three months later Jehoiachin was deposed called because they appeared to possess disks like planets.
and Zedekiah made king in his place. Zedekiah's revolt in Elliptical nebulae are usually nebulae of some flat type (such
588 B.C. led to another siege of Jerusalem, which was taken as annular or spiral) seen rather edgeways, so that the structure
and destroyed in 586 B.C. (see JEWS and JERUSALEM). To this is not readily recognizable. The typical spiral nebulae are in
period probably belong an inscription of Nebuchadrezzar on the form of a double spiral, the two branches of which proceed
the north bank of the Nahr el-Kelb near Beirut, and another from diametrically opposite points of a bright nucleus and
in the Wadi Brissa in the Lebanon. From his inscriptions we wind round it in the same sense; the whole is generally studded
gather that Nebuchadrezzar was a man of peculiarly religious with points of condensation. The great majority of the nebulae,
character. A younger brother of his is called Nabo-sum-lisir. including the abundant small nebulae which shine with a white
See Josephus, Cont. Apion, i. 19; Eusebius, Praep. Evangel, x. light (in contrast with the blue-green light of the planetary
NEBULA (Lat. for " cloud," connected with the Gr. vf^rj, and irregular nebulae see below Spectra of nebulae), are generally
mist or cloud), in astronomy, the name given to certain luminous classed as spiral nebulae. The spiral structure has been shown
to exist in a few of them, but for the remainder it is only inferred.
cloudy patches in the heavens. They resemble the stars in that
Nebulous stars are true stars surrounded by an atmosphere
they retain the same relative positions, and thus may be dis-
or aureole of nebulous light. Diffused nebulosities are very
tinguished from the comets which appear to wander across the
stars. When examined with sufficient telescopic power, a great faint nebulae of enormous extent, sometimes forming the back-
many of these luminous patches are perceived to be composed ground of a whole constellation. We proceed to describe some
of clusters of little stars, which in a smaller telescope are invisible of the more famous nebulae.
separately, but whose rays of light blend together so as to
One of the most remarkable nebulae is that which is situated
in the sword-handle of Orion and about the multiple star
produce a confused luminous appearance. Others, however,
cannot be resolved into individual stars even with the best Orionis; it is faintly visible to the naked eye. It seems to have
been first noticed by Huygens in 1656, who described and
telescopes, and in many cases the spectroscope gives direct
evidence that the nebula has a constitution altogether different figuredit in his System Salurnium. It has now been found that
from that of a star-cluster. We thus distinguish between the nebulous streamers connected with the bright nucleus wind
nebulae proper and the star-clusters but owing to the difficulty of
;
through the whole constellation of Orion. It is well known
that all the brighter stars of the constellation except Betelgeuse
deciding the nature in any particular case, and especially owing
to the fact that some of the earlier observers believed it probable appear to be related to one another by their similarity both
that all nebulae would with sufficient telescopic power become of spectra and of proper motion; it seems probable that they
resolvable into stars, the term nebula is often used to cover are actually situated in the nebula and in some way connected
both star-clusters and the true nebulae. with it.
An enumeration of nebulae was made by Charles Messier in The only other nebula which can be seen with the naked eye
Paris in 1771, who recorded 163; Sir William Herschel increased is the elliptical nebula in Andromeda. Modern photographs
the number known to over 2500; whilst Sir John Herschel show very clearly that its structure is spiral. The nucleus is
between 1825 and 1847 catalogued and described 3926 nebulae large and appears circular, but the spirals proceeding from it
lie in a plane inclined at a rather sharp angle to the line of sight,
(including 1700 observed at the Cape of Good Hope). About
1848 the earl of Rosse with his famous six-foot reflector at
and this gives to the nebula its elliptical appearance. Two
Parsonstown began his examination of the nebulae, which added small dense nebulae accompany it, and appear to belong to the
greatly to our knowledge of their forms and structure. In system.
more modern times the development of photography has The finest example of a ring nebula is M. 57 between /3 and y
enabled the features of the nebulae to be ascertained and Lyrae. The ring is slightly elliptical, its dimensions being
recorded with a certainty, which, unfortunately, the older visual 87" by 64". At the ends of the major axis the ring becomes
observations and drawings cannot claim to possess. In this con- very faint, so that the form of the bright part may justly be
nexion the photographic work of Isaac Roberts, A. A. Common, compared to a pair of marks of parenthesis ( ). The centre is
E. E. Barnard and J. E. Keeler in particular must be mentioned. marked by a star which appears to be intimately associated
The total number of known nebulae has, too, been enormously with the ring, for the whole space within the ring is filled with
increased; Perrine estimates that the number within the power a very faint nebulosity. According to Schaeberle, there is
of the Crossley reflector at Lick is not less than half a million. evidence of a spiral structure in this nebula also. It must,
Nebulae may be conveniently classified according to their however, clearly be of an essentially different character from
telescopic appearance; we enumerate below some of the principal
the structure of an ordinary spiral nebula, and the spectroscope
forms that have been recognized, but it must be observed that reveals a fundamental difference between the annular and
this classification is rather superficial, and that the differentia- spiral nebulae.
tion is often one of appearance only and not of real structure. The " dumb-bell " nebula in Vulpecula consists of two almost
The types are: (i) Irregular nebulae, examples: the great separated fan-shaped patches of light. It exhibits a close resem-
nebula of Orion (M. 42), l the " key-hole " nebula near 77 Argus, blance to the annular nebula; for we have only to assume a
1 continuation of the thinning out along the longest diameter and
i.e. No. 42 in Messier's catalogue. Nebulae not contained in
that catalogue are generally known by their number in Dreyer's a slight filling in of the centre of the Lyra nebula to obtain the
New General Catalogue (N.G.C.). dumb-bell form.
NEBULA PLATE I.
Sh
8-
i--
80.
XIX. 332.
PLATE II.
NEBULA
o_
NEBULAR THEORY 333
Of planetary nebulae one of the best known is the "owl well-marked centre of aggregation of the northern nebulae near
" "
ebula in the Great Bear about midway between the pointers." the north galactic pole. In the southern hemisphere they are
5 seen with Lord Rosse's reflector, it presented a startling appear- more evenly distributed, but the avoidance of the galactic plane
nce, resembling the face of a goblin; two faint stars shone in is marked. The remarkable Nubeculae or Magellanic Clouds
be centres of the two dark circles which represented the saucer- in the southern hemisphere, which look like detached portions
yes of the creature. Some change has certainly taken place of the Milky Way, are found on telescopic examination to consist,
since then, for the two no longer could be supposed to
stars not of stars alone, like the Milky Way, but of stars and nebulae
represent the pupils of the eyes; the cause may, however, be clustering together. In the greater cloud Sir John Herschel
merely the proper motion of the stars or of the nebula. counted 286 nebulae; in the lesser cloud they are rather less
The discovery of great regions having a faint nebulous back- numerous:
ground is one of the most remarkable results of modern work. REFERENCES. The characters of nebulae receive treatment in all
text-books on descriptive astronomy; mention may be made of
Particularly interesting is the fact that, whilst the large telescopes
Miss A. M. Clerke, The System of the Stars (2nd ed., 1905), which
are unable to render them perceptible to the eye or to photograph
contains a full account of these objects, illustrated by many photo-
them, they are revealed by what at first sight seems an absurdly graphs; the same work is replete with references to original" papers.
simple apparatus. For the study of the ordinary nebulae Of recent catalogues of nebula, we notice J. L. E. Dreyer, A new
large reflecting telescopes (preferably of short focal length) are general catalogue of nebulae and clusters of stars,"
"
Memoirs R.A.S.
(1888), published separately in 1890; and Index Catalogue of
used, the great light-gathering power being all important; but Nebulae (1888-1894), "Mem. R.A.S. (1895). Excellent photographs
for photographing these diffused nebulosities portrait lenses of the more famous nebulae are given in Sir R. Ball's Popular Guide
of very small aperture and focal length are most successful. to the Heavens (1905); a more comprehensive collection is given in
Thus the great extension of the Orion nebula was photographed Isaac Roberts, Photographs of Stars, Star Clusters and Nebulae (2 vols.,
1873-1899). (A. S. E.)
by W. H. Pickering in 1890 with a lens 2-6 in. in aperture
and of 8-6 in. focal length; the exposure was rather more than NEBULAR THEORY, a theory advanced to account for the
six hours. Other extensive nebulous regions of a similar character origin of the solar system. It is emphatically a speculation;
have been found by Barnard in the constellations Ophiuchus, it cannot be demonstrated by observation or established by
Scorpio and Taurus. mathematical calculation. Yet the boldness and the splendour
Spectra of Nebulae. Owing to the feebleness of their light the of the nebular theory have always given it a dignity not usually
study of the spectra of nebulae is one of particular difficulty. attached to a doctrine which from the very nature of the case
Two varieties of spectra are recognized; the one consists of a can have but little direct evidence in its favour.
few narrow bright lines with sometimes a faint continuous There are very remarkable features in the solar system which
spectrum for a background,; the other consists of a continuous point unmistakably to some common origin of many of the
spectrum crossed by dark lines and is indistinguishable from different bodies which it contains. We may at once put the
that of ordinary stars. The former variety unmistakably comets out of view. It does not appear that they bear any
shows that the light proceeds from diffuse incandescent vapour; testimony on either side of the question. We do not know
"
nebulae showing this spectrum are accordingly called gaseous." whether the comets are really indigenous to the solar system
Irregular, annular and planetary nebulae are of this nature. or whether they may not be merely imported into the system
The visual spectrum is marked by three bright lines in the from the depths of space. Even if the comets be indigenous
blue and green of wave-lengths 5007, 4959 and 4861. Of to the system, they may, as many suppose, be merely ejections
these the last is the line H
|3 of the hydrogen series; the other from the sun. In any case the orbits of comets are exposed
two are of unknown origin, and as they are always found together to such tremendous perturbations from the planets that it is
and have always the same relative intensity, they have both unsafe from the present orbit of a comet to conjecture what
been attributed to the same unknown element, which has been that orbit may have been in remote antiquity. On these grounds
named " nebulium." Usually there are no other conspicuous we discuss the nebular theory without much reference to comets.
lines the visual spectrum, but in the ultra-violet region
in But even after the omission of all cometary objects we can still
numerous lines can be photographed, including most of the count in the solar system upwards of five hundred bodies,
hydrogen series. The yellow line (Da) of helium can be detected almost every one of which pronounces distinctly, though with
in many nebulae. The great majority of the nebulae, however, varying emphasis, in favour of the nebular theory.
show the second variety of spectrum, and are thus indistinguish- The first great fact to be noticed is that the planets revolve
able spectroscopicaily from irresolvable star-clusters. The around the sun in the same direction. This is true not only
great nebula of Andromeda and the spiral nebulae are of this of the major planets Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
kind. It is not necessary to conclude that they, therefore, are Saturn, Uranus and Neptune; it is also true of the host of
star-clusters whose components are, owing to their remoteness more than hundred minor planets. It is also remarkable
five
from us, too faint and close together to be separately distinguish- that all the great planets and many of the small ones have
able. A gaseous mass only gives a bright line spectrum when their orbits very nearly in the same plane, and nearly circular
it is so rarefied as to be transparent through and through. If in form. Viewed as a question in probabilities, we calculate
the density and thickness are such that a ray of light cannot the chance that five hundred bodies revolving round the sun
pass through it the spectrum will, in general, be continuous shall all be moving in the same direction. The improbability
like that of a solid body. of such an arrangement is enormously great. It is represented
The inquiry into the physical state and constitution of the by the ratio of a number containing about a hundred and sixty
nebulae raises problems of great difficulty. In the case of figures to unity, and so we are at once forced to the conclusion
" "
gaseous nebulae it is very hard to understand how such that this remarkable feature of the planetary motions must have
extremely tenuous masses are maintained in a state of incan- some physical explanation. In a minor degree this conclusion
descence. Only one theory has been put forward which at all is strengihened by observing the satellites. Discarding those
accounts for this fact, and unfortunately, it is not altogether of Uranus, in which the orbits of the satellites are highly inclined
satisfactory in other respects. This is Sir Norman Lockyer's to the ecliptic, and in which manifestly some exceptional in-
"Meteoritic Hypothesis," which attributes the light to col- fluences have been at work, we find that the satellites revolve
lisions between numbers of small discrete solid particles, around the primaries also in the same direction; 1 while, to make
these being vaporized and made luminous owing to the heat the argument complete, the planets, so far as they can be
developed by their impacts. Formidable difficulties, however, observed, rotate on their axes in the same manner.
prevent the entire acceptance of this suggestion. The nebular theory offers an explanation of this most remark-
The spiral nebulae are not distributed at random over the able uniformity. Laplace supposed the existence of a primeval
sky, nor are they condensed along the galactic plane like the 1
and and
Exceptions are Saturn ix. (Phoebe), Jupiter vii. (?) viii.,
clusters which they spectroscopicaily resemble. There is a the satellite of Neptune.
334 NEBULAR THEORY
nebula which extended so far out as to fill all the space at present many thousands of degrees within the time covered by historical
occupied by the planets. This gigantic nebulous mass, of records. therefore, conclude that the sun has some other
We,
which the sun was only the central and somewhat more con- source of heat than that due simply to incandescence. It might,
densed portion, is supposed to have a movement of rotation on for example, be suggested that the heat of the sun was supplied
its axis. There is no difficulty in conceiving how a nebula, by chemical combination analogous to combustion. It would
take 20 tons of coal a day burned on each square foot of the
quite independently of any internal motion
of its parts, shall
also have had as a whole a movement of rotation. In fact a sun's surface to supply the daily radiation. Even if the sun
little consideration of the theory of probabilities will show it were made of one mass of fuel as efficient as coal, that mass
to be infinitely probable that such an object should really have must be entirely expended hi a few thousand years if the present
some movement of rotation, no matter by what causes the rate of radiation was to be sustained. We cannot, therefore,
nebula may have originated. As this vast mass cooled it admit that the source of the heat in the sun is to be found in any
must by the laws of heat have contracted towards the centre, chemical combination taking place in its mass. Where then can
and as it contracted it must, according to a law of dynamics, we find an adequate supply of heat ? Only one external source
rotate more rapidly. The time would then come when the can be named: the falling of meteors into the sun must yield
centrifugal force on the outer parts of the mass would more
some heat just as a shooting star yields some heat to our atmo-
than counterbalance the attraction of the centre, and thus sphere, but the question is whether the quantity of heat obtainable
we would have the outer parts left as a ring. The inner portion from the shooting stars is at all adequate for the purpose. It
will stillcontinue to contract, the same process will be repeated, can be shown that unless a quantity of meteors in collective
and thus a second ring will be formed. We have thus grounds mass equal to our moon were to plunge into the sun every year
for believing that the original nebula will separate into a series the supply of heat could not be sustained from this source.
of rings all revolving in the same direction with a central nebulous Now there is no reason to believe that meteors in anything
mass in the interior. The materials of each ring would continue like this quantity can be supplied to the sun, and, therefore,
to cool and to contract until they passed from the gaseous to we must reject this source as also inadequate.
the liquid condition. If the consolidation took place with The truth about the sun's heat appears to be that the sun is
comparative uniformity we might then anticipate the formation really an incandescent body losing heat, but that the operation
of a vast multitude of small planets such as those we actually of cooling is immensely retarded owing to a curious circumstance
do find in the region between the orbit of Mars and that of due jointly to the enormous mass of the sun and to a remarkable
Jupiter. More usually, however, the ring might be expected law of heat. It is well known that if energy disappears in one
not to be uniform, and, therefore, to condense in some parts form it reappears in another, and this principle applied to
more rapidly than in others. The effect of such contraction the sun will explain the famous difficulty.
would be to draw the materials of the ring into a single mass, As the sun loses heat it contracts, and every pair of particles
and thus we would have a planet formed, while the satellites in the sun are nearer to each other after the contraction than
of that planet would be developed from the still nascent planet they were before. The energy due to their separation is thus
in the same way as the planet itself originated from the sun. less in the contracted state than in the original state, ^nd as that
In this way we account most simply for the uniformity in the energy cannot be lost it must reappear in heat. The sun is thus
direction in which the planets revolve, and for the mutual slowly contracting; but as it contracts it gains heat by the
proximity of the planes in which their orbits are contained. operation of the law just referred to, and thus the further cooling
Such was the nebular theory as it was originally sketched. and further contraction of the sun is protracted until the additional
At the present day when the nebulae that are spiral in form heat obtained is radiated away. In this way we can reconcile
have been shown to be so numerous, next to the fixed stars the fact that the sun is certainly losing heat with the fact that
themselves, our view of the nebular theory has been somewhat the change in temperature has not been large enough to be
modified. It now seems probable that the spiral nebula is perceived within historic times.
the fittest illustration of the transformation of a diffused nebula It has been estimated that the sun is at present contracting
into a system of sun and planets. so that its diameter diminishes 10 m. every century; there
The rotation of the planets on their axes is also explained is, however, now reason to think that the rate of contraction
as a consequence of the nebular theory, for at the time of the is by no means so rapid as this would indicate. This is an
first formation of the planet it must have participated in the inappreciable distance when compared with the diameter of the
rotation of the whole nebula, and by the subsequent contraction sun, which is nearly a million of miles, but the significance for
of the planet the speed with which the rotation was performed our present purpose depends upon the fact that this contraction
must have been accelerated. is always taking place. Assuming the accuracy of the estimate
There is quite a different method of considering the nebular just made, we see that a thousand years ago the sun must have
origin of our system, which leads in a very striking manner had a diameter 100 m. greater than at present, ten thousand
to conclusions practically identical with those we have just years ago that diameter must have been 1000 m. more than it is
sketched. We may commence by dealing 'with the sun as we now, and so on. We cannot perhaps assert that the same rate
find it at the present moment, and thence inferring what must is to be continued for very many centuries, but it is plain that
have been the progress of events in the earlier epochs of the the further we look back into the past time the greater must
history of our system. the sun have been.
The daily outpour of heat from the sun at the present time Dealing then simply with the laws of nature as we know them,
suggests a profound argument in support of the nebular theory. we can see no limit to the increasing size of the sun as we look
The amount of the sun's heat has been estimated, but we back. We must conceive a time when the sun was swollen to
receive on the earth less than one two-thousand-millionth such an extent that it filled up the entire space girdled by the
part of the whole radiation. It would seem that the greater orbit of Mercury. Earlier still the sun must have reached to
part of the rest flows away to be lost in space. Now what the earth. Earlier still the sun must have reached to where
supplies this heat? We might at first suppose that the sun Neptune now revolves on the confines of our system, but the
was reallyan intensely heated body radiating out its heat as mass of the sun could not undergo an expansion so prodigious
does white-hot iron, but this explanation cannot be admitted, without being made vastly more rarefied than at present,
for there is no historical evidence that the sun is growing and hence we axe led by this mode of reasoning to the
colder. We have not the slightest reason to think that the conception of the primaeval nebula from which our system has
radiation from the sun is measurably weaker now than it was originated.
a. couple of thousand
years ago, yet it can be shown that, if the Considering that our sun but a star, or but one of the millions
is
sun were merely radiating heat as simply a hot body, then of stars, it is whether any other systems present
of interest to see
it would cool some degrees
every year, and must have cooled indication of a nebulous origin analogous to that which Laplace
NECESSITAS NECK 335
proposed tor the solar system. In one of his papers, Sir W. NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas), a term used technically in
Herscbei marshals the evidence which can be collected on this philosophy for the quality of inevitable happening; for example,
point He arranges a selection from his observations on the hot air necessarily tends to rise. Thus it corresponds in the
nebulae in such a way as to give great plausibility to his view sphere of action to certainty in the sphere of knowledge. That
of the gradual transmutation of nebulae into stars Herschel the sun will rise to-morrow is a necessary event and men anticipate
;
begins by showing us that there are regions in the heavens where the rising with certainty. In ordinary language the conception
a faint diffused nebulosity is all that can be detected by the of necessity is rendered meaningless by being referred to the
telescope. There are other nebulae in which a nucleus can be present or even to the past. A current definition of necessity
"
just discerned, others again in which the nucleus is easily seen, is the state which cannot be otherwise than it is." Such a
and still others where the nucleus is a brilliant star-like point. definition tells us nothing. How can any state be otherwise
The transition from an object of this kind to a nebulous star than it is? Necessity can have meaning only in reference to
is very natural, while the nebulous stars pass into the ordinary the future: it means absence of spontaneous power in that
stars by a few graduated stages. It is thus possible to exhibit which acts necessarily. For the origin of the conception we must
a series of objects beginning at one end with the most diffused look to our inward personal experience of constraint. When we
nebulosity and ending at the other with an ordinary fixed star are acting under physical or mathematical or logical or moral
or group of stars. Each object in the series diflers but slightly necessity we are so far precluded from spontaneous action in
from the object just before it and the object just after it. It common phrase, we can do no otherwise though the causes of
seemed to Herschel that he was thus able to view the actual constraint may be of very different kinds. In ethics the term
changes by which masses of phosphorescent or glowing vapour necessitarianism is applied to that view of human action which
became actually condensed down into stars. The condensation regards all action as dictated by external causes (cf DETERMINISM).
.
of a nebula could be followed in the same manner as we can The sense in which, if at all, the human mind can cognize
study the growth of the trees in the forest, by comparing the necessity, i.e. causal connexion between events or states, has
trees of various ages which the forest contains at the same time. been the subject of vigorous discussion among philosophers.
In attempting to pronounce on the evidence with regard to By sceptics and empiricists it is held that a law is merely a
Herschel's theory, we must at once admit that the transmutation crystallized summary of observed phenomena. Thus J. S.
of a nebula into a star has never been seen. It is indeed very Mill denies that a general proposition is more than an enumeration
doubtful whether any changes of a nebula have ever been seen of particulars, and hence that syllogistic reasoning cannot
which are of the same character as the changes Herschel's theory amplify knowledge (see SYLLOGISM). It is clear that the senses
would require. It seems, however, most likely that the periods cannot apprehend causal connexion, and this impossibility gives
of time required for such changes are immense and that the rise to a prior conception according to which the conception
changes accomplished in only a century 01 two are absolutely of necessity is purely intellectual (see METAPHYSICS).
inappreciable. NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic
The nebular theory is a noble speculation supported by plausible languages; cf. Dutch nek, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word
argument, and the verdict of science on the whole subject cannot was heals; cf. Ger. Hals), that part of the body which connects
be better than in the words of S. Newcomb: " At
expressed the head with the trunk (see ANATOMY: Superficial and Artistic).
the present time we can only say that the nebular hypothesis The word is transferred to many objects resembling this part
is indicated by the general tendencies of the laws of nature, of the body in shape or function; it is thus applied to an isthmus,
that it has not been proved to be inconsistent with any fact, or to the narrowest portion of a promontory, to the narrow part
that it is almost a necessary consequence of the only theory of a musical stringed instrument connecting the head and body,
by which we can account for the origin and conservation of the as in the violin, or to a narrow pass between mountains, which
sun's heat, but that it rests on the assumption that this conserva- in the Dutch form nek, appears in place-names in South Africa.
tion is to be explained by the laws of nature as we now see them In architecture, the " neck " is that part of the capital just
in operation. Should any one be sceptical as to the sufficiency above the " astragal," and the term " necking " is applied to
of these laws to account for the present state of things, science the annulet or round, or series of horizontal mouldings, which
can furnish no evidence strong enough to overthrow his doubts separates the capital of a column from the plain part or a shaft.
until the sun shall be found growing smaller by actual measure- In Romanesque work this is sometimes corded.
" "
ment, or the nebulae be actually seen to condense into stars In Geology, the term neck is given to the denuded stump of an
and systems." extinct volcano. Beneath every volcano there are passages of con-
BIBLIOGRAPHY. du Sir William duits up which the volcanic materials were forced, and after the mass
I,aplace, Sysleme monde;
has been levelled by denudation there is always a more or less circular
Herschel, Phil. Trans (1814), pp. 248-284; Kant's Cosmogony,
translated by Professor Hastie; Sir John Herschel, Outlines of pipe which marks the site of the crater. This pipe, which is filled
with consolidated ashes or with crystalline lava, is the characteristic
Astronomy; Professor S. Newcomb, Popular Astronomy; Lick
of a volcanic neck. Active volcanoes often stand on the sea-bottom
Observatory publications, photographs of Nebulae; Sir Robert
and when the eruption comes to an end the volcano is slowly buried
Ball. The Earth's Beginning. (R. S. B.)
under layers of sediment. In tropical seas the coral animals cover
NECESSITAS (Gr. 'Apa-ywj), in Orphic theology, the personifica- over the submarine volcanoes which rise nearly to the surface and
tion of absolute necessity. She aopears as the mother of the form great reefs of limestone around them. Should elevation take
Moerae (Fates), as the wife of Demiurgus (Fashioner of the place after long ages the removal of the overlying strata will bring the
volcanic mass to light, and in the normal course of things this will
World) and mother of Heimarmene (Destiny). Her power suffer denudation exactly like a recent volcano. Many instances of
is irresistible, even greater than that of the gods; to her was this are furnished by the geological history of the British Isles. In
due the strife (battles with Titans, Giants) that raged amongst Carboniferous times, for example, before the Coal-measures were
them of old, before the rule of love began; the world revolves deposited, a shallow sea occupied the southern part of Scotland and
the north of England. Volcanic activity broke out on the sea-
round the spindle, which she holds in her lap. According to the
bottom, and many volcanic cones, both small and large, were pro-
Egyptian theory, she is one of the four deities present at the duced. These have long since been uplifted and the superjacent
birth of every human being, her companions being the Daemon strata denuded away over a large part of the area which they occu-
In Derbyshire, Fife, the Lothians and the Glasgow district
(guardian spirit), Tyche (Fortune) and Eros. On the citadel pied.
of Corinth there was a temple sacred to her and Bia (Violence), the remains of Carboniferous volcanoes occur in every state of
preservation. Some have the conical hills of lavas and ashes well
which none were permitted to enter. The Roman Necessitas is
preserved (e.g. Largo Law in Fifeshire) ; others retain only a small
represented in the well-known ode of Horace (i. 35) as the fore- part of the original volcanic pile (e.g. Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh; the
runner aud companion of Fortuna, holding in her brazen hand Binn of Burntisland) and of the larger number nothing remains but
" "
the neck which shows where once the crater was situated.
huge nails, a clamp and molten lead, symbolical of fixedness In regions of former volcanic activity necks are the most persistent
and tenacity. of all volcanic structures, because the active volcanic magma is
See Plato, Rep. 616 c, Symp. 195 c, 197 B; Macrobius, Saturnalia, located deep within the earth's crust, and the pipe by which it rises
i 19: Pausanias ii. 4. 6. to the surface is of great length and traverses a great thickness of
33^ NECKAM
strata. Many volcanic necks stand on lines of fault. In other cases have fallen down from strata once occupying part of the walls of the
there are groups of necks lying in a straight or sinuous line, which crater but now removed by denudation.
may indicate the position of a fracture or at least of a line of least lava which rises and flows out from the crater leaves its trace
The
resistance. But in Scotland it is often impossible to adduce any also in the necks. Sometimes it forms thin beds or flows alternating
evidence of the connexion between faults or fissures and the position with the tuffs and having the same basin-shaped dip. More commonly
of volcanic necks; and it seems likely that the pressure of the gases it appears as the material filling fissures and pipes, traversing the
in the igneous magma increased till an explosion took place which ashes irregularly or rising as a central plug in the interior of the
perforated the rocks above with a clean tubular passage often nearly neck, and sending out branching veins. Occasionally a whole neck is
circular in cross section. This pipe was usually vertical, and nearly composed of solid crystalline rock representing the last part of the
uniform in diameter for great depths; the material occupying it, magma which ascended from the underground focus and con-
when exposed by denudation, has a circular ground plan, or if gealed within the crater. In Mont Pelee, Jor instance, the last stage
shown in vertical section (or elevation) in a cliff is a pillar-shaped of the eruptions of 1902 to 1905 was the protrusion of a great column
mass crossing the bedding planes of the strata nearly at right angles. of solidified lava which rose at one time to a height of 900 ft. above
It terminates upwards in the remains of the volcanic cone and com- the lip of the crater, but has since crumbled down. The Castle Rock
municates below with the reservoir from which the lavas were of Edinburgh is a neck occupied by a plug of crystalline basalt.
emitted, represented in most cases, where it has been exposed, by a Necks of this kind weather down very slowly and tend to form
large irregular mass (a batholith or boss) of coarsely crystalline prominent hills.
igneous rock. The site of such a neck is generally indicated by a After the eruptions terminate gases or hot solutions given out
by
low conical hill consisting of volcanic rock, surrounded by sedi- deep-lying masses of molten rock may find a passage upward through
mentary or igneous strata of a different kind. The low cone is due the materials occupying the crater, greatly modifying their mineral
to the greater hardness and strength of the volcanic materials and nature and laying down fresh deposits. A good example of
secondary
is not connected with the original shape of the volcano. Such hills deposits within a volcanic neck is provided by the Cripple Creek
are common in some parts of Scotland and well-known examples are mining district of Colorado. The ore-bearing veins are connected
Arthur's Seat and the Castle Rock (Edinburgh), North Berwick Law, with volcanic rocks and part of these occupy a vertical circular pipe
the Bass Rock; they occur also in the Peak district of Derbyshire, which is a typical volcanic neck. A
phonolitic breccia, greatly
and the Wolf Rock off the coast of Cornwall is probably a neck. Two altered, is the principal rock, and is cut by dikes of phonolite,
splendid sugar-loaf cones known as the Pitons of St Lucia in the West dolerite, &c. The, country rock is mostly granite and gneiss, and
Indies, rising from the sea with almost vertical sides to a height of blocks of these are common in the breccia. A large volcano was built
nearly 3000 ft., are old volcanic necks. In Texas, New Mexico, up in Tertiary times on the granite plateau, and has since been almost
Arizona, California and many of the western states of North entirely removed by denudation. The gold ores were carried upwards
America geologists have observed conical volcanic hills having all by currents of hot water derived from the volcanic magma and were
the features which belong to necks. deposited along cracks and fissures in the materials which occupied
Where the volcanic rocks are soft and easily disintegrated they may the crater, and also in the surrounding rocks (see VOLCANO).
be reduced more rapidly than the strata around them and the Q. S. F.)
position of a neck may be indicated by a cup-shaped hollow; this NECKAM, ALEXANDER (1157-1217), English schoolman
is the case with some of the diamond-bearing basic pipes of South
Africa. Sometimes necks are encountered in underground mining and man of science, was born at St Albans in September 1157,
operations; in the coal-field of Fife, for instance, the coals are on the same night as King Richard I. Neckam's mother nursed
sometimes replaced by a circular mass of volcanic rock, a quarter of the prince with her own son, who thus became Richard's foster-
a mile or more in diameter, which rise vertically to the surface. He was
brother. educated at St Albans Abbey school, and began
Better examples are the Kimberley diamond mines. The blue-ground
to teach as schoolmaster of Dunstable, dependent on St Albans
(or serpentine breccia) occupies great pipes or funnels, circular in
outline with nearly vertical sides, extending downwards to un- Abbey. Later he resided several years in Paris, where by 1180
known depths; these are undoubtedly the necks of old volcanoes. he had become a distinguished lecturer of the university. By
If any lavas were poured out from these pipes at the surface they
1 1 86 he was back in England, where he again held the place
have since been carried away by denudation.
The size of necks varies considerably; the smallest may be only of schoolmaster at Dunstable. He is said to have visited Italy
20 or 30 yds. in diameter, the largest are several miles. In with the bishop of Worcester, but this statement has been
this resemble active craters, but no necks have been
respect they doubted; the assertion that he was ever prior of St Nicolas,
met with on the earth's surface with dimensions approaching those of
" "
the so-called craters of the moon. Small necks are usually simple, Exeter, seems a mistake: on the other hand, he was certainly
i.e. they contain only one or two kinds of igneous rock (ashes and
much at court during some part of his life. Having become
dikes) and have been produced, so far as we can judge, by a single an Augustinian canon, he was appointed abbot of Cirencester
eruption. Not infrequently they contain no volcanic rock but are in 1213. He died at Kempsey in Worcestershire in 1217, and
filled with pieces of slate, sandstone or whatever strata the pipe
was buried at Worcester. Besides theology he was interested
traverses. Such necks must have been produced by a single eruption
with an outburst of steam, not followed by lava; the disrupted in the study of grammar and natural history, but his name is
fragments of the surrounding rocks and the materials tumbling down chiefly associated with nautical science. For in his De naturis
from the crater's walls ultimately filled up the cavity. Instances rerum and De ulensilibus (the former of which, at any
occur in Fifeshire and in Shetland, and among the recent volcanoes
of the Eiffel there are some which have thrown out more slate and rate, had become well known at the end of the i2th century, and
sandstone than lava. was probably written about 1180) Neckam has preserved to
Large necks, on the other hand, are often of complex structure, us the earliest European notices of the magnet as a guide to
contain many kinds of rock and seem to have been produced by seamen outside China, indeed, these seem to be the earliest
repeated eruptions, each of which more or less completely cleared notices of this mystery of nature that have survived in any
out the material obstructing the orifice, and introduced a series of
fresh accumulations. The beds of ashes which line the interior of an country or civilization. It was probably in Paris, the chief
active crater have in nearly all cases a slope or dip towards a central intellectual centre of his time, that Neckam heard how a ship,
point where the base of the depression is situated, and in volcanic among its other stores, must have a needle placed above a magnet
necks which have been filled with ash (tuffs and agglomerates) this
funnel-like inward dip is very constant.
(the De utensilibus assumes a needle mounted on a pivot),
If there has been only a
which needle would revolve until its point looked north, and
single eruption the beds of ashes have a very conformable or uniform
arrangement, but if activity has been resumed after a period of thus guide sailors in murky weather or on starless nights. It
quiescence a large part of the old material may have been projected is noteworthy that Neckam has no air of imparting a startling
and a new series of beds laid down, transgressing unconformably
the edges of the earlier ones. By these structures we can sometimes novelty: he merely records what had apparently become the
trace a neck within a neck, or of a lateral crater on the margin of a regular practice of at least many seamen of the Catholic world.
principal one. See Thomas Wright's edition of Neckam's De naturis rerum and
Where the crater has filled up with very coarse ashes, or agglomer- De laudibus divinae sapientiae in the Rolls Series (1863), and of
ate, the bedding is rarely visible. Sometimes large empty craters the De ulensilibus in his Volume of Vocabularies. Neckam also wrote
were occupied temporarily by lakes, and level sheets of mud and silt
Corrogaiiones Promelhei, a scriptural commentary prefaced by a
have gathered on their floors: hence bedded sediments are not treatise on grammatical criticism; a translation of Aesop into Latin
infrequently found in volcanic necks. Mixed with the volcanic ashes elegiacs (six fables from this version, as given in a Paris MS., are
and bombs there are often large broken pieces of sedimentary rocks
printed in Robert's Fables inedites); commentaries, still unprinted,
which may have been crystallized and hardened by the heat and on portions of Aristotle, Martianus Capella and Ovid's Meta-
vapours emitted by the volcano. Sometimes great fragments of the morphoses, and other works. Of all these the De not. rer., a sort of
walls have foundered or collapsed into the crater, and masses of non- manual of the scientific knowledge of the I2th century, is much the
volcanic rock, an acre or more in extent, may occur in a volcanic neck. most important: the magnet passage herein is in book ii. chap,
In Arran, for example, there is a large neck which contains
lumps of xcviii. (De vi attractiva), p. 183 of Wright's edition. The correspond-
Cretaceous rocks nowhere else known to occur on the island De is on p. 114 of the Vol. of Vocabs.
; they ing section in the utensu,
NECKAR NECKER 337
Roger Bacon's reference to Neckam as a grammatical writer (in engaged, and brought her back as her companion to Paris in
tmutis vera et utilia scripsit: sed inter auctores non potest . . .
1764. There Necker, transferring his love from the widow to
. . .
numerari) may be found in Brewer's (Rolls Series) edition of
the poor Swiss girl, married Suzanne before the end of the year.
Bacon's Opera inedita, p. 457. See also Thomas Wright, Biographia
Britannica literaria, Anglo-Norman Period, pp. 449-459 (1846: She encouraged her husband to try and make himself a public
some points in this are modified in the 1863 edition of De nat. rer.) ;
position. He accordingly became a syndic or director of the
C. Raymond Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 508-509. French East India Company, and, after showing his financial
(C. R. B.)
ability in its management, defended it in an able memoir against
NECKAR, a Germany, and a right-bank tributary
river of
the attacks of A. Morellet in 1769. Meanwhile he had made
of the Rhine, risesbetween the Black Forest and the Swabian interest with the French government by lending it money, and
Alb, near Schwenningen, in Wiirttemberg, at an altitude of was appointed resident at Paris by the republic of Geneva.
2287 ft. As far as Rottweil only a mountain stream, it here Madame Necker entertained the chief leaders of the political,
attains the volume of a river, flows N. as far as Horb, thence financial and literary worlds of Paris, and her Fridays became
and with rapid current it passes
in a north-easterly direction, as greatly frequented as the Mondays of Madame Geoffrin, or
Rottenburg and the university town of Tubingen, taking then the Tuesdays of Madame Helvetius. In 1773 Necker won the
a generally northerly course. From Essh'ngen the Neckar
prize of the Academic Francaise for an eloge on Colbert, and in
becomes broader and deeper and its valley very picturesque,
!77S published his Essai sur la legislation et le commerce des
and after passing Cannstatt, from which point it is navigable which he attacked the free-trade policy of Turgot.
grains, in
for small craft, it flows through vine-clad hills by the pleasant His wife now believed he could get into office as a great financier,
village of Marbach, Schiller's birthplace, receives at Besigheim and made him give up his share in the bank, which he transferred
the waters of its most considerable tributary, the Enz, swirls
to his brother Louis. In October 1776 Necker was made finance
down by Lauffen, and enters the beautiful vale of Heilbronn. minister of France, though with the title only of director of
Hence, between hills crowned by frequent feudal castles, it ..the treasury, which, however, he changed in 1777 for that of
runs by Wimpfen and by Hornberg, where Gotz von Berlichingen'
director-general of the finances. He did great good in regulating
lived, to Eberbach, where it enters the sandstone formation the finances by attempting to divide the taille or poll tax more
of the Odenwald. It now takes a tortuous westerly course, "
equally,by abolishing the vingtieme d'industrie," and establish-
and the scenery on its banks becomes more romantic. Winding
ing monts de piele (establishments for loaning money on security).
down by Neckarsteinach and Neckargemiind between lofty But his greatest financial measures were his attempt to fund
wooded heights, it sweeps beneath the Konigsstuhl (1900 ft.), the French debt and his establishment of annuities under the
washes the walls of Heidelberg, and now quitting the valley The operation of funding was too
guarantee of the state.
enters the plain of the Rhine and falls into that river from the difficult to be suddenly accomplished, and Necker rather pointed
right at Mannheim. Its length is 247 m., and its drainage area out the right line to be followed than completed the operation.
4790 sq. m. Its more important tributaries are the Enz, Eschach In all this he treated French finance rather as a banker than as
and Glatt (left), and the Fils, Rems, Kocher and Jagst (right). a profound political economist, and thus fell far short of Turgot,
It is navigable for small steamboats up to Heilbronn, for boats who was the very greatest economist of his day. Politically
up to Cannstatt, and for rafts from Rottweil. It is the principal he did not do much to stave off the coming Revolution, and his
waterway of Wiirttemberg, and is greatly used for floating establishment of provincial assemblies was only a timid applica-
down timber. From Rottenburg downwards its banks are almost tion of Turgot's great scheme for the administrative reorganiza-
everywhere planted with vineyards. Up to Frankfort it has tion of France. In 1781 he published his famous Compte rendu,
been deepened and the channel otherwise improved. A com- in which he drew the balance sheet of France, and was dismissed
mittee, chiefly promoted by the Wurttemberg government from his office. Yet his dismissal was not really due to his book,
and the Stuttgart chamber of commerce, reported in 1901 that but to the influence of Marie Antoinette, whose schemes for
it was both desirable and practicable to dredge the river and
benefiting the due de Guines he had thwarted. In retirement
to canalize it, from Esslingen down to Mannheim, and that the he occupied himself with literature, and with his only child,
cost would probably be between 2 and i\ millions sterling. his daughter, who in 1786 married the ambassador of Sweden
See T. Eckart, Bilder aus dent Neckartal (1893). and became Madame de Stael (?..). But neither Necker nor
NECKARGEMUND, a town and climatic health resort of his wife cared to remain out of office, and in 1787 Necker was
" "
Germany, in the grand duchy of Baden, situated amid densely banished by lettre de cachet 40 leagues from Paris for
wooded hills, on the left bank of the Neckar, 6 m. E. from attacking Calonne. In 1 788 the country, which had at the bidding
Heidelberg by the railway to Wurzburg and at the junction of of the literary guests of Madame Necker come to believe that
a line to Jagstfeld. Pop. (1905) 2200. It has an important Necker was the only minister who could " stop the deficit,"
trade in wine. The other industries are quarrying, tanning as they said, demanded Necker's recall, and in September 1788
and shipbuilding, and there are electrical works. Neckargemiind, he became once more director-general of the finances. Through-
one of the favourite tourist resorts in the Neckar valley, was out the momentous months which followed the biography of
founded in the loth century and became a free town in 1286. Necker is part of the history of the French Revolution (q.v.).
In 1395 it passed to the elector palatine and, together with the Necker pat a stop to the rebellion in Dauphin^ by legalizing its
surrounding district, was apportioned to Baden in 1814. assembly, and then set to work to arrange for the summons
NECKER, JACQUES (1732-1804), French statesman, finance of the states general. Throughout the early months of 1789
minister of Louis XVI., was born at Geneva in Switzerland. he was regarded as the saviour of France, but his conduct at
His father was a native of Custrin in Pomerania, and had, after the meeting of the states general showed that he regarded it
the publication of some works on international law, been elected merely as an assembly which should grant money, not organize
as professor of public law at Geneva, of which he became a citizen. reforms. But as he had advised the calling of the states general,
Jacques Necker had been sent to Paris in 1747 to become a and the double representation of the third estate, and then
clerk in the bank of a friend of his father, M. Vernet. He soon
permitted the orders to deliberate and vote in common, he was
afterwards established, with another Genevese, the famous regarded as the cause of the Revolution by the court, and on
bank of Thellusson & Necker. Thellusson superintended the July 1 1 was ordered to leave France at once. Necker's dismissal
bank in London (his grandson was made a peer as Lord Rendles- brought about the taking of the Bastille, which induced the
ham), while Necker was managing partner in Paris. Both king to recall him. He was received with joy in every city he
partners became veryrich by loans to the treasury and specula- traversed, but at Paris he again proved to be no statesman.
tions in grain. In 1763 Necker fell in love with Madame de Believing that he could save France alone, he refused to act with
Vermenou, the widow of a French officer. But while on a visit Mirabeau or La Fayette. He caused the king's acceptance of
to Geneva, Madame de Vermenou met Suzanne the suspensive veto, by which he sacrificed his chief prerogative
Curchod, the
daughter of a pastor near Lausanne, to whom Gibbon had been in September, and destroyed all chance of a strong executive
NECROLOGY NEEDLE
by contriving the decree of November 7, by which the ministry NECTAR, in ancient mythology generally coupled with am-
might not be chosen from the assembly. Financially he proved brosia, the nourishment of the gods in Homer and in Greek
equally incapable for a time of crisis,
and could not understand literature generally. Probably the two terms were not originally
the need of such extreme measures as the establishment of distinguished; but usually both in Homer and in later writers
assignats in order to keep the country quiet.
His popularity nectar is the drink and ambrosia the food. On the other hand,
vanished when his only idea was to ask the assembly for new in Alcrnan nectar is the food, and in Sappho and Anaxandrides
loans, and September 1790 he resigned his office, unregretted
in ambrosia the drink. Each is used in Homer as an unguent
Frenchman. Not without difficulty he reached (Iliad, xiv. 170; xix. 38). Both are fragrant, and may be used
by a single
Coppet, near Geneva, an estate he had bought in 1784.
Here as perfume. According to W. H. Roscher (Nektar und Am-
he occupied himself with literature, but Madame Necker pined brosia, 1883; see also his article in Roscher's Lexikon der Mytho-
for her Paris salon and died in 1794. He continued to live on logie) nectar and ambrosia were originally only different forms
at Coppet, under the care of his daughter, Madame de Stae'l, of the same substance honey, regarded as a dew, b'ke manna,
and his niece, Madame Necker de Saussure, but his time was fallen from heaven, which was used both as food and drink.
past, and his books had no political influence.
A momentary (See also AMBROSIA.)
excitement was caused by the advance of the French armies NEED-FIRE, or WILD-FIRE (Ger. Notfeiter, O. Ger. nodfyr),
in 1798, when he burnt most of his political papers. He died a term used in folklore to denote a curious superstition which
at Coppet in April 1804. survived in the Highlands of Scotland until a recent date. Like
the fire-churning still customary in India for kindling the sacri-
AUTHORITIES. Memoires sur la vie privee de M. Necker (Paris and
ficial fire, the need- or wild-fire is made by the friction of one
London, 1818), by his daughter, Madame de Stael-Holstein, and the
Notice sur la vie de M. Necker (Paris, 1820), by Auguste de Stael- wood on another, or of a rope upon a stake. Need-fire
piece of
Holstein, his grandson, published in the collection of his works edited a practice of shepherd peoples to ward off disease from their
is
by the latter in 1820-1821 (Paris, 15 vols.). The bibliography of his and flocks. It is kindled on occasions of special distress,
works is as follows: Reponse au memoire de M. I' Abbe IlonSsta .herds
(1769); Eloge de J. B. Colbert (1773); Essai sur la legislation et te particularly at the outbreak of a murrain, and the cattle are
commerce des grains (1775); Compte rendu au rot (1781); De driven through it. Its efficacy is believed to depend on all
{'administration des finances de la France (3 vols., 1784); Memoire other fires being extinguished. The kindling of the need-fire
en reponse au discours prononce par M. de Calonne (1787); De Vim- in a
M. village near Quedlinburg was impeded by a night light
parlance des opinions religieuses (1788); Sur I' administration de
in the parsonage (Prohle, Harz-Bildcr, Leipzig, 1855).
Necker, par lui-meme (1791); Du pouvoir executif dans les grands burning
flats (2 vols., 1792); Reflexions sur le prods de Louis XVI. (1792); According to one account, in the Highlands of Scotland the rule
De la revolution fran^aise, several editions, the last in 4 vols. (1797); that all common fires must be previously extinguished applied
Cours de la morale religieuse (1800); Dernieres vues de poiitique et de
only to the houses situated between the two nearest running
finance (1802); Manuscrits de M. Necker, published by his daughter
Suites d'une seule
funestes published after his death. streams (Kelly, Curiosities of Indo-Eurcpean Tradition and
(1804); fattte,
See also Le Salon de Madame Necker, by the Vicomte d'Haussonville Folklore, p. 53 seq.). In even smoking during
Bulgaria
(2 vols., 1882), compiled from the papers at Coppet; Ch. Gomel, need-fire is forbidden. Two
naked men produce the fire by
Les Causes financieres de la revolution fran^aise (Paris, 1892) and for
rubbing dry branches together in the forest, and with the flame
;
contemporary tracts and pamphlets M. Tourneux, Bibl. de I'histoire
de Paris pendant la revolution (vol. iv., 1906); also (for the earlier they light two fires, one on each side of a cross-road haunted
ones) Collection complete de tous les outrages pour et centre M. Necker, by wolves. The cattle are then driven between the two fires,
avec des notes critiques . . . (3 vols., Utrecht, 1781). from which glowing embers are taken to rekindle the cold hearths
(H. M.S.; J.T.S.*) in the houses (A. Strausz, Die Bulgaren, p. 198). In Caithness
NECROLOGY (from Med. Lat. necrologium, Gr. veicpfa, the men who kindled the need-fire had previously to divest
corpse, the termination being formed from Xifyios, \eyfiv to themselves of all metal. In some of the Hebrides the men who
"
read, in the sense of list, register; cf. martyrology "), a register made the fire had to be eighty-one in number and all married.
in a monastery or other ecclesiastical establishment of the names In the Halberstadt district in Germany, the rope which was
of the deceased members of the society, or of those for whom wound round the stake, must be pulled by two chaste boys;
the prayers of the foundation were offered as benefactors; while at Wolfenbiittel, contrary to usual custom, it is said that
hence any roll or list of deceased persons or collection of the need-fire had to be struck out of the cold anvil by the smith.
obituaries. In England the need-fire is said to have been lit at Birtley
NECROMANCY (Gr. vficpofiavrtia., or vdcvofiavrela, from within the last half-century. The superstition had its origin in
veKpbs or vexus, corpse, and [Mtnela, divination), properly the early ideas of the purifying nature of flame.
divination by communicating with the dead. The latinized See also Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, i. 501 sqq. Kelly, Curio-
;
form of the Greek word was corrupted into nigromantia, con- sities ofIndo-European Tradition and Folklore, p. 48 sqq.; Elton,
necting the word with niger, black, and so was applied to the Origins of English History, p. 293 sqq.; J. G. Frazer, The Golden
" " Bough, iii. 301.
black art," black magic," in the sense of witchcraft, sorcery.
This corrupted form is common in English to the I7th century NEEDLE (O. Eng. needl; the word appears in various forms
{see MAGIC and WITCHCRAFT). in Teutonic languages, Ger. Nadel, Dutch naal, the root being
NECROPOLIS, a cemetery (q.v.) or burying-place, literally ne-, to sew, cf. Ger. nahen, and probably Lat. nzre, to spin, Gr.
" "
a city of the dead (Gr. veupbs, corpse, and iriXis, city). spinning), an instrument adapted for passing a thread
vTJffts,
Apart from the occasional application of the word to modern through fabrics in sewing, consisting of a thin rod of steel, having
cemeteries outside large towns, the term is chiefly used of burial-
" "
a pointed end and pierced with a hole or eye to carry the
grounds near the sites of the centres of ancient civilizations. thread. The term is also applied to various other objects that
NECROSIS (Gr. ?Kp6s, corpse), a term restricted in surgery more or less resemble a sewing needle in form, though differing
to death of bone. A severe inflammation, caused by a violent in function, such as the magnetized piece of steel that points
blow, by cold, or by the absorption of various poisons, as mercury north and south in the mariner's compass, the pointer or indicator
and phosphorus, is the general precursor of necrosis. The dead of certain forms of electric telegraph instruments, the slender
part, analogous to the slough in the soft tissues, is called a tube by which the contents of a hypodermic syringe are injected
sequestrum or exfoliation. At first it is firmly attached to the beneath the skin, a sharp-pointed mountain peak or isolated
living bone around; gradually, however, the dead portion is mass of rock, &c.
separated from the living tissue. The process of separation is Sewing needles have been in use from prehistoric times.
a slow one. New bone is formed around the sequestrum, which Originally they were made of fishbone, bone or ivory, and their
often renders its removal difficult. As a rule the surgeon waits first form was probably a rude bodkin having a hook instead
until the dead part is loose, and then cuts down through the of an eye, though bone needles with an eye, sometimes at the
new case and removes the sequestrum. The cavity in which end and sometimes in the middle, have been found in cave de-
it lay gradually closes, and a useful limb is the result.
posits in Great Britain and France and in the Swiss lakes. Bone
NEEDLE-GUNNEEDLEWORK 339
needles continue to be used by uncivilized tribes, but since the be pushed down on the shank, while in another the same end is
served by providing them with a minute latch. Another special
discovery of bronze metal needles have been employed in civilized class is constituted by the numerous varieties of needles used by
communities. Steel needles were introduced into Europe by
surgeons for suturing wounds, &c. (see SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS).
the Moors, and it ison record that they were being made at
NEEDLE-GUN (ZUNDNADELGEWEHR), a military breech-
Nuremberg in 1370. In England their manufacture was estab-
lished about 1650. The centre of the trade in England is loading rifle, famous as the arm of the Prussians in 1866 and of
the Germans in 18703-1871. It was the invention of the gunsmith
Redditch, in Worcestershire, with several other small towns
in Warwickshire. Originally the industry was domestic in its
Johann Nicholas von Dreyse (1787-1867), who, beginning in
1824, had made many experiments, and in 1836 produced the
character, but it is now carried on in factories where mechanical
complete needle-gun. From 1841 onwards the new arm was
appliances have to a great extent supplanted handwork. Large
gradually introduced into the Prussian service, and later into
quantities of needles are also manufactured on the continent of
the military forces of many other German states. Dreyse was
Europe, Aix-la-Chapelle being an important centre of their
ennobled in 1864. The principal details of the arm (pattern
production. In the United States ordinary sewing needles
1841) are as follows:
are not made, though there is a large output of the special forms
used in sewing machines. Breech
Calibre
....
.... Bolt system
607 in.
The raw material of needle-manufacture consists of Sheffield Weight without bayonet 10 Ib 4 oz.
crucible steel drawn down into wire of suitable gauge. The wire is Charge (black powder) 74- 15 grains
Bullet (lead) 478 grains
supplied in coils of definite weight and diameter, and the first
Muzzle velocity
operation is to cut the coils into lengths, each sufficient for two
needles. These lengths are next straightened. For this purpose a Sighted to ... 1000 f.s.
800 paces (656 yds.)
bundle containing several thousand lengths is packed within two In practice the needle-gun proved to have numerous defects;
strong iron rings, is heated to red heat, and is then pressed on an iron
its effective range was very short compared to that of the muzzle-
plate having two parallel grooves in which the iron rings run. Over
this plate the bundle is worked backward and forward by the pressure loading rifles of the day, and conspicuously so as against the
of an oblong slightly curved iron tool having two longitudinal slits
chassepot: the escape of gas at the breech was, moreover, very
through which the edges of the rings project. Thus, by combined great. A paper cartridge was used. An improved model,
pressure and rolling the whole of the lengths quickly become perfectly
straight and even. The next operation consists in pointing both ends giving greater muzzle velocity and increased speed in loading,
of the wires. This was formerly done by hand by a grinder who, was introduced later, but this was soon replaced by the Mauser
holding several dozen wires against a grindstone with his left hand rifle.
and slightly revolving them with his right, was able to point about NEEDLEWORK. This subject may be considered under
100,000 needles a day, the number depending, however, to some
extent on the size treated. This method, however, is now largely the two headings of (i) Plain Needlework, used for purely
superseded by machinery, which is still more expeditious. The wires utilitarian purposes, and (2) Art Needlework for decorative
are fed out from a hopper to a revolving wheel, on the periphery of
purposes. Plain needlework requires no such further explanation
which they are held by an india-rubber band. This wheel revolves at as may be given in the case of art needlework, under which title
right angles to a revolving hollow grindstone, and so each wire is
are included (a) embroidery, and (b) other methods of decorative
brought up to the stone in rapid succession and pointed at one end,
the process being repeated for the other end. The next operations needlework, such as applied or applique work, ornamental
are to stamp the grooves which are to be found at the head of a needle
quilting, patchwork and couching. In these last-mentioned
and to punch the oval eyes, both being done by automatic machinery. methods the needlework is subservient to the decorative effect,
Each wire now forms two needles attached head to head by a broad
thin scarf of steel. The operation of separating them is largely per- which depends almost wholly upon the materials selected for
formed by machines which pass the double blanks over the face of an the purpose; whereas in embroidery the needlework itsejf
emery wheel, but an older method is to spit them on two flattened constitutes and is the visible decoration. The aim of this article
wires, clamp them tightly in a frame, file away the scarf and break is to indicate briefly different stitches of plain needlework and
the blanks in halves, so that two lots of single needles are obtained,
each spitted on a wire. The next step, after the heads have been filed then to show that these stitches are also used in the domain of
smooth, is to harden and temper the needles, which are heated to art needlework.
redness, plunged into cold oil, and then gently heated by being placed The more necessary stitche^ in plain needlework for making
on a continuous band passing over a series of gas flames. After the clothes are tacking, running, hemming, feather-stitching or
tempering comes the process of scouring, and then the eyes are
smoothed and polished so that they will not cut the thread. For this herring-boning (all of which are practically of the same type),
purpose the heads used to be softened by blueing, and the needles and button-holing in which the thread is looped as each stitch
strung loosely on wires covered with a paste of emery and oil. These is made. Button-holing is allied to another looped stitch,
wires were then suspended between uprights on a frame platform
to which a jerking motion was communicated; in this way the namely chain-stitching, which though frequently used in em-
needles were made to swing on the wires and the gentle friction broidery is rarely if ever used in plain needlework. For repairs of
effected the desired end. Generally, however, the eyes are cleared by clothes and household linen, &c., the principal stitch is darning;
the action of a concave wire brush, before the scouring process, and grafting, however, is a substitute for it, and varies with the
then subsequent burnishing becomes unnecessary. The bodies are character of the stuff to be repaired, e.g. knitted stockings,
next polished by being passed between revolving leather rollers which
have also a lateral motion in the direction of their axes. The heads damask linen, cloth, &c. Darning is allied to running, and graft-
of the finished needles have now to be brought all in one direction. ing to patchwork. Patchwork as a form of decorative needle-
"
Formerly this was done by a header," wearing a cloth cap on one of work is exemplified in sumptuous canopies and seat covers
her fingers; this being pressed against a batch of the needles which
made several centuries B.C. by Egyptians, and rich hangings
had previously been arranged parallel to each other, those whose
heads were presented to the cloth stuck in it and thus were with- made by Italian and French workers in the i6th century.
drawn. A more modern device is to roll them down a smooth in- Long and short stitches, kindred in principle to the running
clined plane, when the pointed ends, owing to their conical form, stitch in plain needlework, are perhaps the more frequent of
travel more slowly than the thicker ends, and thus the needles are
all brought round so that
any stitches used in embroidery, and are especially appropriate
they point the same way. They are then when the blending of tints with a flat even surface is the effect
sorted according to their lengths, and are done up into packets for
the market. to be aimed at. Much medieval work of this character, as well
Besides ordinary needles for hand sewing, many varieties are made as that done with chain stitch and its allied split stitch, is re-
for use in sewing machines, and in their
production automatic garded as typical of opus anglicanum. Chain stitch produces
machinery is largely utilized. Those used for sewing leather have a comparatively broken surface in decided contrast with the
points of various special forms (twist, chisel, wedge, diamond, &c.)
instead of the round point of the ordinary needle, and sometimes smooth one of long and short stitch, split stitch and satin stitch
have a hook in place of an eye. Knitting needles are long slender embroidery. Satin stitch is well adapted to express, with even
rods, usually of steel but sometimes of bone or other material, having flat surface in designs for colour effects, each mass which is
neither hooks nor eyes. Crochet needles are
provided with a hook. to be of one tint. In this respect, therefore, satin stitch serves
Hooked needles again are employed in knitting and stockinet
machines; having to be periodically closed by the operation of the a purpose in contrast to that of long and short stitch. A
charac-
mechanism the hooks in one type are made flexible so that they can teristic of satin-stitching is the sheeny effect produced, on both
340 NEEMUCH NEER, VAN DER
sides of the material embroidered, by parallel stitches taken brigade of native troops of the Bengal army, which was stationed
closely together. Buttonhole stitch in relation to art needle- there, mutinied and marched to Delhi, the European officers
work prevails to a great extent in cut linen and drawn-thread taking refuge in the fort, where they were besieged by a rebel
work (often called Greek lace), and predominates in the making of force from Mandasor, and defended themselves gallantly until
needlepoint lace (see LACE). In much of the Persian drawn-thread relieved by the Malwa
field force. Since 1895 it has been the
work, however, it is superseded by whipping or tightly and closely headquarters of the political agent in Malwa.
twisting a thread round the undrawn threads of the linen. Whip- NEENAH, a city of Winnebago county, Wisconsin, U.S.A.,
ping has been put to another use in certain 16th-century art on the N.W. shore of Lake Winnebago, 82 m. N. by E. of Mil-
needlework for ecclesiastical purposes, where round the gold waukee. Pop. (1890) 5083; (1900) 5954, of whom 1559 were
threads employed as the ground of a design coloured silks are foreign-born; (1905) 6047; (1910) 5734. It is served by the
dexterously whipped, closely and openly, producing gradations Chicago & North- Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul,
of tint suffused with a corresponding variation of golden shimmer. and the Milwaukee, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie railways, by two
Another important branch of art needlework with gold and silver interurban electric railways, and by steamboat lines on the lake
threads is couching. When the metallic threads, arranged and on the Fox river, which flows out of Lake Winnebago at
so as to lie closely together, are simply stitched flatly to the found- this point. Several bridges connect it with Menasha, on the
ation material, the work is called flat couching or laying, a kind opposite side of the river, and the two cities- form one industrial
of treatment more frequent in Chinese and Japanese than in community. Doty Island, at the mouth of the river, belongs
European art needlework. Flat couching is also carried out partly to Neenah and partly to Menasha. Neenah is a trade
with floss silks. When a design for couching includes effects centre of the surrounding agricultural region, in which dairying,
in relief, stout strings or cords as required by the design are especially cheese-making, is carried on extensively. The Fox
first fastened to the foundation materials, and over them the river (with a fall of 12 ft.) furnishes good water-power for the
metallic threads or in some cases coloured gimps are laid, and manufactories. There was a trading post at or near the site of
so stitched as to have an appearance in miniature of varieties Neenah during the French regime in Wisconsin, but there was
of willow-twisting or basket work. no actual settlement until well into the igth century. Neenah
The principle of relief couching is carried much further in was chartered as a city in 1873; its name is derived from an
" " "
certain English art needlework, having cumbersome and gro- Indian word meaning running water or rapids."
tesque peculiarities, which was done during the reigns of the NEER, VAN DER. Aernout and Eglon van der Neer, father
Stuarts. Crude compositions were wrought in partial relief and son, were Dutch painters whose lives filled almost the whole
with padded work, of costumed figures of kings and queens of the i 7th century.
and scriptural persons with a medley of disproportionate animals, i. AERNOUT VAN DER NEER (1603-1677), commonly called
insects and trees, &c., in whichfoliage, wings, &c., wereof coloured Aert or Artus, was the contemporary of Albert Cuyp and
silk needlepoint lace the whole being set as often as not in a Hobbema, and so far like the latter that he lived and died in
background of tent or cross-stitch work on canvas. But tent comparative obscurity. Aernout was born at Gorkum and
and cross-stitch work (in French point compte) was also used died at Amsterdam. Houbraken's statement that Aernout
by itself for cushion covers and later for upholstery. In its had been a steward to a Dutch nobleman, and an amateur
earlier phases it seems to come under the medieval classification painter, before he settled in Amsterdam and acquired skill
of opus pulvinarum. The reticulations of the canvas or those with his brush, would account for the absence of any pictures
apparent in finer material governed the stitching and imparted dating from his early years. He died in abject poverty, and his
a stiff formal effect to the designs so carried out, a characteristic art so little esteemed that the pictures left by him were
was
equally strong in the lacis work, or darning on square mesh net valued at about five shillings apiece. Even as early as 1659
(see LACE). he found it necessary to supplement his income by keeping a
Applique or applied work belongs as much as patchwork wine tavern. The earliest pictures inwhich Aernout coupled
to the medieval category of opus consutum, or stitching stuffs his monogram of A. V. and D. N. interlaced with a date are a
together according to a decorative design, the greater part of winter landscape in the Rijks Museum at Amsterdam (dated
which was cut out of material different in colour, and generally 1639), and another in the Martins collection at Kiel (1642)
in texture, from that of the ground to which it was applied and immature works both, of poor quality. Far better is the " Winter
"
stitched. Irish art needlework, called Carrickmacross lace, is for Landscape (1643) in Lady Wantage's collection, and the
" "
the most part of cambric applied or applique to net. Moonlight Scene (1644) in the d'Arenberg collection in
Quilting is also a branch of art needlework rather than em- Brussels. In 1652 Aernout witnessed the fire which consumed the
broidery. Indians and Persians using a short running stitch old town-hall of Amsterdam. He made this accident the subject
have excelled in it in past times. Some good quilting was done for two or three pictures, now in the galleries of Berlin and Copen-
in England in the i8th century with chain-stitching which lay hagen. Though Amsterdam appears to have been constantly van
on the inner side of the stuff, the outer displaying the design der Neer's domicile, his pictures tell that he was well acquainted
in 'short stitches. In the account of his voyage to the East with the canals and woods about Haarlem and Leiden, and
Indies, published in 1655, Edward Terry (1590-1665) writes with the reaches of the Maes and Rhine. Dort, the home of
" Albert Cuyp, is sometimes found in his pictures, and substantial
of the Indians making excellent quilts of satin lined with taffeta
betwixt which they put cotton wool and worked them together evidence exists that there was friendship between the two
with silk." For less bulky quilting, cords have been used; men. At some period of their lives they laid their hands to the
and elaborate designs for quilted linen waistcoats were well same canvases, on each of which they left their joint mark.
done in the i8th century, with fine short stitches that held the On some it was the signature of the name, on others the more
cords between the inner and outer materials. convincing signature of style. There are landscapes in the collec-
A large number of names have been given to the many modifica- tions of the dukes of Bedford and Westminster, in which Cuyp
tions of the limited number of essentially different stitches used in has represented either the frozen Maes with fishermen packing
plain and art needlework, and on the whole are fanciful rather than
Much descriptive herrings, or the moon reflecting its light on the river's placid
really valuable from a technical point of view.
information about them, with an abundance of capital illustrations, waters. These are models after which van der Neer appears
is given in the Dictionary of Needlework, by J. F. Caulfield and to have worked. The same feeling and similar subjects are found
Blanche Saward (London, 1903). in Cuyp and van der Neer, before and after their partnership.
NEEMUCH, or NIMACH, a town of Central India, with a But Cuyp was the leading genius. Van der Neer got assistance
British military cantonment, within the state of Gwalior, on from him; Cuyp expected none from van der Neer. He care-
the border of Rajputana, with a station on the Rajputana fully enlivened his friend's pictures, when asked to do so, with
railway, 170 m. N. of Mhow. Pop. (1901) 21,588. In 1857 it was figures and cattle. It is in pictures jointly produced by them
the most southerly place to which the Mutiny extended. The that we discover van der Neer's presence at Dort. We are near
NEERWINDEN
Dort in the landscape sunset of the Louvre, in which Cuyp semicircle from Elissem on the right to Neerlanden, and thence
evidently painted the foreground and cows. In the National along the Landen brook on the left (July 18-28, 1693).
Gallery picture Cuyp signs his name on the pail of a milkmaid, William had no mind to retire over the Geete river, and en-
whose figure and red skirt he has painted with light effectiveness trenched a strong line from Laer through Neerwinden to Neer-
near the edge of van der Neer's landscape. Again, a couple of landen. On the right section of this line (Laer to Neerwinden)
fishermen with a dog, and a sportsman creeping up to surprise the ground was much intersected and gave plenty of cover
some ducks, are Cuyp's in a capital van der Neer at the Staedel for both sides, and this section, being regarded as the key of
Institute in Frankfort. the position, was strongly garrisoned; in the centre the open
Van der Neer's favourite subjects were the rivers and water- ground between Neerwinden and Neerlanden was solidly en-
courses of his native country either at sunset or after dark. trenched, and in front of it Rumsdorp was held as an advanced
His peculiar skill is shown in realizing transparence which allows post. The left at Neerlanden rested upon the Landen brook
objects even distant to appear in the darkness with varieties and was difficult of access. William's right, as his line of retreat
of warm brown and steel greys. Another of his fancies is to paint lay over the Geete, was his dangerous flank, and Luxemburg
frozen water, and his daylight icescapes with golfers, sleighers, was aware that, the front of the Allies being somewhat long for
and fishermen are as numerous as his moonlights. But he always the numbers defending it, the intervention of troops drawn from
avoids the impression of frostiness, which is one of his great one wing to reinforce the other would almost certainly be too
gifts. His pictures are not scarce. They are less valuable in late. Under these conditions Luxemburg's general plan was
the market than those of Cuyp or Hobbema; but, possessing to throw the weight of his attack on the Laer-Neerwinden
a charm peculiarly their own, they are much sought after by section, and specially on Neerwinden itself, and to economize
" "
collectors. Out of about one hundred and fifty pictures accessible his forces as economy of force was understood before
to the public, the choicest selection is in the Hermitage at St Napoleon's time elsewhere, delivering holding attacks or
Petersburg. In England paintings from his brush are to be demonstrations as might be necessary, and thus preventing
found at the National Gallery and Wallace Collection, and,
amongst others, in the collections of the marquess of Bute NEERWINDEN
Scale, 1:158.000
and Colonel Holford. English Miles
2. EGLON VAN DER NEER (1643-1703) was born at Amsterdam, ! ?
and died at Dusseldorf on the 3rd of May 1703. He was first
taught by his father, and then took lessons from Jacob van Loo,
whose chief business then consisted in painting figures in the
landscapes of Wynants and Hobbema. When van Loo went
to Paris in 1663 to join the school from which Boucher afterwards
emerged, he was accompanied or followed by Eglon. But,
leaving Paris about 1666, he settled at Rotterdam, where he
dwelt for many years. Later on he took up his residence at
Brussels, and finally went to Dusseldorf, where he entered the
service of the elector-palatine Johann Wilhelm von der Pfalz.
In each of the places where he stopped Eglon married, and having
had three wives became the father of twenty-five children.
A portrait of the princess of Neuberg led to his appointment
as painter to the king of Spain.
Eglon van der Neer has painted landscapes imitating those
Berchem, and of Adam Elsheimer. He frequently
of his father, of
put the figures into the town views of Jan van der Heyden in
competition with Berchem and Adrian van der Velde. His
best works are portraits, in which he occasionally came near
Ter Borch or Metsu in delicacy of touch, de Hooch in effective-
ness of lighting, or Mieris in polish of surface. One of his earliest the Allied centre and left from assisting the right. Luxemburg
pieces in which the influence of Ter Borch is apparent is the had about 80,000 men to William's 50,000. Opposite the
"
Lady with the Book," of 1665, which was sold with theBredel entrenchments of the centre he drew up nearly the whole of his
collection in 1875. A
young woman in white and red satin at cavalry in six lines, with two lines of infantry intercalated.
Rotterdam, of 1669, recalls Mieris, whose style also reappears A corps of infantry and dragoons was told off for the attack of
" "
in Eglon's Cleopatra at Buckingham Palace. land- Two Neerlanden and Rumsdorp, and the troops destined for the
" main attack, 28,000 of all arms, formed up in heavy masses
scapes with Tobit and the Angel," dated 1685 and 1694,
in the museums of Berlin and Amsterdam, illustrate his fashion opposite Neerwinden. This proportion of about one-third of
of setting Scripture scenes in Dutch backgrounds. The most the whole force to be employed in the decisive attack in the
"
important of his sacred compositions is the Esther and event proved insufficient. The troops opposite the Allied centre
Ahasuerus," of 1696, in the Uffizi at Florence. But Eglon and left had to act with the greatest energy to fulfil their con-
varied his practice also with arrangements of hunting and taining mission, and at Laer-Neerwinden the eventual success
hawking parties, pastures and fords, and cavalry skirmishes. of the attack was bought only at the price of the utter exhaustion
The latest of his panels is a mountain landscape of 1702 in of the troops.
the gallery of Augsburg. (J A. C. P. G. K.)
.
;
After a long cannonade the French columns moved to the
NEERWINDEN, a village of Belgium in the province of Liege, attack, converging on Neerwinden; a smaller force assaulted
a few miles E. by S. of Tirlemont, which gives its name to two Laer. The edge of the villages was carried, but in the interior
great battles, the first fought in 1693 between the Anglo- Allied a murderous struggle began, every foot of ground being contested,
army under William III. of England and the French under the and after a time William himself, leading a heavy counter-attack,
duke of Luxemburg, and the second in 1 793 between the Austrians expelled the assailants from both villages. A second attack,
under Prince Josias of Coburg and the French under General pushed with the same energy, was met with the same determina-
Dumouriez. tion, and meanwhile the French in other parts of the field had
Battle of Neerwinden or Landen, 1693 (see GRAND ALLIANCE, pressed their demonstrations home. Even the six lines of cavalry
WAR OF THE). Luxemburg, having by feints induced William in the centre, after enduring the fire of the Allies for many hours,
to detach portions of his
army, rapidly drew together superior trotted over the open and up to the entrenchments to meet with
numbers in face of the Allied camps, which lay in a rough certain defeat, and at Neerlanden and Rumsdorp there was
342 NEES VON ESENBECK NEGLIGENCE
severe hand to hand fighting. But, meantime, the two intact botanists. His best-known works are those that deal with the
lines of infantry in the French centre had been moved to their Fungi, the Hepaticae and the Glumiferae, in all which groups he made
valuable additions to knowledge.
left and formed the nucleus for the last great assault on Neer- His brother THEODOR FRIEDRICH LUDWIG (1787-1837), inspector
winden, which proved too much for the exhausted defenders. of the botanic gardens at Leiden, and afterwards professor of
They fell back slowly and steadily, defying pursuit, and the British pharmacy at Bonn, also wrote numerous papers on botanical sub-
jects, dealing more particularly with medicinal plants and their
Coldstream Guards even captured a colour. But at this crisis
products.
the initiative of a subordinate general, the famous military
writer Feuquieres (<?.!>.), converted the hard- won local success NEFF, FELIX (1798-1829), Swiss Protestant divine and
into a brilliant victory. William had begun to move troops was born at Geneva on the 8th of October
philanthropist,
from his centre and left to the right in order to meet the great 1798. Originally a sergeant of artillery, he decided in 1819 to
assault on Neerwinden, and Feuquieres, observing this, led the devote himself entirely to evangelistic work. He was ordained
cavalry of the French centre once again straight at the en- to the ministry in 1822, and soon afterwards settled in the valley
trenchments. This time the French squadrons, surprising the of Freissinieres, where he laboured in the manner of J. F.
Allies in the act of manoeuvring, rode over every body of troops Oberlin, being at one and the same time pastor, schoolmaster,
they met, and nothing remained for the Allies but a hurried engineer and agriculturist. He was so successful that he changed
retreat over the Geete. A stubborn rearguard of British troops the character of the district and its inhabitants. In 1827,
led by William himself alone saved the Allied army, of which worn out by his labours, he was obliged to return to his native
all but the left wing was fought out and in disorder. Luxemburg place, where he died two years later.
had won his greatest victory, thanks in a measure to Feuquieres' NEGAPATAM, a seaport of British India, in the Tanjore
exploit; but had the assaults on Neerwinden been made district of Madras, forming one municipality with Nagore,
as Napoleon would have made them with one-half or two- a port 3 m. N. at the mouth of the Vettar river. Pop. (1901)
thirds of his forces instead of one-third, the victory would have 57,190. It carries on a brisk trade with the Straits Settlements
been decisive, and Feuquieres would have won his laurels, and Ceylon, steamers running once a week to Colombo. The
not in forcing the decision at the cost of using up his cavalry, chief export is rice. Negapatam is the terminus of a branch of
but in annihilating the remnants of the Allied army in the the South Indian railway, and contains large railway workshops.
pursuit. The material results of the battle were twelve thousand It is also a depot for coolie emigration. Negapatam was one
Allies (as against eight thousand French) killed, wounded and of the earliest settlements of the Protuguese on the Coromandel
prisoners, and eighty guns and a great number of standards coast. It was taken by the Dutch in 1660, becoming their
and colours taken by the French. chief possession in India, and by the English in 1781. From
The battle of the i8th March 1793 marked the end of Dumouriez's 1799 to 1845 it was the headquarters of Tanjore district.
There
attempt to overrun the Low Countries and the beginning of the is a large population of Labbais, Mahommedans of mixed Arab
Allies' invasion of France. The Austrians under Coburg, advancing
descent, who are keen traders. Jesuit and Wesleyan missions
from Maastricht in the direction of Brussels, encountered the heads are carried on.
of the hurriedly assembling French army at Tirlemont on the I5th
of March, and took up a position between Neerwinden and Neer- NEGAUNEE, a city of Marquette county, Michigan, U.S.A.,
landen. On the 1 8th, however, after a little preliminary fighting about 12 m. W. by S. of Marquette and 3 m. E. of Ishpeming,
Coburg drew back a short distance and rearranged his army on a in the N. part of the upper peninsula. Pop. (1904) 6797; (1910)
more extended front between Racour and Dormael, thus parrying
8460. It is served by the Chicago & North- Western, the Duluth,
the enveloping movement begun by the French from Tirlemont.
Dumouriez was consequently compelled to fight after all on parallel South Shore & Atlantic, and the Lake Superior & Ishpeming
fronts, and though in the villages themselves the individuality and railways. It is built on a ridge called Iron Mountain, 1564 ft.
enthusiasm of the French soldier compensated for his inadequate above sea-level, and under and near it are some of the most
training and indiscipline, the greater part of the front of contact was
productive iron-ore deposits in the state, the mining of which is
open ground, where the superiority of the veteran Austrian regulars the principal industry of the city. The settlement of Negaunee
was unchallengeable. In these conditions an attempt to win a second
Jemappes with numerical odds of n to 10 instead of 2 to I in favour began about 1870, and the city was chartered in 1873. The
of the attack was foredoomed to disaster, and the repulse of the name is a Chippewa word meaning " first " or " he goes before,"
Revolutionary Army was the signal for its almost complete dis- and is said to have been chosen at the request of the Pioneer
solution. Neerwinden was a great disaster, but not a great battle.
Its details merely show the impossibility of fighting on the 18th-
Iron Company as an equivalent for " Pioneer."
century system with ill-trained troops. The methods" by which such NEGLIGENCE (Lat. negligentia, from negligere, to neglect,
" "
troops could compass victory, the way to .fight a sans culotte literally not to pick up "), a ground of civil law liability, and
battle, were not evolved until later. in criminal law an element in several offences, the most conspicu-
NEES VON ESENBECK, CHRISTIAN GOTTFRIED (1776- ous of which is manslaughter by negligence. In order to establish
German botanist and entomologist, was born at Erbach civil liability on the ground of negligence, three things must be
1858),
on the I4th of February 1776, and was educated at Darmstadt proved a duty to take care, the absence of due care, and actual
and at Jena, where he took the degree of M.D. After spending damage caused directly by the absence of due care. Mere care-
some time in medical practice he was appointed professor of lessness gives no right of action unless the person injured can
botany in Erlangen in 1816. Three years later he became show that there was a legal duty to take care. The duty may
professor of natural history in Bonn, and in 183 1 he was appointed be to the public in general, on the ground that any person who
to the chair of botany in the university of Breslau. In 1848 does anything which may involve risk to the public is bound to
he entered political life and made himself so obnoxious to the take due care to avoid the risk. For instance, in the words of Lord
"
government that in 1851 he was deprived of his professorship, Blackburn, those who go personally or bring property where
and in consequence the latter years of his life were spent in they know that they or it may come into collision with the
great poverty. He died in Breslau on the i6th of March persons or property of others have by law a duty cast upon
1858. them to use reasonable care and skill to avoid such a collision."
" Where a special duty to an individual is alleged, the duty must
For about forty years he edited the Nova acta of the Acad.
Leopold-Carolina," in which several of his own papers were published. rest on a contract or undertaking or some similar specific ground.
His earliest memoirs dealt with the ichneumons, and he published
Thus, where a surveyor has carelessly given incorrect progress
a Monographic der Ichneumone in 2 vols. in 1828, and Hymenopterorum
Ichneumonibiis affinium monpgraphiae, in 2 vols. in 1834. His other certificates, and a mortgagee who has had no contractual relation
separate works include: Die Algen des siissen Wassers nach ihren with the surveyor has advanced money on the faith of the
Entwickelungsstufen dargestellt (1814); Das System der Ptlze und certificate, the surveyor is not liable to the mortgagee in an action
Schwamme (1816); Naturgeschichte der europatschen Lebermoose, in of negligence; because he owed no duty to the mortgagee to be
"
4 vols. (1833-1838); Agrostologia Brasiliensis," in the Flora careful. When a duty to take care is established, the degree of
Brasiliensis; and a Systema Launnearum (1836). He also wrote
numerous monographs in Flora, in Linnaea and in other scientific care required is now determined by a well-ascertained standard.
German magazines, either alone or along with other well-known This standard is the amount of care which would be exercised
NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENT NEGRITOS 343
"
in the circumstances by an average reasonable man." This but without fault on the part of the deceased, exploded this
objective standard excludes consideration of the capacity or supposed doctrine, and made it clear that the defence of
state of mind of the particular individual. It also gets rid of the contributory negligence holds good only when the defendant
old distinctions between
"
gross,"
"
ordinary
"
and " slight " contends and proves that the plaintiff was injured by his own
negligence, though no doubt the degree of care required varies carelessness.
with the circumstances of the case. The application of such a The American law of negligence is founded on the English
standard is a task for which a jury is a very appropriate tribunal. common law; but the decisions in different states have occasion-
In fact the decision of the question whether there has been a ally contradicted English decisions, and also one another.
want of due care is left almost unreservedly to the jury. There See T. Beven, Negligence in Law, 3rd ed., 1908; Shearman and
is this amount
of control, that if the judge is of opinion that the Redfield, The Law of Negligence (New York), Thompson, Commen-
taries on Negligence (Indianapolis). (A. LL. D.)
evidence, believed, cannot possibly be regarded as showing
if
"
want of due care, or in technical language that there is no NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENT, in law, a document or other
evidence of negligence," it is his duty to withdraw the case from instrument purporting to represent so much money, and the
the jury and give judgment for the defendant. Unless the judge property in which passes, like money, by mere delivery. Negoti-
decides that there is no duty to take care, or that there is no able instruments arise in either of two ways: (i) by statute,
evidence of want of care, the question of negligence or no negli- (2) by custom of merchants. The most commonly recognized
gence is wholly for the jury. negotiable instruments are bills of exchange, promissory notes,
Ordinarily a man is responsible only for his own negligence bills of lading, foreign bonds and debentures payable to bearer.
and for that of his servants and agents acting within the scope Negotiable instruments constitute an exception to the general
of their authority. For the acts or defaults of the servants of rule that a man cannot give a better title than he has himself
an independent contractor he is not liable. But in certain cases (see BILL or EXCHANGE).
a stricter obligation is imposed on him by law. The occupier of NEGRI, ADA (1870- ), Italian poet, was born at Lodi, of an
premises is under a duty to all persons who go there on business artisan family, and became a village school-teacher. Her first
which concerns him to see that the premises are in a reasonably book of poems, Tempeste (1891), tells the helpless tragedy of the
safe condition so far as reasonable care and skill can make forsaken poor, in words of vehement beauty. Her second volume
them so. Thus he cannot release himself by employing an in- of lyrics, Fatalitd (1893), confirmed her reputation as a poet, and
dependent contractor to maintain or repair the premises. The led to her appointment to the normal school at Milan; but her
effect of this doctrine is that the occupier may be liable if it can later verse, while striking in its sincerity, suffered by a tendency
be shown that the independent contractor or his servant has been to repetition and consequent mannerism.
"
guilty of a want of due care. A similar obligation has been NEGRITOS (Span, for little negroes "), the name originally
enforced in the case of a wreck stranded in a navigable river, given by the Spaniards to the aborigines of the Philippine Islands.
and the owner was held liable for damage caused by the careless- They are physical weaklings, of low, almost dwarf, stature, with
ness of the servant of an independent contractor who had under- very dark skin, closely curling hair, flat noses, thick lips and
taken to light the wreck. So too any person who undertakes a large clumsy feet. The term has, however, been more generally
work likely to cause danger if due care is not taken is liable for applied to one of the great ethnic groups into which the popula-
damage caused by the carelessness of the servant of an inde- tion of the East Indies is divided, and to an apparently kindred
pendent contractor, so long as the carelessness is not casual or race in Africa (see NEGRO). A. de Quatrefages suggests that
collateral to the servant'semployment. from the parent negroid stem were thrown off two negrito
"
In an action of negligence a familiar defence is contributory branches to the west and east, the Indo-Oceanic and African,
negligence." This is a rather misleading expression. It is not and that the Akkas, Wochuas, Batwas and Bushmen of the
a sufficient defence to show that the plaintiff was negligent, Dark Continent are kinsmen of the Andaman Islanders, the
and that his negligence contributed to the harm complained of. Sakais of the Malay Peninsula and the Aetas of the Philippines.
The not disentitle
plaintiff's negligence will him to recover unless This view has found much acceptance among ethnologists. The
such that without it the misfortune would not have happened,
it is result of Quatrefages's theory would be to place the negrito
nor if the defendant might by the exercise of reasonable care on races closest to the primitive human type, a conclusion apparently
his part have avoided the consequences of the plaintiff's justified by their physical characteristics. The true negritos
negligence. The shortest and plainest way of expressing this are always of little stature (the majority under 5 ft.), have
rule is, that the plaintiff's negligence is no defence unless it was rounded forms and their skull is brachycephalic or subbrachy-
the proximate or decisive cause of the injury. There was an cephalic, that is to say, it is relatively short and broad and of
attempt in recent times to extend this doctrine so as to make little height. Their skin is dark brown or black, sometimes
the contributory negligence of a third person a defence, in cases somewhat yellowish, their hair woolly (scanty on face and body),
'
where the plaintiff, though not negligent himself, was travelling and they have the flat nose and thick lips and other physical
in a vehicle or vessel managed by the negligent third person, or features of the negro. Among peoples undoubtedly negrito
was otherwise under his control. In such circumstances it was are those of the Andaman Islands (q.v.), the Malay Peninsula
" "
said that the plaintiff was identified with the third person. (q.v.) and some of the Philippines (q.v.), the best types being
(Waite v. North-Eastern Ry. Co., 1858, E. B. & E., 719). This the Sakais (q.v.), Mincopies and Aetas. The question of the so-
case, in the Exchequer Chamber, was an action on behalf of called negrito races of India, the Oraons, Gonds, &c., is in much
an infant by his next friend. The infant, which was five years dispute, Quatrefages believing the Indian aborigines to have
of age, was with its grandmother, who took a half-ticket for been negritos, while other ethnologists find the primitive people
the child and a ticket for herself to travel by the defendants' of Hindustan in the Dravidian races. Some authorities have
line;as they were crossing the railway to be ready for the placed the Veddahs of Ceylon among the negritos, but their
was injured by a passing train. The jury found
train the child straight hair and dolichocephalic skulls are sufficient arguments
that the defendants were guilty of negligence, and that the against their inclusion. The negrito is often confounded with
grandmother was guilty of negligence which contributed to the the Papuan; but the latter, though possessing the same woolly
accident, while there was no negligence of the infant plaintiff. hair and being of the same colour, is a large, often muscular man,
A verdict was entered for the plaintiff, but in the Queen's with a long, high skull.
Bench the verdict was entered for the defendants, without See A. de Quatrefages, Les Pygmees (Paris, 1887; Eng. trans.
them to argue, on the ground that the infant was
calling on 1895); E. H. Man, The Aborigines of the Andaman Islands (London,
identified with its grandmother. But the case of the 1885); Giglioli, Nuove notizie sui populi negroidi dell' Asia e special-
mente sui Negriti (Florence, 1879) Meyer, Album von Philippinen-
"Bernina," decided in 1888, where a passenger and an engineer
;
on board the " Bushire " were killed in a collision between the Typen (Dresden, 1885); Blumentritt, Ethnotraphie der Phihppinen
" " (Gotha, 1892); A. B. Meyer, Die Negritos (Dresden, 1899); A. H.
Bernina and the " Bushire " caused by fault in both ships, Keane, Ethnology; A. C. Haddon in Nature for September 1899.
344 NEGRO
NEGRO (from Lat. niger, black), in anthropology, the designa- among the Bantu, who are also as a rule lesstall, less prognathous,
tion of the distinctly dark-skinned, as opposed to the fair, yellow, less platyrrhine and less dark. A few tribes in the heart of the
and brown variations of mankind. In its widest sense it embraces negro domain (the Welle district of Belgian Congo) show a
all the dark races, whose original home is the intertropical and tendency to round head, shorter stature and fairer complexion;
sub-tropical regions of the eastern hemisphere, stretching but there seems reason to suppose that they have received an
roughly from Senegambia, West Africa, to the Fijian Islands in infusion of Libyan (or less probably Hamitic) or Negrito blood.
the Pacific, between the extreme parallels of the Philippines The colour of the skin, which is also distinguished by a velvety
and Tasmania. It is most convenient, however, to refer to the surface and a characteristic odour, is due not to the presence of
dark-skinned inhabitants of this zone by the collective term of any special pigment, but to the greater abundance of the colour-
Negroids, and to reserve the word Negro for the tribes which ing matter in the Malpighian mucous membrane between the
are considered to exhibit in the highest degree the characteristics inner or true skin and the epidermis or scarf skin. 2 This colouring
taken as typical of the variety. matter is not distributed equally over tne body, and does not
These tribes are found in Africa; their home being south of reach its fullest development until some weeks after birth;
the Sahara and north of a not very well-defined line running so that new-born babies are a reddish chocolate or copper colour.
roughly from the Gulf of Biafra with a south-easterly trend But excess of pigmentation is not confined to the skin; spots
across the equator to the mouth of the Tana. In this tract of pigment are often found in some of the internal organs, such
are found the true negroes; and their nearest relatives, the as the liver, spleen, &c. Other characteristics appear to be a
Bantu-negroids, are found to the south of the last-mentioned hypertrophy of the organs of excretion, a more developed venous
line. The relation of the yellowish-brown Bushman and Hotten- system, and a less voluminous brain, as compared with the
tot peoples of the southern extremity of Africa to the negro is white races.
uncertain; they possess certain negroid characters, the tightly In certain of the characteristics mentioned above the negro
curled hair, the broad nose, the tendency towards prognathism; would appear to stand on a lower evolutionary plane than the
but their colour and a number of psychological and cultural white man, and to be more closely related to the highest anthro-
differences would seem to show that the relation is not close. poids. The characteristics are length of arm, prognathism,
Between the two a certain affinity seems to exist, and the a heavy massive cranium with large zygomatic arches, flat nose
Hottentot is probably the product of an early intermixture of depressed at base, &c. But in one important respect, the
the first Hamito-Bantu immigrants with the Bushman aborigines character of the hair, the white man stands in closer relation
(see AFRICA: Ethnology). The relation of the negroids of Africa to the higher apes than does the Negro.
to those of Asia (southern India and Malaysia) and Australasia Mentally the negro is inferior to the white. The remark of
cannot be discussed with profit owing to lack of evidence; still F. Manetta, made after a long study of the negro in America,
"
less the theories which have been put forward to account for may be taken as generally true of the whole race: the negro
the wide dispersal from what seems to be a single stock. It will children were sharp, intelligent and full of vivacity, but on
be sufficient to say that the two groups have in common a approaching the adult period a gradual change set in. The
number of well-defined characteristics of which the following intellect seemed to become clouded, animation giving place
are the chief: A dark skin, varying from dark brown> reddish- to a sort of lethargy, briskness yielding to indolence. must We
brown, or chocolate to nearly black; dark tightly curled hair, necessarily suppose that the development of the negro and white
" " " "
proceeds on different lines. While with the latter the volume of
1
flat in transverse section, of the woolly or the frizzly
type; a greater or less tendency to prognathism; eyes dark the brain grows with the expansion of the brainpan, in the
brown with yellowish cornea; nose more or less broad and flat; former the growth of the brain is on the contrary arrested by
and large teeth. the premature closing of the cranial sutures and lateral pressure
Sharing these characteristics, but distinguished by short of the frontal bone. 3 This explanation is reasonable and even
stature and brachycephaly, is a group to which the name Negrito probable as a contributing cause; but evidence is lacking on the
(q.v.) has been given; with this exception the tendency among subject and the arrest or even deterioration in mental develop-
the negroids appears to be towards tall stature and dolichoce- ment is no doubt very largely due to the fact that after puberty
phaly in proportion as they approach the pure negro type. As sexual matters take the first place in the negro's life and thoughts.
the most typical representatives of the variety are found in At the same time his environment has not been su:h as would tend
Africa, the Asiatic and Australasian negroids may be dismissed to produce in him the restless energy which has led to the progress
with this introduction. The negro and negroid population of of the white race; and the easy conditions of tropical life and
America, the descendants of the slaves imported from West the fertility of the soil have reduced the struggle for existence
Africa, and in a less degree, from the Mozambique coast, before to a minimum. But though the mental inferiority of the negro
the abolition of the slave-trade, are treated separately below. to [the white or yellow races is a fact, it has often been ex-
In Africa three races have intermingled to a certain extent aggerated; the negro is largely the creature of his environment,
with the negro; the Libyans (Berbers: q.v.) in the Western
*
It is also noteworthy that the dark colour seems to depend neither
Sudan; and the Hamitic races (q.v.) and Arabs (q.v.) in the east.
on geographical position, the isothermals of greatest heat, nor even
The identity of the people who have amalgamated with the
altogether on racial purity. The extremes of the chromatic scale are
negro to form the Bantu-speaking peoples in the southern portion found in juxtaposition throughout the whole negro domain, in Sene-
of the continent is not certain, but as the latter appear to ap- gambia, the Gabun, upper Nile basin, lower Congo, Shari valley,
proach the Hamites in those characteristics in which they differ Mozambique. In the last region Mde Froberville determined the
from the true negroes, it seems probable that they are infused presence of thirty-one different shades from dusky or yellow-brown
to sooty black. Some of the sub-negroid and mixed races, such as
with a proportion of Hamitic blood. The true negroes show great
many Abyssinians, ( '.alia, Jolof and Mandingo, are quite as black as
similarity of physical characteristics; besides those already the darkest full-blood negro. A general similarity in the outward
mentioned they are distinguished by length of arm, especially conditions of soil, atmosphere, climate, food charged with an excess
of carbon, such as the fruit of the butter-tree, and other undetermined
of fore arm, length of leg, smallness of calf and projection of heel;
causes have tended to develop a tendency towards dark shades every-
characteristics which frequently fail to appear to the same degree where in the negro domain apart from the bias mainly due to an
original stain of black blood. Perhaps the most satisfactory theory
1
This point has been fully determined by P. A. Brown (Classifica- explains the excessive development of pigment in the dark-skinned
tion of Mankind by the Hair, &c.), who shows conclusively that, races as a natural protection against the ultra-violet rays in which
unlike true hair and like true wool, the negro hair is flat, issues from tropical light is so rich and which are destructive of protoplasm
the epidermis at a right angle, is spirally twisted or crisped, has no (see C. E. Woodruff, Tropical Light, London, 1905). The expression
" "
central duct, the colouring matter being disseminated through the jet black is applied by Schwemfurth to the upper-Nilotic Shilluk,
cortex and intermediate fibres, while the cortex itself is covered with Nuer and Dinka, while the neighbouring Bongo and Mittu are de-
" "
numerous rough, pointed filaments adhering loosely to the shaft; scribed as of a
"
red-brown colour " like the soil upon which they
lastly, the negro pile will felt, like wool, whereas true hair cannot be reside (Heart of Africa, vol. i. ch. iv.).
*
felted. La Razza Negra net suo stato selvaggio, &c. (Turin, 1864), p. 20.
NEGRO 345
and it is not fair to judge of his mental capacity by tests taken Of the highest importance socially are the secret societies,
directly from the environment of the white man, as for instance which are found in their highest development among the negroes
tests in mental arithmetic; skill in reckoning is necessary to the of the west coast, and in a far less significant form among some
white race, and it has cultivated this faculty; but it is not of the Bantu negroids of the western forest district. In their
necessary to the negro. highest form these societies transcend the tribal divisions, and the
On the other hand negroes far surpass white men in acuteness tie which binds the individual to the society takes precedence of
of vision, hearing, sense of direction and topography. A native all others. Bat the secret society cannot be called a definitely
who has once visited a particular locality will rarely fail to negro institution, since it is found in the west only.
recognize it again. For the rest, the mental constitution of the As an agriculturist the negro is principally a vegetarian,
negro is very similar to that of a child, normally good-natured but this form of diet is not the result of direct choice; meat is
and cheerful, but subject to sudden fits of emotion and passion everywhere regarded as a great delicacy, and no opportunity
during which he is capable of performing acts of singular atrocity, of obtaining it is ever neglected, with one exception that the
impressionable, vain, but often exhibiting in the capacity of cattle-keeping tribes rarely slaughter for food, because cattle
servant a dog-like fidelity which has stood the supreme test. are a form of currency. Fish is also an important article of diet
Given suitable training, the negro is capable of becoming a in the neighbourhood of large rivers, especially the Nile and
craftsman of considerable skill, particularly in metal work, Congo. It is worthy of note that the two cultivated plants
carpentry and carving. The bronze castings by the cire perdue which form the mainstay of native life, manioc in the west and
process, and the cups and horns of ivory elaborately carved, centre and mealies in the south and east, are neither of African
which were produced by the natives of Guinea after their origin.
intercourse with the Portuguese of the i6th century, bear ample Cannibalism is found in its' simplest form in Africa. In that
witness to this. But the rapid decline and practical evanescence continent the majority of cannibal tribes eat human flesh because
of both industries, when that intercourse was interrupted, shows they like it, and not from any magical motive or from lack of
that the native craftsman was raised for the moment >above his other animal food. In fact it is noticeable that the tribes most
normal level by direct foreign inspiration, and was unable to addicted to this practice inhabit just those districts where game
sustain the high quality of his work when that inspiration failed. is most plentiful. Among the true negroes it is confined mainly
In speaking of the form or forms of culture found among negro to the Welle and Ubangi districts, though found sporadically (and
and negroid tribes, the dependence of the native upon his due to magical motives) on the west coast, and among the Bantu
environment must be kept in mind, particularly in Africa, where negroids in the south-western part of Belgian Congo and the
interchange of customs is continually taking place among Gabun.
neighbours. With regard to crafts the most important and typical is that
Thus the forest regions are distinguished by a particular form of iron smelting and working. No negro tribe has been found
of culture which differs from that prevailing in the more open of which the culture is typical of the Stone age; or, indeed,
country (see AFRICA: Ethnology). But it may be said generally which makes any use of stone implements except to crush ore
that the negro is first and foremost an agriculturist. The negritos and hammer metal. Even these are rough pieces of stone of
are on a lowercultural plane; they are nomadic hunters who convenient size, not shaped in any way by chipping or grinding.
do no cultivation whatever. Next in importance to agriculture Doubtless the richness of the African soil in metal ores rendered
come hunting and fishing and, locally, cattle-keeping. The the Stone age in Africa a period of very short duration (see
last is not strictly typical of negro culture at all; nearly all the AFRICA: Ethnology). A good deal of aptitude is shown in the
tribes by whom it is practised are of mixed origin, and their forging of iron, considering the primitive nature of the tools.
devotion to cattle seems to vary inversely with the purity of race. Considerable skill in carving is also found in the west and among
The most striking exception to this statement is the Dinka of the Bantu negroids, especially of Belgian Congo south of the
the upper Nile, the whole of whose existence centres round the Congo. Weaving is practised to a large extent in the west;
cattle pen. Of the other tribes where pastoral habits obtain to the true native material being palm-leaf fibre. The cultivation
a greater or less extent, the Masai have a large percentage of of cotton, which has become important in West Africa, deals
Hamitic blood, the eastern and southern Bantu-speaking negroids with an exotic material and has been subjected to foreign
are also of mixed descent, &c. influences. Among the Bantu of the Kasai district the art of
The social conditions are usually primitive, especially among weaving palm-cloth reaches its highest level, and in the east
the negroes proper, being based on the village community ruled cotton-weaving is again found. Pottery-making is almost uni-
by a chief. Where the country is open, or where the forest versal, though nowhere has it reached a very advanced stage; the
is not so thick as to present any great obstacle to communication, wheel is unknown, though an appliance used on the lower Congo
it has often
happened that a chief has extended his rule over displays the principle in very rudimentary form. The produc-
several villages and has ultimately built up a kingdom adminis- tion of fire by means of friction was universal, the method known
" "
tered by sub-chiefs of various grades, and, has even established as twirling being in vogue, i.e. the rapid rotation between
a court with a regular hierarchy of officials. Benin and Dahomey
. the palms of a piece of hard wood upon a piece of soft wood.
"
are instances of this. But the region -where this empire- Trading is practised either by direct barter or through the
"
building has reached its greatest proportions lies to the south medium of rude forms of currency which vary according to
of the forest belt in the territory of the Bantu negroids, where locality. Value is reckoned among the tribes with pastoral
arose the states of Lunda, Cazembe, &c. tendencies in cattle and goats; among the eastern negroes
The domestic life of the negro is based upon polygyny, and by hoe-and spear-blades and salt blocks; in the west by cowries,
marriage is almost always by purchase. So vital is polygyny to brass rods, and bronze armlets (manilas); in Belgian Congo
the native social system that the attempts made by missionaries variously by olhella shells, brass rods, salt, goats and fowls,
to abolish plurality of wives would, if successful (a contingency copper ingots and iron spear-blades, &c.
unthinkable under present conditions), result in the most serious As regards religion, the question of environment is again
social disorder. Not only would an enormous section of the important; in the western forests where communities are small
population be deprived of all means of support, but the native the negro is a fetishist, though his fetishism is often combined
wife would be infinitely harder worked; agriculture, the task of more or less with nature worship. Where communication is
the women, would be at a standstill; and infanticide would easier the nature worship becomes more systematic, and definite
probably assume dangerous proportions. supernatural agencies are recognized, presiding over definite
Descent in the negro world is on the whole more often reckoned spheres of human life. Where feudal kingdoms have been formed,
1
through the female, though many tribes with a patriarchal ancestor- worship begins to appear and often assumes paramount
system are found. Traces of totemism are found sporadically, 1
The three volumes by Colonel Ellis mentioned in the biblio-
but are rare. graphy form an excellent study of the development of negro religion.
34^ NEGRO
importance. In fact this form of religion is typical of all the because there the lightest and the darkest races have com-
eastern and southern portion of the continent (see AFRICA: mingled, because of the theory on which the government of the
Ethnology). With the negro, as with most primitive peoples, country nominally rests,_ that each freeman should be given
it is the malignant powers which receive attention from man, an equal chance to improve his industrial position and an equal
with a view to propitiation or coercion. Beneficent agencies voice in deciding political questions, and because of the almost
require no attention, since, from their very nature, they must irreconcilable differences in the public opinion of the two great
continue to do good. The negro attitude towards the super- sections to only one of which do the problems come home as
natural is based frankly on fear; gratitude plays no part in it. everyday matters. They were not solved by the Civil War
A characteristic feature of the western culture area, among both and emancipation, but their nature was radically altered. Neither
negro and Bantu negroid tribes, is the belief that any form of the earlier system of slavery nor the governmental theory during
death except by violence must be due to evil magic exercised the radical reconstruction period that race differences should
by, or through the agency of, some human individual; to dis- be ignored has proved workable, and the trend is now towards
cover the guilty party the poison ordeal is freely used. A some modus vivendi between these extremes.
similar form of ordeal is found in British Central Africa to dis- The onlydefinition of negro having any statutory basis in
" " "
cover magicians, and the wholesale smelling-out of witches," the United States is that given in the legislation of many Southern
often practised for political reasons, is a well-known feature states prohibiting intermarriage between a white person and
"
of the culture of the Zulu-Xosa tribes. Everywhere magic, a person who has one-eighth or more of African blood."
both sympathetic and imitative, is practised, both by the ordinary Census enumerators in their counts of the American people
individual and by professional magicians, and most medical since 1790 have distinguished the two main races of whites and
treatment is based on this, although the magician is usually a negroes, but in so doing they have never been given a definition
herbalist of some skill. Where the rainfall is uncertain, the or criterion of race. Consequently they followed the judgment
production of rain by magical means is one of the chief duties of the community enumerated, which usually classes as negro
of the magician, a duty which becomes paramount in the eastern all persons known or believed to have in their veins any ad-
plains among negroes and Bantu negroids alike. But the negroes mixture of negro blood. It is probable that this line, the so-
"
and negroids have been considerably influenced by exotic called colour line," which is emphasized in regions where
religions, chiefly by Mahommedanism along the whole extent negroes are numerous by many legal, economic and social dis-
of country bordering the Sahara and in the east. Christianity criminations between the races, is drawn with substantial
has made less progress, and the reason is not far to seek. Islam accuracy. Far different has been the result of governmental
is simple, categorical and easily comprehended; it tends far efforts to draw another line within the group of negroes as thus
less to upset the native social system, especially in the matter defined, that between the negroes of pure African blood and those
of polygyny, and at the same time discourages indulgence in of mixed negro and white blood. This distinction has no legal
strong drink. Moreover the number of native missionaries is significance, for negroes of pure blood and negroes of mixed blood
considerable. Christianity has none of these advantages, but are subject to the same provisions of law, and at least for the
possesses two great drawbacks as far as the negro is concerned. whites it has little social or economic significance. An attempt
It is not sufficiently categorical, but leaves too much to the to draw was made at each census betweeen 1850 and 1800
it
individual, and it discountenances polygyny. The fact that it inclusive, and the results, so far as they were published, indicate
is divided into sects, more or less competitive among them- that between one-sixth and one-ninth of the negroes in the United
selves, is another disadvantage which can hardly be overrated. States have some admixture of white blood. The figures were
This division has not, it is true, as yet had much influence upon reached through thousands of census enumerators, nearly all
the evangelization of Africa, since the various missions have of whom were white. Of recent years an effort has been made
mostly restricted themselves each to a particular sphere; still, on the part of negro investigators to get an answer to the same
it is a defect in Christianity, as compared with Islam, which will question by the careful study of communities selected as typical.
probably make itself felt in Africa as it has in China. The classification of about 39,000 coloured people, most of them
As regards language, the Bantu negroids all speak dialects of in different parts of Georgia, with a study of the other available
one tongue (see BANTU LANGUAGES). Among the negroes the data and inferences from a somewhat wide observation, led Dr
most extraordinary linguistic confusion prevails, half a dozen Dubois to the conclusion that " at least one-third of the negroes
neighbouring villages in a small area often speaking each a of the United States have recognizable traces of white blood."
separate language. All are of the agglutinating order. No Perhaps we may believe with some confidence that the in-
absolutely indigenous form of script exists; though the Hausa formation from white sources understates, and that from negro
1
tongue has been reduced to writing without European assistance. sources overstates, the proportion, and that the true proportion
AUTHORITIES. J. Deniker, Races of Man (London, 1900) A. H. of mulattoes in the United States is between one-sixth and one-
;
Keane, Ethnology (London, 1 896) Man Past and Present (London,
;
third of all negroes. To infer that the true proportion in 1850,
1900); A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples (1887); The Ewe- 1860, 1870 and 1890, the dates to which the census figures relate,
speaking Peoples The Yoruba-speaking Peoples (1894)
" (1890) was much less than the true proportion in 1895 to 1900, to which
; ;
B. Ankermann, Kulturkreise in Afrika," Zeit.f. Eth. (1905), p. 54.
See also AFRICA, the unofficial figures relate, is contrary to the general trend of
3, Ethnology. (T. A. J.)
the evidence. As the law and the social opinion of the Southern
Negroes in the United States. whites make little or nothing of this distinction between negroes
of pure blood and mulattoes, it is often regarded as less important
After the migration of the European fair-skinned races in
than it really is. The recognized leaders of the race are almost
large numbers to other parts of the earth occupied by people
of darker colour, the adjustment of relations between the diverse invariably persons of mixed blood, and the qualities which have
made them leaders are derived certainly in part and perhaps
races developed a whole series of problems almost unknown
to the ancient world or to the life of modern Europe. The wider mainly from their white ancestry. Wherever large numbers
of full-blooded negroes and of persons of mixed central or north
the diversity of physique and especially of skin colour, the greater
the danger of friction. The more serious the effort to secure European and negro blood have lived in the same community
for some generations, there is a strong and gtpwing tendency
industrial and social co-operation under representative institu-
to establish a social line between them.
tions,the graver have become the difficulties. They have been
and are perhaps more acute in the United States than elsewhere,
The difficulty of ascertaining the number of mulattoes in
the United States and the tendency of the testimony to be
1
The Vai alphabet, " invented " by a native, Doalu Bukere, in modified by the opinion or desire of the race from which it comes
the first half of the igth century, owed its inspiration to
" European are typical. There is hardly any important aspect of the subject
influence, and of the characters many . . are clumsy adaptations"
.
of Roman letters or of conventional signs used by Europeans upon which the testimony of seemingly competent and impartial
(Sir H. H. Johnston, Liberia, p. 1107 foil., London, 1906). witnesses is not materially affected by the influence of the race
NEGRO 347
to which the witnesses belong. Under these circumstances it the highest tenth is far better and far better off than formerly,
seems necessary to assume that the testimony of the official and the lowest tenth is worse and perhaps also worse off than
documents of the federal government is correct, unless clear in slavery. Under such circumstances there are no adequate
evidence, internal or external, refutes it. The following state- objective tests of progress. The pessimist points to the alleged
ments of fact rest mainly on those sources. increase of idleness and crime, the meliorist to a demonstrated
The number of negroes living in the (continental) United decrease of illiteracy and to considerable accumulations of
States in 1908 was about nine and three-quarter millions, and property. The large majority of competent students believe
if those in Porto Rico and Cuba be included it reached ten and that the American negroes have progressed, materially and
two-thirds millions. This number is greater than the total morally, since emancipation, that the central or average
population of the United States was in 1820, and nearly as great point is higher than in 1865, although such persons differ
as the population of Norway, Sweden and Denmark. widely among themselves regarding the amount of that
During the colonial period, and down to the changes initiated progress.
by the invention of the cotton gin, negroes were distributed It would be generally but not universally held, also, that
with some evenness along the Atlantic coast. Between the date the negroes in the United States progressed under slavery,
of that invention and the Civil War, and largely as a result of that they were far better qualified for incorporation as a Vital
the changes the cotton gin set in motion, the tendency was to- and contributing element of the country's civilization at the
wards a concentration of the negroes in the great cotton-growing time of their emancipation than they were on arrival or than
area of the country. In 1700, for example, one-ninth of the an equal number of their African kindred would have been.
population of the colony of New York was negro; in 1900 only But probably the rate of progress has been more rapid under
one-seventieth of the population of the empire state belonged freedom than it was under slavery.
to that race. The division line between the Northern and The evidence regarding the progress of the American
Southern states adopted by the Census Office in 1880, and em- negro may be grouped under the following heads: numbers,
ployed since that date in its publications, is Mason and Dixon's birth-rate, health, wealth, education, occupations, morals,
line, or the southern boundary of Pennsylvania, the Ohio river citizenship.
from Pennsylvania to its mouth and the southern boundary of Numbers. The dictum of Adam Smith, " The most decisive mark
Missouri and Kansas. In the states north of that line, the of the prosperity of any countryis the increase of the number of its
inhabitants," may be applied, perhaps after changing the word
Northern states, in all of which but Missouri negro slavery either " " "
decisive to obvious,' to the negro population of the United
never existed or else was abolished before the Civil War, the States. The negro population of Africa is probably not increasing
white population increased tenfold and the negro population at all. But during the igth century the negroes in the United States
only fourfold between 1790 and 1860. In the states south of increased nearly ninefold. They are now much the most thriving
offshoot of the race and the most civilized and progressive group of
that line, on the contrary, the Southern states, the negro popula-
negroes in the world. Under a slavery system not permitting the
tion in the same period increased sixfold and the white population
importation of new supplies a high rate of increase by excess of
not so fast. It was a widespread opinion shortly after the Civil births over deaths is an advantage to the master class. During the
War that the emancipated slaves would speedily disperse through slavery period and until about 1880 the increase of southern whites
the country, and that this process would greatly simplify the
and of southern negroes proceeded at about the same rate. But
during the last score of years in the century the increase of negroes
problems arising from the contact of the two races. This expec- was much less rapid, the rate being only about three-fifths of that
tation has not been entirely falsified by the result. Between prevailing among southern whites.
1860 and 1900 the negroes in the Northern states increased Birth-rate. As the increase of negro population is slackening, as
somewhat more rapidly than the northern whites, and those the immigration and emigration of negroes are insignificant in
amount, and as the death-rate is about stationary, it is reasonable to
in the Southern states much less rapidly than the Southern
infer that the birth-rate is dwindling. This cannot be stated with
whites. As a result, one-tenth of the American negroes lived certainty, for there are no registration records giving the number of
in 1908 in the Northern states, a larger proportion than at any births for any large and representative group of American negroes.
time during the igth century. But this process of dispersion A good index to the birth-rate, however, may be derived from the
proportion of children under 5 years of age to women 15 to 49 years
is so slow as not materially to affect the prospects for the im-
of age. In the returns negroes are not distinguished from Indians
mediate future, and it is still almost as true as at any earlier and Mongolians. To minimize this slight source of error and at the
date that the region in which cotton is a staple crop coincides same time to secure a more representative and homogeneous popu-
in the main with the region in which negroes are more than one- lation group, the following figures are confined to the Southern or
former slave states :
half of the total population.
This appears if a comparison is made between the northern
boundary of the so-called Austroriparian zone of plant and animal
life in the United States, that is
" Date.
the zone of the cotton plant,
sugar cane, rice, pecan and peanut," and the northern boundary
" "
of the black belt or region in which the negroes are a majority
of the population. The coincidence of the two is very close,
and was much closer in 1900 than' in 1860. It appears yet more
clearly by a comparison between a map showing the counties
in which at least 5% of the area was planted to cotton in 1899
and another map showing the " black belt " counties in 1900.
.
The black belt stretches north through eastern Virginia beyond
the cotton belt, and the cotton belt stretches south-west through
eastern central Texas beyond the black belt, but between these
two extremes there is a close agreement in the boundaries of the
two areas.
The question " Have the American negroes progressed, materi-
ally and morally, since emancipation?" is generally answered
in the affirmative. But even on this question entire unanimity
is lacking. A considerable body of men could still be found
in 1910, mainly among Southern whites, who held that the con-
dition of the race was worse than it was in the days of slavery.
Probably all competent students would admit, however, that
the race has differentiated since 1865, that the distance separating
the highest tenth from the lowest tenth has become wider, that
34 NEGRO
Some light upon the influences at work may be derived from the
comparison between city and country at the south.
Date.
NEGUS NEHAVEND 349
deserves careful attention. Enumerations of prisoners affording
comparable results were made in 1880, 1890 and 1904.
Date.
350 NEHEMIAH NEISSE
"
NEHEMIAH (Heb. for Yah[weh] comforts"), governor attacked, though by his own exertions and Havelock's victory
of Judaea under Artaxerxes (apparently A. Longimanus, 465- at Bithor (i6th August) the tension on the communications
424 B.C.). The book of Nehemiah is really part of the same work was ended. Havelock's men returned to Cawnpore, and cholera
with the book of Ezra, though it embodies certain memoirs of broke out there, whereupon Neill again committed himself to
Nehemiah in which he writes in the first person. Apart from criticisms, this time addressed to the commander-in-chief and
what is related in this book we possess little information about to Outram, who was on the way with reinforcements. In spite of
Nehemiah. The hymn of praise by Ben Sira (Ecclesiasticus these very grave acts of insubordination, Havelock gave his
xlix. 13) extols his fame for rebuilding the desolate city of rival a brigade command in the final advance. The famous
Jerusalem and for raising up fresh homes for the downtrodden march from Cawnpore to Lucknow began on September ipth; on
people. According to other traditions he restored the temple- the 2ist there was a sharp fight, on the 22nd incessant rain, on
service and founded a collection of historical documents (2 Mace. the 23rd intense heat. On the 23rd the fighting opened with the
i. 18-36, ii. 13). See further EZRA AND NEHEMIAH (Books), assault on the Alum Bagh, Neill at the head of the leading
JEWS: History 21 seq. brigade recklessly exposing himself. Next day he was again
" "
NEIGHBOUR (O. Eng. niahgebUr,from nlah, nigh," near ") heavily engaged, and on the 25th he led the great attack on
" " "
and gebur, boor," literally dweller," husbandman "; Lucknow itself. The fury of his assault carried everything
cf. Dan. and Swed. nabo, Ger. Nachbar), properly one who lives in before it, and his men were entering the city when a bullet killed
a house close to one, hence any one of a number of persons living their commander. Strict as he was, he was loved not less than
in the same locality. From Biblical associations (Luke x. 27) feared, and throughout the British dominions he had established
the word is used widely of one's fellow-men. a name as a skilful and extraordinarily energetic commander.
NEILE, RICHARD (1562-1640), English divine, was educated The rank and precedence of the wife of a K.C.B. was given to
at Westminster school and at St John's College, Cambridge. his widow, and memorials have been erected in India and at Ayr.
His first important preferment was as dean of Westminster See J. W. Kaye, Lives of Indian Officers (1889) and J. C. Marsh-
;
(1605); afterwards he held successively the bishoprics of man, Life of Havelock (1867).
Rochester (1608), Lichfield (1610), Lincoln (1614), Durham NEILSON, ADELAIDE (1846-1880), English actress, whose
(1617) and Winchester (1628), and the archbishopric of York real name was Elizabeth Ann Brown, was born in Leeds, the
(1631). When at Rochester he appointed William Laud as his daughter of an actress, and her childhood and early youth were
chaplain and gave him several valuable preferments. His passed in poverty and menial work. In 1865 she appeared in
political activity while bishop of Durham was rewarded with a Margate as Julia in The Hunchback, a character with which her
privy councillorship in 1627. Neile sat regularly in the courts name was long to be associated. For the next few years she
of star-chamber and high commission. His correspondence played at several London and provincial theatres in various
with Laud and with Sir Dudley Carleton and Sir Francis Winde- parts, including Rosalind, Amy Robsart and Rebecca (in Ivanhoe),
bank (Charles I.'s secretaries of state) are valuable sources for Beatrice, Viola and Isabella (in Measure for Measure). In 1872
the history of the time. she visited America, where her beauty and talent made her a
NEILL, JAMES GEORGE SMITH (1810-1857), British great favourite, and she returned year after year. She died on
was born near Ayr, Scotland, on the 26th of May 1810,
soldier, the 1 5th of August 1880. Miss Neilson was married to Philip
and educated at Glasgow University. Entering the service of Henry Lee, but was divorced in 1877.-
the East India Company in 1827, he received his lieutenant's NEISSE, three rivers of Germany, (i) The Glatzer Neisse
commission a year later. From 1828 to 1852 he- was mainly rises on the Schneegebirge, at an altitude of 1400 ft., flows
employed in duty with his regiment, the ist Madras Europeans (of north past Glatz, turns east and pierces the Eulengebirge in
which he wrote a Historical Record], but gained some experience the Wartha pass, then continues east as far as the town of Neisse,
on the general and the personal staffs as D.A.A.G. and as aide-de- and after that flows north-east until at an altitude of 453 ft.
camp. In 1850 he received his majority, and two years later it joins the Oder between Oppeln and Brieg. Owing to its
set out for the Burmese War with the regiment. He served torrential character the greater part of its course is only used
throughout the war with distinction, became second-in-command for floatingdown timber. It abounds in fish, and its total length
to Cheape, and took part in the minor operations which followed, is 121 m. (2) The Lausitzer or Gorlitzer Neisse rises ne'ar
receiving the brevet of lieutenant-colonel. In June 1854 he was Reichenberg in Bohemia, on the south side of the Riesengebirge,
appointed second-in-command to Sir Robert Vivian to organize at an altitude of 1130 ft., flows north past Reichenberg, Gorlitz,
the Turkish contingent for the Crimean War. Early in 1857 he Forst and Guben, and enters the Oder above Furstenberg
returned to India. Six weeks after his arrival came the news that at an altitude of 105 ft. Its length is 140 m., of which less than
all northern India was aflame with revolt. Neill acted 40 m. are navigable. (3) The Wutende Neisse is a tributary of
promptly;
he left Madras with his regiment at a moment's notice, and pro- the Katzbach.
ceeded to Benares. The day after his arrival he completely and NEISSE, a town and fortress of Germany, in the province of
ruthlessly crushed the mutineers (4th June 1857). He next Prussian Silesia, at the junction of the Neisse and the Biela,
turned his attention to Allahabad, where a handful of Europeans 32 m. by rail S.W. of Oppeln. Pop. (1905) 25,394 (mostly
still held out in the fort against the rebels. From the 6th to Roman Catholics) including a garrison of about 5000. It consists
the 1 5th of June his men forced their way under conditions of heat of the town proper, on the right bank of the Neisse, and the
and of opposition that would have appalled any but a real Friedrichstadt on the left. The Roman Catholic parish church
leader of men, and the place, " the most precious in India at of St James (Jakobikirche) dates mainly from the i3th century,
that moment," as Lord Canning wrote, was saved. Neill re- but was finished in 1430. The chief secular buildings are the
ceived his reward in an army colonelcy and appointment of old episcopal residence, the new town hall, the old Rathaus,
aide-de-camp to the queen. Allahabad was soon made the con- with a tower 205 ft. in height (1499), the beautiful Renaissance
centration of Havelock's column. The two officers, through Kammerei (exchequer) with a high gabled roof ornamented with
a misunderstanding in their respective instructions, dis- frescoes, and the theatre. A considerable trade is carried on
agreed, and when Havelock went on from Cawnpore (which in agricultural products.
Neill had reoccupied shortly before) he left his subordinate Neisse, one of the oldest towns in Silesia, is said to have been
there to command the lines of communication. At Cawnpore, founded in the loth century, and afterwards became the capital
while the traces of the massacre were yet fresh, Neill inflicted of a principality of its own name, which was incorporated with
the death penalty on all his prisoners with the most merciless the bishopric of Breslau about 1200. Its first walls were erected
rigour. Meanwhile, Havelock, in spite of a succession of victories, in 1350, and enabled it to repel an attack of the Hussites in 1424.
had been compelled to fall back for lack of men; and Neill It was thrice besieged during the Thirty Years' War. The end
criticized his superior's action with a total want of restraint. of the first Silesian War left Neisse in the hands of Frederick
A second expedition had the same fate, and Neill himself was now the Great, who laid the foundations of its modern fortifications.
NEJD 35 1
The town was taken by the French in 1807. Neisse can, at the is limited by the necessity of artificial irrigation. Kahafa,
will of the garrison, be protected by a system of inundation. Kuseba and Kuwara are the principal villages of upper Kasim;
See Kastner, Urkundliche Geschichte der Stadt Neisse (Neisse and and 'Aneza and Bureda, Madnab, Ayun and Ras of lower
Breslau, 1854-1867, 3 vols.); Schutte, Beitrage zur Geschichte von Kasim.
Neisse (Neisse, 1881) ; and Ruffert, Aus Neisse's Verga.ngenhe.it (1903).
Doughty's and Huber's explorations did not extend east of
NEJD, a bounded N. by the Nafud
central province of Arabia, Kasim, and for all details regarding eastern and southern Nejd
desert, E. by El Hasa, S. by the Dahna desert and W. by Asir Palgrave is the only authority. According to him, a long
and Hejaz. It lies between 20 and 28 N. and 41 and 48 E.. desert march leads from Madnab to Zulfa the first settlement
extends nearly 550 m. from north to south, 450 from east in Suder, where the land rises steadily to the high calcareous
to west, and covers approximately 180,000 sq. m. The name tableland of J. Tuwek. The entire plateau is intersected by a
Nejd implies an upland, and this is the distinctive character maze of valleys, generally with steep banks, as if artificially cut
of the province as compared with the adjoining coastal districts out of the limestone. In these countless hollows is concentrated
of Hejaz and El Hasa. Its general elevation varies from 5000 ft. the fertilityand population of Nejd; gardens and houses,
on its western border to 2500 in Kasim in the north-east, cultivation and villages lie hidden from view among the depths
and somewhat less in Yemama in the south-east. In the north while one journeys over the dry flats, till one comes suddenly
the double range of Jebel Shammar, and in the east the ranges on a mass of emerald green beneath.
of J. Tuwek and J. 'Arid rise about 1500 ft. above the general Suder forms the northern end of the plateau, "Arid the southern,
level, but on the whole it may be described as an open steppe, while Wushm appears to lie on its west, and Aflaj and el Harik
sloping very gradually from S.W. to N.E. of which the western below it and to the south and south-west respectively. The
and southern portion is desert, or at best pasture land only principal town is Majma the former capital of Suder, a walled
capable of supporting a nomad population; while in the north town situated on an eminence in a broad shallow valley sur-
and east, owing to greater abundance of water, numerous fertile rounded by luxuriant gardens and trees. Tuwem, Jalajil and
oases are found with a large settled population. The principal Hula are also described by Palgrave as considerable towns.
physical features are described in the article ARABIA. 'Arid is entered at Sedus, on the W. Hanifa, a broad valley
The main divisions of Nejd are the following: Jebel Shammar, bottom with precipitous sides, here 2 or 3 m. wide, full of trees
Kasim, Suder, Wushm, 'Arid, Aflaj, Harik, Yemama and Wadi and brushwood. Along its course lie the villages of Ayana, and
Dawasir. J. Shammar is the most northerly: its principal Deraiya the former Wahhabi capital, destroyed by Ibrahim
settlements are situated in the valley some 70 m. long, between Pasha in 1817; and a few miles farther E. the new capital
the two ranges of J. Aja and J. Selma, though a few lie on their Riad, built by the emir Fesal after his restoration and visited
outer flanks. Jauf, Tema and Khaibar, though dependencies by Palgrave in 1863, and by Pelly two years later. It was then,
of the Shammar principality, lie beyond the limits of Nejd. and still is, a large town of perhaps 20,000 inhabitants with
The capital, Hail, has been visited by several Europeans, by thirty or more mosques, well-stocked bazars, and like the towns
W. G. Palgrave in 1862, when Talal was emir, and by Mr Wilfrid of Kasim, surrounded by well-watered gardens and palm groves.
and Lady Anne Blunt, Charles Doughty, C. Huber, T. Euting To the south the valley opens out into the great plains of Yemama,
and Baron E. Nolde during the reign of Mahommed b. Rashid, dotted with groves and villages, among which Manfuha is
who from 1892 till his death in 1897 was emir of all Nejd. Its scarcely inferior in size to Riad itself. Still farther to the south-
well ordered and thriving appearance is commented on by all east lies the district of Harik, with its capital Hauta, the last
these travellers. The town is surrounded by a wall and dominated in that direction of the settled districts of Nejd, and on the
by the emir's palace, a stately, if somewhat gloomy building, borders of the southern desert.
the walls of which are quite 75 ft. high, with six towers, the whole Palgrave visited El Kharfa the chief place of the Aflaj district
giving the idea of an old French or Spanish donjon. some 80 m. S.W. of Riad. This district seems to be scantily
Hail lies at the northern end of the valley, 2 m. S.E. of J. peopled as compared with Suder or Yemama, and a large propor-
Aja, at an altitude of about 3000 ft. The highest point of J. tion of the inhabitants are of mixed negro origin. While there,
Aja, the western and higher of the twin ranges, is according to he made inquiries about the adjoining district of W. Dawasir.
Huber 4600 ft. above sea-level. The valley is about 20 m. in Its length was stated to be ten days' journey or 200 m.; scattered
width and is intersected with dry ravines and dotted with low villages consisting of palm-leaf huts lie along the way, which
ridges generally of volcanic origin. Wells and springs are the leads in a south or south-westerly direction to the highlands of
only source of water supply, both for drinking and for irrigation. Asir and Yemen.
The principal crops are dates, wheat and barley and garden The Bedouin who occupy the remainder of Nejd consist in
produce; forage and firewood are very scarce. The population the main of the four great tribes of the Shammar, Harb, 'Ateba
was estimated by Nolde in 1893 at 10,000 to 12,000. and Muter. The first-named represent that part of the great
Among the other settlements of J. Shammar are Jafefa Shammar tribe which has remained in its ancestral home on
and Mukak at the northern foot of J. Aja, Kasr and Kafir the southern edge of the Nafud (the northern branch long ago
at its southern foot, Rauda, Mustajidda and Fed at the foot emigrated to Mesopotamia); many of its members have settled
of J. Selma, all large villages of 3000 to 5000 inhabitants. down to town life, but the tribe still retains its Bedouin character,
'Akda is a small valley in the heart of J. Aja, an hour's ride and its late chief, the emir Mahommed Ibn Rashid, the most
from Hail; it was the oldest possession of the Ibn Rashid, powerful prince in Nejd, used to live a great part of the year in the
since 1835 the ruling family of J. Shammar, and is a place of desert with his tribesmen. The Harb are probably the largest of
great natural strength. Kasim lies E. of J. Shammar
in the the Bedouin tribes in the peninsula; they are divided into a
valley of the W. Rumma the great wadi of northern Nejd; number of sections, several of which have settled in the oases
the chief towns Bureda and 'Aneza are situated about 10 m. of Hejaz, while others remain nomadic. Their territory is the
apart, on the north and south sides of the wadi respectively. steppe between Kasim and Medina, and across the pilgrim road
Doughty described 'Aneza in 1879 as clean and well built with between Medina and Mecca, for the protection of which they
walls of sun-dried brick, with well receive considerable subsidies from the Turks. The 'Ateba
supplied shops. Many
inhabitants live in distant houses in gardens outside the town circuits extend from the Hejaz border near Mecca along the road
walls. 'Aneza and Bureda each contain some 10,000 inhabitants. leading thence to Kasim. The Muter occupy the desert from
The dry bed of the Wadi Rumma in lower Kasim is about 2 m. Kasim northwards towards KuwSt.
across, fringed in places with palm plantations; water is found Nejd became nominally a dependency of the Turkish empire
it 6 or 8 ft. in the in 1871 when Midhat Pasha established a small garrison in El
dry season and in winter the wells overflow.
The staple of cultivation is the date-palm, the fruit ripening in Hasa, and created a new civil district under the government
August or September. Fruit trees and fields of wheat, maize of Basra, under the title of Nejd, with headquarters at Hofuf.
or millet surround the Its real independence was not, however, affected, and the emirs,
villages, but -the extent of cultivation
352 NEJEF NELSON
Mahommed Ibn Rashid at Hail, and Abdallah Ibn Sa'ud at the death of Cretheus, the boys, who had been brought up
Riad, ruled in western and eastern Nejd respectively, until 1892, by herdsmen, quarrelled for the possession of lolcus. Pelias
when the former by his victory at 'Aneza became emir of all expelled Neleus, who migrated to Messenia, where he became
Nejd. His successor, Abdul Aziz Ibn Rashid, was, however, king of Pylos (Apollodorus i. 9: Diod. Sic. iv. 68) and the
unable to maintain his position, and in spite of Turkish support, ancestor of a royal family called the Neleidae, who are historically
sustained a severe defeat in 1905 at the hands of Ibn Sa'ud traceable as the old ruling family in some of the Ionic states
which for the time, at any rate, restored the supremacy to Riad. in Asia Minor. Their presence is explained by the legend that,
No data exist for an accurate estimate of the population; when the Dorians conquered Peloponnesus, the Neleidae were
it probably exceeds 1,000,000, of which two-thirds may be driven out and took refuge in Attica, whence they led colonies
settled, and one-third nomad or Bedouin. Palgrave in 1863, to the eastern shores of the Aegean. By Chloris, daughter of
perhaps unduly exaggerating the importance of the town Amphion, Neleus was the father of twelve sons (of whom Nestor
population, placed it at nearly double this figure. was the most famous) and a daughter Pero. Through the contest
The revenue of the emir Mahommed Ibn Rashid of Hail, who for his daughter's hand (see MELAMPUS) he is connected with the
died in 1897, was estimated by Blunt in 1879 at 80,000, and his legends of the prophetic race of the Melampodidae, who founded
expenditure at little more than half that amount. Nolde who the mysteries and expiatory rites and the orgies of Dionysus in
visited Hail in 1893 after the emir's conquest of the Wahhabi Argolis. According to Pausanias (ii. 2. 2, v. 8. 2) Neleus restored
state, believed that his surplus income then amounted to 60,000 the Olympian games and died at Corinth, where he was buried
a year, and his accumulated treasure to 1,500,000. on the isthmus.
AUTHORITIES. W. G. Palgrave, Central and Eastern Arabia NELLORE, a town and district of India, in the Madras pre-
(London, 1865); Lady Anne Blunt, Pilgrimage to Nejd (London, The town is on the right bank of the Pennar river, and
sidency.
1881); C. M. Doughty, Arabia Deserta (Cambridge, 1885); C. Huber,
Journal d'un voyage en Arabie (Paris, 1891); J. Euting, Reise in has a station on the East Coast railway, 109 m. N. of Madras
inner Arabien (Leyden, 1896); E. Nolde, Reise nach inner Arabien city. Pop. (1901) 32,040. There are United Free Church,
(Brunswick, 1895). (R. A. W.) American Baptist and Catholic missions.
NEJEF, or MESHED 'ALI, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the The DISTRICT OF NELLORE has an area of 8761 sq. m. It
pashalik of Bagdad, 50 m. S. of Kerbela and 5 or 6 m. W. of comprises a tract of low-lying land extending from the base of
the ruins of ancient Ku-fa, out of the bricks of which it is chiefly the Eastern Ghats to the sea. Its general aspect is forbidding:
built. It stands on the eastern edge of the Syrian desert, on the coast-line is a fringe of blown sand through which the waves
the north-eastern shore of a deep depression, formerly a sea, occasionally break, spreading a salt sterility over the fields.
the Assyrium Stagnum of the old geographers, but in latter years Farther inland the country begins to rise, but the soil is not
drained and turned into gardens for the town. It is a fairly naturally fertile, nor are means of .irrigation readily at hand.
prosperous city, supplied with admirable water by an under- About one-half of the total area is cultivated; the rest is either
ground aqueduct from the Hindieh canal, a few miles to the rocky waste or is covered with low scrub jungle. The chief
north, which also serves to water the gardens in the deep dry rivers are the Pennar, Suvarnamukhi and Gundlakamma.
bed of the former lake. The town is enclosed by nearly square They are not navigable, but are utilized for irrigation purposes,
brick walls, flanked by massive round towers, dating from the the chief irrigation work being the anicut across the Pennar.
time of the caliphs, but now falling into decay. Outside the Nellore, however, is subject both to droughts and to floods.
walls, over the sterile sand plateau, stretch great fields of tombs Copper was discovered in the western hills in 1801, but several
and graves, for Nejef is so holy that he who is buried here will attempts by European capitalists to work the ore proved unre-
surely enter paradise. In the centre of the town stands Meshed munerative, and the enterprise has been abandoned since 1840.
(strictly Meshhed) 'Ali, the shrine of 'Ali, containing the reputed Iron ore is smelted by indigenous methods in many places,
tomb of that caliph, which is regarded by the Shi'ite Moslems but the most important mining industry is that of mica. Salt
as being no less holy than the Ka'ba itself, although it should is largely manufactured along the sea-coast. Nellore, with the
be said that it is at least very doubtful whether 'Ali was actually other districts of the Carnatic, passed under direct British
buried there. The dome of the shrine is plated with gold, and administration in 1801. The population in 1901 was 1,496,987
within the walls and roof are covered with polished silver, showing an increase of 2-3% in the decade. In 1904 a portion
glass and coloured tiles. The resting-place of 'Ali is represented of the district was transferred to the newly formed district of
by a silver tomb with windows grated with silver bars and a Guntur, reducing the remaining area to 7965 sq. m., with a
door with a great silver lock. Inside this is a smaller tomb of population of 1,272,815. The principal crops are millets, rice,
damascened ironwork. In the court before the dome rise two other food grains, indigo and oil-seeds. The breed of cattle is
minarets, plated, like the dome, with finely beaten gold from celebrated. The East Coast railway, running through the
the height of a man and upward. While the population of length of the district, was opened throughout for traffic in 1899.
Nejef is estimated at from 20,000 to 30,000, there is in addition The section from Nellore town to Gudur, formerly on the metre
a very large floating population of pilgrims, who are constantly gauge, has been converted to the standard gauge. Previously
arriving, bringing corpses in all stages of decomposition and the chief means of communication with Madras was by the
accompanied at times by sick and aged persons, who have come Buckingham canal. The sea-borne trade is insignificant.
At special seasons the number of pilgrims exceeds
to Nejef to die. NELSON, HORATIO NELSON, VISCOUNT (1758-1805), duke
many times the population of the town. Nejef is also the point of Bronte in Sicily, British naval hero, was born at the parsonage
of departure from which Persian pilgrims start on the journey house of Burnham Thorpe, in Norfolk, on the 2gth of September
to Mecca. No Jews or Christians are allowed to reside 1758. Edmund Nelson (1722-1802), who came of a
His father,
there. The accumulated treasures of Meshed 'Ali were was rector of the parish. His mother, whose
clerical family,
carried off by the Wahhabites early in the iQth century, and in maiden name was Catherine Suckling (1725-1767), was a grand-
1843 the town was deprived cf many of its former liberties and niece of Sir Robert Walpole (ist earl of Orford). This connexion
compelled to submit to Turkish law; but it is again enormously proved of little or no value to the future admiral, who, in a
wealthy, for what is given to the shrine may never be sold or used letter to his brother, the Rev. William Nelson, written in 1784,
"
for any outside purpose, but constantly accumulates. Moreover, speaks of the Walpoles as the merest set of cyphers that ever
the hierarchy derives a vast revenue from the fees for burials existed in public affairs I mean." His introduction to the
in the sacred limits. navy came from his maternal uncle, Captain Maurice Suckling
See W. K. Loftus, Chaldaea and Susiana (1857); J. P. Peters, (1725-1778), an officer of some reputation who at his death held
Nippur (1897); B. Meissner, Hirau Huarnaq (1901). (J. P. PE.) the important post of comptroller of the navy. Horatio, who
NELEUS, in Greek legend, son of Poseidon and Tyro, brother of had received a summary, and broken, education at Norwich,
Pelias. The two children were exposed by their mother, who Downham and North Walsham, was entered on the " Raisonable "
afterwards married Cretheus, king of lolcus in Thessaly. After when Captain Suckling was appointed to her in 1770 on an alarm
NELSON 353
of war with Spain. The dispute was settled, and Captain Suckling the power to arouse affection, and the glow indicating the
"
was transferred to the Triumph," the guardship at Chatham, fire within, are noted by all who ever looked Nelson in the
whither he took his nephew. In order that the lad might have face.
more practice than could be obtained on a harbour ship, his In March 1783, at the very end of the American War, he saw
uncle sent him to the West Indies in a merchant vessel, and on He was repulsed in an attempt
his second piece of active service.
his return gave him constant employment in beat work on the to retake Turk's Island from the French. The peace gave him
river. In a brief sketch of his life, which he drew up in 1799, leisure to pay a visit to France, for which country and all its
Nelson says that in this way he became a good pilot for small ways he entertained a dislike and contempt characteristic of
"
vessels from Chatham to the Tower of London, down the Swin, his time. In France he formed another attachment, and went
and the North Foreland; and confident of myself among rocks so far as to apply to a maternal uncle for an allowance to eke
and sands, which has many times since been of great comfort out his half-pay. It came to nothing, presumably by refusal
to me." Between April and October of 1772 he served with on the lady's part. And now when the navy was cut down to
"
Captain Lutwidge in the Carcass," one of the vessels which the quick on the peace establishment, and the vast majority of
went on a not otherwise notable voyage to the Arctic seas naval officers were condemned to idleness on shore, he had the
with Captain Phipps, better known by his Irish title of Baron extraordinary good fortune to be appointed to the command
Mulgrave. On his return from the north he was sent to the of the "Boreas" frigate, for service in the West Indies. Nelson
"
East Indies in the Seahorse," in which vessel he made the found in this commission an opportunity for the display of his
acquaintance of his lifelong friend Thomas Troubridge. At readiness to assume responsibility. He signalized his arrival
the end of two years he was invalided home. In after times in the West Indies by refusing to obey an order of the admiral
he spoke of the depression under which he laboured during the which required him to acknowledge a half-pay officer acting as
"
return voyage, till after a long and gloomy reverie, in which commissioner of the dockyard at Antigua as his superior. He
I almost wished myself overboard, a sudden glow of patrotism insisted on enforcing the Navigation Laws against the Americans,
was kindled within me, and presented my king and my country who by becoming independent had become foreigners. He called
as my patron. My mind exulted in the idea. 'Well then,' the attention of the government to the corruption prevailing in
I exclaimed, 'I will be a hero, and, confiding in Providence, I the dockyard of Antigua. His line was in all cases correct, but
will brave every danger.'
"
He spoke to friends of the " radiant it impressed the admiralty as somewhat assuming, and his strong
orb" which from that hour hung ever before him, and "urged measures against the interloping trade brought on him many
him onward to renown." On his return home he served during lawsuits, which, though he was defended at the expense of the
" "
a short cruise in the Worcester frigate, passed his examination government, caused him much trouble for years. In the West
as lieutenant on the gth April 1777, and was confirmed in the Indies on the I2th of March 1787 he married Frances Nisbet
rank next day. He went to the West Indies with Captain Locker (1761-1831), the widow of a doctor in Nevis, whose favour he first
" "
in the Lowestoft frigate, was transferred to the flagship by gained by being found romping on all fours with her little boy
the admiral commanding on the station, Sir Peter Parker (1721- under the drawing-room table. The marriage was one of affection
1811), and was then by him promoted in rapid succession to the and prudence, rather than of love.
command of the " Badger " brig, and the " Hinchinbrook " Though Nelson had as yet seen little active service, and that
frigate. By this appointment, which he received in 1779, he little had not been specially distinguished, he had already gained
was placed in the rank of post captain (from which promotion that reputation within his own service which commonly precedes
to flag rank was by seniority), at the very early age of twenty. public recognition. His character had been fully developed,
His connexion with Captain Suckling may, no doubt, have been and his capacity proved. His horizon was narrow, being strictly
of use to him, but in the main he owed his rapid rise to his power confined to his profession. He had all the convictions of the
of winning the affection of all those he met, whether as comrades typical John Bull of his generation. The loyalty of a devoted
or superiors. Sir Peter Parker and Lady Parker remained subject was strong in him. He burned to win affection, admira-
his friends all through his life. In 1780 he saw his first active tion, distinction. He was a man to do whatever there was to be
service in an expedition to San Juan de Nicaragua, which was done to the utmost. A_ more magnificent instrument for use in
rendered deadly by the climate. He was brought to death's the great Revolutionary struggle now close at hand could not
door by fever, and invalided home once more. In 1 781 he was have been forged.
appointed to the "Albemarle" frigate, and after some convoy War having broken out, he was appointed captain cf the
service in the North Sea and the Sound was sent to Newfoundland "Agamemnon" (64) on the 3oth of November 1793, and joined
and thence to the North American station. " Fair Canada," his ship on the 7th of February. From this date till June 1800,
as he has recorded in one of his letters, gave him the good health rather more than seven years, he was engaged on continual
he had so far never enjoyed. At Quebec he formed one of those active service, with the exception of a few months when he was
passionate attachments to women which marked his career. invalided home. This period is the most varied, the busiest,
He now made the personal acquaintance of Sir Samuel Hood, the most glorious and the most debated of a very full career.
Lord Hood. In the autobiographical sketch already quoted he It subdivides naturally into three sections; (i) From the date 01
mentions the high opinion formed of him by the admiral who his appointment as captain of the "Agamemnon" till he was
presented him to Prince William, duke of Clarence, afterwards disabled by the loss of his arm in the unsuccessful attack on
King William IV., as an officer well qualified to instruct him Santa Cruz de Tenerife on the 24th of July 1797 he served as
"
in naval tactics," by which we must perhaps understand captain, or commodore, under Hood, Hotham and Jervis,
seamanship. Prince William has left a brief but singularly vivid successive commanders-in-chief in the Mediterranean. (2) After
account of their first meeting. He appeared, says the Prince, an interval of nine months spent at home in recovering from his
"to be the merest boy of a captain I ever beheld; and his dress wound, and from the effects of a badly performed operation,
was worthy of attention. He had on a full-laced uniform; his he returned to the Mediterranean, and was at once sent in pursuit
lank unpowdered hair was tied in a stiff Hessian tail of an extra- of the great French armament which sailed from Toulon under
ordinary length; the old-fashioned flaps of his waistcoat added the command of Napoleon for the conquest of Egypt. His victory
to the general quaintness of his
figure, and produced an appear- of the Nile on the ist of August 1798 placed him at once in the
ance which particularly attracted my notice; for I had never foremost rank among the warriors of a warlike time, and made
seen anything like it before, nor could I imagine who he was or him a national hero. With his return to Naples on the 22nd of
what he came about. My doubts were, however, removed when September the second period ends. (3) From now till he landed
Lord Hood introduced me to him. There was something at Leghorn on the 26th of July 1800, on his return home across
irresistibly pleasing in his address and conversation; and an Europe, he was entangled at Naples in political transactions
enthusiasm, when speaking on professional subjects, that showed and intrigues, which he was ill prepared to deal with either by
he was no common The slight oddity of appearance, nature or training, and was plunged into the absorbing passion,
being."
XIX. 12
354 NELSON
which did increase his popularity with the mob, but cost him place, and Lord St Vincent was desirous of depriving the enemy
many friends. of this resource. The enterprise was, in fact, rash in the last
The first of these three passages in his life is full of events degree, for the soldiers from the garrisons of Elba and Corsica
which must, however, be told briefly. In May he sailed for the having gone home, no troops were available for the service, and
Mediterranean with Hood, and was engaged under his orders a fortified town was to be taken by man-cf-war boats alone.
in the occupation of Toulon by the allied British and Spanish Nelson's well-established character for daring marked him out
forces. In August 1793 he was despatched to Naples to convoy for a duty which could only succeed by dash and surprise, if it
the troops which the Neapolitan government had undertaken was to succeed at all. But the Spaniards were on the alert,
to contribute towards the garrison of Toulon. It was on this and the attack, made with the utmost daring on the night of the
occasion that he made the acquaintance of Emma Hamilton 24th of July, was repulsed with heavy loss. Some of the boats
(q.v.), the wife of Sir Wilh'am Hamilton, minister at the Court of missed the mole in the dark and were stove in by the surf, others
Naples. References to Lady Hamilton begin to appear in his which found the mole were shattered by the fire of the Spaniards.
letters to his wife, but, as might be expected, they indicate Nelson's right elbow was shot through, and he fell back into the
little beyond respectful admiration, and he makes a good deal boat from which he was directing the attack. The amputation
of her kindness to his stepson, Josiah Nisbet, whom he had taken of his arm was badly performed in the hurry and the dark.
to sea. Young Nisbet was afterwards promoted to post captain, He was invalided home, and spent months of extreme pain in
and was put in command of a frigate at an improperly early London and at Bath. On the loth of April 1798 he came back
"
age by Nelson's interest. He proved quite unworthy, and in the to the fleet off Cadiz as rear-admiral, with his flag in the Van-
"
end died mad. After the allies had been driven from Toulon guard (74).
by Napoleon, Nelson was employed throughout 1794 in the He was now one of the most distinguished officers in the navy.
operations connected with the occupation of Corsica. In April Within the next six months he was to raise himself far above
and May he was engaged in the capture of Bastia, and June and the heads of all his contemporaries. It was notorious that a great
July in the taking of Calvi. Both towns really surrendered from armament was preparing at Toulon for some unknown destina-
want of stores, but the naval brigades under Nelson's personal tion. To discover its purpose, and to defeat it, the British
direction were conspicuously active, and their energy was government resolved to send their naval forces again into the
favourably contrasted with the alleged formality of the troops. Mediterranean, and Nelson was chosen for the command by
During the operations at Calvi, Nelson's right eye was Jervis, with whom the immediate decision lay, but also by
destroyed by gravel driven into it by a cannon shot which ministers.
struck the ground close to him. From the date of the occupation Having joined the flag of Lord St Vincent outside of the
of Corsica till the island was evacuated, that is to say, from the straits of Gibraltar on the joth of April, Nelson was detached
end of 1794 till the middle of 1796, he was incessantly active. on the 2nd of May into the Mediterranean, with three line-of-
He served under Hotham, who undertook the command when battle ships and five frigates, to discover the aim of the Toulon
Hood returned to England, and was engaged in the indecisive armament. Napoleon had, however, enforced rigid secrecy, and
actions fought by him in the Gulf of Lyons in March and July the British admiral had to confess that the French were better
1795. The easy-going ways of the new admiral fretted the eager than the British at concealing their plans. Beyond the fact that
spirit of Nelson, and Hotham's placid satisfaction with the a powerful combined force was collected in the French port he
" "
trifling result of his encounters with the French provoked his could learn nothing. On the 2oth of May the Vanguard was
subordinate into declaring that, for his part, he would never dismasted in a gale. Nelson bore the check in a highly character-
think that the British fleet had done very well if a single ship istic manner. "I ought not," he wrote, "to call what has
of the enemy got off while there was a possibility of taking her. happened by the cold name of accident; but I believe firmly
His zeal found more satisfaction when he was detached to the that it was the Almighty's goodness to check my consummate
Riviera of Genoa, where, first as captain, and then as commodore, vanity." The " Vanguard " was saved from going on shore by
he had an opportunity to prove his qualities for independent the seaman-like skill of Captain Ball of the "Alexander," against
command by harassing the communications of the French, whom Nelson had hitherto had a prejudice, but for whom
" "
and co-operating with the Austrians. In Sir John Jervis, who he had henceforth a peculiar regard. The Vanguard was
superseded Hotham, he found a leader after his own heart. refitted by the exertions of her own crew under cover of the little
When Spain, after first making peace with France at Basel, island of San Pietri on the southern coast of Sardinia. In the
declared war on England, and the fleet under Jervis withdrew meantime the frigates attached to his command had returned
from the Mediterranean, Nelson was despatched to Elba on a to Gibraltar, in the erroneous belief that the liners would be
"
hazardous mission to bring off the small garrison and the naval taken there to make good the damage suffered in the gale. I
stores. He sailed in the "Minerve" frigate, having another thought Hope would have known me better," said Nelson.
with him. After a smart action with two Spanish frigates which On the 3oth of April he was off Toulon again, only to find that
he took off Carthagena on the aoth of December, and a narrow the French were gone, and that he could not learn whither they
escape from a squadron of Spanish line of battle ships, he ful- were steering. Racked by anxiety and deprived of his best
filled his mission, and rejoined the flag of Jervis on the eve of the means of obtaining information by the disappearance of his
great battle off Cape St Vincent on the I4th of February 1797 frigates, he remained cruising till he was joined, on the yth of
(see ST VINCENT, BATTLE or). The judgment, independence June, by Troubridge with ten sail of the line. And now he started
and promptitude he showed in this famous engagement, were on his fierce pursuit of the enemy, seeking him in the dark, for
rewarded by the conspicuous part he had in the victory, and there were no scouts at hand; exasperated at being left without
revealed him to the nation as one of the heroes of the navy. the eyes of his fleet; half maddened at the thought he might,
Nelson receiving the swords of the Spanish officers on the deck by no fault of his own, miss the renown towards which his pro-
"
of the San Josef " became at once a popular figure. phetic imagination had seemed to guide him; knowing that St
A few days after the victory he became rear-admiral by Vincent would be blamed for choosing so young an admiral;
seniority, but continued with Jervis, who was made a peer under but resolved to follow the enemy to the antipodes if necessary.
the title of Earl St Vincent. Nelson's own services were recog- From the coast of Sardinia to Naples, from Naples to Messina,
nized by the grant of the knighthood of the Bath. During the from Messina to Alexandria, from Alexandria, where he found
trying months in which the fleet was menaced by the sedition the roadstead empty, back to Sicily, and then when at last a
then rife in the navy, which came to a head in the mutinies at ray of light came to him, back to Alexandria he swept the central
Spithead and the Nore, he remained with the flag, and in the and eastern Mediterranean. At no time in his life were
blockade of Cadiz. In July 1797 he was sent on a desperate the noble qualities of his nature displayed more entirely free
mission to Santa Cruz de Tenerife. It was believed that a from all alloy. He was an embodied flame of resolution, and as
Spanish Manilla ship carrying treasure had anchored at that yet he showed no sign of the vulgar bluster which was to appear
NELSON 355
later. In the midst of his anxieties his kindness of heart shone occupying the so-called Roman republic. The collapse of the
forth without a trace of the tendency of sentimental gush so Neapolitan forces was instant and ignominious. The court
irritatingly obvious in after days. Unlike most admirals of his fled to Palermo in December, under the protection of the British
time, he did not live apart from his captains, but saw much of squadron. At Palermo Nelson remained directing the operations
them, and freely discussed his plans with them. He had his of the ships engaged in blockading Malta, then held by the
reward in their devotion and perfect comprehension of what garrison placed in it by Napoleon when he took it on his way
he wished them to do. At the same time he acquired an absolute to Egypt, and sinking continually deeper into his slavery to
confidence in the efficiency of his squadron, the magnificent Lady Hamilton, till the spring of the following year. He was
force which had been formed by years of successful war, and by then aroused by a double call. A royalist army led by the
the careful training of his predecessors. The captains were the king's vicar-general, Fabrizio Ruffo (q.v.), had succeeded in
band of brothers he himself had made them. recovering the greater part of the kingdom of Naples from the
The great victory of the ist of August 1798 (see NILE, BATTLE government set up by the French, and called, in the pedantic
OF) brought Nelson yet another wound. He was struck on the style of the revolutionary epoch, the Parthenopean republic.
forehead by a langridge shot, and had for a time to go below. A French' fleet commanded by Admiral Bruix entered the
It is perhaps to be lamented in the interest of his fame that the Mediterranean. News of the appearance of Bruix reached
wound was not severe enough to compel him to return home. Nelson just as he was about to sail for Naples with the heir
"
After providing for the blockade of what remained of the French apparent to co-operate with Ruffo and his Christian Army."
fleet in Alexandria, he sailed for Naples, and arrived there on the He immediately took steps to concentrate his ships, which had
22nd of September. There was no rear-admiral of any standing been reinforced by a small Portuguese squadron, at Marittimo
in the navy who could not have done what remained to be done on the western coast of Sicily, where he would be conveniently
in the Mediterranean, under the supervision of St Vincent, as placed to meet the French, if they came, or to unite with the
well as he. For him Naples was a pitfall. There awaited him ships of Lord St Vincent. He was, however, half distraught
there precisely the influences to folly which he was least able to between his sense of what was required by his duty to his own
resist. He loved being loved, and was the man to think the gift service and the obligations he had assumed towards the sove-
a debt. He had an insatiable appetite for praise. With those reigns of Naples. In the end he resolved to sail for Naples, this
weaknesses of character which caused Lord Minto, who yet time without the crown prince, in order to carry out a mission
never ceased to regard him with sincere friendship, to say that entrusted to him by the king.
"
he was in some respects a baby," he was disarmed in the The story of Nelson's visit to Naples in the June of 1799 will
presence of the two women who now made a determined attempt probably remain a subject for perpetual discussion. His reputa-
to capture him. Emma Hamilton, who could not help endeavour- tion for humanity and probity is considered to depend on the
ing to conquer every man she met, was naturally eager to view we take of his actions there and at this period. It is true
dominate one who had filled Europe with his fame. Behind that the relative importance of these episodes has been much
Emma was the queen of Naples, Maria Carolina, a woman who diminished by the publication of the Morrison Papers, and
had a share of the ability of her mother Maria Theresa without that it has at all times been exaggerated. From the Morrison
any of her fine moral qualities. Maria Carolina was all her life Papers we know that, when his passions were concerned, he
trying to fight the power of revolutionary France, with no better was not incapable of stratagems to deceive his old friend Sir
resources than were afforded her by the insignificant kingdom William Hamilton. It is the less incredible that he should have
of Naples, and a husband who was the embodiment of all the been willing to use deceit against persons whom he hated so
faults of the Italian Bourbons. She had made use of the English fiercely as he did the Neapolitan Jacobins, in his double quality
minister's wife as an instrument of political intrigue, and now of English Tory and Neapolitan Royalist. But apart from his
she employed her to manage Nelson. We have the repeated laxity in the course of a double adultery, his letters, written to
assertions of Nelson himself in all his ample correspondence many different people during his stay on the coasts of Naples,
from September 1798 to July of 1800, and indeed later; to prove contain more than sufficient evidence to show that he was utterly
that he was, in his own tell-tale phrase, persuaded to "Sicilyfy" unhinged by excitement, and was unable to estimate the real
his conscience in other words to turn his squadron into an character of many of his own words and deeds. He considered
instrument for the ambition, the revenge and the fears of Maria himself as owing an equal allegiance to Ferdinand of Naples
"
Carolina, the Dear Queen " of his letters to Emma Hamilton. and to his own sovereign. His feelings towards the Jacobin
It is highly probable that he was secretly influenced by annoyance subjects of his Italian king are expressed in terms which bear
at the pedantry of the British government, which only gave him a remarkable likeness to the rhetoric of the Jacobins of France
a barony for the splendid victory of the Nile, en the ridiculous when they were most vigorously engaged in ridding their country
"
ground that no higher title could be given to an officer who was of aristocrats. To Troubridge he writes: Send me word
not a commander-in-chief. All doubt as to the character of some proper heads are taken off, this alone will comfort me."
his relations with Lady Hamilton has been laid at rest by the To St Vincent he reports that " Our friend Troubridge had a
Morrison papers. None ought ever to have existed, for, if Nelson present made him the other day of the head of a Jacobin, and
did not love this woman in the fullest possible sense of the word, makes an apology to me, the weather being very hot, for not
his conduct would be inexplicable on any other hypothesis than sending it here." Some allowance may be made for a rude taste
that he was an imbecile. He allowed her to waste his money, in jocularity, but it is impossible to mistake the scream of fury
to lead him about
"
like a bear," and to drag him into gambling, in Nelson's letters, imitated from the style of Lady Hamilton,
which he naturally hated. For her sake he offended old friends, who in these things was the sycophant of the queen. A man
and quarrelled with his wife in circumstances of vulgar brutality. who allowed his thoughts to dwell in an atmosphere of hysterical
That he believed she had borne him a child can no longer be ferocity, and was above all a man of action, was well on the way
disputed, and he carried on with her a correspondence under the to interpret his words into deeds. It was while he was in this
name of Thompson which was apparently meant to deceive heated state that he was sent to preside over the fall of the
her husband, but is varied by grotesque explosions which destroy
Parthenopean republic at the end of June 1799.
the illusion, such as it was.
King Ferdinand had not been unwilling to offer terms to
In the hands of these two women, and in the intoxication those of his subjects who had joined with the French to establish
produced on him by flattery, which could not be too copious the republic, so long as he was under the influence of fear.
or gross for his taste, Nelson
speedily became a Neapolitan But when the French had been defeated in northern Italy
royalist of far greater sincerity than was to be found among the and had left the Republicans to their own resources, he became
king's subjects except in the ranks of the Lazzaroni. He more anxious to make an example. In the early parts of June
gratified the headlong queen by egging her torpid husband into he heard that Ruffo was inclined tc clemency, and grew very
an exceedingly foolish attack on the French
garrisons then eager to prevent any such mistake. No more effectual way of
356 NELSON
enforcing rigour could be imagined than to put the control death would be pleasing to the queen, Nelson, in virtue, seemingly,
of events entirely in the hands of Nelson, whose sentiments were of his supposed commission as Neapolitan admiral (which he
well known, who was notoriously under the influence of Emma did not possess), ordered a court martial of Italian officers to sit,
Hamilton, that is to say, of the queen, and who, as a stranger, on an English ship, to try the prisoner. The court could only
would have no family or social attachments with the republicans, find him guilty, and Caracciolo was hanged. The sentence was
no changes of fortune nor future revenges to fear. That he asked just, but the procedure was indecent, and Nelson's intervention
Nelson to go to Naples, giving him large powers, may be con- cannot be justified.
sidered certain. A commission in the full sense he could not At this period of his life it is indeed difficult to represent
give without the consent of the king of Great Britain, and that Nelson's actions in a favourable light. In July he disobeyed the
was not even asked for. But Nelson had general instructions order of Lord Keith to send some of his ships to Minorca, on
from home to support the Neapolitan government, and though the ground that they were needed for the defence of Naples.
this only meant, and could only mean, as an ally and against the The influence of the queen, exercised through Emma Hamilton
common enemy, he understood it in a much wider sense, while was partly responsible for his wilfulness, but a great deal must
he considered himself as being bound to Ferdinand in the relation be put down to his annoyance at finding that Keith, and not he
of subject to sovereign by the grant of the duchy of Bronte in himself, was to succeed St Vincent as commander-in-chief in
Sicily, which he had just received. He therefore sailed to the Mediterranean. After the victory of the Nile he became,
Naples resolved to act in the double capacity of English and in fact, incapable of acting as a subordinate. Until he left for
Neapolitan admiral, of English opponent of the Jacobins, home in June 1800, except during the short interval when he
and of Neapolitan royalist. The general cause of Europe and acted as commander-in-chief in the absence of Keith, he was
the particular revenge of the king and queen were of equal captious, querulous and avoided leaving Palermo as much as he
importance to him. When he entered the Bay of Naples on the could, and far more than he ought. When forced out he made
24th of June he found that a capitulation had been agreed upon his health an excuse for going back. He began a quarrel with
some thirty-six hours earlier, between Ruffo, acting as vicar- Troubridge which ripened into complete estrangement. He
general, with the consent of Captain Foote (1767-1833) of the wearied out his friends at the Admiralty, and finally extorted
" As Keith would not allow him to take a line
Seahorse,"the senior British naval officer present, on the leave to return.
one and the Neapolitan republicans on the other. The
side, of battleship for his journey home with the Hamiltons, and
republicans had been reduced to the possession of the castles of indeed said plainly that Lady Hamilton had commanded the
Uovo and Nuovo, and had been glad to secure terms which Mediterranean station long enough, he returned across Europe
allowed them to go into exile in France. Nelson denounced an with his friends. Accounts of the figure they cut, and the
arrangement which would have precluded all cutting off of sensation they created at Vienna and at Dresden, can be found
"
heads as infamous." He ordered the white flag to be hauled in the Minto correspondence, and in the reminiscences of Mrs
down on the ", Seahorse," and told Ruffo that he would not St George, afterwards Mrs Trench (1768-1827). He reached
allow the capitulation to be carried out. The same warning home in November.
was given to the republicans in the forts. There is a question In England he was received with the utmost popular en-
whether the capitulation had been in part already carried into thusiasm, but with coldness by the king, the Admiralty, and by
effect. Sir William Hamilton, who, together with his wife, had the great official and social world. His erratic and self-willed
accompanied Nelson from Palermo, asserts that it had, in an conduct towards Lord Keith sufficiently explains the distrust
official despatch to Lord Grenville dated on the i4th July. shown by My Lords of the Admiralty. Their uneasiness was not
But this letter, written only a fortnight after the transaction, diminished by their knowledge that his renown made it quite
contains many inaccuracies, and can be held to prove only that impossible to lay him aside at a crisis. The king, a man of strict
Hamilton would have seen nothing discreditable in violating domestic habits and strong religious convictions, was un-
a capitulation, or that he was in his dotage, and did not know doubtedly offended by the scandals of Nelson's life at Naples, and
what he was doing. Ruffo refused to be a party to a breach of he cannot but have been displeased by the admiral's openly
faith. On the afternoon of the 2$th he had an interview with avowed readiness to devote himself to King Ferdinand. English
Nelson on board the flagship the "Foudroyant," which was con- society as represented by the First Lord, Lord Spencer, and his
ducted through the Hamiltons and was of a very heated character. wife, may not have shared the moral indignation of the pious
Next morning, as Ruffo showed a determination to stand aside king; but their taste was offended, and so was their self-respect,
and throw on Nelson the responsibility of provoking a renewal when Nelson insisted on forcing Lady Hamilton on them, and
of hostilities, messages were sent to him both by the admiral would go nowhere where she was not received. When it was
and by Hamilton that there would be no interference with the discovered that he insisted on making his wife live in the same
"armistice." This assurance put a stop to the dispute between house as his mistress, he was considered to have infringed the
them. The republicans came out of the forts and were trans- accepted standard of good manners. After enduring insult at
ferred to feluccas under the guard of British marines, where they once cruel and cowardly, to the verge of poorness of spirit,
were kept till the king's pleasure was known. As a matter of Lady Nelson rebelled. A complete separation took place, and
course it was that they should be mostly hanged or shot. Whether husband and wife never met again.
Nelson meant to deceive Ruffo into thinking that he had accepted On the ist of January 1801 Nelson became vice-admiral by
the capitulation when he named the armistice, whether the seniority. The alliance of the Northern powers of which the Tsar
vicar-general was deceived, and then misled the garrisons in good Paul was the inspiring spirit, made it necessary for the British
faith or whether he knew perfectly well that the capitulation government to take vigorous measures in its own defence. A
was not included, and took the opportunity afforded him by fleet had to be sent on a very difficult and dangerous mission
these two English gentlemen to deceive his own countrymen, to the Baltic. The Admiralty would have been unpardonable,
are points much discussed. The republicans in the forts did claim and would not have been excused by public opinion if, when it
that they were covered by the capitulation, and that it had been had at its disposal such an admirable weapon as the conqueror
violated. It is difficult to see in what way the service of King of the Nile, it had failed to employ him. Nelson was chosen to
George was forwarded by Nelson's zeal for King Ferdinand. go as a matter of course, but unfortunately, it was thought proper
Such discredit as fell on him would have been avoided if he had to put him under the command of Sir Hyde Parker (q.v.) an
kept to his duty as British admiral, and had not thought it officer of no experience, and, as the Admiralty ought to have
incumbent on him to prove himself a good Neapolitan royalist. known, of commonplace, not to say indolent, character. Nelson
On the 2Qth of June Francesco Caracciolo (q.v.), a Neapolitan bore the subordination with many bitter complaints, but on the
naval officer who had joined the republicans, was brought to whole with patience and tact. Sir Hyde Parker began by
Nelson as a prisoner. Out of his desire to make an example keeping his formidable second in command at arm's length,
of a proper head, and in the full knowledge that Caracciolo's but Nelson handled him with considerable diplomacy. Knowing
NELSON 357
his superior to be fond of good living he caused a turbot to be up the fiction of peace, Nelson was at once called from retirement,
caught for him on the Dogger Bank, and sent it to him with and this time there could be no question of putting him under
a complimentary message. Sir Hyde was not insensible to the the authority of any other admiral. He was appointed to the
attention, and thawed notably. We have the good fortune to Mediterranean command, and hoisted his flag in May 1803.
possess the notes taken during the campaign by Colonel Stewart Between this date and his death in the hour of full triumph on
(1774-1827), a military officer who did duty with Nelson as a the zist of October 1805, he was in the centre and was one of
marine. Colonel Stewart has put on record many stories of the controlling spirits of the vast military and naval drama
Nelson which have a high biographical value. He saw the hero which after filling for more than two years the immense stage
when his character was displayed in all its strength and its weak- bounded by Europe and the West Indies, found its closing scene
ness. Nelson was at once burning for honour, ardently desirous in Trafalgar Bay (see TRAFALGAR). In spite of the anxieties
to serve his country at a great crisis, and yet longing for rest and of an arduous command Nelson was serene and at his best in this
for the company of Emma Hamilton. His passion had, if possible, last period of his life. Once only did the ill-advised boasting
been increased by the birth of the child Horatia, whom he of Latouche Treville provoke him into a scolding mood. The
believed to be his own, and his jealousy was excited by fears that French officer spoke of him as having fled before his French
Emma would become an object of attention to the prince of ships, and the vaunt, which had no better foundation than that
Wales (afterwards George IV.). His health, as Colonel Stewart Nelson had retired before superior numbers when reconnoitring,
justly observed, was always affected by anxiety, and during the exasperated him into threatening to make the Frenchman eat
Baltic campaign he complained incessantly of his sufferings. his letter if ever they met. Nelson could boast, but his loudest
Nervous irritation provoked him into odd explosions of excite- words are not ridiculously out of proportion to his deeds.
ment, as when, for instance, he suddenly interfered with the work- The last hours at Trafalgar will never be forgotten by English-
ing of his flagship while the officer of the watch was tacking men. There is no figure in English history at once so magnificent
her on the south coast of England, and so threw her into disorder. in battle, and so penetrating in its appeal to the emotions, as
When he saw the consequences of his untimely intrusion he was Nelson on that last day when under his leadership the fleet
sharply appealed to the officer to tell him what was to be done annihilated the last lingering fear that Napoleon would ever
next, and when the embarrassed lieutenant hesitated to reply, carry his desolating arms into the British Islands'. It matters
"
burst out with, If you do not know, I am sure I don't," and little that the woman of whom he thought to the last was utterly
then went into his cabin. His subordinates learnt to take these unworthy of him, had perhaps never rendered the services he
manifestations as matters of course, knowing that they were supposed her to have done for their country, and was about to dis-
wholly without malignity. To them he was always kind, even honour his memory by mercenary immorality. He must be worse
when they were at fault, taking, as his own phrase has it, a than censorious who can think unmoved of Nelson kneeling in
" "
penknife where Lord St Vincent would have taken a hatchet. prayer by his cabin table as the Victory rolled slowly down
Colonel Stewart tells how he was wont to invite the midshipmen on the enemy on the zist of October, appealing to God for help,
of the middle watch to breakfast, and romp, with them as if and writing the codicil in which he left his mistress and his child
he had been the youngest of the party. The playfulness of his to the gratitude of his country.
nature came out, in combination with his heroism, when he It is said that hisfamous signal was to have been worded
"
adorned his refusal to obey Sir Hyde's weak signal of recall in the Nelson confides that every man will do his duty," and that
middle of the battle, which would have been disastrous if it had his own name was replaced by that of England on the suggestion
been acted on, by putting his telescope to his blind eye and of one of his officers. The use of his name as an inspiration and
declaring that he could not see the order to retire. At such an appeal would have been perfectly consistent with his tone
moments all could see his agitation; but, as the surgeon of the at all times, but he agreed to the alteration with the indifference
"
Elephant," which bore his flag at Copenhagen, says, they could of a man to whom self and country were one at that hour.
" " " " "
also see that it was not the agitation of indecision, but of Expects replaced confides that because the signal
ardent animated patriotism panting for glory." When Sir Hyde lieutenant Pascoe pointed out to him that the verb originally
Parker was recalled in May, Nelson assumed the command in chosen must be spelt out letter by letter in a long string of
the Baltic; but the dissolution of the Northern Confederation flags. He parted with Captain Blackwood of the " Euryalus "
left him little to do. His health really suffered in the cold air with a prophecy of his approaching fate. The sight of Colling-
of high latitudes, and in June he obtained leave to come home. wood, the friend of his youth, leading the lee line into action
" "
His services were grudgingly recognized by the title of viscount. in the Royal Sovereign drew from him a cry of admiration
During the brief interval before the peace he was put in command at the noble example his comrade was showing. When the
" "
of a flotilla to combat Napoleon's futile threat of invasion. Victory had passed astern of the French " Bucentaure,"
In the hope of quieting public anxiety rather than in any serious and was engaged with her and the " Redoubtable," he walked
expectation of success, an attack was made on a French flotilla up and down the quarter deck of his flagship by the side of his
strongly protected by its position, at Boulogne, which was flag-captain, T. M. Hardy, with the brisk short step customary
disastrously repulsed. Nelson was not in command on the spot, with him. As they turned, a musket shot from the top of the
Redoubtable " struck him on the upper breast, and, plunging
"
and if he had been would in all probability have renewed his
" "
experience at Santa Cruz. He could not do the impossible more down, broke the spine. They have done for me at last!
than other men. He was only more ready to try. were the words in which he acknowledged the fatal stroke. He
While the brief peace made at Amiens lasted, he remained on lingered for a very few hours of anguish in the fetid cockpit of
shore. His home was with the Hamiltons in the strange house-
"
the Victory," amid the horrors of darkness relieved only by the
hold in which Sir William showed that his iSth-century training dim light of lanterns, and surrounded by men groaning, or
had taught him to accept a domestic division with a good grace, raving with unbearable pain. The shock of the broadsides made
and had not him too squeamish " "
left to profit by the pecuniary the whole frame of the Victory tremble, and extorted a
advantages which may attend the relation of complacent moan from the dying admiral. When Captain Hardy came down
husband. His death on the 6th of April 1803 made no change to report the progress of the battle, his inherent love for full
in the life of the admiral. He lived almost wholly at Merton, triumph drew from him the declaration that less than twenty
where he had purchased a small house, which Emma filled with prizes would not satisfy him. He clung to his authority to the
memorials of his glory and of her now passing beauty. She fed end. The suggestion that Collingwood would have to decide
him profusely with the flattery which he, in Lord Minto's words, on the course to be taken was answered with the eager claim,
"
swallowed as a child does pap; and she was in turn adored by Not while I live. " But the last recorded words were of
him, and treated with profound deference by his family, with affectionand of duty. He begged Hardy for a kiss, and he
the exception of his father. ended with the proud and yet humble claim, " I have done my
When the ambition of Napoleon made it impossible to keep duty, thank God for that."
358 NELSON
His body was brought home in his flagship and laid to rest hagen Campaign, Dr Beatey's Narrative of Nelson's Last Hours, and
He commemorated in London by the monu- passages from the so-called Reminiscences of the Captain of the
in St Paul's. is
Victory, Dr Scott. This last authority is of little value, for the book
ment in Trafalgar Square, completed in 1849 with a colossal consists of recollections by Dr Scott's daughter and son-in-law of
statue by E. H. Baily, and surrounded by Landseer's bronze what he said years after the events he was speaking of. The student
of Nelson's life should make it a rule to exhaust Nicolas before con-
lions, added in 1867.
sulting any other authority. A collection of Letters from Nelson to
In estimating the character of Nelson, and his achievements, Emma Hamilton was published under her direction in 1814, but it is
there are some elements which must be allowed for more fully subject to much suspicion. A great mass of correspondence of the
than has always been the case. He was,
to begin with, the Hamiltons and much MS. relating to Nelson came into the hands of
least English of great Englishmen. He had
the excitability, the Dr Pettigrew, and passed into the possession of Mr A. Morrison,
from whose collection they were transferred to the British Museum.
vanity, the desire for approbation without much delicacy as
A catalogue, in which the text is given, was privately printed and
to the quarter from which it came, which the average Eng- can be consulted in the museum. Isolated letters have appeared
lishman of Nelson's time, his judgment obscured by the effects from time to time. Between February and April 1898 some valuable
extracts from his correspondence with his wife,
of centuries of racial rivalry culminating in the Napoleonic previously un-
Where there known, and the correct text of parts of his diary, appeared in the
wars, was wont to attribute to Frenchmen. extinct weekly, Literature. Among the lives of Nelson's contem-
is vanity there is the capacity for spite and envy. Nor was poraries, J. S. Tucker's Earl of St Vincent (1844), Ross's Saumarez,
Nelson altogether free from these unpleasant faults. But in Lady Bourchier's Codrington and the Letters of Sir William Hoste
the main his desire to be liked combined with a natural kindness throw light on particular points. The Nelsoman Reminiscences of
of disposition to make him appeal frankly to the goodwill Parsons give an interesting picture of the admiral as he appeared
to an observant boy. The observations of older and more intelligent
of those about him. He won to a very great extent the affec- witnesses will be found in The Diaries and Correspondence of George
tion he valued, and that from men so widely different in char- Rose, in The Life and Letters of the First Earl of Minto and in a
acter as Lord Minto and the simple-hearted seamen among Journal kept during a Visit to Germany, by Mrs St George, afterwards
whom he passed the best part of his life. He could be cruel Mrs Trench. Incidental mentions of Nelson are to be found in the
Pagct Papers, the correspondence of the minister who succeeded
when emotions were aroused by evil influences, with the
his Sir W. Hamilton at the court of Naples. Biographies of Nelson are
downright cruelty he displayed at Naples, or the more subtle numerous. Emma Hamilton inspired one by a Mr Harrison, an
form of hardness in his conduct to his wife, when his duty odious book which was in reality an advertisement of herself and
to her stood in the way of his love for Emma Hamilton. But which appeared in 1806. The two quartos of Clarke and McArthur
(1809), reprinted in three volumes octavo in 1840, were based on
they -were few to whom the evil side of his nature was shown, papers supplied by the family, but the texts were edited with un-
while the captains and seamen for whom he did much to make pardonable freedom and the originals have in many cases been lost.
a hard duty more tolerable were to be counted by the thousand. Southey's classic'Li/e was based on Clarke and McArthur. All later
As a commander he belonged to the race of Pyrrhus and the biographies have been superseded by Captain Mahan'sLi/e of Nelson,
first published in two volumes in 1897 and again in one volume,
prince of Conde the fighters of battles. His victories were
with additions and corrections in 1899. The much-debated Nea-
won at the head of a force which had been brought to a high politan episode has given rise to a literature of its own. The con-
level of efficiency by three generations of predecessors, against troversy began with the appearance of Captain Foote's Vindication
enemies who had been, as in the case of the French, disorganized of his own part in the transaction published in 1810. It drew an
immediate Counter Vindication of Nelson by Commander Jeaffreson
by a social revolution which had ruined their discipline, who Miles. Italian versions will be found in Sacchinelli's Fabrizio Ruffo
were inexperienced as the Danes were, or who, as in the case of and in the Compendia of Michcroux edited by theMarcheseMaresca.
the Spaniards, were sunk in a moral and intellectual decadence. The controversy has been revived in England by Mr F. P. Badham
But he estimated the vices of his opponents with full insight. with his Nelson at Naples (1900). and has provoked the publication
of a collection of the documents by the Navy Record Society, in
Wielding a fine instrument, and confronted by inferior enemies, vol. xxy. of their publications, under the title Nelson and the
he was entitled to dare much, and it is a proof of his sagacity
Neapolitan Jacobins (1903). Mr C. Jeaffreson's two works, Lady
that he saw how far he could dare, caring but little for the bulk Hamilton and Lord Nelson (1888) and the Queen of Naples and
of the force in front of him, and looking to the spirit. Above Lord Nelson (1889), are based on the papers collected by Mr
and Morrison. See also T. Nelson, Genealogical History of the Nelson
all, he had the power to inspire the enthusiasm he felt, to
make men act above themselves because he was there, and because Family (1908). (D. H.)
they found a joy in pleasing him. Among all the warriors of NELSON, ROBERT (1656-1715), English philanthropist and
his generation Napoleon alone was a greater master of the souls
religious writer, son of John Nelson, a London merchant, was
of men, and Bliicher alone came near him.
born on the 22nd of June 1656, and was educated as the private
Nelson had no children by his wife. His daughter Horatia,
pupil of George Bull, afterwards bishop of St David's. Having
by Lady Hamilton, became the wife of the Rev. Philip Ward, inherited a considerable fortune from his father, he followed
and died in 1881. In November 1805, in recognition of Nelson's no profession. About 1680 he went abroad and spent much
great services to his country, his brother William (1757-1835) time on the continent of Europe till 1691, when he settled at
was created Earl Nelson of Trafalgar, an annuity of 5000 being Blackheath. For many years he was an intimate friend and
attached to the title. When William died without sons in
correspondent of Archbishop Tillotson, though not in agreement
February 1835 his only daughter Charlotte Mary (1787-1873), with his views; and he was also on terms of friendship with
wife of Samuel Hood, 2nd Baron Bridport (1788-1868), became
the astronomer Halley and other men of science. Nelson's
duchess of Bronte, while, according to the remainder, his English
titles passed to his nephew Thomas Bolton (1786-1835), who
sympathies were with the Jacobites; and after his return to
became 2nd Earl Nelson. Bolton, who took the name of Nelson, England he associated himself with the nonjurors, under whose
influence he produced several of his writings on religious subjects.
was succeeded as 3rd Earl Nelson in November 1835 by his
He was an active supporter of the Society for Promoting Christian
son Horatio (b. 1823). The duchy of Bronte was in 1910 held
Knowledge, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel,
by Baroness Bridport's grandson, Arthur Wellington Nelson and similar associations, and he used his influence largely in
Hood, and Viscount Bridport (b. 1839). the establishment of charity schools and the building of churches
AUTHORITIES. Very much has been written about Nelson/ A
in London. In 1687 he had published a controversial work
jarge part of the total mass consists of hasty work done to meet an
immediate demand, or of repetition not justified by the critical against transubstantiation, and in 1704 appeared his Companion
faculty or literary skill of the writers. The valuable portion may be for the Festivals and Fasts of the Church of England, which
divided into original authorities, such as correspondence, and the
obtained a remarkable popularity lasting till the middle of the
testimony of eyewitnesses; and the narratives or criticisms of
students who tell with original power, and judge with knowledge and 1 9th century. Within five years of its publication ten thousand
insight. Under the heading of original authorities, the first place is copies of the Companion were printed, and thirty-six editions
taken by The Dispatches and Letters of Vice-Admiral Lord Viscount
appeared in a hundred and twenty years. After the death of
Nelson, with notes by Sir N. H. Nicolas (7 vols., 1844-1846). Nicolas
Bishop Bull in 1710 Nelson wrote his biography, which was
spared no pains to make his collection complete and to illustrate it
from all trustworthy sources. Thus he includes Sir Edward Berry's published three years later; and he was also the author of many
Account of the Battle of the Nile, Colonel Stewart's Notes on the Copen- other devotional and controversial works. He died in January
NELSON NEMATODA 359
1715, in which year was published his Address to
Persons of many systematists united with the Acanthocephala and the
Quality and Estate, containing suggestions for the establishment Nematomorpha to form the group Nemathelminthes.
of special hospitals, schools and theological colleges, many of The Nematoda possess an elongated and thread-like form (see
his proposals being afterwards carried into effect. Nelson fig. ivarying in length from a few lines up to several feet.
) ,
The
married a Roman Catholic, Lady Theophila Lucy, daughter of body is covered externally by a chitinous cuticle which is a
the earl of Berkeley, and widow of Sir Kingsmill Lucy of product of the subjacent epidermic layer in which no cell limits
Broxbourne. can be detected though nuclei are scattered through it. The
See Charles F. Secretan, Memoirs of the Life and Times of the Pious cuticle is frequently prolonged into spines and papillae, which
Robert Nelson (1860); Thomas Birch, Life of Tillotson (and ed., are especially developed at the anterior end of the body. The
1753); Thomas Lathbury, History of the Nonjurors (1845). mouth opens at one extremity of the body and the anus at or
NELSON, a river of Keewatiu district, Canada, discharging near the other. Beneath the epidermis is .
the waters of Lake Winnipeg in a north-easterly direction into a longitudinal layer of muscle-fibres which
Hudson Bay. It drains an area of 360,000 sq. m. and, including are separated into four distinct groups
its tributary the Saskatchewan, is 1450 m. long. It is navigable by the dorsal, ventral and lateral areas;
for small steamers for a distance of about 80 m., after which it these are occupied by a continuation of the
is unnavigable except for canoes. It has a total fall between the epidermic layer; in the lateral areas run
lake and sea of 7 10 ft. Here its chief tributary is the Burntwood. two thin-walled tubes with clear contents,
Norway House at its source and York Factory at its mouth which unite hi the anterior part of the
are important stations of the Hudson's Bay Company. body and open by a pore situated on the
NELSON, a town of British Columbia, situated on the west arm ventral surface usually about a quarter
of Kootenay Pop. (1906) about 5000. It is the com-
lake. or a third of the body length from the
mercial, administrative and railroad centre of the east and west anterior end. These vessels are the nitrogen-
Kootenay districts. It is the northern terminus of a branch of ous excretory organs. The body-cavity is
the Great Northern railway and is also connected by rail and largely occupied by processes from the large
steamboat with the main line of the Canadian Pacific railway at muscle cells of the skin. These processes
Revelstoke and with the Crow's Nest line of the same system at stretch across the body cavity to be inserted
Kootenay landing. It has direct railway communication with in the dorsal and ventral middle lines.
Rossland, Grand Forks and Greenwood. The body-cavity also contains the so-
NELSON, a municipal borough in the Clitheroe parliamentary called phagocytic organs. These consist
division of Lancashire, England, 325 m. N. from Manchester by of enormous cells with nuclei so large as
the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1891) 22,754, to be in some cases just visible to the naked
(1901) 32,816. It is of modern growth, possessing a town hall, eye. These cells are disposed in pairs,
market hall, free library, technical sehool, pleasant park and though the members of each pair are not
recreation grounds, and an extensive system of electric tramways always at the same level. The number of
and light railways, connecting with Burnley and Colne. Its cells is not large (some 2 to 8), and as a
chief manufacture is cotton. It was incorporated in 1890, and rule they lie along the lateral lines. In
the corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 some species (Ascaris decipiens) the giant
councillors. Area, 3466 acres. cell is "replaced by an irregular mass of
NELSON, a seaport of New Zealand, the seat of a bishop and protoplasm containing a number of small
capital of a provincial district of the same name; at the head nuclei. Such a plasmodium bears, on its
of Blind Bay on the northern coast of the South Island. Pop. periphery, groups of rounded projections
(1906) 8164. The woods and fields in the neighbourhood abound of protoplasm termed end-organs. Similarly
with English song-birds, and the streams are stocked with trout; the giant cells are produced at their peri-
while the orchards in the town and suburbs are famous for English phery into a number of branching pro-
kinds of fruit, and hops are extensively cultivated. The town cesses which bear similar end-organs on
possesses a small museum and art gallery, literary institute, their surface and in some cases terminate Aftcr Caleb, Arc/i. d*
government buildings, and boys' and girls' schools of high repute. in them. These end-organs are the active Za l -
The cathedral (Christ Church) is finely placed on a mound which FIG. I. Oxyuris.
agents in taking up foreign granules, or
was originally intended as a place of refuge from hostile natives. Mouth,
bacteria, which may have found their way <
It is built of wood, the various native timbers being happily into the fluid of the body-cavity. From oe, Oesophagus.
bd. Enlargement of
combined. Railways connect the harbour with the town, and the shape and position of the phagocytic the oesophagus,
the town with Motupiko, &c. The harbour, with extensive organs it is obvious that they form admir- armed with
chitinous teeth.
wharves, is protected by the long and remarkable Boulder Bank, able strainers through which the fluid of
i, Intestine.
whose southern portion forms the natural breakwater to that the body-cavity filters (figs. 2, 3).
j, Opening of seg-
anchorage. The settlement was planted by the New Zealand The alimentary tract consists of a mental tubes
Company in 1842. The borough returns one member to the straight tube running from the mouth to (placed by mis-
house of representatives, and its local affairs are administered the anus without any cori volutions; it is take on the dor-
sal instead of the
by a mayor and council. separable into three divisions: (i) a mus-
.... . ventral surface),
NELSONVILLE, a city of Athens county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the cular oesophagus, which is often provided /,,_ Testes.
Hocking river, 62 m. S.E. of Columbus. Pop.dSoo) 4558X1900) with cuticular teeth; (2) a cellular intes- cd, Vas deferens.
5421, including 328 foreign-born and 204 negroes; (1910) 6082. S P> Cloaca,
tine; and (3) a short terminal rectum
Nelsonville is served by the Hocking Valley railway. The surrounded by muscular fibres. Neither *' pa P lllae
-
city is in one of the most productive coal sections of the state; here nor elsewhere are cilia found at any period of develop-
there are large quantities of clay in the vicinity; and the principal ment.
industries are the mining and shipping of coal and the manu- A nervous system has been shown to exist in many species,
facture of fire-clay products. Nelsonville was settled in 1818 and consists of a perioesophageal ring giving off usually six nerves
and was incorporated in 1838; it was named in honour of Elisha which run forwards and backwards along the lateral and median
Nelson, who built the first house here. lines; these are connected by numerous fine, circular threads in
NEMATODA, in zoology, a group of worms. The name Nema- the sub-cuticle. Some of the free-living forms possess eye specks.
toda (Gr. vfjfm, thread, and eiSos, form) was first introduced by The sexes are distinct (with the exception of a few forms that are
Rudolphi, but the group had been previously recognized as hermaphrodite), and the male is always smaller than the female.
distinct by Zeder under the name Ascarides. They are now by The generative organs consist of one or two tubes, in the upper
36 NEMATODA
portion of which the ova 'or spermatozoa are developed, the lower Nematodes are parasites, there are many that are never at any
portion serving as an oviduct or vas deferens; the female gener- period of their life parasitic. These
free-living forms are found
ative organs open at the middle of the body, the male close to everywhere in salt and fresh water, in damp earth and moss,
the posterior extremity into the terminal portion of the ali- and among decaying substances; they are always minute in size,
mentary canal; from this cloaca a diverticulum is given off in and like many other lower forms of life, are capable of retaining
which are developed one to three chitinous spicules that subserve their vitality for a long period even when dried, which accounts
the function of copulation. The spermatozoa differ from those for their wide distribution; this faculty is also possessed by
of other animals in having the form of cells which sometimes certain of the parasitic Nematodes, especially by those which
perform amoeboid movements. Most remarkable sexual condi- lead a free existence during a part of their life-cycle. The free-
tions are found to occur in the free-living genera Rhabditis and living differ from the majority of the parasitic forms in under-
going no metamorphosis; they also possess certain structural
peculiarities which led Bastian (Trans. Linn. Soc., 1865) to
separate them into a distinct family, the Anguillulidae. It is
impossible, however, to draw a strict line of demarcation between
the free and parasitic species, since ( i ) many of the so-called free
Nematoda live in the slime of molluscs (Villot), and are therefore
really parasitic; (2) while certain species belonging to the free-
living genus Anguillula are normally parasitic (e.g. A. tritici,
which lives encysted in ears of wheat), other species occasionally
adopt the parasitic mode of existence, and become encysted in
slugs, snails, &c.; (3) it has been experimentally proved that
many normally parasitic genera are capable of leading a free
1
existence; (4) transitional forms exist which are free at one
period of their life and parasitic at another. The parasitic
Nematodes include by far the greatest number of the known
genera; they are found in nearly all the orders of the animal
kingdom, but more especially among the Vertebrata, and of
these the Mammalia are infested by a greater variety than any
of the other groups. Some two dozen distinct species have been
described as occurring in man. The Nematode parasites of the
Invertebrata are usually immature forms which attain their full
development in the body of some vertebrate; but there are a
number of species which in the sexually adult condition are
peculiar to the Invertebrata?
The Nematoda contain about as many parasitic species as all
the other groups of internal parasites taken together; they are
found in almost all the organs of the body, and by their presence,
especially when encysted in the tissues and during their migration
from one part of the body to another, give rise to various patho-
logical conditions. Although some attain their full development
in the body of a single host in this respect differing from all
other Entozoa the majority do not become sexually mature
until after their transference from an
" " to a
intermediate
" "
definitive host. This migration is usually accompanied by
a more or less complete metamorphosis, which is, however, not
so conspicuous as in most other parasites, e.g. the Trem&toda.
In some cases (many species of Ascaris) the metamorphosis is
reduced to a simple process of growth.
The parasitic and free-living Nematodes are connected by
FIG. 2. Sclerostomum arma- transitional forms which are free at one stage of their existence
tum, 9, X about 3 J, opened to and parasitic at another; they may be divided into two classes
show the phagocytic organs. those that are parasitic in the larval state but free when adult,
(From Nassonov.)
1, Mouth. and those that are free in the larval state but parasitic when
2, Anterior end of alimentary adult.
"
canal. (i) To the first class belong the so-called hairworm," Mermis,
3, Posterior end of alimentary FlG -
3- One of the phagocytic not to be confused with the Gordian worms.' The adult forms of
canal. organs of Sc. armatum, highly M. nigrescens live in damp earth and may be seen after storms or
4, Ovary. magnified. (From Nassonov.) early in the morning crawling up the stalks of plants, a fact which
5, 6 and 7, Anterior middle and i, Nucleus of giant-cell. causes people to talk about showers of worms. The eggs are laid on
posterior pairs of phago- 2, One of the processes and end- 1
Ercolani successfully cultivated Oxyuris curvula, Strongylus
cytic organs. organs of the same. armatus and other species in damp earth; the free generation was
Diplogaster. While some of the species are bisexual, others are found to differ from the parasitic by its small size, and by the females
protandrous, self-fertilizing hermaphrodites. In cultures of the being ovoviviparous instead of oviparous. To this phenomenon he
gave the name of dimorphobiosis.
latter there occur very rare supplemental males which appear in 2
The genera Ascaris, Filaria, Trichosoma.are found throughout the
no sense degenerate but as fit for reproduction as the males of the Vertebrata; Cucullanus (in the adult condition) only in fishes and
bisexual species. Though possessing a complete copulatory Amphibia; Ankylostoma, Trichocephalus, Trichina and Pseudalius
live only in the Mammalia, the last-mentioned genus being confined
apparatus and producing large quantities of spermatozoa, they
to the order Cetacea; Strongylus and Physaloptera are peculiar to
have lost their sexual instinct and play no part in the economy
" " mammals, birds and reptiles, while Dispharagus, Syngamus and
of the species. These psychically decadent individuals Hystrichis are confined to birds. Mermis (in the larval state) i
appear to represent the entire male sex of a bisexual species, confined to the Invertebrata and Sphaerularia to bees. Oxyuris,
and become unnecessary owing to the grafting of hermaphrodit- though chiefly parasitic in the Mammalia, occurs also in reptiles,
ism on the female sex. Amphibia and one or two insects. Dacnitis and Ichlhyonema are
only found in fishes.
Mode of Life and Metamorphoses. While the majority of the 3
See NEMATOMORPHA.
NEMATODA 361
the ground and the young larvae make their way into grasshoppers, Swine become infested with Trichinella in thisway and also by eating
in whose bodies they pass most of their larval life. (2) To the second the dead bodies of rats, and the parasite
" " conveyed
is to the body of
class belong Ankylcstoma, Strongylus and many species of Ascaris; man along with the flesh of trichinized swine.
the embryo on leaving the egg lives free in water or damp earth, and Importance in Pathology. Among recent advances having
resembles very closely the free-living genus Rhabditis. After a longer medical import in our knowledge of the Nematodes, the chief
or shorter period it enters the alimentary canal of its proper host with
are those dealing with the parasites of the blood. F. bancrofli is
drinking-water, or it bores through the skin and reaches the blood-
vessels, and is so conveyed through the body, in which it becomes known to live in the lymphatic glands, and its embryos Micro-
sexually mature. Rhabditis nigrovenosa has a developmental history filaria sanguinis hominis nocturne, passing by the thoracic duct,
which is entirely anomalous, passing through two sexual genera- reach the blood-vessels and circulate in the blood. Manson
tions which regularly alternate. The worm inhabits the lung of
the frog and toad, and is hermaphrodite (Schneider) or partheno-
showed in 1881 that the larvae (Microfilaria^;) were not at all
genetic (Leuckart); the embryos hatched from the eggs find their
times present in the blood, but that their appearance had a
way through the lungs into the alimentary canai and thence to the certain periodicity, and the larvae of F. bancrofti. Microfilaria
exterior; in a few days they develop into a sexual larva, called a noclurna swarmed in the blood at night-time and disappeared
Rhabditiform larva, in which the sexes are distinct the eggs remain
;
from the peripheral circulation during the day, hiding away in
within the uterus, and the young when hatched break through its
walls and live free in the perivisceral cavity of the mother, devouring the large vessels at the base of the lungs and of the heart. Ten
the organs of the body until only the outer cuticle is left this eventu-
;
years later Manson discovered a second species, Filaria Persians,
ally breaks and sets free the young, which are without teeth, and whose larvae live in the blood. They, however, show no period-
have therefore lost the typical Rhabdilis form. They live for some
time in water or mud, occasionally entering the bodies of water icity,and are found continuously both by day and by night;
snails, but undergo no change until they reach the lung of a frog,
and forms are termed Microfilaria Persians. The
their larval
when the cycle begins anew. Although several species belonging to adult stages are found in the sub-peritoneal connective tissue.
the second class occasionally enter the bodies of water snails and A third form, Microfilaria diurna, is found in the larval stage in
other animals before reaching their definitive host, they undergo no
alteration of form in this intermediate host; the case is different, blood, but only in the daytime. The adult stage of this form is
however, in Filaria medinensis and other forms, in which a free the Filaria loa found in the subcutaneous tissues of the limbs.
larval is followed by a parasitic existence in two distinct hosts, all The presence of these parasites seems at times to have little
the changes being accompanied by a metamorphosis. Filaria medi- effect on the host, and men in whose system it is calculated
nensis the Guinea worm is parasitic in the subcutaneous connec-
there are some 40-50 million larvae have shown no signs of
tive tissue of man (occasionally also in the horse). It is chiefly
found in the tropical parts of Asia and Africa, but has also been disease. In other cases very serious disorders of the lymphatic
met with in South Carolina and several of the West Indian islands.
system are brought about, of which the most marked is perhaps
The adult worm in the female sometimes reaches a length of 6 ft. Elephantiasis. Manson and Bancroft suggested that the second
The males have only recently been discovered. The female is vivi- host of the parasite is the mosquito or gnat, and for a long time it
parous, and the young, which, unlike the parent, are provided with
a long tail, live free in water; it was formerly believed from the was thought that they were conveyed to man by the mosquito
frequency with which the legs and feet were attacked by this parasite dying after laying her eggs in water, the larval nematodes
that the embryo entered the skin directly from the water, but it
escaping from her body and being swallowed by man. It is
has been shown by Fedschenko, and confirmed by Manson, Leiper
and others, that the larva bores its way into the body of a Cyclops
now held that the parasite enters the blood of man through the
and there undergoes further development. It is probable that the piercing mouth-parts at the time of biting. When first sucked
parasite is then transferred to the alimentary canal of man by means up by the insect from an infected man it passes into its stomach,
of drinking-water, and thence makes its way to the subcutaneous and thence makes its way into the thoracic muscles, and there
connective tissue.
for some time it grows. Next the larvae make their way into
The Nematoda which are parasitic during their whole life may the connective tissue in the pro-thorax, and ultimately bore a
similarly be divided into two classes those which undergo their channel into the base of the piercing apparatus and come to
development in a single host, and those which undergo their rest between the hypopharynx and the labium. Usually two are
development in the bodies of two distinct hosts. found in this position lying side by side; it would be interesting
to know if these are male and female. From their position in
(i) In the former class the eggs are extruded with the faeces, and
the young become fully formed within the egg, and when accidentally the proboscis the larvae can easily enter the blood of man the
swallowed by their host are liberated by the solvent action of the next time the mosquito bites (Low, Brit. Med. Journ., June 1900;
gastric juice and complete their development. This simple type of
James, ibid., Sept. 1900). Shortly after Low had published his
fife-history has been experimentally proved by Leuckart to be
characteristic of Trichocephalus affinis, Oxyuris results, Grassi and Noe issued a paper dealing with the larvae
ambivua and other species. (2) The life-history of F. immitis, which is spread by means of the mosquito Anopheles
of OUulanus tricuspis is an example of the second (Centrbl. Bakter. I. Abth. xxviii., 1900). The larvae of this
class. OUulanus tricuspis is found in the adult
state in the alimentary canal of the cat; the
parasite develop in the Malpighian tubules of the insect; at a
certain stage they cast their cuticle and make their way into
young worms are hatched in the alimentary
canal, and often wander into the body of their the space part of the haemocoel found in the labium. During
host and become encysted in the lungs, liver and the act of biting the labium is bent back, and as the piercing
other organs; during the encystment the worm
stylets enter the skin of the sufferer this bending becomes more
degenerates and loses all trace of structure.
This wandering appears to be accidental, and to and more acute. Grassi and Noe think that if the cavity of the
have nothing to do with the further evolution labium be full of the larval nematodes this bending will burst the
of the animaT which takes place in those embryos tissue, and through the rent the larvae will escape and make their
which are voided with the excrement. Leuckart
way into the body of the host. Besides Anopheles, two species
proved experimentally that these young forms of Culex, C. penicillaris and C. pipiens, are also accused of trans-
become encysted in the muscles of mice, and
the cycle is completed after the mouse is de- mitting the larvae. A paper by Noe (Atti Ace. Lincei, ix., 1900)
voured by a cat. The well-known Trichinella seems to prove beyond doubt that the larvae of F. immitis
spiralis (fig. 4) has a life-history closely resembl- are transmitted in the manner indicated. The adult worm is
of OUulanus. The adult worm, which
jng that
FIG. 4. Trichin- is of extremely minute size, the male being only chiefly found in the heart of the dog, and usually in the right side,
eUa encysted j*sth and the female J of an inch in length
which may be so packed with the worms as seriously to interfere
among muscular inhabits the alimentary canal of man and many with the circulation (fig. 5). The females produce thousands
fibres. (After other carnivorous mammalia; the young bore of larvae, which circulate in the blood, and show a certain
Leuckart.) their way into the tissues and become encysted
in the muscles within the muscle-bundles periodicity in then" appearance, being much more numerous
according to Leuckart, but in the connective tissue between them in the blood at night than during the day.
according to Chatin and others. The co-existence of the asexual Importance as Pests. Agriculturists now pay increased
encysted form and the sexually mature adult in the same host, attention to the nematodes that destroy their crops. A good
jxceptionally found in OUulanus and other Nematodes, is the
rule in Trichinella;
many of the embryos, however, are extruded example of a fairly typical case is afforded by Heterodera schachtii,
with the faeces, and complete the life
cycle by reaching the alimentary
which attacks beetroot and causes great loss to the Continental
canal of rats and swine which
frequently devour human ordure sugar manufacturers. The young larvae, nourished by the yolk
362 NEMATOMORPHA
1
which remains over from the egg and by the remains of the 300 embryos, and that hah of these are females, the number of
mother which they have taken into their alimentary canal, descendants would be, after six generations, some 22,781 milliards
make their way through the earth, and ultimately coming across (A. Strubell, Bibl. Zool., 1888-1889). Other species which have
the root of a beet, begin to bore into it. This they do by means been recorded in the United Kingdom are Tylenchus devastatrix
of a spine which can be protruded from the mouth. Once within (Kuhn), on oats, rye and clover roots; T. tritici, causing the
the root, they absorb the sap of the parenchyma and begin
cell
to swell until their body projects from the surface of the root in
FIG. 7.
A, Male Heterodera schachtii, B, First motile larva.
greatly magnified. C, Second immovable parasitic
FIG. 5. Head lappets. larva casting its skin.
a,
A, View of the heart of a dog infested with Filaria immitis Leidy ;
b, Mouth cavity. D, A female with one half of the
the right ventricle and base of the pulmonary artery have been c, Spine. body-wall taken away to
opened: a, aorta; b, pulmonary artery; c, vena cava; d, right d, Muscle of spine. show the coiling generative
ventricle; e, appendix of left auricle; /, appendix of right auricle. e, Gland. organs.
B, Female F. immitis, X i ,
removed from the heart to show its length. /, Oesophagus. a, Boring apparatus.
g. Bulb. b,Oesophageal bulb.
the form of a tubercle (fig. 6). The reproductive organs do not ft, Nerve-ring. c,Excretory pore.
After d, Alimentary canal.
begin to appear until the larva has twice cast its skin. i, Excretory pore
Oesophagus. Anus.
this a marked sexual dimorphism sets in. The female, hitherto j,
Testis.
e,
k, /, Ovary.
indistinguishable from the male, continues to swell until she /, Intestine. E, A male shortly before casting
attains the outlines of a lemon. Doing this she bursts the m, Muscles moving spicule. its larval skin.
epidermis of the rootlet, and her body projects into the surround- n, Spicule.
ing earth. The male has a different life-history (fig. 7). After ear-cockle of wheat; Cephalobus rigidus (Schn.), on oats;
the second larval Heterodera radicicola (Greet) on the roots of tomatoes, cucumbers,
,
moult, he passes potatoes, turnips, peach-trees, vines and lettuce, and many
through a passive stage other plants.
comparable to the
See N. Nassonov, Arch. Mikr. Anal. (1900); Arch, parasit. (1898);
pupa-stadium of an Rabot, Lab. Warsaw (1898); Zool. Anz. (1898); L. Jagerskiold,
insect, and during this Centrbl. Bakter. (1898); J. Spengel, Zool. Anz. (1897); H. Ehlers,
Arch. Nature. (1899); O. Hamann, Die Nemathelminthen (1895).
stage, which occurs
(F. E. B. A. E. S.) ;
inside the root, the
reproductive organs NEMATOMORPHA. This zoological group includes Gordian
are perfected. The worms which are found swimming in an undulatory manner
male next casts his or coiling round water-weeds in ponds and puddles, or knotted
cuticle, and by means together in an apparently inextricable coil. They may be several
of his spine bores inches in length and are no thicker than a piece of whip-cord.
FIG. 6. through the tissues of The male is distinguishable from the female by the presence
the root and escapes of a fork at the posterior end of the body. The body is covered
A,a,Female Heterodera schachtii Schmidt,
breaking through the epidermis of a root;
into the earth. Here by a cuticle which is sculptured and the various markings are
the head is still embedded in the paren- he seeks a female, of systematic importance: it is secreted by a hypodermis which
chyma of the root. pairs, and soon after- also includes nerve-cells and some gland-cells. In the adult
B, a, larvae boring their way into a root ; wards dies. The eggs aquatic stage the alimentary canal shows signs of degeneration,
b, larva of the immobile kind surrounded
of the female give and it seems probable that in this stage Gordian worms take no
by the old skin, living as an ectoparasite
on the outside of the root. (From Strubell.) rise to embryos with- food. The mouth is terminal or subterminal; there is a weak
in the body of the sucking pharynx situated behind the brain, and a long intestine
mother; her other organs undergo a retrogressive change lying along the medio- ventral body-cavity; it ends in a cloaca
and serve as food for the young, until the body-wall only which receives the vasa deferentia in the male. There is a single
of the mother remains as a brown capsule. From this the unsegmented nerve-cord which runs along the ventral middle line
young escape and make their way through the earth to new and enlarges posteriorly into a caudal ganglion and anteriorly
roots. The whole life-history extends over a period of some in a ganglion, the brain, which is not supra-oesophageal. The
4-5 weeks (fig. 7), so that some 6-7 generations are born during peripheral nervous system is minutely described by T. H.
the warmer months. If we assume that each female produces Montgomery. There is a median eye on the head.
NEMERTINA 363
The Nematomorpha are nearly solid, quite so at each end, impossi.ble to connect them with the Annelida. Until more is known
it seems wisest to look upon them as an isolated
assemblage of
animals with no near affinities to any of the great phyla.
"
LITERATURE. L. Camerano, Monografia dei Gordii," Mem. Ace.
Torino, xlvii. (1897), contains literature; O. von Linstow, Arch,
mikr. Anat., li. (1898); T. H. Montgomery, Bull. Mus. Harvard,
xxxii. (1898); Amer. Natural., xxxiii. (1899); Zool. Jahrb. Anat.,
xviii. (1903) p. 387; F. Vejdovsky, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., Ivii.
(1894);
A. Villot, Arch. Zool. exp. ii. (1887); C. R. Ac. Sci., cviii. (1889);
H. B. Ward, Bull. Mus. Harvard, xxiii. (1892). (A. E. S.)
NEMERTINA, or NEMERTEANS
(Nemerlea), a subdivision of
1
worms, characterized by the the skin, the presence
ciliation of
of a retractile proboscis, the simple arrangement of the generative
apparatus, and in certain cases by a peculiar pelagic larval
" "
stage to which the name pilidium has been given. Many of
them are long thread-shaped or ribbon-shaped animals, more or
less cylindrical in transverse section. Even the comparatively
shortest species and genera can always be termed elongate, the
broadest and shortest of
From Cambridge Natural Eislory, vol. ii., "Worms,"&c.. by permission of Macmfllan all being the parasitic
& Co., Ltd.
Malacobdella and the
FIG. i. A water plant around which a FIG. 2. Abdomen of
female Gordius is turning and laying eggs, with the
Pteroztichiis niger pelagic Pelagoncmeries.
a, a, clump and string of eggs. terga removed to expose There are no exterior
the Gordius larva within. appendages of any kind.
Slightly magnified. The colours are often
and only middle region of the body are there any body-
in the very bright and varied.
Nemertines live in the
cavities, the space within the body being usually filled up with
sea, some being common
parenchyma. There are four closed spaces of the nature of
amongst the corals and
body-cavities, two lateral and a dorso-median and a ventro-
median. Into the former the ovaries project, though the lumen algae, others hiding in
the muddy or sandy
of the lateral body-cavity is quite shut off from the lumina of
the ovaries or uteri. In the adult male bottom, and secreting
the lateral body-cavities are absent. A gelatinous tubes which
curious duct with lateral branches termed
ensheath the body along
its whole length. For-
the supra-intestinal organ lies above the
intestine in the female. There are two merly, they were gener-
series of ovaries extending through a large ally arranged amongst
the Platyelminthes as
part of the body and accompanied by two
a sub-order in the
uteri; the latter open by two oviducts
order of the Turbel-
which debouch into an atrium which also
receives the intestine and a single recep- larians, but with the
taculum seminis, and is continued back- advance of our know-
ward as the ledge of these lower
cloaca; this opens posteriorly.
The ovaries are epithelial sacs which open
worms it has been found
desirable to separate
into the uteri. The
paired testes extend
them from the Turbel-
through the greater part of the body and
larians and to look upon
end in two vasa deferentia which unite
with the intestine to form a cloaca. the Nemertina as a
From Cambridge Natural separate phylum.
History, vol. ...,
The eggs are laid in the spring as a rule,
''Worms,"
________ , 0. Burger classifies
&c., by permission of Mac- and after about a week they give rise to a Nemertines into four
mulan & Co., Ltd. .
j i -
-^i. 'i_i
FIG. Tarsal joint mlnute nnged larva with a protrusible
.
orders :
FIG. i. Lineus geniculatus. Xj. (From
3.
of an Ephemerid larva boring apparatus consisting of three 1. Proton emertini, in Burger.) I,Lateral slits on head; 2,
into which two Gordius which there are two layers anus.
chitinous rods. By the aid of this the
larvae, (a a) have
penetrated. Magnified.
of ^ ^^ ^
larva makes its way into the soft
EphemeridS)
nomids, or even of Molluscs, and encysts in the muscles or fat
of dermal muscles, ex-
ternal circular and in-
ternal longitudinal the nervous system lies external to the circular
;
muscles; the mouth lies behind the level of the brain; the proboscis
has no stylet; there is no caecum to the intestine.
body. The insect, which may have become an imago with the Families,
CARINELLIDAE, HUBRECHTIIDAE.
Gordian larva still in it, is then eaten by a carnivorous insect II. Mesonemertini, in which the nervous system has passed into
or by a fish, and the contained Gordian larva becomes elongate the dermal muscles and lies amongst them other characters as in
;
and mature in its second host. After a year or more this larva Protonemertini. Family, CEPHALOTHRICIDAE.
III. Metanemertini, in which the nervous system lies inside
emerges into the water and commences to reproduce.
the dermal muscles in the parenchyma; the mouth lies in front of
The unexpected occurrence of these worms in pools and puddles, the level of the brain; the proboscis as a rule bears stylets; the
often in great numbers, has given rise to myths about showers intestine nearly always has a caecum. Families, EUNEMERTIDAE,
of worms. They occasionally make their way into the human OTOTYPHLONEMERTIDAE, PROSORHOCMIDAE, AMPHIPORIDAE,
stomach with the drinking-water and are vomited; but this is a TETRASTEMMATIDAE, NECTONEMERTIDAE, PELAGONEMERTIDAE,
MALACOBDELLIDAE.
case of pseudo-parasitism they are no true parasite of man. This order represents the Hoplonemertini of Hubrecht.
There are a considerable number of species divided
IV. Heteronemertini, in which the dermal musculature is in
among the three layers, an external longitudinal, a middle circular, an internal
four genera: Gordius, Paragordius, Chordodes and Parachordodes;
the last, a genus of Camerano's, is looked upon with some doubt by longitudinal the nervous system lies between the first and second
;
of these layers; the outer layer of longitudinal muscles is a new
Montgomery. A free swimming marine form with longitudinal rows
of bristles, known as Nectonema A. E. Verrill, may also come here, development; there is no intestinal caecum; no stylets on the
but at present its life-history is unknown. The Nematomorpha proboscis and the mouth is behind the level of the brain. Families,
form an isolated group; at first sight they seem to be connected EUPOLIIDAE, LlNEIDAE.
with the Nematoda, but in reality their only common feature is the 1
Nemertes was a sea nymph, daughter of Nereus and Doris.
tubular genitalia opening into a cloaca, and it seems at present One of the genera was named Nemertes by Cuvier.
364 NEMERTINA
This order represents the Schizonemertini of Hubrecht and the has reached its maximum eversion. It adds a decisively aggressive
character to an organ the original significance of which, as we have
family Eupolidae.
The first three orders, which have a double muscular layer, seen, was tactile. This aggressive character has a different aspect in
external circular and internal longitudinal, are sometimes grouped several genera which are destitute of a central stylet, but in which
in which a third the surface that is turned outwards upon
together as the DIMYARIA; the Heteroneonertini, P.O.
coat of longitudinal muscles arises outside the circular layer, are then eversion of the proboscis is largely pro-
vided with nematocysts, sending the
placed in a second branch, the TRIMVARIA.
The following families and genera are represented on the British urticating rods of different sizes in all
coasts: CARINELLIDAE, Carinella; CEPHALOTHRICIDAE, Cephalo- directions. I n others this surface is bext
thrix, EUNEMERTIDAE, Eunemertes; OTOTYPHLONE-
Carinoma; with thick, glandular, adhesive papillae.
MERTIDAE, OtotypUonemertes;AMPHIPORIDAE, Amphiporus, Dre- The comparison with the glove-finger
TETRASTEMMIDAE, Tetrastemma, is in so far insufficient as the greater
panophorus; Prosprhocmus;
MALACOBDELLIDAE, Malacobdella; EUPOLIIDAE, Eupotia, Valen- portion of the non-evertible half of the
cinia, Oxypolia; LINEIDAE, Lineus, Euborlasia, Micrura, Cerebratu- proboscis is also hollow and clothed by
lus, Micrella. glandular walls. Only at the very hinder-
ANATOMY. Proboscis and Proboscidian SheaA. The organ most most end does it pass into the so-called
Nemertine is without doubt the proboscis. With
characteristic of a retractor-muscle (fig. 2), which is at-
very few exceptions (Malacobdella, Akrostomum. where it has fused tached to the wall of the space, or rhyn-
chocoel, in which the proboscis moves
fo. about. This retractor-muscle, indeed,
serves to pull back with great rapidity
the extruded proboscis, and is aided
in its action by the musculature of the
head. The extrusion itself depends en- FIG. 3. Anterior portion
tirely upon contraction of the muscular
of the body of a Nemer-
walls of the space just mentioned, the tine.
rhynchocoel. As it is (i) closed on all Br, Brain-lobes.
sides, and (2) filled with a corpuscular N, Lateral nerves.
fluid, the contractions alluded to send PS, Proboscidian sheath.
this fluid to impinge against the anterior Pr, Proboscis,
portion,
where the proboscis, floating in P.O., Exterior opening
its sheath, is attached with it to the through which the
muscular tissue of the head (fig. 3). proboscis is everted
Partial extrusion lessening the resist- or rhynchostome.
ance in this region inevitably follows, Oesophagus and
and when further contractions of the mouth shown by
walls of the sheath ensue total ex- dotted lines.
trusion is the consequence. It is
worthy of notice that in those Nemertines which make a very free
use of their proboscis, and in which it is seen to be continually
protruded and retracted, the walls of the proboscidian sheath are
enormously muscular. On the other hand, they are much less con-
siderably or even insignificantly so in the genera that are known
to make a rather sparing use
of their proboscis. The rhyn-
chocoel is formed by a split
which appears in the meso-
blast surrounding the epi-
blastic pit which is the fore-
runner of the proboscis. It
does not seem to be coelomic.
The proboscis, which is thus
an eminently muscular organ,
is composed of two or three,
"a sometimes powerful, layers of
muscles one of longitudinal
A. B and one or two of circular
FIG. 2. Diagrams a Nemertine.
of the organs of A, From fibres. In the posterior re-
below B, from above.
;
tractor the longitudinal fibres
m. Mouth. Br, Brain-lobes. become united into one bun-
dle, which, as noticed above, is
div, Intestinal diverticula. In, Longitudinal nerve stems. FIG. 5.
Anus. Proboscis. inserted in the wall of the FIG. 4.
a, pr.
m, Ovaries. ps. Proboscidian sheath. sheath. At the circular inser- FIGS. 4, 5. Proboscis with stylet,
" "
for proboscis. tion of the proboscis in front reserve sacs and muscular bulb
n, Nephridia. p.o., Opening
of the brain the muscular fibres of a Hoplonemertine. Fig. 4 re-
with the mouth into a single exterior opening), there is a terminal belonging to the anterior ex- tracted fig. 5 everted,
;
opening, the rhynchostome (subterminal in Valencinia), at the fore- tremity of the body and those
most tip of the body, out of which the proboscis is seen shooting connected with the proboscis are very intimately interwoven, forming
backwards and forwards, sometimes with so much force that both its a strong attachment. The short tube between this circular insertion
interior attachments are severed and it is entirely expelled from the and the rhynchostome is called the rhynchodaeum.
body. It then often retains its vitality for a long time, apparently The proboscis broken off and expelled is generally reproduced,
crawling as if it were itself a worm, a phenomenon which is at least the posterior ribbon-like end of this reproduced
partially explained by the extraordinary development of nervous portion again fusing with the walls of the sheath.
tissue, equally distributed all through the walls of the proboscis, There is reason to suppose that, when a wound is
and either united into numerous longitudinal nerve-stems (Dre- inflicted by the central stylet, it is envenomed by
panophorus, Amphiporus) or spread out into a uniform and com- the fluid secreted in the posterior proboscidian
paratively thick layer (Cerebratulus, sp.). This very effective and region being at the same time expelled. A re-
elaborate innervation, which has been directly traced to the brain, servoir, a duct and a muscular bulb in the region
whence strong nerves (generally two) enter the proboscis, renders (fig. 4) where the stylet is attached serve for this FIG. 6. The
it exceedingly probable that the most important functions of the purpose. The significance of two or more (in armature from
proboscis are of a sensiferous, tactile nature. In Nemertines the Drepanophorus very numerous) small sacs con-
" " proboscis of
everted proboscis is retracted in the same way as the tip of a glove taining so-called reserve stylets resembling in Drepanophorus.
finger would be if it were pulled backwards by a thread situated in shape that of the central dart is insufficiently known.
the axis and attached to the tip. The comparison may be carried The muscular walls of the rhynchocpel, which by their transverse
still further. The central thread just alluded to is represented in contractions serve to bring about eversion of the proboscis in the way
the Nemertean proboscis by that portion which is never everted, above traced, are attached to the musculature of the head just in
and the tip of the glove by the boundary between the evertible and front of the ganglionic commissures (fig. 3). In nearly all Nemertines
non-evertible portion of the proboscis a boundary which in the the rhynchocoel extends backwards as far as the posterior extremity,
Metanemertini is marked by the presence of a pointed or serrated just above the anus; in Carinetta it is limited to the anterior body-
stylet. This stylet is thus situated terminally when the proboscis region. The corpuscles floating in the fluid it contains are of definite
NEMERTINA 365
shape, and in Cerebratulus urticans they are deep red, possibly from The connective integument and basement membrane
tissue of the
the presence of haemoglobin. They are usually larger than the blood imperceptibly merges into that which surrounds the muscular
corpuscles. Internally the muscular layers are lined by an epi- bundles as they are united into denser and definite layers, and this is
thelium. In the posterior portion this epithelium in certain Hetero- especially marked in those forms (Akrostomum) where the density of
nemertea has a more glandular appearance, and sometimes the the muscular body-wall has considerably diminished, and the con-
interior cavity is obliterated by cell-proliferation in this region. nective tissue has thus become much more prominent. It can then at
Superiorly the. sheath either closely adheres to the muscular body- the same time be observed, too, that the compact mass of connective
wall, with which it may even be partly interwoven, or it hangs tissue (" reticulum," Barrois) which lies between the muscular body-
freely in the connective tissue which fills the space between the wall and the intestine is directly continuous with that in which the
intestine and the muscular body-wall. muscular layers are embedded. Nuclei are everywhere present. The
Cutaneous System. Externally in all species a layer of ciliated omnipresence of this connective tissue tends to exclude the formation
cells forms the outer investment. In it are, moreover, enclosed of any perivisceral body cavity in Nemertines.
unicellular glands pouring their highly refracting contents, of a more In Polia the connective tissue enclosed in the external muscular
or less rod-like shape, directly to the exterior. They appear to layer is eminently vacuolar all the intermediate stages between
be the principal source of the mucus these animals secrete. In most such cells in which the vacuole predominates and the nucleus is
Heteronemertines these elements are separated by a thin homo- peripheral and those in which the granular protoplasm still entirely
fills them being moreover present.
geneous basement membrane (fig. 8) from the following that is,
from a layer in which longitudinal muscular fibres are largely inter- In addition to the musculature of the proboscis and proboscidian
mixed with tortuous glands, which by reason of their deeper situation sheath, longitudinal muscular fibres are found in the walls of the
communicate with the exterior by a much longer and generally very oesophagus, whilst transverse ones are numerous and united into
narrow duct. The pigment is also principally localized in this layer, vertical dissepiments between the successive intestinal caeca, thus
although sometimes it is present even deeper down within the bringing about a very regular internal metamerization. The genital
musculature. The passage from this tegumentary layer to the products develop in intermediate spaces similarly limited by these
subjacent longitudinal muscular one is gradual, no membrane dissepiments and alternating with the digestive caeca.
separating them. In Cannella, Cephalothrix, Polio, and the Metane- Nervous System and Sense Organs. The nervous system of Nemer-
mertines the two tegumentary layers with their different glandular tines presents several interesting peculiarities. As central organs
elements are fused into one; a thick layer of connective tissue we have to note the brain-lobes
is situated beneath them (instead of between them) and keeps the and the longitudinal lateral cords
entire cutaneous system more definitely separate from the muscular which form one continuous unseg-
(figs. 7, 8). mented mass ol fibrous and cellular
Musculature and Connective Tissue. The muscular layers by which nerve-tissue. The fibrous nerve-
the body-wall is constituted have been very differently and to some tissue is more dense in the higher
extent confusingly described by the successive authors on Nemertean differentiated, more loose and
anatomy. There is sufficient reason for this confusion. The fact spongy in the lower organized
is that not only have the larger subdivisions a different arrangement forms; the cellular nerve-tissue is FIG. 10 FIG. n
and even number of the muscular layers, but even within the same similarly less compact in the forms FIGS. 10, II. Brain and
genus, nay, in the same species, well-marked differences occur. that are at the base of the scale, lateral organ of a Schizonemer-
No ganglionic swellings whatever tine (fig. 10) and a Hoplo-
occur in the course of the longi- nemertine (fig. n). eo, Exterior-
tudinal cords. The brain must be opening; u.l, superior brain-
looked upon as the anterior thick- lobe; />./., posterior brain-lobe,
ening of these cords, and at the same
time as the spot where the two halves of the central nerve system
intercommunicate. This brought about by a double commissure,
is
of which the ventral portion is considerably thicker than the dorsal,
and which, together with the brain-lobes, constitutes a ring through
eirtl. which both proboscis and proboscidian sheath pass. The brain-lobes
are generally four in number, a ventral and a dorsal pair, respectively
FIG. 7. FIG. 8. FIG. 9. united together by the above-mentioned commissures, and moreover
FIGS. 7-9. The layers of the body-wall in Carinella (fig. 7), the anteriorly interfusing with each other, right and left. In Carinella
this separation into lobes of the anterior thickenings of the cords has
Metanemertini (fig. 8) and the Heteronemertini (fig. 9). c, Cellular
not yet commenced, the ventral commissure at the same time being
tissue of the integument; Bm, basement membrane; cire. I, outer
circular, and muscular tissue; circ. 2,
long., longitudinal layer of
extremely bulky. There is great probability that the central stems,
long, i, additional circular and longitudinal layers of the same;
together with the brain, must be looked upon as local longitudinal
accumulations of ner-
nl, nervous layer.
vous tissue in what was
Increase in size appears sometimes to be accompanied by the develop- in more primitive an-
ment of a new layer of fibres, whereas a difference in the method of cestors a less highly
preparation may give to a layer which appeared homogeneous in differentiated nervous
one specimen a decidedly fibrous aspect in another. Nevertheless plexus, situated in the
there are three principal types under which the different modifications body-wall in a similar
can be arranged. One of them is found in the two most primitively way to that which still
organized genera, Cannella and Cephalothrix, i.e. an outer circular, a is found in the less
longitudinal ^nd an inner circular layer of muscular fibres (fig. 7). highly organizedCoelen- PJf
The second is common to all the Heteronemertines, as well as to Folia terates.Such a nervous
and Valencinia, and also comprehends three layers, of which, how-
plexus indeed occurs
ever, two are longitudinal, viz. the external and the internal one, in the body-wall of all
there being a strong circular layer between them (fig. 9;. To the Heteronemer tines,
third type all the Metanemertini correspond; their muscular layers sometimes even as a
are only two, an external circular and an internal longitudinal one thick FIG.
comparatively 12. The brain of a Nemertine, with
(fig- 8). layer, situated, as are its lobes and commissures.
The Heteronemertini thus appear to have developed an extra layer the nerve stems, be-
of longitudinal fibres internally to those which they inherited from S.N., Nerves to sensory apparatus.
tween the external
more primitive ancestors, whereas the Metanemertini are no longer P.N., Nerves for proboscis.
longitudinal and the Nerves for oesophagus.
in possession of the internal circular layer, but have on the circular muscles (fig.
contrary L. Lateral nerve-stems.
largely developed the external circular one, which has dwindled 9). In Carinella, where
away in the Heteronemertini. The situation of the lateral nerve- the longitudinal nerve-stems are situated exteriorly to the mus-
stems in the different genera with respect to the muscular layers cular layers, this plexus, although present, is much less dense,
lends definite support to the interpretation of their homologies here and can more fitly be compared to a network with wide meshes.
given and forms the basis of Burger's classification. In both cases it can be shown to be in immediate continuity with the
In Carinella, Cephalothrix and Polia, as well as in all Metane-
coating of nerve-cells forming part of the longitudinal cords. It
mertines, the basement membrane of the skin already alluded stretches forward as far as the brain, and in Carinella is again con-
to is particularly strong and immediately
applied upon the muscular tinued in front of it, whereas in the Heteronemertines the innervation
layers. In the Heteronemertines there is a layer in which the of the anterior extremity of the head, in front of the brain, takes the
cutaneous elements are largely form of more definite and less numerous branching stems. The
represented below the thin basement
membrane (fig. 8), between it and the bulk of the outer longitudinal presence of this plexus in connexion with the central stems, sending
muscles. The difference in the appearance of the basement mem- out nervous filaments amongst the muscles, explains the absence, in
brane sometimes wholly homogeneous, sometimes Pro-, Meso- and Heteronemertines, of separate and distinct peri-
eminently
nbnllar can more especiajly be observed in differently preserved pheral nerve stems springing from the central stems innervating
specimens of the genus Polia. the different organs and body-regions, the only exceptions being the
3 66 NEMERTINA
nerves for the proboscis, those for the sense organs in the head and the natural supply of freshly oxygenated sea-water is practically
the strong nerve pair (n. vagus) for the oesophagus. At the same limited. Whether in the Metanemertines, where the blood fluid is
time it renders more intelligible the extreme sensitiveness of the body- often provided with haemoglobiniferous disks, the chief functions
wall of the Nemertines, a local and instantaneous irritation often of the side organs may not rather be a sensory one needs further
resulting in spasmodic rupture of the animal
at the point touched. investigation.
In the Metanemertini, where the longitudinal stems lie inside the The exterior opening of the duct has been several times alluded to.
muscular body-wall, definite and metamerically placed nerve In the Metanemertines it is generally situated towards the middle
branches spring from them and divide dichotomously in the different of a lateral transverse groove on either side
tissues they innervate. A definite plexus can here no longer be of the head, as was noticed for Carinella, and /T\
traced. In certain Metanemertines the lateral stems have been as is also present in Polia. Generally a
noticed to unite posteriorly by a terminal commissure, situated row of shorter grooves perpendicular to the
above the anus, the whole of the central nervous system being in first, and similarly provided with strong
this way virtually situated above the intestine. In others there is an cilia, enlarges the surface of these furrows
approximation of the lateral stems towards the median ventral line (fig. 14). In Valencinia there is nothing but
(Drepanophorus) in a genus of Heteronemertines (Langia), on the
;
a circular opening without furrow. In all
other hand, an arrangement occurs by which the longitudinal stems Heteronemertines there is on each side of FIG. 13. FIG. 14.
are no longer lateral, but have more or less approached each other the head a longitudinal slit of varying length FIGS. 13,
dorsally. but generally considerable depth, in the Lateral views of 14. head
In addition to the nerves starting from the brain-lobes just now bottom of which the dark red brain is very of a Het eronemertine
especially mentioned, there is a double apparatus which can hardly plainly visible by transparency. These slits (fi } with j ;
.
be treated of in conjunction with the sense organs, because its are continued, into the ciliated duct, being
Sfflaarkt, and of a
sensory functions have not been sufficiently made out, and which at the same time themselves very strongly Meta nemertine
(fig 14)
will therefore rather be considered along with the brain and central ciliated. In life they are commonly rhythmi- with transve
rse groove
nervous system. This apparatus is usually known under the name cally opened and shut by a wavy move- an(j f urrows
of the lateral organs. To it belong (a) superficial grooves or deeper ment. They are the head slits (cephalic
"
slits situated on the integument near the tip of the head, (6) nerve fissures, Kopfspalten ") so characteristic of this subdivision
lobes in immediate connexion with the nervous tissue of the brain, (figs. 10 and 13).
and (c) ciliated ducts penetrating into the latter and communicating With respect to the sense organs of the Nemertines, we find that
with the former. Embryology shows that originally these different eyes are of rather constant occurrence, although many Hetero-
and only ultimately become united nemertines living in the mud appear to be blind. The more highly
parts are separately started,
into one. Two lateral outgrowths of the foremost portion of the organized species have often very numerous eyes (Amphiporus,
oesophagus, afterwards becoming constricted off, as well as two Drepanophorus), which are provided "
with a spherical refracting
ingrowths from the epiblast, contribute towards its formation, at anterior portion, with a cellular vitreous body," with a layer of
least as far as both Meta- and Heteronemertines are concerned. As delicate radially arranged rods, with an outer sheath of dark pigment,
to the Mesonemertini, in the most primitive genus, Carinella, we do and with a separate nerve-twig each, springing from a common or
not find any lateral organs answering to the description above given. double pair of branches which leave the brain as n. optici, for the
What we do find is a slight transverse furrow on each side of the head, innervation of the eyes. Besides these more highly differentiated
close to the tip, but the most careful examination of sections made organs of vision, more primitive eyes are present in others down to
through the tissues of the head and brain shows the absence of any simple stellate pigment specks without any refracting apparatus.
further apparatus comparable to that described above. Only in one Organs of hearing in the form of capsules containing otoliths
species, Carinella inexpectata, a step in advance has been made, in have only been very rarely observed, apparently only in Metane-
so far as in connexion with the furrow just mentioned, which is mertini.
here also somewhat more complicated in its arrangement, a ciliated As to the organ of touch, the great sensitiveness of the body has
tube leads into the brain, there to end blindly amidst the nerve- already been noticed, as well as the probable primary significance
cells. No other intermediate stages have as yet been noticed of the proboscis. Small tufts of tactile hairs or
papillae
are sometimes
between this arrangement and that of the Heteronemertini, in which observed in small number at the tip of the head; sometimes longer
a separate posterior brain-lobe receives a similar ciliated canal, and hairs, apparently rather stiff, are seen on the surface, very sparingly
in which the oesopliaeeal outgrowths have made their appearance distributed between the cilia, and hitherto only in a very limited
and are coalesced with the nerve-tissue in the organ of the adult number of small specimens. They may perhaps be considered as
animal. The histological elements of this portion remain distinct sensory.
i
both by transmitted light and in actual sections. Digestive System. The anterior opening, the mouth, is situated
These posterior brain-lobes, which in all Heteronemertines are in ventrally, close to the tip of the head and in front of the brain in the
direct continuity of tissue with the upper pair of principal lobes, Metanemertini, somewhat more backward and behind the brain in
cease to have this intimate connexion in the Metanemertini; and, the other Nemertines. In most Heteronemertines it is found to be
although still constituted of (l) a ciliated duct, opening out exter- an elongated slit with corrugated borders; in the Metanemertines
nervous tissue surrounding it, and (3) histological elements it is smaller and rounded; in Malacobdella and Akrostomum it,
nally, (2)
distinctly different from the nervous, and most probably directly moreover, serves for the extrusion of the proboscis, which emerges
derived from the oesophageal outgrowths, they are nevertheless by a separate dorsal opening just inside the mouth. The oesophagus
here no longer constantly situated behind the upper brain-lobes and is the anterior portion of the digestive canal; its walls are folded
directly connected with them, but are found sometimes behind, longitudinally, comparatively thick and provided with longitudinal
sometimes beside and sometimes before the brain-lobes. Further- muscular fibres. Two layers are specially obvious in its walls the
more, they are here severed from the principal lobes and connected inner layer bordering the lumen being composed of smaller ciliated
with them by one or more rather thick strings of nerve-fibres. cells, the outer thicker one containing numerous granular cells and
In some cases, especially when the lobes lie before the brain, their having a more glandular character. Outside the wait of the oeso-
distance from it, as well as the length of these nervous connexions, phagus a vascular space has been detected which is in direct con-
has considerably increased. tinuity with the longitudinal blood-vessels. In certain cases, how-
These curious neuro-glandular pits (fig. i), absent in" the Mesone- ever, the walls of the oesophagus appear to be very closely applied
mertine and one or two aberrant species, have been shown to possess to the muscular body-wall and this vascular space thereby con-
large glandular cells at their base which secrete a mucus. The siderably reduced.
development of these organs, which in the Protonemertine are but The posterior portion of the intestine is specially characterized
grooves in the epidermis, not far removed from the similar cephalic by the appearance of the intestinal diverticula horizontally and
slits of
many Turbellaria, reaches its height in Drepanophorus. Here symmetrically placed right and left and opposite to each other.
the pits split into two, one
part ending in a sac lined with sensory In the Metanemertini there is a curious diverticulum of the intes-
epithelium, and embedded in nervous tissue, the other projecting tine which stretches forward in the median line, ventral to the so-
backwards as a long, glandular, blind canal. The exit of these organs called stomach. It is at times sacculated, but its chief interest is that,
takes many shapes, of value in systematic work. Their function is as Lebedinsky x has shown, the tip of the caecum in embryonic life
still little understood. Two lateral, shallow pits occur on the side opens to the exterior as the blastopore. This subsequently closes up,
of the body about the level of the hinder end of the proboscis in and the newly-formed oesophagus and stomach open in the intestine
some species of the genus Carinella, which are termed side-organs. above and behind it. It is a curious feature in Nemertines that the
Thesfe are capable of being everted, and are probably sensory in alimentary canal seldom contains traces of food and yet most of these
function (fig. 20, 17). worms are voracious. The food must be digested, absorbed and ex-
For the Heteronemertines arguments have been adduced to prove creted with great There is some evidence that in thi*
rapidity.
that here they have the physiological significance of a special respir- group the ectoderm of the oesophagus is chiefly concerned with
atory apparatus for the central nervous tissue, which in all these digestion, whereas the endoderm of the intestine is limited to the
forms is strongly charged with haemoglobin. The haemoglobin absorption of the soluble products.
would, by its pre-eminent properties of fixing oxygen, serve to Cases of asymmetry or irregularity in the arrangement of the
furnish the nerve
system, which more than any other requires a intestinal caeca, though sometimes occurring, are not normal. At
constant supply, with the necessary oxygen. Such could hardly the tip of the tail, where the growth of the animal takes place, the
by those worms that have no special
be obtained in any other way
respiratory apparatus, and that live in mud and under stones where
1
Arch. mikr. Anal. xlix. (1897) p. 503.
NEMERTINA
caeca are always eminently regular. So they are throughout the lacunae form, so to say, the forerunners of the lateral vessels. A
whole body in most of the Metanemertines. In Carinella they are median longitudinal vessel and transverse connecting trunks have
generally deficient and the intestine straight; in young specimens not as yet been detected. There are large lacunae in the head in
of this species, however, they occur, though less regular and more in front of the ganglia.
the form of incipient foldings by which the digestive surface is, The vascular system is entirely closed. It contains a colourless
increased. The inner surface of the intestinal caeca is ciliated, the fluid, with flat, oval nucleated corpuscles, as a rule colourless, but in
caeca themselves are some- some cases tinged with yellow or red haemo-
times especially in the globin. Its presence is one of the most dis-
OT hindermost portion of the tinctive features which separate the Nemer-
body of a considerably tines from the Platyhelminthes. In origin
smaller lumen than the in- the vascular system is due to a fusion of
termediate genital spaces; spaces which arise in the mesoblast of the
sometimes, however, the larva. The blood is probably circulated by
reverse is the case, and in the general contraction of the whole animal,
both cases it is the smaller since it is very doubtful if there are any
lumen that appears enclosed intrinsic muscles in the vessel-walls. Its
between and suspended by function is less that of respiration than of p IG , a Diaeram
'
the transverse fibres con- conveying the digested food-products all over of thp rrl) i'
:
stituting the muscular dis- the body, and the excretory products to the
sepiments above mentioned. nephridia, and doubtless it serves at times to
The anus is situated ter-
MeUnemert,
minally, the muscular body-
wall through which the .developed genera seem to be partly lacunae and partly true vessels
intestine must find its way with definite walls.
outwards probably acting Nephridia. Associated with the lateral blood-vessels are the single
in this region the part of a pair of nephridia. Each consists of a more or less coiled, ciliated,
sphincter. The lateral nerve longitudinal canal, which on its external surface gives origin to one
stems mostly terminate on or more transverse canals, which pass to the exterior and open a
both sides in closest prox- little way behind the mouth on the sides of the body. On its inner
imity to the anus; in cer- surface the longitudinal canal is adpressed to the lateral blood-
tain species, however, they vessel, and gives off a number of small, blind caeca or tags, each of
interfuse by a transverse which ends in a small clump of cells. These tags indent the blood-
connexion above the anus. vessel. From their inner ends, projecting into the lumen of the tag,
" "
The longitudinal blood- hangs a bunch of cilia, which forms the flickering flame so well
vessels do the same. known in the excretory apparatus of the Platyhelminthes and larval
Circulatory Apparatus. Annelids (fig. 19). There is no communication between the nephridia
The chief vessels are three on one side and the other, but in Eupolia there are ducts opening
longitudinal trunks, a into the alimentary canal as well as to
median and two lateral ones. the exterior, a condition of things which
They are in direct con- recalls what obtains in certainOligochaetes.
nexion with each other both As a rule these organs only extend a short
at the posterior and at the way along the anterior end of the body,
anterior end of the body. a concentration which we may associate
At the posterior end they with the development of a vascular system
communicate together by a to bring the products of excretion to a
T-shaped connexion in a fixed spot. In Stichostemma, however,
simple and uniform way. Montgomery l has described a series of
Anteriorly there is a cer- nephridia lying all along the body,
tain amount of difference and each with a varying number of
in the arrangement. Where- external pores. The excretory system is
FiG. 17. as in the Metanemertines an epiblastic in its origin.
FIGS. 15-17. Diagrammatic sec- arrangement prevails as re- The two external openings of the
tions to show
disposition of internal presented in fig. 18, in the nephridia are situated sometimes more
organs in Carinella (Protonemertini) ,
Heteronemertines the towards the ventral, at other times more
fig. 15, Heteronemertini, fig. 16, and
lateral stems, while entirely towards the dorsal side. Even in the
Metanemertini, fig. 17. uniform through the
all larger Heteronemertines these pores are
C, Cellular portion of integument. posterior portion of the only a few millimetres behind the mouth
B, Basement membrane. body, no longer individually region. I n transverse sections the nephridia
A, Circular muscular layer. exist in the oesophageal can be shown to be generally situated in
A', Longitudinal muscular layer. region, but here dissolve the region limited by (l) the proboscidian
A", Second circular themselves into a network sheath, (2) the upper wall of the intestine,
(in Carinella).
A", Second longitudinal (in Hetero-
of vascular spaces surround- (3) the muscular body-wall. No trace of
nemertini). ing this portion of the di- nephridia is found posterior to the oeso-
N, Nervous layer.
gestive tract. The median phagus.
LN, Lateral nerves. dorsal vessel, however, re- Generative System. In the Nemertines
PS, Cavity of proboscidian sheath (the m,
ains 9 lst inc t- b "t instead
.
the sexes are separate, with only very FIG. 19. Part of the
sheath itself of varying thickness). of continuing its course be- few exceptions (Tetrastemma herma- excretory system lying
P, Proboscis. n eat h .the proboscidian phroditica, Marion). The reproductive on the lateral vessel of
L
/ Intestine sheath it is first enclosed by system is of the simplest, strongly con- Drepanophorus specta-
LBv, Lateral blood-vessel.
DBv, Dorsal blood-vessel.
^
S
ventral musculature of
an and stl11 farther
hls or
f -
trasting with the complicated arrange- bilis. (Magnified about
ments in the Platyhelminthes. A series 750.) I The longitudinal
,
forwards
it even bulges out of sacs lined with an epithelium, the pro- excretory canal 2, one
CT, Connective tissue. ;
longitudinally into the liferation of which gives rise to the ova of the tags containing the
cavity of the sheath. Anteriorly it finally communicates with the or spermatozoa, alternate between the flame-cells,
lacunae just mentioned, which surround the oesophagus, bathe the caeca of the intestine. When mature,
posterior lobes of the brain, pass through the nerve ring together each sac pushes out a process to the exterior, and this forms
with the proboscidian sheath, and are generally continued in front the genital duct. The line of the genital openings is usually
of the brain as a lacunar space in the muscular tissue, one on each dorsal to the lateral nerve. The whole sac, with its epithelial
side. wall and its contained genital cells, arises ultimately from some
Special mention must be made of the delicate transverse vessels of the parenchymatous cells of the body. The walls and con-
regularly connecting the longitudinal and the lateral ones. They tents in some forms arise simultaneously; in others the walls are
are metamerically placed, and belong to the same metamere as the first formed and their lining then proliferates. It has been pointed
digestive caeca, thus alternating with the generative sacs. The out that the cavity of the sacs corresponds in many particulars with
blood fluid does not flow in any definite direction; its movements the coelom of higher animals, and in Lebidinsky's observations on
are largely influenced by those of the muscular the development there is some support to the view that a coelom
body-wall. It is
colourless and contains definite corpuscles, which are round or exists. Montgomery has also described certain spaces which may
elliptical, and in many Metanemertines are coloured red by haemo- be coelomic lying between the alimentary canal and the inner
globin, being colourless in other species. The circulatory system longitudinal layer of muscles in the Heteronemertini. The ova and
of Carinella is
considerably different, being more lacunar and less
restricted to definite vascular channels. Two lateral longitudinal 1
Zool. Jakrb. Anal., x. (1897) p. 265.
3 68 NEMESIANUS
spermatozoa, when mature, present no peculiarities. As the ova are pharynx, and he sums up their relationship to the Annelids by the
in many species deposited in a gelatinous tube secreted by the body- statement that to a certain extent the Nemertines represent Turbel-
walls, in which they are arranged (three or more together) in flask- laria which in the course of time have copied certain features of an
shaped cavities, impregnation must probably take place either before Annelid character.
or at the very moment of their being deposited. The exact mode has LITERATURE. T. Barrois, " Recherches sur 1'embryologie des
not yet been noticed. Ndmertes," Annales des Sc. Naturelles, vi. (1877); O. Biitschli,
FIG. 20. Anterior end of a Carinella, partly diagrammatic. Magnified. (From Burger.) I, Opening of proboscis; 2, cephalic
glands running to frontal organ; 3, dorsal commissure of brain; 4, cerebral organ; 5, upper dorsal nerve; 6, under dorsal nerve;
7, rhynchocoelic blood-vessel; 8, fore-gut; 9, rhynchocoel; 10, nerve to proboscis; II, proboscis; 12, genital sac; 13, genital pore;
14, mid-gut; 15, circular nerves; 16, pore of excretory system; 17, jateral organ; 18, excretory canal; 19,
lateral vessel; 20,
lateral nerve; 21, oesophageal nerve; 22, mouth; 23, ventral ganglion of brain; 24, dorsal ganglion of brain; 25, rhynchodaeum.
"
Prosorhocmus daparedii is a viviparous form. Einige Bemerkungen zur Metamorphose des Pilidium," Archiv
DEVELOPMENT. The embryology of the Nemertines offers some fur Natureeschichte (1873); L. von Graff, Monographic der Tur-
very remarkable peculiarities. Our knowledge of the development bellarien (1882); A. A. W. Hubrecht, "Untersuchungen uber
of the most primitive forms is scanty. Both Hetero- and Metane- Nemertinen a. d. Golf von Neapel," Niederl. Archiv fur Zoologie,
"
mertini have been more exhaustively studied than the other two ii.; Id., The Genera
of European Nemerteans critically revised,"
groups, the first, as was noticed above, being characterized by peculiar Notes from the Leyden Museum (1879); !&> "Zur Anatomic u.
larval forms, the second developing without metamorphosis. Physiologic d. Nervensystems d. Nemertinen," Verb. kon. Akad.
The larva of Ccrebratulus is called the pilidium. In exterior shape v. Wetensch. (Amsterdam, 1880), vol. xx.; Id., "The Peripheral
it resembles a helmet with spike and ear-lobes, the spike being a Nervous System of the Palaeo- and Schizonemertini, one of the layers
strong and long flagellum or a tuft of long cilia, the ear-lobes lateral of the Body-wall," Quart. Journal of Micr. Science, vol. xx.; Id.,
"
ciliated appendages (fig. 21). It encloses the primitive alimentary On the Ancestral
"
Forms oi the Chordata," 76. (July 1883); W.
tract. Two
pairs of invaginations of Keferstein, Untersuchungen iiber niedere Seethiere,"" Zeitschr.
the skin, which originally are called f. wissensch. Zool. vol. xii. (1863); J. von Kennel, Beitriige
the prostomial and metastomial disks, zur Kenntniss der Nemertinen," Arbeiten a. d. zool.-zoot. Instit.
grow round the intestine, finally fuse ii.
(Wiirzburg, 1878); W. C. Macintosh, A Monograph of British
together, and form the skin and mus- Annelida: I. Nemerteans (Ray Society, 1873-1874); A. F. Marion,
"
cular body-wall of the future Nemer- Recherches sur les animaux inferieurs du Golfe de Marseille,"
tine, which afterwards becomes cili- Ann. des Sc. Nat. (1873); E. Metschnikoff, " Studien tiber die
ated, frees itself from the pilidium in- Entwickelung der Echinodermen und Nemertinen," Mem. de I'Acad.
vestment and develops into the adult Imp. de St Peter sb. xiv. (1869); Max Schultze, Beitrage zur Natur-
worm without further metamorphosis. geschichte der Turbellarien (Greifswald, 1851) and Zeitschr. fur
The eggs of these species are not wissensch. Zool. iv. (1852), p. 178; W. B. Benham, Quart. Journ.
enveloped by such massive gelatinous Micr. Set. xxxix. (1896), p. 19; A. Brown, Proc. Roy. Soc. Ixi.
strings as are those of the genus (1897), p. 28; O. Burger, Zeit. f. wiss. Zool. 1. (1890), p. i; Id.,
Lineus. In the latter we find the Mitt. Zool. St Neapel, x. (1891), p. 206; Id., Zeit. f. wiss. Zool.
young Nemertines crawling about liii. (1892), p. 322; Id., Verh. Deutsch. zool. GeseUsch. (1893);
after a period of from six to eight Id., Fauna u. Flora d. Golfe d. Neapel, Monograph 22 (1895);
weeks, and probably feeding upon a A. Dendy, Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria (n.s.),iv. (1892), p. 85, v. p. 127
portion of this gelatinous substance, '1-1892); B. Haller, "
Arb. Zool. Inst. Wien, viii. (1889), p. 276;
"
FIG. 21. Pilidium-larva. which is found to diminish in bulk. . A. W. L. Joubin,
Hubrecht, Challenger Reports, xix. (1887);
"
B, Bunch of cilia or flagel- In accordance with these more seden- Arch. Zool. Exper. (2), viii. (1890), p. 461 ; Id., Nemertines," in
lum. tary habits during the first phases of Blanchard's Traite de zoologie (1894); J. N. Lebedinsky, Arch.
oe, Oesophagus. life, the characteristic pilidium larva,
st, Stomach. which is so eminently adapted for a
to have
cs, Oesophageal outgrowth pelagic existence, appears
for lateral organ. been reduced to a close-fitting exterior Connecticut Acad. New Haven, viii. (1892), p. 382; D. Bergendal,
am, Amnion. layer of cells, which is stripped off Zool. Anzeiger, xxiii. (1900), p. 313; W. R. Coe, Zool. Jahrb. (Anal )
pr.d., Prostomial disk. after the definite body-wall of the xii. (1899), p. 425; Id., Trans. Connect. Acad. ix. (1895), p. 479;
po.d., Metastomial disk. Nemertine has similarly originated Id., Proc. Wash. Acad. iii. (1901), p. I ; T. H. Montgomery, Journ.
out of four ingrowths from the Morph., xiii. (1897) p. 381; Id., Zool. Jahrb. (Anat.) x. (1897),
primary "epiblast. To this reduced and sedentary pilidium the p. 265; R. C. Punnett, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sc. xliv. (1900), p. ill;
name of larva of Desor " has been given. Id., Willey's Zool. Results, pt. v. (1900), p. 569; Id., Quart. Journ.
In the Metanemertini, as far as they have been investigated, a Mic. Sc. xliv. 547; Staub, Semon's Forschungsreisen
(1901), p.
direct development without metamorphosis has been observed. (5 Bd., 1900); C. B. Zool. Anzeiger, xxiii. (1900), pp. 151,
Thompson,
It appears probable that this is only a further simplification of the
627; C. B. Wilson, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sc. xliii. (1900), p. 97.
more complicated metamorphosis described above. (A. A. W. H.;A. E. S.)
As to the development of the different organs, there is still much NEMESIANUS, MARCUS AURELIUS OLYMPIUS, Roman
that remains doubtful. The hypoblast in some forms originates by
poet, a native of Carthage, flourished about A.D. 283. He was
invagination, in others by delamination. The proboscis is an in-
vagination from the epiblast; the proboscidian sheath appears in a popular poet at the court of the Roman emperor Carus
the mesoblast, but is perhaps originally derived from the hypoblast. (Vopiscus, Carus, ii). He wrote poems on the arts of fishing
The origin of the lateral organs has already been noticed that of the and hunting (Cynegetica) but
nerve system is essentially epiblastic.
;
(Halieutica), aquatics (Nautica) ,
AFFINITIES. The position of the Nemertines in the animal king- only a fragment of the 325 hexameter lines, has been
last,
dom is now looked upon as more isolated than was formerly thought, preserved. It is neatly expressed in good Latin, and was used
and recent writers have been inclined to treat them as a separate as a school text-book in the gth century. Four eclogues, formerly
phylum. Whether this view be adopted or not, and whether the
_ attributed to Titus Calpurnius (q.v.) Siculus, are now generally
Turbellaria be regarded as nearly related or only remotely connected,
there can be little doubt that the Nemertines resemble the Turbel- considered to be by Nemesianus, and the Praise of Hercules,
laria more nearly than they do any other
group of animals. Burger generally printed in Claudian's works, may be by him.
even goes so far as to homologize the proboscis with the Turbellarian Complete edition of the works attributed to him in E. Bahrens,
NEMESIS NEMOURS, LORDS AND DUKES OF 369
Poetae Lalini Minores, iii. (1881); Cynegetica: ed. M. Haupt (with held Nemesius in high esteem, believing his book to be the work
Ovid's Halifutica and Grattius Faliscus) 1838, and R. Stern, with of Gregory of Nyssa, with whom he has much in common.
Grattius (1832); Italian translation with notes by L. F. Valdrighi
Editions: Antwerp, 1575; Oxford, 1671; Halle, 1802; Migne's
(1876). The four eclogues are printed with those of Calpurnius
in
Patrol. Gr. vol. 40. Versions: Latin by Alsanus, ed. Holzinger
the editions of H. Schenkl (1885) and E. H. Keene (1887); see
L. Cisorio, Studio sulle Egloghe di N. (1895) and Dell' imitazior.e (1887); by Burgundio, ed. Burkhardt (1891-1896). Literature:
nelle Egloghe di N. (1896) and M. Haupt, De Carminibus Bucolicis
;
Bender, Untersuch. fiber Nemesius (1898). See further Herzog-
Hauck's Realencyklop, s.v.
Calpurnii et N. (1853), the chief treatise on the subject.
NEMESIS, the This is the
personification of divine justice.
NEHORENSIS LACUS (mod. Nemi), a lake in the Alban
Hills, in an extinct subsidiary crater in the outer ring of the
only sense in which the word is used in Homer, while Hesiod
ancient Alban crater, E. of the Lake of Albano. It is about
(Theog. 22$) makes Nemesis a goddess, the daughter of Night
(some, however, regard the passage as an interpolation); she 35 m. in diameter and some no ft. deep; the precipitous slopes
of its basin are over 300 ft. high, and on the side towards the
appears in a still more concrete form in a fragment of the Cypria.
The word Nemesis meant the distributor (Gr. veptiv) modern village a good deal more, and are mainly cultivated.
originally
in due proportion to each man It is now remarkable for its picturesque beauty. In ancient times
of fortune, whether good or bad,
it was included in the territory of Aricia, and bore the name
according to his deserts; then, the resentment caused by any "
disturbance of this proportion, the sense of justice that could Mirror of Diana." The worship of Diana here was a very
not allow it to pass unpunished. Gruppe and others prefer to ancient one, and, as among the Scythians, was originally, so it
connect the name with vtiitaav, vtp.faifa&ai ("to feel just was said, celebrated with human sacrifices; even in imperial
resentment "). In the tragedians Nemesis appears chiefly as times the priest of Diana, was a man of low condition, a gladiator
the avenger of crime and the punisher of arrogance, and as such or a fugitive slave, who won his position by slaying his pre-
is akin to Ate and the Erinyes. She was sometimes called decessor in fight, having first plucked a mistletoe bough from
"
one from whom there is no the sacred grove, and who, notwithstanding, bore the title of
Adrasteia, probably meaning
rex (king). It is curious that in none of the inscriptions that have
escape "; the epithet is specially applied to the Phrygian
been found is the priest of Diana mentioned; and it has indeed
Cybele, with whom, as with Aphrodite and Artemis, her cult
shows certain affinities. She was specially honoured in the been believed by Morpurgo and Frazer that the rex was not the
district of Rhamnus in Attica, where she was perhaps originally priest of Diana at all, but, according to the former, the priest
of Virbius, or, according to the latter, the incarnation of the
an ancient Artemis, partly confused with Aphrodite. A festival
called Nemeseia (by some identified with the Genesia) was held spirit of the forest. The temple itself was one of the most splendid
at Athens. Its object was to avert the nemesis of the dead,
in Latium; Octavian borrowed money from it in 31 B.C., and
who were supposed to have the power of punishing the living, it is frequently mentioned by ancient writers. Its remains are
their cult had been in
situated a little above the level of the lake, and to the N.E. of
if any way neglected (Sophocles, Electro,
792; E. Rohde, Psyche, 1007, i. 236, note i). At Smyrna it. They consist cf a large platform, the back of which is formed
there were two divinities of the name, more akin to Aphrodite by a wall of concrete faced with opus reliculatum, with niches,
than to Artemis. The reason for this duality is hard to explain; resting against the cliffs which form the sides of the crater.
it is suggested that they represent two aspects of the goddess, the
Excavations in the i7th and the last quarter of the ipth centuries
kindly and the malignant, or the goddesses of the old and the (now covered in again), and also in 1905, led to the discovery
Rome by victorious of the temple itself, a rectangular edifice, 98 by 52 ft., and of
new city. Nemesis was also worshipped at
various inscriptions, a rich frieze in gilt bronze, many statuettes
generals, and in imperial times was the patroness of gladiators
and venatores (fighters with wild beasts) in the arena and one of (ex-votos) from the favissae of the temple in terra-cotta and
the tutelary deities of the drilling-ground (Nemesis campestris) . bronze, a large number of coins, &c. None of the objects seem
In the 3rd century A.D. there is evidence of the belief in an all- to go back beyond the 4th century B.C. A road descended to
it from the Via Appia from the S.W., passing through the modern
powerful Nemesis-Fortuna. She was worshipped by a society
called Nemesiaci. In early times the representations of Nemesis village of Genzano. The lake is drained by a tunnel of about
resembled Aphrodite, who herself sometimes bears the epithet 2 m. long of Roman date. On the W, side of the lake remains
Nemesis. Later, as the goddess of proportion and the avenger of two ships (really floating palaces moored to the shore) have been
of crime, she has as attributes a measuring rod, a bridle, a sword found, one belonging to the time of Caligula (as is indicated by
and a scourge, and rides in a chariot drawn by griffins. an inscription on a lead pipe), and measuring 210 ft. long by
See C. Walz, De Nemesi Graecorum (Tubingen, 1852) E. Tournier, 66 wide, the other even larger, 233 by 80 ft. The first was
;
" decorated with marbles and mosaics, and with some very fine
Nemesis (1863), and H. Posnansky, Nemesis und Adrasteia," in
Breslauer phtlologische Abhandlungen, v. heft 2 (1890), both ex-
"
bronze beamheads, with heads of wolves and lions having rings
haustive monographs; an essay, Nemesis, or the Divine Envy," for hawsers in their mouths (and one of a Medusa), now in the
by P. E. More, in The New World (N. Y., Dec. 1899) L. R. Farnell,
;
Museo delle Terme at Rome, with remains of the woodwork,
Cults of the Greek States, ii.; and A. Legrand in Daremberg and
Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquMs. For the Roman Nemesis, see &c., &c. Various attempts have been made to raise the first
G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Romer (Munich, 1902). ship, from the middle of the isth century onwards, by which
NEMESIUS (fl. c. A.D. 390), a Christian philosopher, author much harm has been done. The neighbourhood of the lake was
of a treatise irepi <#>6<7os dj'Spcbiroii (On Human naturally in favour with the Romans as a residence. Caesar
Nature), was,
had a villa constructed there, but destroyed again almost at
according to the title of his book, bishop of Emesa (in Syria);
of his life nothing further is known, and even his date is uncertain, once, because it did not satisfy him.
but internal evidence points to a date after the Apollinarian See F. Barnabei, Notizie degli scavi (1895), 361, 461 ; (1896), 188;
V. Malfatti, Notizie degli scavi (1895), 471; (1896), 393; Rivista
controversy and before the strife connected with the names of marittima (1896), 379; (1897), 293; J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough
Eutyches and Nestorius, i.e. about the end of the 4th century. (London, 1900) L. Morpurgo in Monumenti dei Lincei, xiii. (1903),
;
His book is an interesting attempt to compile a system of anthro- 297 sqq. (T. As.)
pology from the standpoint of the Christian philosophy. Moses NEMOURS, LORDS AND DUKES OF. In the izth and i3th
and Paul are put side by side with Aristotle and Menander, centuries the lordship of Nemours, in Gatinais, France, was in
and there is a clear inclination to Platonic doctrines of pre-
possession of the house of Villebeon, a member of which, Gautier,
existence and metempsychosis. In physiological matters he was marshal of France in the middle of the I3th century. The
is in advance of Aristotle and
Galen, though we can hardly lordship was sold to King Philip III. in 1274 and 1276 by Jean
assert as has sometimes be?n thought that he anticipated and Philippe de Nemours, and was then made .a county and
Harvey's discovery of the circulation of the blood. The treatise given to Jean de Grailly, captal de Buch in 1364. In 1404
is conclusive evidence as to the mutual influence of
Christianity Charles VI. of France gave it to Charles III. of Evreux, king of
and Hellenism in the 4th century. John of Damascus and the
Navarre, and erected it into a duchy in the peerage of France
schoolmen, including Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, (duche-pairie). Charles III.'s daughter, Beatrix, brought the
370 NEMOURS, DUG DE
duchy to her husband Jacques de Bourbon, count of La Marche, to the intervention of the constable de Montmorency. He died
and by the marriage of their daughter, Eleanor, to Bernard of at Annecy in July 1595.
Armagnac, count of Pardiac, it passed to the house of Armagnac. His brother HENRY (1572-1632), called originally marquis de
After being confiscated and restored several times, the duchy Saint-Sorlin, succeeded him as duke. In 1588 he took the
reverted to the French crown in 1505, after the extinction of the marquisate of Saluzzo from the French for his cousin, the duke
house of Armagnac-Pardiac. In 1 507 it was given by Louis XII. of Savoy. The princes of Guise, his half-brothers, induced
to his nephew, Gaston de Foix, who was killed at Ravenna in him to join the League, and in 1591 he was made governor of
1512. The duchy then returned to the royal domain, and was Dauphine in the name of that faction. He made his submission
detached from it successively for Giuliano de Medici and his to Henry IV. in 1596. After quarrelling with the duke of Savoy
wife Philibcrta of Savoy in 1515, for Louise of Savoy in 1524, and he withdrew to Burgundy and joined the Spaniards in their
for Philip of Savoy, count of Genevois, in 1528. The descend- war against Savoy. After peace had been proclaimed on the
ants of the last-mentioned duke possessed the duchy until its i4th of November 1616, he retired to the French court. He died
sale to Louis XIV.In 1572 Louis gave it to his brother Philip, in 1632, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Louis, and on the
duke of Orleans, whose descendants possessed it until the death of the latter in 1641 by his second son, CHARLES AMADEUS
Revolution. The title of due de Nemours was afterwards given (1624-1652), who served in the army of Flanders in 1645, an d
to Louis Charles, son of King Louis Philippe, who is dealt with in the following year commanded the light cavalry at the siege
separately below. of Courtrai. In 1652 he took part in the war of the Fronde, and
The following are the most noteworthy of the earlier dukes fought at Bleneau and at the Faubourg St Antoine, where he
of Nemours. was wounded. On the 3oth of July of the same year he was
JAMES OF ARMAGNAC, duke of Nemours (c. 1433-1477), was killed in a duel by his brother-in-law, Francois de Vendome,
the son of Bernard d' Armagnac, count of Pardiac, and Eleanor of duke of Beaufort. He had two daughters, Marie Jeanne Baptiste
Bourbon-La Marche. As comte de Castres, he served under (d. 1724), who married Charles Emmanuel of Savoy in 1665;
Charles VII. in Normandy in 1449 and 1450 and afterwards in
; and Marie Francoise Elisabeth, who married Alphonso VI.,
Guienne. On the accession of Louis XI. the king loaded him king of Portugal, in 1666. His brother Henry (1625-1659),
with honours, married him to his god-daughter, Louise of Anjou, who had been archbishop of Reims, but now withdrew from
and recognized his title to the duchy of Nemours in 1462. Sent orders, succeeded to the title. In 1657 he married MARIE
by Louis to pacify Roussillon, Nemours f :it that he had been D'ORLEANS-LONGUEVILLE (1625-1707), daughter of Henry II.
rewarded for the rapid success of this expedition,
insufficiently of Orleans, duke of Longueville. This duchess of Nemours is
and joined the League of the Public Weal in 1465. He subse- a famous personage. At an early age she was involved in
quently became reconciled with Louis, but soon resumed his the first Fronde, which was directed by her father and her
intrigues. After twice pardoning him, the king's patience stepmother. Anne Genevieve de Bourbon-Conde, the cele-
became exhausted, and he besieged the duke's chateau at Carlat brated duchesse de Longueville; and when her husband died
and took him prisoner. Nemours was treated with the utmost in 1659, leaving her childless, the rest of her life was mainly
rigour, being shut up in a cage and was finally condemned to
; spent in contesting her inheritance with her stepmother. She
death by the parlement and beheaded on the 4th of August 1477. left some interesting Memoir es, which are published by C. B.
See B. de Mandrot, Jacques d' Armagnac, due de Nemours (Paris, Petitot in the Collection complete des memoires (1819-1829).
1890). NEMOURS, LOUIS CHARLES PHILIPPE RAPHAEL, Due DE
PHILIP or SAVOY, duke of Nemours (1490-1533), was a son (1814-1896), second son of the duke of Orleans, afterwards
of Philip, duke of Savoy, and brother of Louise of Savoy, mother King Louis Philippe, was born on the 25th of October 1814.
of Francis I. of France. Originally destined for the priesthood, At twelve years of age he was nominated colonel of the first
he was given the bishopric of Geneva at the age of five, but regiment of chasseurs, and in 1830 he became a chevalier of the
resigned it in 1510, when he was made count of Genevois. He order of the Saint Esprit and entered the chamber of peers.
served under Louis XII., with whom he was present at the battle As early as 1825 his name was mentioned as a possible candidate
of Agnadello (1509), under the emperor Charles V. in 1520, and for the throne of Greece, and in 1831 he was elected king of
finally under his nephew, Francis I. In 1528 Francis gave him the Belgians, but international considerations deterred Louis
the duchy of Nemours and married him to Charlotte of Orl6ans- Philippe from accepting the honour for his son. In February 1 83 1
Longueville. He died on the 2Sth of November 1533. he accompanied the French army which entered Belgium to
His son, JAMES (1531-1585), became duke of Nemours in support the new kingdom against Holland, and took part in
1533. He distinguished himself at the sieges of Lens and Metz the siege of Antwerp. He accompanied the Algerian expedition
(1552-1553), at the battle of Renty (1554) and in the campaign against the town of Constantine in the autumn of 1836, and in a
of Piedmont (1555). He was a supporter of the Guises, and had second expedition (1837) he was entrusted with the command
to retire for some time into Savoy in consequence of a plot. of a brigade and with the direction of the siege operations before
On his return to France he fought the Huguenots, and signalized Constantine. General Damre'mont was killed by his side on the
himself by his successes in Dauphine and Lyonnais. In 1 567 he 1 2th of October, and the place was taken by assault on the i3th.
induced the court to return from Meaux to Paris, took part in He sailed a third time for Algeria in 1841, and served under
the battle of St. Denis, protested against the peace of Long- General Bugeaud, taking part in the expedition to revictual
jumeau, and repulsed the invasion of Wolfgang, count palatine Medea on the 29th of April, and in sharp fighting near Miliana
of Zweibriicken. He devoted his last years to letters and art, on the 3rd to 5th of May. In the expedition against the fortified
and died at Annecy on the 15th of June 1585. town of Takdempt he commanded the ist infantry division.
By his wife Anne of Este, the widow of Francis, duke of On his return to France he became commandant of the camp
Guise, the duke left a son, CHARLES EMMANUEL (1567-1595), of Compiegne. He had been employed on missions of courtesy
who in his youth was called prince of Genevois. Involved to England in 1835, in 1838 and in 1845, and to Berlin and
in political intrigues by his relationship with the Guises, he was Vienna in 1836. The occasion of his marriage in 1840 with
imprisoned after the assassination of Henry, duke of Guise, Victoria, daughter of Duke Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, was
and his brother the cardinal
of Lorraine, in 1 588, but contrived to marked by a check to Louis Philippe's government in the form
escape. He fought at Ivry and Arques, and was governor of of a refusal to bestow the marriage dowry proposed by Thiers in
Paris when it was besieged by Henry IV. After quarreling the chamber of deputies. The death of his elder brother,
with his half-brother Charles of Lorraine, duke of Mayenne, he Ferdinand, duke of Orleans, in 1842 gave him a position of greater
withdrew to his government of Lyonnais, where he endeavoured importance as the natural regent in the case of the accession of
to make himself independent. He was imprisoned, however, his nephew, the young count of Paris. His reserve and dislike
in the chateau of Pierre-Encise by the archbishop of Lyons. of public functions, with a certain haughtiness of manner, how-
After his escape he attacked Lyons, but was defeated owing ever, made him unpopular. On the outbreak of the revolution of
NEMOURS NENNI US
1848 he held the Tuileries long enough to cover the king's retreat, policy of the Dahis, instead of preventing, did actually and
but refrained from initiating active measures against the mob. immediately provoke a general insurrection of the Servians
He followed his sister-in-law, the duchess of Orleans, and her two against the Turks. Prota Mateya became the deputy-commander
sons to the chamber of deputies, but was separated from them of the insurgents of the Valyevo district (1804), but did not
by the rioters, and only escaped finally by disguising himself hold the post for long, as Karageorge sent him in 1805 on a secret
in the uniform of a national guard. He embarked for England, mission to St Petersburg, and afterwards employed him almost
where he settled with his parents at Claremont. His chief aim constantly as Servia's diplomatic envoy to Russia, Austria,
during his exile, especially after his father's death, was a re- Bucharest and Constantinople. After the fall of Karageorge
conciliation between the two branches of the house of Bourbon, (1813), the new leader of the Servians, Milosh Obrenovich, sent
as indispensable to the re-establishment of the French monarchy Prota Mateya as representative of Servia to the Congress of
in any form. These wishes were frustrated on the one hand Vienna (1814-1815), where he pleaded the Servian cause inde-
by the attitude of the comte de Chambord, and on the other fatigably. During that mission he often saw Lord Castlereagh,
by the determination of the duchess of Orleans to maintain the and for the first time the Servian national interests were brought
pretensions of the count of Paris. Nemours was prepared to to the knowledge of British statesmen.
Prota Mateya's memoirs are the most valuable authority for the
go further than the other princes of his family in accepting the
history of the first and second Servian insurrections against the
principles of the legitimists, but lengthy negotiations ended Turks. The best edition of the Memoari Profe Mateye Nenadovicha
in 1857 with a letter, written by Nemours, as he subsequently was published by the Servian Literary Association in Belgrade in
explained, at the dictation of his brother, Francois, prince de 1893-
Joinville, in which he insisted that Chambord should express NENAGH, a market town of Co. Tipperary, Ireland, finely
his adherence to the tricolour flag and to the principles of con- situated in a rich though hilly country near the river Nenagh,
stitutional government. In 1871 the Orleans princes renewed 965 m. S.W. from Dublin by the Ballybrophy and Limerick
their professions of allegiance to the senior branch of their house, branch of the Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. (1901)
but they were not consulted when the count of Chambord came 4704. Of the old castle, called Nenagh Round, dating from the
to Paris in 1873, and their political differences remained until time of King John, there still exists the circular donjon or keep.
his death in 1883. There are no remains of the hospital founded in 1 200 for Austin
Nemours had lived at Bushey House after the death of Queen canons, nor of the Franciscan friary, founded in the reign of
Marie Amelie in 1866. In 1871 the exile imposed on the French Henry III. and one of the richest religious houses in Ireland. The
princes was withdrawn, but he only transferred his establishment town is governed by an urban district council. It was one of the
to Paris after their disabilities were also removed. In March ancient manors of the Butlers, who received for it the grant of a
1872 he was restored to his rank in the army as general of division, fair from Henry VIII. In 1550 the town and friary were burned
and placed in the first section of the general staff. After his by O'Carroll. In 1641 the town was taken by Owen Roe O'Neill,
retirement from the active list he continued to act as president but shortly afterwards it was recaptured by Lord Inchiquin.
of the Red Cross Society until 1881, when new decrees against It surrendered to Ireton in 1651, and was burned by Sarsfield in
the princes of the blood led to his withdrawal from Parisian 1688.
society. During the presidency of Marshal MacMahon, he had NENNIUS (fl. 796), a Welsh writer to whom we owe the
appeared from time to time at the Elysee. He died at Versailles Historia Britonum, lived and wrote in Brecknock or Radnor.
on the 26th of June 1896, the duchess having died at Claremont His work is known to us through thirty manuscripts; but the
on the loth of November 1857. Their children were Louis earliest of these cannot be dated much earlier than the year 1000;
Philippe Marie Ferdinand Gaston, comte d'Eu (b. 1842), who and all are defaced by interpolations which give to the work so
married Isabella, eldest daughter of Don Pedro II. of Brazil; confused a character that critics were long disposed to treat it
Ferdinand Philippe Marie, due d'Alencon (b. 1844), who married as an unskilful forgery. A new turn was given to the controversy
Sophie of Bavaria (1847-1897), sister of the empress Elizabeth by Heinrich Zimmer, who, in his Nennius vindicates (1893),
of Austria; Margaret (1846-1893), who married Prince Ladislas traced the history of the work and, by a comparison of the
Czartoryski; and Blanche (b. 1857). manuscripts with the nth-century translation of the Irish
See R. Bazin, Le Due de Nemours (1907); Paul Thureau-Dangin, scholar, Gilla Coemgim (d. 1072), succeeded in stripping off the
Histoire de la monarchic de juittet (4 vols., 1884, &c.). later accretions from the original nucleus of the Hisloria. Zimmer
NEMOURS, a town of northern France, in the department of follows previous critics in rejecting the Prologus maior ( i, 2),
Seine-et-Marne, on the Loing and its canal, 26 m. S. of Melun, the Capitula, or table of contents, and part of the Mirabilia
on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 4814. The church, which form the concluding section. But he proves that Nennius
which dates mainly from the i6th century, has a handsome should be regarded as the compiler of the Historia proper ( 7-65).
wooden spire, and there is a feudal castle. A statue of the Zimmer's conclusions are of more interest to literary critics than
mathematician Bezout (d. 1783), a native of the town, was erected to historians. The only part of the Historia which deserves to
in 1885. In the vicinity is a group of fine sandstone rocks, and be treated as a historical document is the section known as the
sand is extensively quarried. Nemours is supposed to derive its Genealogiae Saxonum ( 57-65). This is merely a recension of
name from the woods (nemora) in the midst of which it formerly a work which was composed about 679 by a Briton of Strathclyde.
stood, and discoveries of Gallo-Roman remains indicate its early The author's name is unknown; but he is, after Gildas, our
origin. It was captured by the English in 1420, but derives its earliest authority for the facts of the English conquest of England.
historical importance rather from the lordship (afterwards Nennius himself gives us the oldest legends relating to the
duchy) to which it gave its name. In 1585 a treaty revoking victories of King Arthur; the value of the Historia from this
previous concessions to the Protestants was concluded at Nemours point of view is admitted by the severest critics. The chief
between Catherine de Medici and the Guises. authorities whom Nennius followed were Gildas' De excidio
NENADOVICH, MATEYA (1777-1854), Servian patriot, was Britonum, Eusebius, the Vita Patricii of Murichu Maccu Mach-
born in 1777. He is generally called Prota Mateya, since as a theni, the Collectanea of Tirechan, the Liber occupationis (an
boy of sixteen he was made a priest, and a few years later became Irish work on the settlement of Ireland), the Liber de sex
archpriest (Prota) of' Valyevo. His father, Alexa Nenadovich, aetatibus mundi, the chronicle of Prosper of Aquitaine, the
Knez (chief magistrate) of the district of Valyevo, was one of the Liber beali Germani. The sources from which he derived his
most popular and respected public men among the Servians at notices of King Arthur ( 56) have not been determined.
the beginning of the igth century. When the four leaders of See J. Stevenson's edition of the Historia Britonum (English Hist.
the Janissaries of the Belgrade Pashalic (the so-called Dahis) Soc., 1838), based on a careful study of the MSS. A. de la Borderie,
;
L'Historia Britonum (Paris and London, 1883), which summarizes
thought that the only way to prevent a general rising of the the older negative criticism; H. Zimmer, Nennius vindicatus
Servians was to intimidate them by murdering all their principal
(Berlin, 1893); T. Mommsen in Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft fur
men, Alexa Nenadovich was one of the first victims. The tiltere deutsche Geschichtskunde, xix. 283. (H. W. C. D.)
372 NEO-CAESAREA, SYNOD OF NEOPLATONISM
NEO-CAESAREA, SYNOD OF, a synod held shortly after that isfound, except gold, which seems to have been sometimes used
of Ancyra, probably about 314 or 315 (although Hefele inclines for ornaments. Agriculture, pottery, weaving, the domestica-
to put it somewhat later). Its principal work was the adoption tion of animals, the burying of the dead in dolmens, and the
of fifteen disciplinary canons, which were subsequently accepted rearing of megalithic monuments are the typical developments
as ecumenical by the Council of Chalcedon, 451, and of which the of man during this stage. ,
most important are the following: i. degrading priests who See ARCHAEOLOGY ; also Lord Avebury, Prehistoric Times (1900) ;
Sir John Evans, Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain (1897);
marry after ordination; vii. forbidding a priest to be present
Sir J. Prestwich, Geology (1886-1888).
at the second marriage of any one; viii. refusing ordination
to the husband of an adulteress; xi. fixing thirty years as the NEOPHYTE veoQvros from vkas, new, <j>vr6v, a plant,
(Gr. ,
" a word used in the Eleusinian and other
age below which one might not be ordained (because Christ newly planted "),
began His public ministry at the age of thirty) xiii. according
; mysteries to designate the newly initiated, and in the early
to city priests the precedence over country priests; xiv. per- church applied to newly baptized persons. These usually
mitting Chorepiscopi to celebrate the sacraments; xv. requiring wore the white garments which they received at their admission
that there be seven deacons in every city. to the church (see BAPTISM) for eight days, from Easter eve till
See Mansi ii. pp. 539-551; Hardouin i. pp. 282-286; Hefele the Sunday after Easter (hence called Dominica in albis), but
(2nd ed.) i. pp. 242-251 (Eng. trans, i. pp. 222-230). (T. F. C.) they were subject to strict supervision for some time longer
NEOCOMIAN, in geology, the name given to the lowest stage and, on the authority of i Tim. iii. 6, were generally held
of the Cretaceous system. It was introduced by J. Thurmann ineligible for election as bishops, a rule to which, however, history
in 1835 on account of the development of these rocks at Neuchatcl shows some notable exceptions, as in the cases of St Ambrose
(Neocomum), Switzerland. It has been employed in more than at Milan in 374 and Synesius of Cyrene at Ptolemais in 409,
one sense. In the type area the rocks have been divided into who were chosen bishops before they were even baptized. By
two sub-stages, a lower, Valanginian (from Valengin, E. Desor, the council of Nicaea (325) this rule was extended to the priest-
1854) and an upper, Hauterivian (from Hauterive, E. Renevier, hood. The ancient discipline is still maintained in the Roman
1874) there is also another local sub-stage, the infra- Valanginian
; Church, and applies to converts from Christian sects as well
or Berriasian (from Berrias, H. Coquand, 1876). These three as to those from heathenism. The period, however, is deter-
" "
sub-stages constitute the Neocomian in its restricted sense. mined by circumstances. The term neophyte is also some-
A. von Koenen and other German geologists extend the use times applied in the Roman Church to newly ordained priests,
of the term to include the whole of the Lower Cretaceous up to and even though rarely to novices of a religious order. In
the top of the Gault or Albian. Renevier divided the Lower a transferred sense the word is also given to one beginning to
Cretaceous into the Neocomian division, embracing the three learn any new subject.
sub-stages mentioned above, and an Urgonian division, including See Bergier, Diet, de theologie, s.v. Martigny, Diet, des antiquMs,
;
the Barremian, Rhodaniau and Aptian sub-stages. Sir A. PP- 433~435; Siegel, Christliche Alterthiimer, iii. 17 seq.; Riddle,
" Christ. Antiquities, pp. 313, 522 \Vnlcott, Sacred Archaeology, s.v.
Geikie (Text Book of Geology, 4th ed., 1903) regards Neocomian" ;
as synonymous with Lower Cretaceous, and he, like Renevier, NEOPLATONISM, the name given specially to the last school
closes this portion of the system at the top of the Lower Green- of pagan -philosophy, which grew up mainly among the Greeks
sand (Aptian). Other British geologists (A. J. Jukes-Browne, of Alexandria from the 3rd century onwards. The term has
&c.) restrict the Neocomian to the marine beds of Speeton and also been applied to the Italian humanists of the Renaissance,
Tealby, and their estuarine equivalents, the Weald Clay and and in modern times, somewhat vaguely, to thinkers who have
Hastings Sands (Wealden). Much confusion would be avoided based their speculations on the Platonic metaphysics or on
by dropping the term Neocomian entirely and employing Plotinus, and incorporated with it a tendency towards a mystical
instead, for the type area, the sub-divisions given above. This explanation of ultimate phenomena.
becomes the more obvious when it is pointed out that the Historical Position and Significance. The political history
Berriasian typeis limited to Dauphine; the Valanginian has of the ancient world ends with the formation, under Diocletian
not a much wider range; and the Hauterivian does not extend and Constantine, of a universal state bearing the cast of Oriental
north of the Paris basin. as well as Graeco-Roman civilization. The history of ancient
Characteristic fossils of the Berriasian are Hoplites euthymi, H. philosophy ends in like manner with a universal philosophy
occitanicus; of the Valanginian, Natica leviathan, Belemnites pistil- which assimilated elements of almost all the earlier systems,
liformis and B. dilatatus, Oxynoticeras Cevrili; of the Hauterivian, and worked up the results of Eastern and Western culture.
Hoplites radiatus, Crioceras capricornu, Exogyra Couloni and Toxaster
complanaius. The marine equivalents of these rocks in England are Just as the Later Roman empire was at once the supreme effort
the lower Speeton Clays of Yorkshire and the Tealby beds of Lincoln- of the old world and the outcome of its exhaustion, so Neo-
shire. The Wealden beds of southern England represent approxi-
platonism is in one aspect the consummation, in another the
mately an estuarine phase of deposit of the same age. The Hils Never before in Greek or
collapse, of ancient philosophy.
clay of Germany and Wealden of Hanover; the limestones and
shales of Teschen; the Aptychus and Pygope diphyoides marls of in Roman speculation had the consciousness of man's dignity
Spain, and the Petchorian formation of Russia are equivalents of and superiority to nature found such adequate expression;
the Neocomian in its narrower sense. never before had real science and pure knowledge been so under-
See CRETACEOUS,WEALDEN, SPEETON BEDS. (J. A. H.) valued and despised by the leaders of culture as they were by
NEOCORATE, a rank or dignity granted by the Senate under the Neoplatonists. Judged from the standpoint of empirical
the Roman Empire to certain cities of Asia, which had built science, philosophy passed its meridian in Plato and Aristotle,
temples for the worship of the emperors or had established declined in the post- Aristotelian systems, and set in the darkness
cults of members of the imperial family. The Greek word of Neoplatonism. But, from the religious and moral point of
" "
vo/c6pos meant literally a temple-sweeper (vos, temple, Koptiv, view, must be admitted that the ethical mood which
it
to sweep), and was thence used both of a temple attendant Neoplatonism endeavoured to create and maintain is the highest
and of a priestly holder of high rank who was in charge of a and purest ever reached by antiquity.
temple. It is a proof of the strength of the moral instincts of mankind
NEOLITHIC, or LATER STONE AGE (Gr. vkas, new, and Xi0os, that the only phase of culture which we can survey in all its
stone), a term employed first byLordAvebury and since generally stages from beginning to end culminated not in materialism,
accepted, for the period of highly finished and polished stone but in the boldest idealism. This idealism, however, is also
implements, in contrast with the rude workmanship of those in its way a mark of intellectual bankruptcy. Contempt for
of the earlier StoneAge (Palaeolithic). Knowledge of Neolithic reason and science leads in the end to barbarism its necessary
times derived principally from four sources, Tumuli or ancient
is consequence being the rudest superstition. As a matter of fact,
burial-mounds, the Lake-dwellings of Switzerland, the Kitchen- barbarism did break out after the flower had fallen from Neo-
middens of Denmark and the Bone-Caves. No trace of metal platonism. The philosophers themselves, no doubt, still lived
NEOPLATONISM 373
on the knowledge they repudiated; but the masses were trained in the authority of a sound tradition. Such authority must be
to a superstition with which the Christian church, as the executor superhuman, otherwise it can have no claim on our respect; it
of Neoplatonism, had to reckon and contend. By a fortunate must, therefore, be divine. The highest sphere of knowledge
coincidence, at the very moment when this bankruptcy of the the supra-rational as well as the very possibility of knowledge,
old culture must have become apparent, the stage of history must depend on divine communications that is, on revelations.
was occupied by barbaric peoples. This has obscured the fact In short, philosophy as represented by Neoplatonism, its sole
that the inner history of antiquity, ending as it did in despair interest being a religious interest, and its highest object the supra-
of this world, must in any event have seen a recurrence of rational, must be a philosophy of revelation.
barbarism. The present world was a thing that men would This is not a prominent feature in Plotinus or his immediate
neither enjoy nor master nor study. A new world was discovered, disciples,who still exhibit full confidence in the subjective pre-
for the sake of which everything else was abandoned; to suppositions of their philosophy. But the later adherents of the
make sure of that world insight and intelligence were freely school did not possess this confidence 1 they based their philo-
;
sacrificed; and, in the light that streamed from beyond, the sophy on revelations of the Deity, and they found these in the
absurdities of the present became wisdom, and its wisdom religious traditions and rites of all nations. The Stoics had
became foolishness. taught them to overstep the political boundaries of states and
Such is Neoplatonism. The pre-Socratic philosophy took nationalities, and rise from the Hellenic to a universal human
its stand on natural science, to the exclusion of ethics and consciousness. Through all history the spirit of God has breathed ;
religion. The systems of Plato and Aristotle sought to adjust everywhere we discover the traces of His revelation. The older
the rival claims of physics and ethics (although the supremacy any religious tradition or mode of worship is, the more venerable is
of the latter was already acknowledged); but the popular it, the richer in divine ideas. Hence the ancient religions of the
religions were thrown overboard. The post - Aristotelian East had a peculiar interest for the Neoplatonist. In the inter-
philosophy in all its branches makes withdrawal from the pretation of myths Neoplatonism followed the allegorical method,
objective world its starting-point. It might seem, indeed, that as practised especially by the Stoa; but the importance it
Stoicism indicates a falling off from Plato and Aristotle towards attached to the spiritualized myths was unknown to the Stoic
materialism, but the ethical dualism, which was the ruling philosophers. The latter interpreted the myths and were done
tendency of the Stoa, could not long endure its materialistic with them; the later Neoplatonists treated them as the proper
physics, and took refuge in the metaphysical dualism of the material and the secure foundation of philosophy. Neoplatonism
Platonists. But this originated no permanent philosophical claimed to be not merely the absolute philosophy, the keystone
creation. Fromone-sided Platonism issued the various forms of all previous systems, but also the absolute religion, reinvigorat-
of scepticism, the attempt to undermine the trustworthiness ing and transforming all previous religions. It contemplated a
of empirical knowledge. Neoplatonism, coming last, borrowed restoration of all the religions of antiquity, by allowing each to
something from all the schools. First, it stands in the line retain its traditional forms, and at the same time making each a
of post-Aristotelian systems; it is, in fact, as a subjective philo- vehicle for the religious attitude and the religious truth embraced
sophy, their logical completion. Secondly, it is founded on in Neoplatonism; while every form of ritual was to become a
scepticism; for it has neither interest in, nor reliance upon, stepping-stone to a high morality worthy of mankind. In short,
empirical knowledge. Thirdly, it can justly claim the honour Neoplatonism seizes on the aspiration of the human soul after a
of Plato's name, since it expressly goes back to him for its higher life, and treats this psychological fact as the key to the
metaphysics, directly combating those of the Stoa. Yet even interpretation of the universe. Hence the existing religions,
on this point it learned something from the Stoics; the Neo- after being refined and spiritualized, were made the basis of
platonic conception of the action of the Deity on the world and philosophy, i
of the essence and origin of matter can only be explained by Neoplatonism thus represents a stage in the history of religion;
reference to the dynamic pantheism of the Stoa. Fourthly, indeed this is precisely where its historical importance lies.
the study of Aristotle also exercised an influence on Neoplatonism. In the progress of science and enlightenment it has no positive
This appears not only in its philosophical method, but also significance, except as a necessary transition which the race had
though less prominently in its metaphysic. And, fifthly, Neo- to make in order to get rid of nature-religion, and that under-
platonism adopted the ethics of Stoicism; although it was valuing of the spiritual life which formed an insuperable obstacle
found necessary to supplement them by a still higher conception to the advance of human knowledge. Neoplatonism, however,
of the functions of the spirit. failed as signally in its religious enterprise as it did in its phil-
Thus, with the exception of Epicureanism which was always osophical. While seeking to perfect ancient philosophy, it really
treated by Neoplatonism as its mortal enemy there is no out- extinguished it; and in like manner its attempted reconstruction
standing earlier system which did not contribute something to t>f ancient religions only resulted in their destruction. For in
the new philosophy. And yet Neoplatonism cannot be described requiring these religions to impart certain prescribed religious
as an eclectic system, in the ordinary sense of the word. For, in truths, and to inculcate the highest moral tone, it burdened them
the first place, it is dominated by one all-pervading interest the with problems to which they were unequal. And further, by
religious; and in the second place, it introduced a new first inviting them to loosen, though not exactly to dissolve, their
principle into philosophy, viz. the supra-rational, that which political allegiance the very thing that gave them stability
lies beyond reason and beyond reality. This principle is not to it removed the foundation on which they rested. But might it
form " of
" " "
be identified with the idea of Plato or with the not then have placed them on a broader and firmer foundation?
Aristotle. Neoplatonism perceived that neither sense perception Was not the universal empire of Rome ready at hand, and might
nor rational cognition is a sufficient basis or justification for not the new religion have stood to it in the same relation of
religious ethics; consequently it broke away from rationalistic dependence which the earlier religions had held to the smaller
ethics as decidedly as from utilitarian morality. It had therefore nations and states? This was no longer possible. It is true that
to find out a new world and a new spiritual function, in order the political and spiritual histories of the peoples on the Mediter-
first to establish the existence of what it desiderated, and then ranean run in parallel lines, the one leading up to the universal
to realize and describe what it had proved to exist. Man, how- monarchy of Rome, the other leading up to monotheism and
ever, cannot transcend his psychological endowment. If he will universal human morality. But the spiritual development had
not allow his thought to be determined by experience, he falls shot far ahead of the political; even the Stoa occupied a height
a victim to his imagination. In other words, thought, which will far beyond the reach of anything in the political sphere. It is
not stop, takes to mythology; and in the place of reason we also true that Neoplatonism sought to come to an understanding
have superstition. Still, as we cannot allow every fancy of the 1
Porphyry wrote a book, tttpl rfjs in Xo-ylwi' 4>iXo<ro<#>ias, but this
subjective reason to assert itself, we require some new and potent was before he became a pupil of Plotinus; as a philosopher he was
principle to keep the imagination within bounds. This is found independent of the Xo-yia.
374 NEOPLATONISM
with the Byzantine Roman empire; Julian perished in the principles are uncertain, and unbounded deference is still paid
pursuit of this project. But even before his day the shrewder to the authority of Plato. The Jewish and Christian thinkers
Neoplatonists had seen that their lofty religious philosophy could of the first two centuries approach considerably nearer than
not stoop to an alliance with the despotic world-empire, because Numenius to the later Neoplatonism. 1 Here we have Philo,
it could not come in contact with the world at all. To Neo- to begin with. Philo, who translated the Old Testament religion
platonism political affairs are at bottom as indifferent as all other into the terms of Hellenic thought, holds as an inference from
"
earthly things. The idealism of the new philosophy was too his theory of revelation that the divine Supreme Being is supra-
"
heavenly to be naturalized in the Byzantine empire, which stood rational," that He can be reached only through ecstasy ",
more in need of police officials than of philosophers. Important and that the oracles of God supply the material of moral and
and instructive, therefore, as are the attempts made from time religious knowledge. The religious ethics of Philo a compound
to time by the state and by individual philosophers to unite of Stoic, Platonic and Neopythagorean elements already
Neoplatonism and the universal monarchy, their failure was a bear the peculiar stamp which we recognize in Neoplatonism.
foregone conclusion. While his system assigns the supremacy to Greek philosophy
There is one other question which we are called upon to raise over the national religion of Israel, it exacts from the former,
here. Why did not Neoplatonism set up an independent religious as a sort of tribute to the latter, the recognition of the elevation
community? Why did it not provide for its mixed multitude of of God above the province of reason. The claim of positive
divinities by founding a universal church, in which all the gods of religion to be something more than the intellectual apprehension
all nations might be worshipped along with the one ineffable of the reason in the universe is thus acknowledged. Religious
Deity? The answer to this question involves the answer to syncretism is also a feature of Philo's system, but it differs
another Why was Neoplatonism defeated by Christianity? essentiallyfrom what we find in later Neoplatonism. For
Three essentials of a permanent religious foundation were want- Philo pays no respect to any cultus except the Jewish; and he
ing in Neoplatonism; they are admirably indicated in Augustine's believed that all the fragments of truth to be found amongst
Confessions (vii. 18-21). First, and chiefly, it lacked a religious Greeks and Romans had been borrowed from the books of Moses.
founder; second, it could not tell how the state of inward peace The earliest Christian philosophers, particularly Justin and
and blessedness could become permanent; third, it had no Athenagoras, likewise prepared the way for the speculations
means to win those who were not endowed with the speculative of the Neoplatonists partly by their attempts to connect
faculty. The philosophical discipline which it recommended Christianity with Stoicism and Platonism, partly by their
"
for the attainment of the highest good was beyond the reach of ambition to exhibit Christianity as hyperplatonic." In the
the masses; and the way by which the masses could at tain .the introduction to his Dialogue with Trypho, Justin follows a
highest good was a secret unknown to Neoplatonism. Thus it method which bears a striking resemblance to the later method
"
remained a school for the wise and prudent "; and when Julian of Neoplatonism: he seeks to base the Christian knowledge
tried to enlist the sympathies of the common rude man for the of God that is, the knowledge of the truth on Platonism,
"
doctrines and worship of this school, he was met with scorn and Scepticism and Revelation." A still more remarkable parallel
ridicule. to the later Neoplatonism is afforded by the Christian Gnostics
It is not as a philosophy, then, nor as a new religion, that of Alexandria, especially Valentinus and the followers of Basilides. 2
Neoplatonism became a decisive factor in history, but, if one Like the Neoplatonists, the Basilidians believed, not in an
"
may use the expression, as a mood." The instinctive certainty emanation from the Godhead, but in a dynamic manifestation
that there is a supreme good, lying beyond empirical experience, The same is true of Valentinus, who also placed
of its activity.
and yet not an intellectual good this feeling, and the accom- an unnameable being at the apex of his system, and regarded
panying conviction of the utter vanity of all earthly things, matter, not as a second principle, but as a product of the one
were produced and sustained by Neoplatonism. Only it could divine principle. It must be added that the dependence of
not describe the nature of this highest good; and there- Basilides and Valentinus on Zeno and Plato is beyond dispute.
fore it had to abandon itself to imagination and aesthetic im- But the method observed by these Gnostics in thinking out the
pressions. It changed thought into an emotional dream; plan and the history of the universe is by no means thoroughgoing.
it plunged into the ocean of sentiment ;
it treated the old world Ancient myths are admitted without undergoing analysis; the
of fable as the reflection of a higher reality, and transformed most naive realism alternates with daring efforts at spiritualiz-
reality into poetry; and after all these expedients, to borrow ing. Philosophically considered, therefore, the Gnostic systems
a phrase of Augustine's, it only saw afar off the land of its are very unlike the rigorous self-consistency of Neoplatonism;
desire. although they certainly contain almost all the elements which
Yet the influence of Neoplatonism on the history of our enter into the Neoplatonic theory of the universe.
ethical culture immeasurable, above all because it begot
is But were the oldest Neoplatonists really acquainted with
the consciousness that the only blessedness which can satisfy the speculations of Philo, or Justin, or Valentinus, or Basilides?
the heart must be sought higher even than the sphere of reason. Did they know the Oriental religions, Judaism and Christianity
That man shall not live by bread alone, the world had learned in particular? And, if so, did they really derive anything from
before Neoplatonism; but Neoplatonism enforced the deeper these sources?
truth a truth which the older philosophy had missed that To these questions we cannot give decided, still less definite
man shall not live by knowledge alone. And, besides the pro- and precise, answers. Since Neoplatonism originated in
paedeutic importance which thus belongs to it, another fact Alexandria, where Oriental modes of worship were accessible
has to be taken into account in estimating the influence of to every one, and since the Jewish philosophy had also taken
Neoplatonism. It is to this day the nursery of that whole type its place in the literary circles of Alexandria, we may safely
of devotion which affects renunciation of the world, which assume that even the earliest of the Neoplatonists possessed
strives after an ideal, without the strength to rise above aesthetic
impressions, and is never able to form a clear conception of the 1
The resemblance would probably be still more apparent if we
object of its own aspiration. thoroughly understood the development of Christianity at Alexandria
As forerunners of Neoplatonism we may regard, in the 2nd century; but unfortunately we have only very meagre
Origin.
on the one hand, those Stoics who accepted the Platonic dis- fragments to guide us here.
*The dogmas of the Basilidians, as given by Hippolytus, read
tinction between the sensible world and the intelligible, and, almost like passages from Neoplatonic works lire* oW?c fa oi>x 5Xi), :
on the other hand, the so-called Neopythagoreans and religious O&K obaia, oi>K drofouop, ofrx iirXoOp, ob abvdfTov, O(IK iivirriTov, ofa
OVK &v Btfn dro^ruis, bvaurffriTus, d/SouXws,
philosophers like Plutarch of Chaeronea and especially Numenius dxaitrflijToy, ou/c SirJpwiros. . . .
dirpoaiperajs, Airaflus, dvejtSu^ijTws K&apov rtdi\7ia( roirj<r<u . oiiTui . .
of Apamea. But these cannot be considered the actual pro- ofa Siv Otoj eirajjue nbanov ofa Avra. t OUK Srrwv, i.c.raffa\6^(foi nal
genitors of
Neoplatonism; their philosophic method
quite is
6iro<rTi7<7aj aTripy.a TI Iv IXOP fS-aav iv lavrt? rf/v TOV Kixruav ir
elementary as compared with the Neoplatonic, their fundamental (Philos. vii. 20 seq.). See GNOSTICISM, BASILIDES, &c.
NEOPLATONISM 375
an acquaintance with Judaism and Christianity. But if we The original Being first of all throws out the nous, which is a perfect
search Plotinus for evidence of any actual influence of Jewish image of the One and the archetype of all existing things. It is at
once being and thought, ideal world and idea. As image, the nous
and Christian philosophy, we search in vain; and the existence corresponds perfectly to the One, but as derived it is entirely different.
of any such influence is all the more unlikely because it is only What Plotinus understands by the nous is the highest sphere acces-
the later Neoplatonism that offers striking and deep-rooted sible to the human mind (KIW/IOS vojjris), and, along with that,
The Philonic and Gnostic pure thought itself.
parallels to Philo and the Gnostics. The image and product of the motionless nous is the soul, which,
philosophies thus appear to be merely an historical anticipation according to Plotinus is, like the nous, immaterial. Its relation to
of the Neoplatonic, without any real connexion. Nor is there the nous is the same as that of the nous to the One. It stands
anything mysterious in such an anticipation. It simply means between the nous and the phenomenal world, is permeated and
illuminated by the former, but is also in contact with the latter.
that a certain religious and philosophical tendency, which
The nous is indivisible the soul may preserve its unity and remain
;
grew up slowly on Greek soil, was already implanted in those in the nous, but at the same time it has the power of uniting" with
who occupied the vantage-ground of a revealed religion of redemp- the corporeal world and thus being disintegrated. It therefore
tion. We have to come down to lamblichus and his school occupies an intermediate position. As a single soul (world-soul) it
bsfore we find complete correspondence with the Christian belongs in essence and destination to the intelligible world; but it
also embraces innumerable individual souls; and these can either
Gnosticism of the 2nd century; that is to say, it is only in the submit to be ruled by the nous, or turn aside to the sensual and lose
4th century that Greek philosophy in its proper development themselves in the finite.
reaches the stage at which certain Greek philosophers who Then the soul, a moving essence, generates the corporeal or pheno-
had embraced Christianity had arrived in the 2nd century. menal world. This world ought to be so pervaded by the soul that
its various parts should remain in perfect harmony. Plotinus is no
The influence of Christianity whether Gnostic or Catholic
dualist, like the Christian Gnostics; he admires the beauty and
on Neoplatonism was at no time very considerable, although splendour of the world. So long as idea governs matter, or the soul
individual Neoplatonists, after Amelius, used Christian texts governs the body, the world is fair and good. It is an image
as oracles, and put on record their admiration for Christ. though a shadowy image of the upper world, and the degrees of
better and worse in it are essential to the harmony of the whole.
History and Doctrines. The founder of the Neoplatonic school But in the actual phenomenal world unity and harmony are replaced
in Alexandria is supposed to have been Ammonius Saccas (q.v.).
by strife and discord; the result is a conflict, a becoming and
, ,.
Plotinus.
But the Enneads of his pupil Plotinus are the primary J vanishing, an illusive existence. And the reason for this state of
things is that bodies rest on a substratum of matter. Matter is the
.
and classical document of Neoplatonism. The doctrine
basework of each (r6 fiaBos tKaarov 1) 5Xj); it is the dark principle, the
of Plotinus is mysticism, and like all mysticism it consists of
two main divisions. The first or theoretical part deals with the
indeterminate, that which has no qualities, the ^ &v.
form and idea, it is evil as capable of form it is neutral.
Destitute of
;
high origin of the human soul, and shows how it has departed The human souls which have descended into corporeality are those
from its first estate. In the second or practical part the way which have allowed themselves to be ensnared by sensuality and
is pointed out by which the soul may again return to the Eternal
overpowered by lust. They now seek to cut themselves loose from
their true being; and, striving after independence, they assume a
and Supreme. Since the soul in its longings reaches forth beyond false existence. They must turn back from this; and, since they
all sensible things, beyond the world of ideas even, it follows have not lost their freedom, a conversion is still possible.
that the highest being must be something supra-rational. The Here, then, we enter upon the practical philosophy. Along the
same road by which it descended the soul must retrace its steps back
system thus embraces three heads (i) the primeval Being, to the supreme Good. It must first of all return to itself. This is
(2) the ideal world and the soul, (3) the phenomenal world. accomplished by the practice of virtue, which aims at likeness to
We may also, however, in accordance with the views of God, and leads up to God. In the ethics of Plotinus all the older
schemes of virtue are taken over and arranged in a graduated series.
Plotinus, divide thus: (A) the invisible world (i) the primeval
The lowest stage is that of the civil virtues, then follow the purifying,
Being, (2) the ideal world, (3) the soul; (B) the phenomenal and last of all the divine virtues. The civil virtues merely adorn
world. the life, without elevating the soul. That is the office of the purifying
The primeval Being is, as opposed to the many, the One; virtues, by which the soul is freed from sensuality and led back to
as opposed to the finite, the Infinite, the unlimited. It is the itself, and thence to the nous. By means of ascetic observances the
source of all life, and therefore absolute causality and the only
man becomes once more a spiritual and enduring being, free from all
sin. But there is still a higher attainment; it is not enough to be
real existence. It is, moreover, the Good, in so far as all finite "
sinless, one must become God." This is reached through contem-
things have their purpose in it, and ought to flow back to it. plation of the primeval Being, the One in other words, through an
But one cannot attach moral attributes to the original Being ecstatic approach to it. Thought cannot attain to this, for thought
reaches only to the nous, and is itself a kind of motion. It is only in
itself, because these would imply limitation. It has no attributes
a state of perfect passivity and repose that the soul can recognize
of any kind; it is being without magnitude, without life, without and touch the primeval Being. Hence the soul must first pass
thought; in strict propriety, indeed, we ought not to speak through a spiritual curriculum. Beginning with the contemplation
" " of corporeal things in their multiplicity and harmony, it then retires
of it as existing; it is above existence," above goodness."
It is also active force without a substratum; as active force upon itself and withdraws into the depths of its own being, rising
thence to the nous, the world of ideas. But even there it does not
the primeval Being is perpetually producing something else, "
find the Highest, the One; it still hears a voice saying, not we
without alteration, or motion, or diminution of itself. This have made ourselves." The last stage is reached when, in the highest
production is not a physical process, but an emission of force; tension and concentration, beholding in silence and utter forgetful-
ness of all things, it is able as it were to lose itself. Then it may see
and, since the product has real existence only in virtue of the the source of the of
God, the fountain of life, being, origin all good,
original existence working in it, Neoplatonism may be described the root of the soul. In that moment it enjoys the highest indescrib-
as a species of dynamic pantheism. Directly or indirectly, able bliss; it is as it were swallowed up of divinity, bathed in the
" 1
everything is brought forth by the One." In it all things, light of eternity.
so far as they have being, are divine, and God is all in all. Derived
Such is the religious philosophy of Plotinus, and for himself
existence, however, is not like the original Being itself, but is
subject to- a law of diminishing completeness. It is indeed an personally it sufficed, without the aid of the popular religion
or worship. Nevertheless he sought for points of support in
image and reflection of the first Being; but the further the line
of successive projections is prolonged the smaller is its share these. God is certainly in the truest sense nothing but the
in the true existence. The totality of being may thus be con- primeval Being; but He reveals Himself in a variety of emana-
ceived as a series of concentric circles, fading away towards tions and manifestations. The nous is a sort of second god,
the verge of non-existence, the force of the original Being in the \6-yot which are wrapped up in it are gods, the stars are gods,
the outermost circle being a vanishing quantity. Each lower and so on. A rigid monotheism appeared to Plotinus a miserable
stage of being is united with the
"
One " by all the higher stages, conception. He gave a meaning to the myths of the popular
and receives its share of reality only by transmission through religions, and he had something to say even for magic, sooth-
them. All derived existence, however, has a drift towards, saying and prayer. In support of*image-worship he advanced
a longing for, the higher, and bends towards it so far as its 1
tells us that on four occasions during the six years of
Porphyry
nature will permit. their intercourse Plotinus attained to this ecstatic union with God.
NEOPLATONISM
arguments which were afterwards adopted by the Christian charlatans and hypocrites who were gathered under the same
image-worshippers. Still, as compared with the later Neo- roof. On certain points of doctrine, too, the dogmatic of
platonists, he is comparatively free from crass superstition and lamblichus indicates a real advance. Thus his emphatic asser-
"
wild fanaticism. He is not to be classed amongst the deceived tion of the truth that the seat of evil is in the will is noteworthy;
deceivers," and the restoration of the worship of the old gods and so also is his repudiation of Plotinus's theory of the divinity
was by no means his chief object. of the soul.
Amongst his pupils, Amelius and Porphyry are the most The numerous followers of lamblichus Aedesius, Chrysan-
eminent. Amelius modified the teaching of Plotinus on certain thius, Eusebius, Priscus, Sopater, Sallust, and, most famous of
points; and he also put some value on the prologue all, Maximus (?..), rendered little service to speculation. Some
"orphyiy.
to the Gospe j of j ohn To p orp hyry (q.v.) belongs the of them (Themistius in particular) are known as commentators
credit of having recast and popularized the system of his master on the older philosophers, and others as the missionaries of
Plotinus. He was not an original thinker, but a diligent student, mysticism. The work De mysteriis Acgypliorum is the best
distinguished by great learning, by a turn for historical and sample of the views and aims of these philosophers. Their hopes
philological criticism, and by an earnest purpose to uproot false rose high when
Julian ascended the imperial throne (361-363).
teaching especially Christianity, to ennoble men and train But the emperor himself lived long enough to see that his
them to goodness. The system of Porphyry is more emphatically romantic policy of restoration was to leave no results; and
practical and religious than that of Plotinus. The object of after his early death all hope of extinguishing Christianity was
philosophy, according to Porphyry, is the salvation of the soul. abandoned.
The origin and the blame of evil are not in the body, but in the But undoubtedly the victory of Christianity in the age of
desires of the soul. Hence the strictest asceticism (abstinence Valentinian and Theodosius had a purifying influence on Neo-
from flesh, and wine, and sexual intercourse) is demanded, as platonism. During the struggle for supremacy, the
Influence
well as the knowledge of God. As he advanced in life, Porphyry philosophers had been driven to make common cause
protested more and more earnestly against the rude faith of the with everything that was hostile to Christianity,
ogiijjy*"
common people and their immoral worships. But, outspoken But now Neoplatonism was thrust from the great stage
as he in his criticism of the popular religions, he had no
was of history. The church and church theology, to whose guidance
wish to give them up. He stood up for a pure worship of the the masses now surrendered themselves, took in along with them
many gods, and maintained the cause of every old national their superstition, their polytheism, their magic, their myths,
religion and the ceremonial duties of its adherents. His work and all the machinery of religious witchcraft. The more all
Against the Christians was directed, not against Christ, nor even this settled and established
itself certainly not without opposi-
against what he believed to be Christ's teaching, but against tion church the purer did Neoplatonism become. While
in the
the Christians of his own day and their sacred books, which, maintaining intact its religious attitude and its theory of know-
according to Porphyry, were the work of deceivers and ignorant ledge, it returned with new zest to scientific studies, especially
people. In his trenchant criticism of the origin of what passed the study of the old philosophers. If Plato still remains the
for Christianity in his time, he spoke bitter and severe truths, divine philosopher, yet we can perceive that after the year 400
which have gained for him the reputation of the most rabid and the writings of Aristotle are increasingly read and valued.
wicked of all the enemies of Christianity. His work was In the chief cities of the empire Neoplatonic schools flourished
destroyed, but the copious extracts which we find in Lactantius,
1
till the beginning of the sth century; during this period, indeed,
Augustine, Jerome, Macarius Magnus and others show how they were the training-schools of Christian theologians. At
profoundly he had studied the Christian writings, and how great Alexandria the noble Hypatia (q.v.) taught, to whose memory
was his talent for real historical research. her impassioned disciple Synesius, afterwards a bishop, reared a
Porphyry marks the transition to a new phase of Neoplatonism, splendid monument. But after the beginning of the sth century
in which it becomes completely subservient to polytheism, and the fanaticism of the church could no longer endure the presence
"
seeks before everything else to protect the Greek and of heathenism." The murder of Hypatia was the death of
lambll-
cbus. Oriental religions from the formidable assault of philosophy in Alexandria, although the school there maintained
Christianity. In the hands of lamblichus (q.v.), the a lingering existence till the middle of the 6th century. But there
"
pupil of Porphyry, Neoplatonism is changed from a philo- was one city of the East which, lying apart from the crowded
sophical theory to a theological doctrine." The distinctive tenets highways of the world, had sunk to a mere provincial town, and
of lamblichus cannot be accounted for from scientific but only yet possessed associations which the church of the sth century felt
from practical considerations. In order to justify superstition herself powerless to eradicate. In Athens a Neoplatonic school
and the ancient forms of worship, philosophy becomes in his hands still flourished. There, under the monuments of its glorious
a theurgy, a knowledge of mysteries, a sort of spiritualism. past, Hellenism found its last retreat. The school of Athens
"
To philosophers," with
this period also belongs a set of returned to a stricter philosophical method and the cultivation
regard to whom it is impossible to say whether they are dupes of scholarship. Still holding by a religious philosophy, it under-
or impostors the "decepti deceptores" of whom Augustine took to reduce the whole Greek tradition, as seen in the light of
speaks. In this philosophy the mystical properties of numbers Plotinus, to a comprehensive and closely knit system. Hence
are a leading feature; absurd and mechanical notions are the philosophy which arose at Athens was what may fairly be
glossed over with the sheen of sacramental mystery; myths are termed scholasticism. For every philosophy is scholastic
explained by pious fancies and fine-sounding pietistic reflections; whose subject-matter is imaginative and mystical, and which
miracles, even the most ridiculous, are believed in, and miracles handles this subject-matter according to established rules in
" "
are wrought. The philosopher has become a priest of magic logical categories and distinctions. Now to these Neoplatonists,
and philosophy a method of incantation. Moreover, in the the books of Plato, along with certain divine oracles, the Orphic
unbridled exercise of speculation, the number of divine beings poems, and much more which they assigned to a remote antiquity,
was increased indefinitely; and these fantastic accessions to were documents of canonical authority; they were inspired
Olympus in the system of lamblichus show that Greek philosophy divine writings. Out of these they drew the material of their
is returning to mythology, and that nature-religion is still a
philosophy, which they then proceeded to elaborate with the
power in the world. And yet it is undeniable that the very appliances of dialectic.
noblest and choicest minds of the 4th century are to be found The most distinguished teachers at Athens were Plutarch
in the ranks of the Neoplatonists. So great was the general (q.v.), his disciple Syrianus (who did important work as a com-
decline that this Neoplatonjc philosophy offered a welcome mentator on Plato and Aristotle, and further deserves Pnclus.
shelter to many earnest and influential men, in spite of the mention for his vigorous defence of the freedom of the
1
It was condemned by an edict of the emperors Theodosius II. and will), but above all Proclus (411-485). Proclus is the great
Valentinian in the year 448. schoolman of Neoplatonism. It was he who, combining religious
NEOPLATONISM 377
ardour with formal acuteness, connected the whole mass of mutually independent. It must be confessed that when Chris-
tianity began to project a theology it was already deeply impregnated
traditional lore into a huge system, 'making good defects, and
by Hellenic influences. But the influence is to be traced not so
smoothing away contradictions by means of distinctions "and much to philosophy as to the general culture of the time, and the
" to whole set of conditions under which spiritual life was manifested.
speculations. It was reserved for Proclus," says Zeller,
the When Neoplatonism appeared, the Christian church had already laid
bring the Neoplatonic philosophy to its formal conclusion by down the main positions of her theology; or if not r she worked
in view all
rigorous consistency of his dialectic, and, keeping them out alongside of Neoplatonism that is not a mere accident
the modifications which it had undergone in the course of two but still independently. It was only by identifying itself with the
centuries, to give it that form in which it was transferred to whole history of Greek philosophy, or by figuring as pure Platonism
restored, that Neoplatonism could stigmatize the church theology
Christianity and Mahommedanism in the middle ages." Forty- of Alexandria as a plagiarism from itself. These assumptions, how-
four years after the death of Proclus the school of Athens was ever, were fanciful. Although our sources are unfortunately very
closed by Justinian (A.D. 529); but it had already fulfilled its imperfect, the theology of the church does not appear to have learned
mission in the work of Proclus. The works of Proclus, as the much from Neoplatonism in the 3rd century partly because the
latter had not yet reached the form in which its doctrines could
last testament of Hellenism to the church and the middle ages,
be accepted by the church dogmatic, and partly because theology
exerted an incalculable influence on the next thousand years. was otherwise occupied. Her first business was to plant herself
They not only formed one of the bridges by which the medieval firmly on her own territory, to make good her position and clear
thinkers got back to Plato and Aristotle; they determined the away old and objectionable opinions. Origen was quite as inde-
method of thirty generations, and they partly created
scientific pendent a thinker as Plotinus; only, they both drew on the same
tradition. From the 4th century downwards, however, the influence
and partly nourished the Christian mysticism of the middle ages. of Neoplatonism on the Oriental theologians was of the utmost im-
The disciples of Proclus are not eminent (Marinus, Asclepio- portance. The church gradually expressed her most peculiar con-
dotus, Ammonius, Zenodotus, Isidorus, Hegias, Damascius). victions in dogmas, which were formulated by philosophical methods,
The last president of the Athenian school was Damascius (g.v.). but were irreconcilable with Neoplatonism (the Christological
When Justinian issued the edict for the suppression of the school, dogmas); and the further this process went the more unrestrainedly
did theologians resign themselves to the influence of Neoplatonism
Damascius along with Simplicius (the painstaking commentator on all other questions. The doctrines of the incarnation, the resur-
on Aristotle) and five other Neoplatonists set out to make a home rection of the flesh and the creation of the world in time marked the
in Persia. They found the conditions were unfavourable and boundary line between the church's dogmatic and Neoplatonism;
in every other respect, theologians and Neoplatonists drew so closely
were allowed to return (see CHOSROES I.).
together that many of them are completely at one. In fact, there
At the beginning of the 6th century Neoplatonism had ceased were special cases, like that of Synesius, in which a speculative
to exist in the East as an independent philosophy. Almost at reconstruction of distinctively Christian doctrines by Christian men
the same time, however and the coincidence is not accidental was winked at. If a book does not happen to touch on any of the
above-mentioned doctrines, it may often be doubtful whether the
it made new conquests in the church theology through the writings
writer is a Christian or a Neoplatonist. In ethical precepts, in
of the pseudo-Dionysius. It began to bear fruit in Christian directions for right living (that is, asceticism), the two systems
mysticism, and to diffuse a new magical leaven through the approximate more and more closely. But it was here that Neo-
worship of the church. platonism finally celebrated its greatest triumph. It indoctrinated
the church with all its mysticism, its mystic exercises and even its
In the West, where philosophical efforts of any kind had been
magical cultus as taught by lamblichus. The works of the pseudo-
very rare since the 2nd century, and where mystical contempla- Dionysius contain a gnosis in which, by means of the teaching of
tion did not meet with the necessary conditions, Neoplatonism lamblichus and Proclus, the church's theology is turned into a
found a congenial soil only in isolated individuals. C. Marius scholastic mysticism with directions on matters of practice and
ritual. And as these writings were attributed to Dionysius, the
Victorinus (q.v.) translated certain works of Plotinus, and thus
disciple of the apostles, the scholastic mysticism which they unfold
had a decisive influence on the spiritual history of Augustine was regarded as an apostolic, not to say a divine, science. The
(Confess, vii. 9, viii. 2). It may be said that Neoplatonism influence exercised by these writings, first on the East, and then
influenced the West only through the medium of the church after the 9th (or I2th) century on the West, cannot be overestima-
ted. It is impossible to enlarge upon it here; suffice it to say that the
theology, or, in some instances, under that disguise. Even .
mystical and pietistic devotion of our own day, even in the Protestant
Boetius (it may now be considered certain) was a catholic churches, is nourished on works whose ancestry can be traced,
Christian, although his whole mode of thought was certainly through a series of intermediate links, to the writings of the pseudo-
Neoplatonic (see BOETIUS). His violent death in the year 525 Areopagite.
In the ancient world there was only one Western theologian who
marks the end of independent philosophy in the West. But
came directly under the influence of Neoplatonism but that one is
;
indeed this last of the Roman philosophers stood quite alone Augustine, the most important of them all. It was through Neo-
in his century, and the philosophy for which he lived was neither rid of scepticism and the last dregs of
platonism that Augustine got
Manichaeism. In the seventh book of his Confessions he has recorded
original, nor well-grounded, nor methodically developed.
how much he owed to the perusal of Neoplatonic works. On al! the
Neoplatonism and the Theology of the Church. The question as to cardinal doctrines God, matter, the relation of God to the world,
the influence of Neoplatonism on the development of Christianity freedom and evil Augustine retained the impress of Neoplatonism;
is not easily answered, because it is scarcely possible to get a com- at the same time he is the theologian of antiquity who most clearly
plete view of their mutual relations. The answer will
depend, in perceived and most fully stated wherein Neoplatonism and Chris-
"
the first instance, upon how much is included under the term Neo- tianity differ. The best ever written by any church father on this
platonism." If Neoplatonism is understood in the widest sense, subject is to be found in chaps, ix.-xxi. of the seventh book of the
as the highest and fittest expression of the religious movements at Confessions.
work in the Graeco-Roman empire from the 2nd to the 5th century, Why Neoplatonism succumbed in the conflict with Christianity is
then it may be regarded as the twin-sister of the church dogmatic a question which the historians have never satisfactorily answered.
which grew up during the same period; the younger sister was As a rule, the problem is not even stated correctly. We have nothing
brought up by the elder, then rebelled against her and at last tyran- to do here with our own private ideal of Christianity, but solely
nized over her. The Neoplatonists themselves characterized the with catholic Christianity and catholic theology. These are the forces
theologians of the church as intruders, who had appropriated the that conquered Neoplatonism, after assimilating nearly everything
Greek philosophy and spoiled it by the admixture of strange fables. that it contained. Further, we must consider the arena in which
Thus Porphyry says of Origen (Euseb. H.E. vi. 19), " The outer the victory was won. The battlefield was the empire of Constantine
life of Origen was that of a Christian and contrary to law; but, as and Theodosius. It is only when these and all other circumstances
far as his views of things and of God are concerned, he thought like of the case are duly realized that we have a right to inquire how
the Greeks, whose conceptions he overlaid with foreign myths." much the essential doctrines of Christianity contributed to the vic-
This verdict of Porphyry's is at all events more just and apt than tory, and what share must be assigned to the organization of the
that of the theologians on the Greek philosophers, when they accused church.
them of having borrowed all their really valuable doctrines from the In medieval theology and philosophy mysticism appears as the
ancient Christian books. But the important point is that the rela- powerful opponent of rationalistic dogmatism. The empirical
tionship was acknowledged on both sides. Now, in so far as both science of the Renaissance and the two following centuries was itself
Neoplatonism and the church dogmatic set out from the felt need of a new of Platonism and Neoplatonism, as opposed to
development
redemption, in so far as both sought to deliver the soul from sensu- rationalistic dogmatism, with its contempt for experience. Magic,
ality and recognized man's inability without divine aid without a astrology and alchemy all the outgrowth of Neoplatonism gave
revelation to attain salvation and a sure knowledge of the truth, the first effectual stimulus to the observation of nature, and conse-
they are at once most intimately related and at the same time quently to natural science, and in this way finally extinguished barren
NEOPTOLEMUS NEPAL
rationalism. Thus in the history of science Neoplatonism has played and the Measured (rt> airapov and irtpas) with the resultant
a part and rendered services of which Plotinus or lamblichus or from the One down to the objects of the material
scale of realities
Proclus never dreamt. So true is it that sober history is often
world. They emphasized the fundamental distinction between
stranger and more capricious than all the marvels of legend and
romance. the Soul and the Body. God must be worshipped spiritually
AuTHORiTiES.-pOn the relation of Neoplatonism to Christianity, by prayer and the will to be good, not in outward action. The
and the historical importance of Neoplatonism generally, see the lead- "
soul must be freed from its material surrounding, the muddy
ing church histories, and the Histories of Dogma by Baur, Nitzsch, vesture of decay," by an ascetic habit of life. Bodily pleasures
Harnack, &c. Compare also Loffler, Der Plalonismus der Kirchen-
vdter (17821; Huber, Die Philosophic der Kirchenvater (1859); and all sensuous impulses must be abandoned as detrimental
Tzchirner, Fall des Heidenthums (1829), pp. 574-618; Burckhardt, to the spiritual purity of the soul. God is the principle of good;
n (1853) Chastel, Hist, de la destruc-
Die Zeit Constantin's des Grossen ;
Matter (v\ri) the groundwork of Evil. In this system we dis-
tion du Paganisme dans V empire d Orient (1850); Beugnot, Hist.
de la destruction du Paganisme en Occident (1835); E. von Lasaulx, tinguish not only the asceticism of Pythagoras and the later
Der Untergang des Hellenismns (1854); Vogt, Neuplatonismus und
"
mysticism of Plato, but also the influence of the Orphic mysteries
Chrisienthum (1836); Ullmann, Einfluss des Christenthums auf and of Oriental philosophy. The Ideas of Plato are no longer
in the Stud. u. Kritiken (1832); Jean ReVille, La
Porphyrius," self-subsistent entities; they are the elements which constitute
Religion a Rome sous les Severes (1886); C. Bigg, The Christian The Soul
is no longer an
Platonists of Alexandria (1886) and Neoplatonism (1895); Rufus M.
the content of spiritual activity.
Jones, Studies in Mystical Religion (1909), pp. 70 foil. See further, appanage of ovaia, the non-material universe
it is oiiaia itself:
C. Schmidt, Gnostische Schriften in Koptischer Sprache (1892); K. P. is regarded as the sphere of mind or spirit.
Hasse, Von Plotin zu Goethe (1909); Thomas Whittaker, The Nep- Thus Neopythagoreanism is a link in the chain between the
Platonists (1901); Petrie, Personal Religion in Egypt before Christ
" old and the new in pagan philosophy. It connects the teaching
(1909) M. Heinze,
; Neuplatonismus," in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk.
vol. xiii. (1903). On the after-effects of Neoplatonisrn on the of Plato with the doctrines of Neoplatonism and brings it into
church's dogmatic, see Ritschl, Theologie und Metaphysik (1881). line with the later Stoicism and with the ascetic system of the
On the relation of Neoplatonism to Monachism, compare Keim, Aus Essenes. A comparison between the Essenes and the Neo-
dem Urchristenthum (1878). On the history of Neoplatonism with
special reference to the decline of Roman polytheism, see, e.g.,
pythagoreans shows a parallel so striking as to warrant the theory
Samuel Dill, Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western that the Essenes were profoundly .influenced by Neopythago-
Empire (1898), pp. 82 foil. On Plotinus, Porphyry, &c., see separate reanism. Lastly Neopythagoreanism furnished Neoplatonism
articles. HA.; J. M. M.)
(A. with the weapons with which pagan philosophy made its last
NEOPTOLEMUS (also called PYRRHTJS), in Greek legend, the stand against Christianity.
son of Achilles and Dei'dameia. He was brought up by his See PYTHAGORAS, NEOPLATONISM, ESSENES; and Zeller's Philo-
grandfather Lycomedes in the island of Scyros, and taken to sophie d. Griechen. For members of the school see APOLLONIUS OF
TYANA and MODERATUS OF GADES.
Troy in the last year of the war by Odysseus, since Helenus had
declared that the city could not be captured without the aid of a NEPAL, NEPAUL or NIPAL, an independent state, situated on
descendant of Aeacus. Neoptolemus was famed for his beauty, the north-eastern frontier of India, lying between 80 15' and
He was one of the warriors in the 88 10' E., and 26 20' and 30 10' N.; area, 54,000 sq. m. Its
eloquence and bravery.
wooden horse and slew Priam at the sack of Troy (Odyssey, extreme length is about 525 m., and its breadth varies from go
to 140 m. It is bounded on the N. by Tibet; on the E. by
xi. 508-526; Aeneid, ii. 527). Apart from these Trojan tales,
Neoptolemus is a prominent figure in the legends of Epirus and Sikkim; on the S. by Bengal and the United Provinces; and
of Delphi. He was the ancestor of the Molossian kings, who on the W. by Kumaon, from which it is separated by the Kali
therefore claimed to be of pure Hellenic stock. He was murdered river. Its population is estimated by the natives at about
at Delphi, where he was buried, and a festival was held in his 5,200,000, the common phrase used by the rulers in speaking
"
honour every eighth year. of popular opinion being, but what will the Bawan (i.e. fifty-
NEOPYTHAGOREANISM, a Graeco-Alexandrian school of two) Lakh say to this."
Nepal consists physically of two distinct territories: (l) the
philosophy, which became prominent in the ist century A.D. tarai, or strip of level, cultivated and forest land lying along the
Very little is known about the members of this school, and there southern border; and (2) the great mountainous tract stretching
has been much discussion as to whether the Pythagorean litera- northwards to Tibet. Along the northern frontier stand many of
ture which was widely published at the time in Alexandria was the highest peaks of the Himalayan range, such as Dhaulagiri
the original work of ist-century writers or merely reproductions (26,837 ft.), Mutsiputra, Gaurishankar and Yasa (24,000), Gosa'in
Than (26,313), Mount Everest (29,002 according to the survey value),
of and commentaries on the older Pythagorean writings. The Kinchinjunga (28,146), and numerous peaks varying from 20,000
only well-known members of the school were Apollonius of Tyana to 24,000 ft. In clear weather this magnificent snowy range may be
and Mqderatus of Gades. In the previous century Cicero's seen in an almost continuous line from the top of some of the lower
learned friend P. Nigidius Figulus (d. 45 B.C.) had made an ranges near Katmandu. South of these are numerous parallel lower
ranges, varying from 16,000 to 6000 ft. in height, which are broken
attempt to revive Pythagorean doctrines, but he cannot be up at intervals by cross ranges, thus forming a series of glens with a
described as a member of the school. Further, it is necessary few hill-girt valleys interspersed.
to distinguish from the Neopythagoreans a number of Eclectic These mountain ranges determine the course of the rivers, which
Platonists, who, during the ist century of our era, maintained
are divided by the cross ranges into four groups. The first of these
extends from Kumaon eastward as far as Dhaulagiri, and consists
views which had a similar tendency (e.g. Apuleius of Madaura, of the affluents of the Kali (Sarda), Sarju, Kurnali, Eastern Sarju,
Plutarch of Chaeronea and, later, Numenius of Apamea). and Rapti, all of which ultimately form the Gogra or Gogari, and
flow into the Ganges. The second group, known to the Nepalese
Neopythagoreanism was the first product of an age in which
as the Sapt Gandaki, rises from the peaks between Dhaulagiri and
abstract philosophy had begun to pall. The Stoics discovered
" " Gosa'in Than, and unite at Trebeni Ghat to form the Gandak.
that their perfect man was not to be found in the luxurious, The third is a group of smaller rivers draining the great valley of
often morbid society of the Graeco-Roman world; that some- Nepal, the valleys of Chitlong, Benepa, and Panouti, and portions
thing more than dialectic ethics was needed to reawaken a of the tarai around the Chunaghati range of hills. These are the
sense of responsibility. A various branches of the Bara Gandak, the lesser Rapti, the Bagmati
degenerate society cared nothing for and Kumla. East of this again is the fourth group, known to the
syllogisms grown threadbare by repetition. Neopythagoreanism Nepalese as the Sapt Kosi, rising from the peaks between Gosa'in
was an attempt to introduce a religious element into pagan Than and Kinchinjunga, and uniting to form the Soon Kosi, which
falls into the Ganges.
philosophy in place of what had come to be regarded as an arid
1
formalism. The founders of the school sought to invest their There is thus a natural division of the country into four portions.
The most western is the country of the Baisi (or twenty-two) rajas,
doctrines with the halo of tradition by ascribing them to Pytha- and contains the towns of Jumla, Doti and Sulliana. The second
goras and Plato, and there
is no reason to accuse them of insin- is the country of the Chaubisi (or twenty-four) rajas, and contains
cerity. They went back to the later period of Plato's thought, the towns of Malebum, Palpa, Gurkha and Noakote. The third is
the period when Plato endeavoured to combine his doctrine the district containing Nepal proper, with the capital and many
of Ideas with the Pythagorean large towns to be mentioned afterwards. The fourth is the eastern
number-theory, and identified portion of Nepal, comprising the country of the Kiratis, and many
the Good with the One, the source of the small towns, such as Dhankota, Ham and Bijapur.
duality of the Infinite
NEPAL 379
Route into Nepal The portion of " Nepal, exclusive of the tarai, vultures and eagles, pheasants (Gallophasis) chukor, hill partridges,
,
which is open to Europeans is the valley of Nepal," containing &c. In the alpine zone are found the true bear (Ursus isabellinus,
the capital of the country, and a few adjacent smaller valleys. or brown bear), the yak, musk deer, wild goats and sheep, marmots,
There is only one means of access open to Europeans, and this &c. Among the birds are the eagle- vulture (Gypaetus), the blood
indeed is in general resorted to by the natives, as the other pheasant (Ithaginis cruentus), snow pheasant (Tetraogallus hima-
routes to the capital are longer and far more difficult. The layensis), snow partridge (Lerwa nivicola), the horned pheasant
road runs nearly north from Segauli, passing through the tarai (Ceriornis saiyra), crested pheasant (Catrens wallichi) &c.
. Geese,
and sal forests, to Bhichhkhori then through the beds of mountain
; ducks, waders of all sorts, and other migratory birds are found in
streams, through a pass in the Churiyaghati range, and through abundance in the two lower zones.
another sal forest, to Hetoura; thence by a wide and good road to Minerals. The lowest zone in some directions abounds in fossils;
Bhimphedi at the foot of the Sisaghari range of hills. So far the and deposits of lignite, and even of true coal, are met with, the
route is practicable for carts and baggage animals, but from this latter notably at a spot south of Palpa. The middle zone is rich in
point the road is a mere rugged footpath over the Sisaghari Pass, limestone and marbles, and abounds with minerals, such as iron,
through the Chitlong valley and over the Chandragiri range. The copper, zinc, lead and sulphur. Copper is found near the surface
distance from Segauli to Katmandu is 90 m. in many places, and there are remains of mines both at Markhu and
The valley in extreme length from east to west is about 26 m., in the great valley of Nepal. Mineral springs, both hot and cold, are
and in breadth from north to south about 15. The surrounding numerous. Traces of silver, and also of gold, have been found in
hills vary in height from 6000 to 9720 ft., the level of the valley the alpine zone.
itself being about 4500 ft. above the sea. Tradition has it that
People. The
races occupying Nepal are of mixed Mongol
Nepal was once a lake, and appearances are
in favour of this view.
It is crossed from east to west by a low limestone range, through origin. To
the north, inhabiting the higher mountains and
which the waters have gradually forced a passage, and in like manner valleys, dwell the Bhutias or Tibetans. To the west lie the
the collected rivers have escaped at the south-east corner of the Gurungs and Magars. The Murmis, Gurkhalis and Newars
valley.
There are three principal streams, the Bagmati, Vishnumati, and
occupy the central parts; and the Kiratis, Limbus and Lepchas
Manohora, besides many small tributaries of these. All the rivers occupy the eastern districts. There are also Brahmans and
rise within the valley, except the Bagmati, which springs from the Chhatris in the hills. Besides these there are many small tribes
northern side of the Shiupuri peak, and enters the valley through a residing in the tarai and some other malarious districts, known
ravine at the north-east corner. They all unite and pass through as Kumhas, Tharus, Manjis, &c., but generally classed together
a long narrow gorge in the limestone range, already mentioned, at
Chobhar, and ultimately escape from the valley at Kotwaldar. by the Nepalese as Aoulias, or dwellers in the malarious or aoul
Climate. In and around the Nepal valley, as in India, the year districts. These are probable descendants of immigrants from
may be divided into the rainy, cold and hot seasons. The rains the lower castes of Hindus, occupying the borderlands of the
begin in June and last till October, but the fall is not so heavy or tarai. Among the forests of the lower eastern region are also
continuous as in the plains of Hindustan. The cold season extends
to be found some small savage tribes, known as Chepangs and
from the middle of October to the middle of April. During these
months the climate is delicious. Hoar-frost and thin ice are common Kusundas.
in the mornings, and the thermometer sometimes falls as low as 25 All the races except the Aoulias are of a decidedly Mongolian
Fahr., but the days are bright and warm. From Christmas to the appearance, being generally short and robust, and having flat
end of February there are occasional showers of rain; and snow
falls on the surrounding low ranges, but is very rarely seen in the faces, oblique eyes, yellow complexions, straight black hair,
valley itself. From April to the beginning of the rains is the hot
and comparatively hairless faces. The Newars, according to
season, but the thermometer seldom reaches 85 in the shade. The the Vamqavall or native history, trace their descent from the
result of observations extending over many years gives an average races of southern India, but this is rendered more than doubtful
mean temperature of 60 Fahr., and an annual rainfall of about both their appearance and language. The Gurkhalis (Gurkhas
60 in. Violent thunderstorms are not uncommon, and occasionally by
severe earthquakes occur, as in 1833 and 1866. or Ghurkhas) are descendants of the Brahmans and Rajputs who
Flora and Fauna. In a country possessing such a range of were driven out of Hindostan by the Moslems, and took refuge in
altitudes the flora and fauna are of course very varied. For descrip- the western hilly lands, where they ultimately became dominant,
tive purposes, Nepal may again be divided into three zones. These
and where they have become much mixed with the other races
are (l) the tarai and lower ranges of hills up to 4000 ft. in height;
(2) the central ranges and high-lying valleys, up to 10,000
; ft. and by intermarriage.
(3) the alpine region, from 10,000 to 29,000 ft. in height. These Religions. The Bhutias, Newars, Limbus, Keratis, and Lepchas
zones are not, however, sharply defined, as the climate varies are all Buddhists, but their religion has become so mixed up with
according to the latitude, the height of intermediate ranges, and the Hinduism that it is now hardly recognizable. The Newars have
depth of the valleys; so that tropical plants and animals are some- entirely abandoned the monastic institutions of Buddhism, and
times found far in the interior, and the more northern species descend have in great measure adopted the rules of caste, though even these
along the loftier spurs into the southern zones. sit but lightly upon them. They burn their dead, cat the flesh of
The low alluvial land of the tarai is well adapted for cultivation, buffaloes, goats, sheep, ducks, and fowls, and drink beer and spirits.
and is, so to speak, the granary of Nepal; but owing to scantiness The Gurkhalis, Magars, and Gurungs are Hindus, but the last two
of population and other causes the greater portion of it consists of are by no means strict in the observance of their religion, though
swamps, jungles and forests. Considerable stretches of land are, there are some peculiarities which they carefully preserve. Thus,
however, being reclaimed from year to year. The productions here for instance, the Magars will eat pork but not buffalo's flesh, whereas
are those of British India cotton, rice, wheat, pulse, sugar-cane, the Gurungs eat the buffalo but not the hog.
tobacco, opium, indigo, and the fruits and vegetables familiar in Priests. Where temples are so numerous (there are 2733 shrines
the plains of India. The forests yield a magnificent supply of sal, in the valley) priests naturally abound, both of the Hindu and
sisli, and other valuable forest trees; and the jungles abound with Buddhist religions. The festivals too are many in number, and in
acacias, mimosas, cotton tree (Bombay), dak (Butea frondosa), large consequence holidays are incessant. The raj guru, or high priest, is
bamboos, rattans, palms, and numerous ferns and orchids. On the an influential person in the state, a member of council, and has a
Churiaghati range the common Pinus longifolia grows freely. Tea large income from government lands as well as from the fines for
can be grown at a height of from 2000 to 4000 ft. The middle zone offences against caste, &c. Many other priests, gurus and purohits,
supplies rice, wheat, maize, barley, oats, ginger, turmeric, chillies, have lands assigned to them, and most of the temples have been
potatoes, Cucurbitaceae, pineapples, and many varieties of European richly endowed by their founders. Every family of rank has a
fruits, vegetables and flowers. The forests contain tree rhododen- special priest, whose office is hereditary.
drons, Pinus longifolia, oaks, horse-chestnuts, walnuts, maples, hill Astrologers are also numerous, and their services are in constant
bamboos, wild cherry, pear, allies of the tea plant, paper plants request. One cannot build a house, set out on a journey, com-
(Daphne), roses, and many other inhabitants of temperate climes, mence a war, or even take a dose of physic, without having an
with various orchids, ferns and wild flowers. In the alpine zone auspicious moment selected for him.
Languages. The various
exist Coniferae of many kinds, junipers, yew, box, hollies, birch, races have all separate languages, or
dwari rhododendrons and the usual alpine flora. at least dialects. The Gurkhalis and western tribes use Khas (see
The wild animals follow a similar distribution, and the following PAHARI), which, unlike the other dialects, is of Sanskrit origin. The
typical species may be mentioned. In the lowest zone are found the Newars have a distinct language and alphabets, for there are three
tiger, leopard, wolf, hyena and jackal, the elephant and rhinoceros, known to their pandits, though only one is in use now. Their
the gaur (Gavaeus gaurus), gayal (Gavaeus frontalis) wild buffalo or language, called Gubhajius, greatly resembles Tibetan, but is now
,
arna, many species of deer, and the black bear (Ursus labiatus). interspersed with many Sanskrit words. The Bhutias use the
Among the birds are found the pea-fowl, francolins, wild jungle Tibetan language and alphabet.
fowl, and the smaller vultures, &c. In the middle zone there are the Education. There is a central educational institution at Kat-
leopard, the Himalayan black bear (Ursus tibetanus), the wild dog, mandu with sixteen branches, or schools, over the valley of Nepal.
cats of many sorts, squirrels, hares, porcupines, the pangolin, and This central institution has three departments, English, Sanskrit
some species of deer and antelope. Among the birds are the larger and Persian or more correctly perhaps Urdu. Education is provided
3 8o NEPAL
free by the state, and is encouraged by grants of scholarships three crops of various sorts are obtained annually. The land-
and prizes. Boys passing out well are sent at government expense measures in use are different in different parts of the country.
to the various universities of northern India to complete their Thus, in the eastern tarai a bigha measures 90X90 yds. English,
education, and some have lately been sent to Japan. The evil while in the western tarai it is only 15X15 yds. In the hills the
effects of higher education, as taught in the Indian colleges, on the unit of land measurement is called ropni, which is about twice the
youth of Bengal, &c., has, however, given the Gurkha durbar a size of a western tarai bigha, and twenty-five ropnis make one
distinct shock, and it seems not unlikely that education in Nepal khait. This measurement applies only to rice lands. Other land
may receive a set-back in consequence. Some of the upper classes measurements for the valley are as follows: One Nepali bigha is
speak English fluently, but the bulk of the labouring classes is quite 90 yds. X 90 yds. British. (A British Indian bigha is 40 yds. X 40
illiterate. yds. and 3 Nepali bighas equal about 5 acres.) Sixteen ropnis
Katmandu is a perfect storehouse of ancient Sanskrit literature, equal i Nepali bigha.
and some of the oldest MSS. in that language as yet known to Land Taxes. The tarai lands pay from two to nine rupees
scholars have been found there. There is also a fair English library. (British) per Nepali bigha according to quality of land. In the hills
Both are lodged in a good building. taxes are charged on the plough, thus: one plough pays 13 annas;
Calendar. There are three principal eras in use in Nepal. The one bullock without plough about 10 annas; one spade 6 annas.
Samvat of Vikramaditya begins fifty-seven years before the Christian These taxes are termed Hal, Patay and Kodaley.
era, the Saka era of Salivanhn begins seventy-eight years after Horticulture. The Newars are also fond of horticulture. Many
the Christian era, and the Nepalese Samvat dates from October A.D. European fruits, and vegetables have been introduced
flowers
880. The Sri-Harsha and Kaligat eras are also sometimes used. and grow freely. The country is famous for its oranges and pine-
Day is considered to begin when the tiles on a house can be counted, apples. Flowers are grown and sold for religious purposes, and even
or when the hairs on the back of a man's hand can be discerned wild flowers are brought into the market and much used by the
against the sky. Sixty bipalas = l pala; 60 palas = i ghari or Newar women in adorning their hair, as well as for offerings at
24 minutes; 60 gharis = I day of 24 hours. the shrines. Many wild fruits are collected and sold in the
Health. All families of good position have at least one laid, or markets. Apples and pears, of English stock, thrive well; apricots
medical man, in constant attendance, and there are also many and plums are good; peaches and grapes grow freely and are
general practitioners. There is a large central hospital at Katmandu, of large size, but they seldom ripen before the rains begin, when
and some thirteen other smaller hospitals are distributed over the they rot.
All the trade and manufactures of the country are in
country, with free beds, and provision for outdoor treatment.
Trade.
There is also a small hospital attached to the British Residency. the hands of the Newars, and a few Kashmiris and natives of Hindu-
The diseases most prevalent in the country are rheumatism, chronic stan. The trade in European goods is chiefly carried on by the
dyspepsia, skin diseases, syphilis, goitre, smallpox, cholera and latter, whilst the Newars deal in corn, oil, salt, tobacco and articles
leprosy. In the rains a number of cases of mild intermittent fever, of domestic manufacture. The trade with India is carried on at
diarrhoea, and dysentery are met with. Fever of a severe typhoid numerous marts along the frontier, at each of which a customs
type is common
in the crowded lanes and dirty villages. Vaccination station is established, and the taxes are collected
by a thikadar
is being gradually introduced into the country, and the general or farmer. The Newars also carry on the trade with Tibet, through
health of the inhabitants of the principal cities in the valley has a colony which has been for many years established at Lhasa, but
greatly improved since the introduction of fresh water, which has this trade has been a shrinking item since the opening of the Lhasa-
been brought in by pipes from mountain springs. Darjeeling route. There are two principal routes to Tibet. One of
Towns. There are three large towns in the Nepal valley, Kat- these runs north-east from Katmandu to the frontier-station of
mandu, the capital, said to contain approximately 50,000 inhabitants, Kuti or Nilam, crossing the Himalayan range at a height of 14,000 ft. ;
Patan and Bhatgapn about 30,000 each. The houses are from two to the other passes out of the valley at the north-west corner, and
four storeys in height, built of brick and tiled. The windows and runs at first upwards along the main branch of the Gandak, crossing
balconies are of wood, arid some are elaborately carved. There the Himalayas, near Kerung, at a height of 9000 ft. All goods on
are numerous handsome temples in all the towns, the majority of these routes are carried on men's backs, except the salt, &c., carried
which are and built of brick, with roofs of copper, in bags by the Bhutia sheep and goats. The principal imports from
pagoda-shaped
which is sometimes gilt. The streets are narrow, and they, as well Hindustan are raw cotton, cotton goods, woollen goods, silks and
as the squares, are all paved with brick or stone. In front of the velvets, hardware, cutlery, beads, jewels, coral, saddlery, shoes,
temples generally stand monoliths surmounted by figures of Garuda, guns, gunpowder, glassware, vermilion, indigo, lac, tea, betel-nut,
or of the founder, made of brass gilt, or sometimes of black stone. spices, paper, sugar, tobacco, oils, sheet copper, goats, cattle,
Besides these three large towns, there are at least twenty smaller buffaloes; and from Tibet, musk, medicines, yaks tails, tea, woollen
towns and numerous villages in the valley, ail of which possess cloth, blankets, borax, salt, saltpetre, paper-plant, honey, wax,
many temples. Some
of these, as for instance those of Pashupati, sheep, goats, yaks, ponies, silver, gold. The exports to Hindustan
Bodhnatha and Symbhunatha, are considered of great sanctity. include wax, paper-plant, music, yaks' tails, medicines, cardamoms,
Many thousands of pilgrims come at one festival to worship at borax, sulphate of copper, brass pots, iron pots, ponies, elephants,
Pashupati, and it is there that the dying are brought to be immersed hawks, hides and horns (buffalo), rice, ghee, oil seeds, red chillies,
in the Bagmati, and the dead are burned on its banks. madder, cobalt, potatoes, oranges; and to Tibet, broad cloth, raw
Agriculture. While the Gurkhalis are occupied in military affairs, cotton, cotton goods, tobacco, sugar, opium, coral, jewels, pearls,
the agriculture of the valley is carried on by the Newars. The spices, betel-nut, copper pots, iron pots and hardware. The
soil is varied in character, from light micaceous sand to dense Nepalese are utterly regardless of statistics, but recent estimates
ferruginous clay. The whole valley is cultivated and irrigated value the exports and imports to and from the British provinces
where practicable, and the slopes of the hills are carefully terraced, at 3 million sterling annually. Duties are levied on exports and
so that there is little grazing ground, and few
sheep
or cattle are imports, which will be noticed under the head of revenue.
kept. There are some milch cows and buffaloes, which are either Manufactures. The Newars are skilful workmen. Their bricks
stall-fed or grazed in the
jungles at the foot of the hills. Animals
are excellent, and so also is their pottery, for which certain towns
for consumption and sacrifice are all imported, and are consumed are famous, such as Themi and Noakote. As carpenters they excel,
as fast as they are brought in. In the cold season the Bhutias bring though the use of the large saw is still unknown, and planks are cut
large flocks of sheep and goats laden with bags of borax, salt and with chisel and mallet. Some of the wood carvings on the
temples
saltpetre. These are sold for consumption, except a few tnat are and large houses are most artistic in design and bold in execution,
retained to carry back the bags. These droves are generally accom- though unfortunately they are sometimes of a most obscene char-
panied by ponies and some of the large Tibetan dogs the latter are
;
acter. The manufactures are few, consisting chiefly of coarse
powerful, fierce, shaggy animals, about the size of a small Newfound- cotton cloths, paper made of the inner bark of the paper-plants
land dog. Poultry are kept and used by the Newars, especially (Daphne), bells, brass and iron utensils, weapons, and ornaments
ducks, the eggs of which are in great demand even among the of gold and silver.
orthodox Hindus. The crops grown in th-a valley consist of rice, Coinage. At one time Nepal supplied Tibet with its silver coinage,
both the transplanted and the dry-sown or ghaiya varieties, wheat, but this was abandoned on account of the adulterations introduced
pulse, murwah, maize, buckwheat, chillies, radishes, mustard, by the Nepalese. The ancient coins, specimens of which are still to
garlic, onions, ginger, turmeric, sugar-cane, potatoes, ground nuts, be met with, were made by hand. The modern coinage is struck by
many species of cucumbers and pumpkins, &c. Nothing but machinery, a regular mint having been established by Sir Jung
articles of food are allowed to be grown in the
valley; hence its Bahadur at Katmandu, and since improved by his successors.
for producing tea, cotton and tobacco are unknown. Government. The Nepalese have relations with China, and
capabilities
All of these, however, are grown in other
parts of the country, both The
in the hills and the tarai. occasionally send an embassy with presents to Peking.
Large cardamoms are extensively grown
in the eastern hills, and form an British too have considerable influence with the government
important article of export. The
hemp plant (Cannabis indica) grows wild, and is used both for manu- in regard to their foreign relations, and a British resident is
facturing purposes and for producing the resinous extract and other stationed at Katmandu. But in all matters of domestic policy
intoxicating products which are exported. Plants producing dyes, the Nepalese brook no interference, and they are most jealous
such as madder or maniit, are grown in some
places; and drugs, of anything that has a
such as chirata, are collected and
exported. The better class of tendency to encroach on their inde-
soils yields a return of about Rs. 180 pendence. Theoretically the government of Nepal is a pure
per khait, and the poorest
about Rs. 90 per khait. From some of the finer soils as many as
despotism, and the maharajah is paramount. Practically, all
NEPAL
of Gurkhas from amongst the soldiers of that race who were thrown
realpower ha? long been in the hands of the prime minister, out of employment, owing to the termination of the first phase of
and much of the modern history of the country consists of the war with Nepal. These regiments were styled the 1st. 2nd
accounts ef the struggles of the various factions for power. and 3rd Gurkhas, and were soon employed on active service. The
Under the prime minister there is a council, consisting of the ist and 2nd behaved with much gallantry at the siege and storming
of Bharatpur, and in the First Sikh War, while the 2nd and 3rd
relations of the king, the raj guru, the generals, and a few other
won a great name for loyalty and courage during the Mutiny of 1857-
officials known as kajis and sirdars and bhardars, which is con-
58, especially at the siege of Delhi. This induced the British to
sulted on all important business, and which forms a court of raise, in 1858, two more battalions, which they numbered the 4th
appeal for disputed cases from the courts of law. There are and 5th, and the whole Gurkha force has since proved its usefulness
and loyalty on many occasions, particujarly during the Afghan War
separate civil and criminal courts, but the distinction is not
of 1878-80, and on many frontier expeditions. Battalions have also
always observed, as difficult cases are often transferred from been sent on service to Burma, Egypt, China and Tibet. The
one to the other. Gurkhas in the British service now consist of ten regiments of
riflemen of two battalions each, and number about 20,000 men.
Law and Justice. The old savage legal code with its ordeals by
fire and water, and its punishments by mutilation and torture was
abolished by Sir Jung Bahadur after his return from England in History. Nepal and the somewhat similar country of Kashmir
1851. Treason, rebellion and desertion in war-time are punished are peculiar among the Hindu states of India in possessing an
by death. Bribery and peculation by public servants are punished historical literature. The Nepalese Vantfdvali professes to start
by dismissal from office, and a fine and imprisonment, the latter of from a very early period in the Satya Yuga, when the present
which can be commuted by payments at various rates, according
to the nature of the offence. Murder and the killing of cows are valley was still a lake. The earlier portion of it is devoted to
capital offences. Manslaughter and maiming cows are punished by the Satya and Treta Yugas, and contains mythological tales
imprisonment for life and other offences against the person or and having reference to various sacred localities
traditions
property by imprisonment or fine. Brahmans and women are in the country.During these two Yugas, and also the Dwapur
exempted from capital punishment. Offences against caste are
heavily punished by fine and imprisonment. In some cases indeed
Yuga, the Vamfdvali deals in round numbers of thousands of
all the offender's property is confiscated, and he and his family may years.
be sold as slaves. Bankruptcy laws have been recently introduced. In the beginning of the Kali Yuga, the Gupta dynasty is said
The marriage laws are somewhat peculiar. Among the Gurkhas
the laws resemble those of other Hindus as regards the marriage of
to have been founded by Ne-Muni, from whom the country takes
its name of Nepal. Lists are then given of the various dynasties,
widows, polygamy &c but among the Newars every girl while still
,
an infant is married with much ceremony to a bel fruit, which is with the lengths of the reigns of the rajas. The dynasties
then thrown into some sacred stream. As the fate of the fruit is
. mentioned are the Gupta, Ahir, Kirati, Somavanshi, Suryavanshi,
unknown, a Newari is supposed never to become a widow. At the Thakuri or first Rajput, Vaishya Thakuri, second Rajput and
age of puberty a husband is selected, but the woman can at any Karnataki dynasties. The country was then invaded by Mukun-
moment divorce herself by placing a betel-nut under her husband's
pillow and taking her departure Adultery is punished by the im- dasena, and after his expulsion various Vaishya Thakuri dynasties
prisonment
and fine of both the adulteress and her paramour. Sati are said to have held the throne for a period of 225 years. The
has been abolished in Nepal by law.
There are three large prisons in the Nepal valley, one chronology of the Vam$avali up to this period is very confused
Gaols.
for males and two for females; there are also a considerable number
and inaccurate; and, though the accounts of the various
of gaols throughout the country. The prisoners are kept in irons, invasions and internal struggles, mixed up as they are with
ana employed in public works of various sorts. They are allowed grotesque legends and tales, may be interesting and amusing,
six pice a for subsistence at the capital, and five pice in other
day they can hardly be considered authentic. Some of the names of
places. Their relatives are allowed to minister to their creature
the rajas, and the dates of their reigns, have been determined
comforts.
Slavery is an institution of the country, and all families of rank by coins, the colophons of old MSS., and certain inscriptions
possess many slaves, who are employed in domestic and field work. on the temples and ancient buildings. For instance, Ancuvarma,
They are generally treated well, and are carefully protected by law. of the Thakuri dynasty, reigned about A.D. 633, as he is men-
The price of slaves ranges from Rs. 100 to Rs. 200.
tioned by the Chinese traveller Hsuan Tsang, who visited Nepal.
Revenue. The revenue of Nepal is about one hundred and fifty
lakhs of rupees, i.e. 10,000,000. The chief sources of it are the His name too is found in an Inscription still extant. In like
land-tax, customs, mines, forests and monopolies. About 10% manner it is ascertained from MSS. that Rudra-deva-Varma
of the tarai lands, and 20% of the hill lands, are private property. was reigning in 1008; Lakshmikama-deva from 1015 to 1040;
Some lands were assigned by the Gurkhali rajas to Brahmans,
soldiers and others, and these are untaxed. Others, which were Padma-deva, of the Vaishya Thakuri dynasty, in 1065; Mana-
the gifts of the old Newar kings, pay from 4 to 8 annas per bigha. deva, of the second Rajput dynasty, in 1139; Ananta-Malla,
All such grants of land, however, are subject to a heavy fine on the 1286-1302; Harisinha-deva, 1324; Jayastithi-Malla, 1385-1391.
coronation of a new raja. Land which does not produce rice is Much information as to the chronology of the various dynasties
lightly taxed, but in the valley of Nepal, and wherever rice is grown, can be obtained from the catalogue of the Cambridge MSS. com-
the government tax or rent is one half of the produce of the land.
Waste lands, when brought into cultivation, are rent free for ten piled by Cecil Bendall, and also from his papers on the ancient
years, after which for five years the tax is only 4 annas per bigha, coins of the country. Inscriptions too have been edited by
and the cultivator receives one-tenth of the cleared land rent free Professor Btthler in the Indian Antiquary, vol. ix. Detailed
for his life. A considerable revenue in the shape of royalty is lists of the rajas are to be found in Kirkpatrick's Account of
obtained from mines of copper, iron, &c. The taxes on merchandise
amount to from 12 to 14% on the value of the goods carried to and Nepal, in Hodgson's Essays, Prinsep's papers in the Asiatic
from British India, and from 5 to 6 % is charged on goods exported Society's Journal and Wright's History of Nepal.
to Tibet. The records begin to be more accurate from the time of the
Army. Much attention is devoted by the Gurkhalis to military invasion and conquest of the country by Harisinha-deva, the
matters and the bulK of that race may be said to be soldiers. The
raja of Simraun, 1324. This raja was driven from Simraun
standing army consists of about 50,000 men. in a fair state of effici-
ency. Besides this force there is a reserve, consisting of men who by Tughlak Shah of Delhi, but seems to have found little difficulty
have served for a few years and taken their discharge, but in case in the conquest of Nepal. There were only four rajas of this
of necessity can be called on again to enter the ranks. These would
Ayodhya dynasty, and then the throne was occupied by Jaya-
probably raise the strength to between 70000 and 80,000 men.
The regiments are formed on the European system, and similarly bhadra-Malla, a descendant of Abhaya-Malla, one of the Rajput
drilled and officered. Each man carries in addition to a bayonet a dynasty, who reigned in the I3th century. There were eight
kukri or native knife There is practically no cavalry, as the country of this dynasty. The seventh, Jayastithi-Malla, who
rajas
is not suited for horses. The artillery, however, is on a larger scale,
and consists nearly entirely of batteries of mountain artillery. reigned for forty-three years (1386-1429), appears to have done
There is a large arsenal well provided with supplies of gunpowder much in forming codes of laws, and.introducing caste and its rules
and military stores There are workshops where cannon are cast, among the Newars. In the reign of the eighth raja, Yaksha-
and rifles and ammunition of all sorts turned out in large quantities, Malla, the kingdom was divided into four separate states
but of an indifferent quality.
In addition to its own namely, Banepa, Bhatgaon or Bhaktapur, Kantipur or Kat-
army, Nepal supplies to the British army in
India a large force of splendid soldiers, who were raised under the mandu, and Lalitapur or Patan. There was only one raja of
following circumstances. In 1815 the British enlisted three battalions Banepa, who died without issue. The Malla dynasty in the other
382 NEPAL
three branches continued in power up to the conquest of the and Pandry factions, and futile attempts at forming combinations
country by the Gurkhas in 1768. with other states in Hindustan against the British.
The Gurkhas claim descent from the Rajputs of Chitor, in In 1839 Bhimsena's enemies succeeded in driving him from
Rajputana. They were driven out of their own country by power, and he committed suicide, or was murdered, in prison.
the victorious Moslems, and took refuge in the hilly districts The Kala Pandry faction then came into power, and there were
about Kumaon, whence they gradually pushed their way east- frequent grave disputes with the British. War, however, was
wards to Lamjung, Gurkha, Noakote and ultimately to the averted by the exertions of the resident, Mr Brian Hodgson.
valley of Nepal, which under Raja Prithwi Narayana they finally In 1843 Malabar Singh, the nephew of Bhimsena, returned
captured. In the struggle which took place at Bhatgaon, Jaya- from exile, soon got into favour at court, and speedily effected
prakasa (the raja of Katmandu) was wounded, and shortly the destruction of his old enemies the Kala Pandrys, who were
afterwards he died at Pashupati. Ranjit-Malla, the aged raja seized and executed in May 1843. At this time mention begins
of Bhatgaon, was allowed to retire to Benares, where he ended to be made of a nephew of Matabar Singh, Jung Bahadur, the
his days. Tej Narsinha, the raja of Patan, was kept in confine- eldest of a band of seven brothers, sons of a kaji or state official.
ment till his death. During the latter years of the war Jaya- He rose rapidly in the army and in favour at the court, especially
prakasa applied to the British for assistance, and a small force, with one of the ranis, who was of a most intriguing disposition.
under Captain Kinloch, was sent into the tarai in 1765, but it was In 1844 he was a colonel, and on the i8th of May 1845 killed his
repulsed by the Gurkhas. uncle, and immediately, with the aid of the rani, took a prominent
Prithwi Narayana died in 1774. He left two sons, Pratapa- part in the government. After a short but turbulent interval of
sinha Sah and Bahadur Sah. The former succeeded his father, intrigue, he got rid of his enemies at one fell swoop, by what is
but died in 1777, leaving aninfant son, Rana Bahadur Sah. On known as the Kot massacre, on the isth of September 1846.
the death of Pratapa-sinha, his brother, who had been in exile, From that time till the day of his death Jung Bahadur was in
returned to Nepal and became regent. The mother of the infant reality the ruler of Nepal. His old friend, the rani, was banished,
king, however, was opposed to him, and he had again to flee to and all posts of any consequence in the state were filled by Jung,
Bettia, in British territory, where he remained till the death of his brothers and other relatives. In 1850, finding himself
the rani, when he again becameregent,andcontinuedso till 1795. securely seated in power, Jung Bahadur paid a visit to England,
During this time the Gurkhas were busily annexing all the which made a great impression on his acute intellect, and ever
neighbouring petty states, so that in 1790 their territories after he professed and proved himself to be a stanch friend of the
extended from Bhutan to the Sutlej river, and from Tibet to the British. On his return in 1851 he at once devoted himself to
British provinces. At length, in 1790, they invaded Tibet, and reforming the administration of the country, and, whatever may
were at first successful; but they were thus brought into contact have been the means by which he gained power, it must be
with the Chinese, who in 1791 sent a large force to invade Nepal. allowed that he exercised it so as to prove himself the greatest
In 1792 the Chinese advanced as far as Noakote, and there benefactor his country has ever possessed. In 1853 a treaty for
dictated terms to the Nepalese. the extradition of criminals was proposed, but it was not ratified
In 1791 the Gurkhas had entered into a commercial treaty with till February 1855. In 1854 the Nepalese entered into a war
the British and hence, when hard pressed, they applied for with Tibet, which lasted with varying success till March 1856,
assistance against the Chinese to Lord Cornwallis. In con- when peace was concluded on terms very favourable to Nepal.
sequence of this Kirkpatrick was despatched to Nepal, and In June 1857 intelligence of the mutiny c-f the native troops in
reached Noakote in the spring of 1 792, but not till after peace had Hindustan reached Nepal, and produced much excitement. Jung
been concluded. One result of this embassy was the ratification Bahadur, in spite of great opposition, stood firm as a friend of the
of another commercial treaty on the ist of March 1792. British. On the 26th June 4000 troops were sent off to assist,
In 1795 Rana Bahadur removed his uncle, Bahadur Sah, from and these rendered good service in the campaign against the
the regency, and two years subsequently put him to death. mutineers. Jung himself followed on the loth of December, with
From this time up to 1799 the king, who seems to have been a force of 8000 men, 500 artillerymen and 24 guns, but too late
insane, perpetrated the most barbarous outrages, till at length to be of much use. Many of the mutineers and rebels, including
his conduct became so intolerable that he was forced to abdicate the infamous Nana Sahib, took refuge in the Nepalese tarai,
in favour of his son, Girvan-yuddha Vikrama Sah, who was still and it was not till the end of 1859 that they were finally swept
an infant. Rana Bahadur once again recovered the throne in out of the country. The Nana was said to have died of fever in
1804, but was assassinated in 1805. the tarai, and it is probable that this was the case. His wives
In October 1801 another treaty was signed by the British and and a few attendants resided for many years near Katmandu.
Nepalese authorities, and a British resident was sent to the In return for the aid afforded to the British, Jung Bahadur was
Nepalese court, but was withdrawn in 1803, owing to the conduct well rewarded. He was created a G.C.B., and in 1873 a G. C.S.I.,
of the Nepalese. From this time the Nepalese carried on a honours of which he was not a little proud. The troops employed
system of encroachment and outrage on the frontier, which led received food and pay from the day of leaving Katmandu;
to a declaration of war by the British in November 1814. At first handsome donations were given to those severely wounded, and
the British attacks were directed against the western portion of to the relatives of the killed; great quantities of muskets and
the Nepalese territory, and under Generals Marly, Wood and rifles were presented to the Nepalese government; and, to crown
Gillespie several disasters were met with. General Gillespie all, a large portion of the tarai was restored to Nepal. This
himself was killed while leading an assault on a small fort called ground contains most valuable sal and sisu forests, and yields a
Kalunga. General Ochterlony was more successful, and the revenue of several lakhs of rupees yearly.
Gurkhas were driven eastward beyond the Kali river, and began From the termination of the mutiny Nepalese history has been
to negotiate for peace. Arms, however, were soon taken up again, uneventful. The country has been prosperous, and the relations
and Ochterlony, who was put in command, in January 1816, with the British have continued to be most friendly. Neverthe-
advanced directly on the capital in the line of the route that is less the restrictions on commerce, and the prohibitions against
now in use. He soon fought his way as far as Mukwanpur, and Europeans entering the country, or travelling beyond certain
the Nepalese sued for peace. A treaty was concluded in March, narrow limits, are as rigidly enforced as they were a hundred
by which the Nepalese relinquished much of their newly acquired years ago. Sir Jung Bahadur died suddenly in the tarai in 1877.
territory, and agreed to allow a British residency to be estab- In spite of all the exertions he had made to bring about a better
lished at Katmandu. In November the raja died, and was state of things, three of his wives were allowed to immolate
succeeded by his infant son, Surendra Bikran Sah, the reins of themselves on his funeral pyre. His brother, Sir Ranadip Singh
government being held by General Bhimsena Thapa. Bahadur, G. C.S.I., succeeded him as prime minister. Shortly
From this time the records for many years furnish little of after his accession to power a plot was formed against him, but
interest except a history of struggles for office between the
Thapa nearly forty of the conspirators were seized and executed, while
NEPENTHES NEPHELINE-SYENITE 383
others escaped into exile. He was, however, murdered in 1885 plutonic rocks of the nepheline-syenite series, which are typically
and was succeeded by his nephew Sir Shamsher Jung, G. C.S.I., developed in southern Norway.
who died in 1901 and was succeeded by his brother Deb Shamsher The colour and greasy lustre of elaeolite (a name given by
Jung. But in June of that year a palace revolution placed another M. H. Klaproth in 1809, from Gr. t\aiov, oil, and Xi0os, stone;
brother, Chandra Shamsher Jung, in power, whilst Deb Shamsher Ger. Feltstein) are due to the presence of numerous microscopic
fled to India. Maharajah Chandra Shamsher has ruled Nepal enclosures of other minerals, possibly augite or hornblende.
with much ability. He gave effective aid to the British during the These enclosures sometimes give rise to a chatoyant effect like
Tibet war of 1904, and the relations with the government of that of cat's-eye and cymophane; and elaeolite when of a good
India became more cordial after his accession to power. In green or red colour and showing a distinct band of light is some-
1906 Chandra Shamsher was created a G. C.S.I., and in 1908 he times cut as a gem-stone with a convex surface.
visited England as a guest of the government, when he was in- Closely allied to nepheline, and occurring with it in some
vested with the G.C.B. by King Edward VII. He was also made nepheline-syenites, is the species cancrinite, which has the
a major-general in the British army, and honorary colonel of the composition HeNasCa(NaCOj)2Al8(SiO 4 )9. It is frequently of
4th Gurkha Rifles. a bright yellow colour, and has sometimes been cut as a gem-
For authorities see Dr Daniel Wright, History of Nepal (1877); stone. (L. J. S.)
Colonel Kirkpatrick, Account of Nepal; Brian Houghton Hodgson's
NEPHELINE-SYENITE, or ELAEOLITE-SYENITE, a holocrystal-
essays; Dr H. A. Oldfield's sketches; Sir C. M. Aitchison, Treaties
and Engagements; Sir Joseph Hooker's writings; and Sir Richard line plutonic rock which consists largely of nepheline and
Temple, Hyderabad and Nepal (1887). (D. WR.; H. WY.)
.
alkali felspar. The rocks are mostly pale coloured, grey or pink,
NEPENTHES (Gr. vrprevQis, sc. <f>apna.Kov, a drug that takes and in general appearance they are not unlike granites, but dark
"
away grief, from privative, and irtvOos,
vrj- grief "), an green varieties are also known. They do not contain quartz,
Egyptian drug spoken of by Homer in the Odyssey (iv. 221). as that mineral and nepheline are mutually exclusive. From
" "
Generally in the form nepftithe the name is given to any ordinary syenites they are distinguished not only by the presence
and of nephsline but also by the occurrence of many other minerals
drug having a like property, also occasionally to the herb
or plant from which such a drug is produced. It is also applied rich in alkalis or in rare earths. Orthoclase and albite are the
to a special genus of plants, chiefly East Indian, known as the principal felspars; usually they are intergrown to form perthite.
" In some rocks the potash felspar, in others the soda felspar
pitcher-plants," on account of the formation of the leaves.
NEPHELINE, a rock-forming mineral consisting of sodium, predominates. Soda-lime felspars such as oligoclase and andesine
are rare or entirely absent. Fresh clear microcline is very char-
potassium and aluminium silicate, Nael^AlgSigOs^ Its crystals
belong to the hexagonal system, and usually have the form of some types of nepheline-syenite. Sodalite, colourless
acteristic of
a short six-sided prism terminated by the basal plane. The and transparent in the slides, but frequently pale blue in the
unsymmetrical etched figures produced artificially on the hand specimens, is the principal felspathoid mineral in addition
prism faces indicate, however, that the crystals are hemimorphic
to nepheline. As a rule these two crystallize before felspar,
and tetartohedral, the only element of symmetry being a polar but they may occur in perthitic intergrowth with it. The
hexad axis. The hardness is 55. The specific gravity (2-6), commonest ferro-magnesian mineral is pale green augite, which
the low index of refraction and the feeble double refraction are may be surrounded by rims of dark-green, pleochroic soda-augite
nearly the same as in quartz; but since in.nepheline the sign of (aegirine). The latter forms long flat prisms or bundles of
the double refraction is negative, whilst in quartz it is positive, radiating needles. A dark reddish-brown biotite is very common
the two minerals are readily distinguished under the microscope. in some of these rocks and a white mica, probably not muscovite
An important determinative character of nepheline is the ease but lepidolite, is occasionally present. The hornblende may be
with which it is decomposed by hydrochloric acid, with separa- brown, brownish-green, blue or blue-black, belonging as a rule
tion of gelatinous silica (which may be readily stained by to the varieties which contain soda; it is often intergrown with
colouring matters) and cubes of salt. A clear crystal of nepheline the pyroxene or enclosed in it. The dark-brown triclinic horn-
when immersed in acid becomes for this reason cloudy; hence blende aenigmatite occurs also in these rocks. Olivine is rare,
the name nepheline, proposed by R. J. Haiiy in 1801, from Gr. but may be found in some basic forms of nepheline-syenite.
The commonest accessories are sphene, zircon, iron ores and
vec/fcXij, a cloud.
Although in naturally occurring nepheline sodium and potas- apatite. Cancrinite occurs in several nepheline-syenites; in
sium are always present in approximately the atomic ratio 3:1, others there is fluor-spar or melanite garnet. A great number
of interesting and rare minerals have been recorded from
artificially prepared crystals have the composition NaAlSiO*;
the corresponding potassium compound, KAlSiCX, which is nepheline-syenites and the pegmatite veins which intersect
the mineral kaliophilite, has also been prepared artificially. them. Among these we may mention eudialyte, eukolite, mos-
It has therefore been suggested that the orthosilicate formula, andrite, rinkite, johnstrupite, lavenite, hiortdahlite, perofskite
(NaK)AlSiO4, represents the true composition of nepheline. and lamprophylh'te. Many of these contain fluorine and the
The mineral is one specially liable to alteration, and in the rare earths.
laboratory various substitution products of nepheline have been Nepheline-syenites are rare rocks; there is only one occurrence
prepared. In nature it is frequently altered to zeolites (especially in Great Britain and one in France and Portugal. They are
known also in Bohemia and in several places in Norway, Sweden
natrolite), sodalite, kaolin, or compact muscovite. Gieseckite
and liebenerite are pseudomorphs. and Finland. In America these rocks have been found in Texas,
Two varieties of nepheline are distinguished, differing in their Arkansas and Massachussetts, also in Ontario, British Columbia
external appearance and in their mode of occurrence, being and Brazil. South Africa, Madagascar, India, Tasmania, Timor
analogous in these respects to sanidine or glassy orthoclase and and Turkestan are other localities for the rocks of this series.
common orthoclase respectively. " Glassy nepheline " has the They exhibit also a remarkable individuality as each occurrence
form of small, colourless, transparent crystals and grains with has its own special features; moreover a variety of types
a vitreous lustre. It is characteristic of the later volcanic rocks characterizes each occurrence, as these rocks are very variable.
rich in alkalis, such as phonolite, nepheline-basalt, leucite- For these reasons, together with the numerous rare minerals
basalt, &c., and also of certain dike-rocks, such as tinguaite. they contain, they have attracted a great deal of attention from
The best crystals are those which occur with mica, sanidine, petrographers.
garnet, &c., in the crystal-lined cavities of the ejected blocks Many types of nepheline-syenite have received designations
of Monte Somma, Vesuvius. The other variety, known as derived from the localities in which they were discovered. The
occurs as large, rough crystals, or more often as laurdalites (from Laurdal in Norway) are grey or pinkish, and in
elaeolite,
irregular masses, which have a greasy lustre and are opaque, or
many ways closely resemble the laurvikites of southern Norway,
with which they occur. They contain anorthoclase felspars of
at most translucent, with a reddish, greenish, brownish or grey
lozenge-shaped forms, biotite or greenish augite, much apatite and
colour. It forms an essential constituent of certain alkaline sometimes olivine. Some of these rocks are porphyritic. The
NEPHELINITES NEPI
foyaites include the greater number of known nepheline-syenites
and are called after Foya in the Serra de Monchique (southern
Portugal), from which they were first described. They are grey,
green or reddish, and mostly of massive structure with preponderat-
ing potash felspar, some nepheline, and a variable (often small)
amount of femic minerals. Pyroxene-, hornblende- and biotite-
foyaites have been recognized according to their mineral com-
position. Examples of the first-named occur in southern Nprway
with the laurdalites; they contain aegirine and black mica. At
Alnq Island in the Gulf of Bothnia (Sweden) similar rocks are found
bearing enclosures or altered limestone with wollastonite and
scapolite. In Siebenburgen (Hungary) there is a well-known rock
of this group, very rich in microcline, blue sodalite and cancrinite.
It contains also orthoclase, nepheline, biotite, aegirine_, acmite, &c.
To this type the name ditroite has been given from the place where
it occurs (Ditro). Pyroxene-foyaite has been described also from
Pouzac in the Pyrenees (S. France). Mica-foyaite is not very
common, but is known at Miask in the Ural Mountains (miaskite),
where it is coarse-grained, and contains black mica, sodalite and
cancrinite. The hornblende-foyaites are usually brown or blue,
and intensely dichroic, but may contain also biotite or augite.
Rocks of this class occur in Brazil (Serra de Tingua) containing
sodalite and often much augite, in the western Sahara and Cape
Verde Islands; also at Zwarte Koppies in the Transvaal, Madagascar,
Sao Paulo (in Brazil), Paisano Pass (West Texas) and Montreal,
Canada. The rock of Salern, Mass., U.S.A., is a mica-foyaite rich in
albite and aegirine ; it accompanies granite and essexite.
Litchfieldite is another well-marked
type of nepheline-syenite,
in which albite is the dominant felspar. It is named after Litch-
field, Maine, U.S.A., where it occurs in scattered blocks. Biotite,
cancrinite and sodalite are characteristic of this rock. Asimilar
nepheline-syenite is known from Hastings Co., Ontario, and con-
tains hardly any orthoclase, but only albite felspar. Nepheline is
very abundant and there is also cancrinite, sodalite, scapolite, calcite,
biotite and hornblende. The lujaurites are distinguished from the
rocks above described by their dark colour, which is due to the
abundance of minerals such as augite, aegirine, arfvedsonite and
other kinds of amphibole. Typical examples are known near Lujaur
on the White Sea, where they occur with umptekites and other
very peculiar rocks. Other localities for this group are at Julianehaab
m Greenland (with sodalite-syenite) at their margins they contain
;
pseudomorphs after leucite. The lujaurites frequently have a
parallel-banding or gneissose structure.
Sodalite-syenites in which sodalite very largely or completely
takes the place of nepheline occur in Greenland, where they contain
also microcline-perthite, aegirine, arfvedsonite and eudialyte.
Cancrinite-syenite, with a large percentage of cancrinite, has been
described from Dalekarlia (Sweden) and from Finland. We may
also mention urtite from Lujaur Urt on the White Sea, which con-
sists very largely of nepheline, with aegirine and apatite, but no
in Brazil) is a blackish
felspar. Jacupirangite (from Jacupiranga
rock composed of titaniferous augite, magnetite, ilmenite, perofskite
and nepheline, with secondary biotite.
The chemical peculiarities of the nepheline-syenites are well
marked, as will be seen from the following analyses. They are
exceedingly rich in alkalis and in alumina (hence the abundance of
felspathoids and alkali felspars) with silica varying from 50 to 56%,
while lime, magnesia and iron are never present in great quantity,
though somewhat more variable than the other components. As a
group, also, these rocks have a low specific gravity.
NEPOMUK NEPTUNE 385
inscriptions. cathedral was burnt down by the French in 1 7 89
The many errors (especially in chronology), but supply information
and restored in 1831. A mile and a half E.N.E. is the Roman- not found elsewhere. The language is as a rule simple and
esque church of S Elia, founded about A.D. 1000, with frescoes correct. The Lives were formerly attributed to Aemilius Probus
of the period. It contains a pulpit of the time of Pope Gregory of the 4th century A.D.; but the view maintained Lambinus
by
IV. (827-844), the sculptures of which are scattered about the (in his famous that they are all the work of Nepos
edition, 1569)
church (F. Mazzanti in Nuovo Bollettino d' Archaeologia Cristiana, is now
generally accepted. A dedicatory epigram written by
1896, 34). Probus to the emperor Theodosius and inserted after the life of
Nepet had become Roman before 386 B.C., when Livy speaks Hannibal, was the origin of the mistake. This dedication, if
of it and Sutrium as the keys of Etruria. In that year it was genuine, would only prove that Probus copied (and perhaps modi-
surrendered to the Etruscans and recovered by the Romans, fied and abridged) the work. In modern times G. F.
Unger (Der
who beheaded the authors of its surrender. It became a colony sogenannle C.N., 1881) has attempted to prove that the author
in 383 B.C. It was among the twelve Latin colonies that refused was Hyginus, but his theory has not been favourably received.
further help to Rome in 209 B.C. After the Social War it became Editions of the Lives (especially selections) are extremely numer-
a municipium. It is hardly mentioned in imperial times, except ous; text by E. O. Winstedt (Oxford, 1904), C. L. Roth (1881),
C. G. Cobet (1881), C. Halm and A. Fleckeisen (1889), with lexicon
as a station on the road (Via Amerina) which diverged from the for school use; with notes, O. Browning and W. R. Inge (1888),
Via Cassia near the modern Settevene and ran to Ameria and J. C. Rolfe (U.S. 1894), A. Weidner and J. Schmidt (1902), C. Erbe
Tuder. In the 8th century A.D. it was for a short while the seat (1892), C. Nipperdey and B. Lupus (ed. maj., 1879, school ed.,
of a dukedom. 1895), J. Siebehs and O. Stange (1897).
See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883, NEPOS, JULIUS, the last but one of the Roman emperors
i. 82). (T. As.) of the West (474-475). He was a nephew of Marcellinus, prince
NEPOMUK (or POMUK), JOHN
OF, the national saint of of Dalmatia, whom he succeeded in his principality. After
Bohemia. It is necessary to distinguish between the John of the death of Olybrius the throne of the West remained vacant
Nepomuk of history and the legendary one. In 1393 a dispute for some months, during which Italy was abandoned to bar-
arose between King Wenceslaus IV. of Bohemia and the arch- barians. Being connected by marriage with Leo I., emperor of
bishop of Prague, John of Jenzenstein. Wenceslaus, wishing to the East, he was selected by him to succeed Olybrius on the
found a new bishopric in south-western Bohemia, determined to Western throne, and proclaimed at Ravenna. After capturing
seize the revenues of the abbey of Kladrub as soon as the aged his rival Glycerius, who had been nominated by the army in
abbot RaCek should die. The archbishop opposed this plan, 473, at the mouth of the Tiber, he was recognized as emperor
and by his orders his vicar-general, John of Pomuk son of a in Rome, Italy and Gaul. The only event of the reign of Nepos
German named Wolfel, a citizen of Pomuk advised the monks was the inglorious cession to the Visigoths of the province of
to elect a new abbot immediately after RaJek's death. This Auvergne. In 475 Orestes, father of Augustulus, afterwards
greatly incensed the king, who summoned the archbishop and the last emperor of the West, raised the standard of revolt and
some of his clergy among whom was Pomuk to appear before marched against Nepos at Ravenna. The emperor fled into
him. He ordered them to be immediately arrested, and though Dalmatia, and continued to reside at Salona until his assassina-
the archbishop escaped his four companions among them tion by two of his own officers in 480, possibly at the instigation
Pomuk were seized and subjected to cruel torture. They were of Glycerius, who had been compelled to enter the church and
ordered to abandon the archbishop. Three of them consented, had been appointed bishop of Salona.
but Pomuk, who refused to submit and was already on the point See Tillemont, Hist, des empereurs, vi. ; Gibbon, Decline and
Fall, ch. 36.
of death, was carried to the bridge of Prague and thrown into
the Vltava. It is difficult to connect this historical event with
NEPTUNE (Lat. NEPTUNTJS), an Italian god, of unknown
the legend of St John of Nepomuk, who was canonized by the origin and meaning, paired with Salacia, possibly the goddess
of the salt water. At an early date (399 B.C.) he was identified
church of Rome in 1729, mainly by the influence of the Jesuits,
with the Greek Poseidon (?..), when the Sibylline books ordered
who hoped that this new cult would obliterate the memory of
a lectisternium in his honour (Livy v. 13). His festival, Nep-
Hus. The Austrian chronicler Thomas Ebendorffer of Hasel-
tunalia, at which tents were made from the branches of trees,
bach, who lived two generations later, first states that it was
was celebrated on the 23rd of July, and his temple, containing a
reported that King Wenceslaus had ordered that the confessor
of his queen an office that John of Pomuk never held should
famous marine group by Scopas, stood near the Circus Flaminius.
In earlier times it was the god Fortunus who was thanked for naval
be thrown into the Vltava because he would not reveal the secret
of confession. The story is afterwards told in greater detail by victories; but Sextus Pompeius called himself son of Neptune,
the untrustworthy Bohemian historian Wenceslaus Hajek. It
and Agrippa dedicated to Neptune a temple (Basilica Neptuni) in
the Campus Martius in honour of the naval victory of Actium.
appears certain that the person canonized in 1729 was not the
historical John of Pomuk or Nepomuk.
NEPTUNE, in astronomy, the outermost known planet of
See A. H. Wratislaw, Life, Legend and Canonization of St John our solar system; its symbol is ty .Its distance from the sun is
Nepomuk (1873), a valuable work founded on the best Bohemian a little more than 30 astronomical units, i.e. 30 times the mean
authorities; also A. Frind, Der geschichtliche Heilige Johann von distance of the earth from the sun, or about 2,796,000,000 m.
Nepomuk (1861); O. Abel, Die Legende vpm heiligen Johann von It deviates greatly from Bode's law, which would give a
Nepomuk (1855); and particularly vol. iii. of W. W. Tomek's
distance of nearly 39. Its orbit is more nearly circular than
History of the Town of Prague (Czech) (12 vols., Prague, 1855-1901).
NEPOS, CORNELIUS (c. 99-24 B.C.), Roman historian, friend that of any other major planet, Venus excepted. Its time of
of Catullus, Cicero and At ticus, was born in Upper Italy (perhaps revolution is 165 years. Being of the 8th stellar magnitude it
at Verona or Ticinum). He wrote: Chronica, an epitome of is invisible to the naked eye. In a small telescope it cannot
universal history; Exempla, a collection of anecdotes after the be distinguished from a fixed star, but in a large one it is seen
to have a disk about 2-3" in diameter, of a pale bluish hue. No
style of Valerius Maximus; letters to Cicero; lives of Cato the
elder and Cicero; and De viris illustribus, parallel lives of dis- features and no change of appearance can be detected upon it, so
tinguished Romans and foreigners, in sixteen books. One section that observation can give no indication of its rotation. Both its
of this voluminous work (De excellentibus ducibus exterarum optical aspectand the study of its spectrum seem to show that it
resembles Uranus. Its spectrum shows marked absorption-bands
gentium, more commonly known as Vitae excellentium impera-
in the red and yellow, indicating an atmosphere of great depth
torum) and the biographies of Cato and Atticus from another
(De Latinis historicis) have been preserved. Erotic poems and of which hydrogen would seem to be aconstituent. (See PLANET.)
a geographical treatise are also attributed to him. Nepos is not Only a single satellite of Neptune is yet known. This was dis-
coverea by William Lassell soon after the discovery of the planet.
altogether happy in the subjects of his biographies, and he writes Its motion is retrograde, in a
Its period of revolution is sd. 21 h.
rather as a panegyrist than as a biographer, although he can an angle of about 35 with the orbit of the planet.
plane making
rebuke his own countrymen on occasion. The Lives contain This was the first case of retrograde motion found in any of the
xix. 13
3 86 NEPTUNE
planets or satellites of the solar system. The most noteworthy feature Uranian planet, the existence of which was made probable by
connected with the satellite is a secular change which is going on in the disagreement between the older and more recent observations. 2
the position of its orbital plane. Were the planet spherical in form,
no such change could occur, except an extremely slow one produced In 1838 Airy showed in a letter to the Astronomische Nack-
by the action of the sun. The change is therefore attributed to a richten that not only the heliocentric longitude, but the tabulated
considerable ellipticity of the planet, which is thus inferred to be in radius vector of Uranus was largely in error, but made no
rapid rotation. It will ultimately be possible to determine from this suggestions as to the cause.
3
motion the position of the aids of rotation of Neptune with much
In 1843 the Royal Society of Sciences of Gottingen offered
greater precision than it could possibly be directly observed.
The following elements of the satellite were determined by H. a prize of 50 ducats for a satisfactory working up of the whole
Struve from all the observations available up to 1892: theory of the motions of Uranus, assigning September 1846
Varying Elements of Neptune's Satellite. as the time within which competing papers should be presented.
Inclination to earth's equator 119 -35
. o -165 (t-l8ox>) It is also recorded that Bessel, during a visit to England
R.A. of node on earth's equator 185 -15+ o -148 (1-1890)
.
in 1842, in a conversation with Sir John Herschel, expressed
Distance from node at epoch 234 -42
.
the conviction that Uranus was disturbed by an unknown
Mean daily motion . . 61 -25748
. .
planet, and announced his intention of taking up the subject.
4
=
Mean distance at logA 1-47814 16 -271*
Epoch, 1890, Jan. o, Greenwich He went so far as to set his assistant Fleming at the work of
mean noon reducing the observations, but died before more was done.
The eccentricity, if any, is too small to be certainly determined. The question had now reached a stage when it needed only
From the above mean distance is derived as the mass of Neptune a vigorous effort by an able mathematician to solve the problem.
rs Jim- The motion of Uranus gives a mass r^hr- Such a man was found in John Couch Adams, then a student
Discovery of Neptune. The detection of Neptune through of St John's College, Cambridge, who seriously attacked the
its action upon Uranus before its existence had been made known
problem in 1843, the year in which he took his bachelor's degree.
by observation is a striking example of the precision reached He soon found that the observations of Uranus could be fairly
by the theory of the celestial motions. So many agencies were well represented by the action of a planet moving in a radius
concerned in the final discovery that the whole forms one of
of twice the mean distance of Uranus, which would closely
the most interesting chapters in the history of astronomy. The
correspond to Bode's law. During the two following years he
planet Uranus, before its actual discovery by Sir William investigated the possible eccentricity of the orbit, and in
Herschel in 1781, had been observed as a fixed star on at least
September 1845 communicated his results to Professor James
17 other occasions, beginning with Flamsteed in 1690. In 1820 Challis. In 1845, about the ist of November, Adams also sent
Alexis Bouvard of Paris constructed tables of the motion of his completed elements to Airy, stating that according to his
Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus, based upon a discussion of observa- calculations the observed irregularities in the motion of Uranus
tions up to that year. Using the mutual perturbations of these could be accounted for by the action of an exterior planet, of
planets as developed in the Mecanique Celeste, he
by Laplace which the motions and orbital elements, were given. It is
was enabled satisfactorily to represent the observed positions
worthy of note that the heliocentric longitude of the unknown
of Jupiter and Saturn; but the case was entirely different
body as derived from these elements is only between one and
with Uranus. It was found impossible to represent all the
two degrees in error, while the planet was within half a degree
observations within admissible limits of error, the outstanding of the ecliptic. Two or three evenings assiduously devoted to
differences between theory and observation exceeding i'. In the search could not therefore have failed to make the planet
these circumstances one of two courses had to be adopted, Adams's paper was accompanied by a comparison
known. of
either to obtain the best general representation of all the observa-
his theory with the observations of Uranus from 1780, showing
tions, which would result in the tables being certainly erroneous, an excellent agreement. Airy in replying to this letter inquired
or to reject the older observations which might be affected with
whether the assumed perturbation would also explain the error
errors, and base the tables only on those made since the discovery of the radius-vector of Uranus, which he seemed to consider
by Herschel. A few years of observation showed that Uranus the crucial test of correctness. It does not seem that any
was deviating from the new tables to an extent greater than
categorical reply to this question was made by Adams.
could be attributed to legitimate errors of theory of observation, had
Meanwhile, at the suggestion of Arago, the investigation
and the question of the cause thus became of growing interest. who had
been taken up by U. J. J. Leverrier, published some
Among the investigators of the question was F. W. Bessel,
1
excellent work in theoretical astronomy. Leverrier's first
who tried to reconcile the difficulty by an increase of the mass
published communication on the subject was made to the French
of Saturn, but found that he could do so only by assigning a
Academy on the loth of November 1845, a few days after
mass not otherwise admissible. Although the idea that the Adams's results were in the hands of Airy and Challis. A second
deviations were probably due to the action of an ultra-Uranian
memoir was presented by Leverrier in 1846 (June i). His
planet was entertained by Bouvard, Bessel and doubtless
investigation was more thorough than that of Adams. He first
others, it would seem that the first clear statement of a con- showed that the observations of Uranus could not be accounted
viction that such was the case, and that it was advisable to
for by the attraction of known bodies. Considering in succession
reach some conclusion as to the position of the disturbing body,
various explanations, he found none admissible except that of
was expressed by the Rev. T. J. Hussey, an English amateur a planet exterior to Uranus. Considering the distances to be
astronomer. In a letter to Sir George B. Airy in 1834 he inquired
double that of Uranus he then investigated the other elements
Airy's views of the subject, and offered to search for the planet of the orbit. He also attempted, but by a faulty method, to
with his own equatorial if the required estimate of its position
determine the limits within which the elements must be contained.
could be supplied. Airy expressed himself as not fully satisfied
The following are the elements found by Adams and Leverrier:
that the deviation might not arise from errors in the perturba-
tions. He therefore was not certain of any extraneous action;
but even if there was, he doubted the possibility of determining
the place of a planet which might produce it. In 1837 Bouvard,
in conjunction with his nephew Eugene, was again working
on the problem; but it does not seem that they went farther
than to collect observations and to compare the results with
Bouvard 's tables.
In 1835 F. B. G. Nicolai, director of the observatory at
Mannheim, motion of Halley's comet, con-
in discussing the
sidered the possibility that it was acted upon by an ultra-
1
Briefwechsel zwischen Otters u. Bessel, ii. 250 (Oct. 9, 1823).
NERAC 387
The longitude of the actual planet was 327 57' on the ist of Theobservations of the first opposition enabled Sears Cook
October 1846. Walker of the National Observatory, Washington, in February
The close agreement of these elements led Airy to suggest 1847 to compute the past positions of the planet, and identify
to Challis, on the oth of July 1846, a search for the planet with it with a star observed by Lalande at Paris in
May 1795. This
the Northumberland telescope. He proposed an examination being communicated to the Paris observatory, an examination
of a part of the heavens 30 long in the direction of the ecliptic of Lalande's manuscript showed that he had made two observa-
and 10 broad, and estimated the number of hours' work likely tions of the planet, on the 8th and loth of May, and finding
to be employed in this sweep. The proposed sweeps were them discordant had rejected one as probably in error, and
commenced by Challis on the 2gth of July. The plan required marked the other as questionable. A mere re-examination of
each region to be swept through twice, and the positions of all the region to see which observation was in error would have led
the known stars found to be compared, in order that the position him to the discovery of the planet more than half a century
of the planet might be detected by its motion. On the 3ist of before it was actually recognized. The identity of Lalande's
August Leverrier's concluding paper was presented to the French star with Neptune was also independently shown by Petersen
Academy, and on the i8th of September he wrote to John G. of Altona, before any word of Walker's work had reached him.
Galle (1812-1910), then chief assistant at the Berlin observatory, BIBLIOGRAPHY. The principal sources for the history of the
suggesting that he should search for the computed planet, with discovery of Neptune are the Astronomische Nachrichten, vols. xxv.,
the hope of detecting it by its disk, which was probably more xxvi., xxviii., and Lindenau's paper in the Ergdnzungsheft to this
publication, pp. 1-31 (Altona, 1849). In the Memoirs of the Royal
than 3* in diameter. This letter, probably received on the 23rd Astronomical Society, vol. xyi., Airy gave a detailed history of the
of September, was communicated to J. F. Encke, the director circumstances connected with the discovery, so far as he was cog-
of the observatory, who approved of the search. H. L. d' Arrest, nizant of them. Documents pertaining to the subject are found in
the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astron. Society* B. A. Gould,
a student living at the observatory, expressed a wish to assist.
Report to the Smithsonian Institution on the History of the Discovery
In the evening the search was commenced, but it was not found
of Neptune, published by the Smithsonian Institution (Washington,
possible to detect any planet by its disk. Star charts were at 1850), is the most complete and detailed history of all the circum-
the time being prepared at the observatory under the auspices stances connected with the discovery, and with the early investiga-
tions on the orbit of the planet, that has been published. Leverrier's
of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. It was suggested by d' Arrest
investigation was published in extenso as an addition to the Con-
that this region might be covered by one of the charts. Referring naissance des temps, and Adams's as an
to the chart, which was lying in a drawer, it was found that such appendix to the Nautical
Almanac for 1851. Peirce's discussions, so far as published at all,
was the case. Comparing the stars on the chart one by one are found in the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and
with the heavens it was found that an eighth magnitude star Sciences. The first computations of the orbit after the discovery
were made by Sears Cook Walker, and published
now visible was not on the chart. This object was observed by the Smithsonian
Institution (1848-1850). General tables of the motion of Neptune are
until after midnight, but no certain motion was detected. On in Kowalski's Tables du mouvement de la planete Neptune; Newcomb's
the following evening the object was again looked for, and found Investigation of the Orbit of Neptune, Washington, Smithsonian In-
to have actually moved. The existence of the planet was thus stitution (1866); Leverrier's Annales de I'Observatoire de Paris;
" "
established. It was afterwards found that Challis in his sweeps
Memoirs, vol. xiv. (1877), and lastly Newcomb's Tables in
Astron. Papers of the American Ephemeris, vol. vii., part iv. Tables
had observed the planet on the 4th of August, but, not having of the satellite are found in Newcomb, The Uranian and Nep-
compared his observations with those made subsequently, had tunian Systems; appendix to the Washington observations for
, failed to detect it. 1873- (S. N.)
The question whether Leverrier should receive the sole credit N&RAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an arron-
of the discovery was warmly discussed. Arago took the extreme dissement in the department of Lot-et-Garonne, 16 m. W.S.W.
ground that actual publication alone should be considered, of Agen by road. Pop. (1906) town, 4018; commune, 6318.
rejecting Adams's communications to Airy and Challis as quite The town, once the capital of the dukes of Albret, is divided by
unworthy of consideration. He also suggested that the name the Baise into two parts, Grand-Nerac on the left bank and
of Leverrier should be given to the planet, but this proposal Petit-Nerac on the right bank. The river is spanned by a bridge
was received with so little favour outside of France that he of the 1 6th century, called the Pont Vieux, and by the Pont
speedily withdrew it, proposing that of Neptune instead. Neuf, of modern construction. Narrow winding streets often
The observations at the first opposition showed that the planet bordered by old houses ascend from the narrow quays on both
was moving in a nearly circular orbit, and was at a mean distance banks. From the left bank a staircase leads to the Rue Henri
from the sun much less than that set by Leverrier as the smallest Quatre, where stands a wing of the castle in which Henry IV.
possible. The latter had in fact committed the error of deter- lived. A statue of the king stands in one of the squares. The
mining the limits by considering the variations of the elements former palace of the Chambre des Comptes is now occupied
one at a time, assuming in the case of each that while it varied by the tribunal of commerce, the library and the museum. The
the others remained constant. But a simultaneous variation church of Grand-N6rac of the i8th century and the church
of all the elements would have shown that the representation of Petit-Nerac of the I9th century offer no remarkable features.
of the observations of Uranus would be improved by a simul- On the left bank of the Baise, above- Grand-Neiac, market
taneous diminution of both the eccentricity and the mean gardens have taken the place of the old gardens of the Sires
distance, the orbit becoming more nearly circular and the d' Albret, but remains of the Palais des Mariannes and of the
planet being brought nearer to the sun. But this was not at Pavilion des Bains du Roi de Navarre, both of Renaissance
first clearly seen, and Benjamin Peirce of Harvard University architecture, are left. The famous promenade of La Garenne
went so far as to maintain that there was a discontinuity between laid out by Antoine de Bourbon, king of Navarre, stretches
the solution of Adams and Leverrier and the solution offered for more than a mile along the opposite bank of the river. The
by the planet itself, and that the coincidence in direction of the remains of a Roman villa, including a fragment of mosaic, have
actualand computed planet was an accident. But this view been found there. A road leads from the south end of La
was not well founded, and the only explanation needed was to Garenne to the ruins of the feudal castle of Nazareth. The
be found in Leverrier's faulty method of determining the limits Chateau du Tasta of the isth century is within a short distance
within which the planet must be situated. As a matter of of Nerac. The town has a sub-prefecture, and the industries
fact the actual motion of the planet during the century preceding, include brewing and cork-working.
as derived from Leverrier's elements, was much nearer the truth N6rac appears at the beginning of the nth century as a
than the elements themselves were. This arose from the fact possession of the monks of St Pierre de Condom. The lords of
that his very elliptic orbit, by its large eccentricity, brought the Albret gradually deprived them of their authority over the town,
planet near to the sun, and therefore near to its true position, and at the beginning of the I4th century founded a castle on the
during the period from 1780 to 1845, when the action on Uranus left bank of the Baise. In the i6th century the castle was the
was at its greatest. residence of Henry IV. during much of his youth and of
3 88
NERBUDDA NERGAL
in 1851, of Chita, the present capital of Transbaikalia, Nerchinsk
Marguerite de Valois, sister of Francis I., of Jeanne d'Albret,
and of the second Marguerite de Valois, wife of Henry IV., has been falling into decay.
who held a brilliant court there. Nerac, the inhabitants of which NERCHINSK (in full NERCHINSKI? ZAVOD), a town and silver-
had adopted the Reformed religion, was seized by the Catholics mine ofEast Siberia, in the government of Transbaikalia, 150 m.
in 1562. The conferences, held there at the end of 1578 between E.S.E. of another Nerchinsk (q.v.) (with which it is often con-
the Catholics and Protestants, ended in February 1579 in the fused), on a small affluent of the Argun. Pop. (1897) 3000.
It lies in a narrow valley between barren mountains, and is much
peace of N6rac. In 1580 the town was used by Henry IV. as
a base for attacks on' the Agenais, Armagnac and Guienne. better built than any of the district towns of East Siberia. It
A Chambre de PEdit for Guienne and a Chambre des Comptes has a chemical laboratory for mining purposes, and a meteoro-
were established there by Henry IV. In 1621, however, the logical observatory (51 18' N., 119 37' E., 2200 ft. above
town took part in the Protestant rising, was taken by the troops sea-level), where meteorological and magnetical observations
of Louis XIII. and its fortifications dismantled. Soon after it have been made every hour since 1842. The average yearly
was deprived both of the Chambre de 1'Edit and of the Chambre temperature is 25-3 F., with extremes of 97-7 and -52-6.
des Comptes, and its ruin was completed by the revocation of NERCHINSK MINING DISTRICT extends over an area of 29,450
the Edict of Nantes in 1685. sq. m., and includes all the silver-mines and gold-fields between
NERBUDDA, or NARBADA, a river of India. It is traditionally the Shilka and the Argun, together with a few on the left bank
regarded as the boundary between Hindustan proper and the of the Shilka. It is traversed by several parallel chains of moun-
Deccan. It rises on the summit of Amarkantak hill in Rewa tains which rise to 4500 ft., and are intersected by a complicated
state, and for the first 200 m. of its course winds among the system of deep, narrow valleys, densely wooded, with a few
Mandla hills, which form the head of the Satpura range; then expansions along the larger rivers, where the inhabitants with
" The population (75,625
at Jubbulpore, passing through the Marble Rocks," it enters its difficulty raise some rye and wheat.
proper valley between the Vindhyan and Satpura ranges, and in 1897) consists of Russians, Buryats and Tunguses. Included
pursues a direct westerly course to the Gulf of Cambay. Its in this number were some 2300 convicts. The mountains, so
total course through the Central Provinces and Gujarat amounts far as they have been geologically explored, consist of crystalline
to about 800 m., and it falls into the sea in the Bombay district slates and limestones probably Upper Silurian and Devonian
of Broach. It receives the drainage of the northern slopes interspersed with granite, syenite and diorite; they contain
of the Satpuras, but not that of the Vindhyan tableland, the rich ores of silver, lead, tin and iron, while the diluvial and
streams from which flow into the Ganges and Jumna. After alluvial valley formations contain productive auriferous sands.
leaving the Central Provinces, the river widens out in the fertile
The Nerchinsk silver mines began to be worked in 1704, but
district of Broach, with an average breadth of $ m. to i m. during the first half of the l8th century their yearly production did
not exceed 8400 oz., and the total amount for the first 150 years
Below Broach city it forms an estuary which is 13 m. broad (1704-1854) amounted to 11,540,000 oz. The lead was mostly
where it enters the Gulf of Cambay. The Nerbudda is nowhere neglected on account of the difficulties of transport, but its pro-
utilized for irrigation, and navigation is confined to the lower duction is at present on the increase. Gold was first discovered in
1830, and between 1833 and 1855 260,000 oz. of gold dust were
section. In the rainy season boats of considerable size sail about
obtained. In 1864 a large number of auriferous deposits were dis-
60 m. above Broach city. Sea-going vessels of abqut 70 tons covered. Until 1863 all the labour was performed by serfs, the
frequent the port of Broach, but they are entirely dependent property of the emperor, and by convicts, numbering usually
on the tide. In sanctity the Nerbudda ranks only second nearly four thousand.
to the Ganges among the rivers of India, and along its whole NEREUS, in Greek mythology, the eldest son of Pontus and
course are special places of pilgrimage. The most meritorious Gaea, and father of the fifty Nereids. He is a beneficent and
act that a pilgrim can perform is to walk from the sea to the source venerable old man of the sea, full of wisdom and skilled in
of the river and back along the opposite bank. This pilgrimage prophecy, but, like Proteus, he will only reveal what he knows
takes from one to two years to accomplish. under compulsion. Thus Heracles seized him when asleep, and,
The Nerbudda has given its name to a division of the Central although he attempted to escape by assuming various forms,
Provinces, comprising the five districts of Narsinghpur, Hoshanga- compelled him to reveal the whereabouts of the apples of the
bad, Nimar, Betul and Chhindwara. Area, 18,382 sq. m. ; Hesperides (Apollodorus ii. 5). His favourite dwelling-place is a
pop. (1001) 1,785,008. cavern in the depths of the Aegean. The fifty daughters of
NERCHINSK, a town of Eastern Siberia, in the government Nereus, the Nereids, are personifications of the smiling, quiet sea.
of Transbaikalia, 183 m. by rail E. of Chita, on the left bank of Of these, Thetis and Amphitrite rule the sea according to the
the Nercha, 2| m. above its confluence with the Shilka. Pop. legend of different localities; Galatea is a Sicilian figure, who
(1897) 6713. It is badly built of wood, and its lower parts plays with and deludes her rustic lover of the shore, Polyphemus.
frequently suffer from inundations. It has a small museum. Nereus is represented with the sceptre and trident; the Nereids
The inhabitants support themselves mainly by agriculture, are depicted as graceful maidens, lightly dad or naked, riding on
tobacco-growing and cattle-breeding; a few merchants trade in tritons and dolphins. The name has nothing to do with the
furs and cattle, in brick-tea from China, and manufactured modern Greek vtpb (really veap&v, " fresh " [water]) : it is prob-
wares from Russia. ably a short form of N^ptTos.
The fort of Nerchinsk dates from 1654, and the town was NERGAL, the name of a solar deity in Babylonia, the main
founded in 1658 by Pashkov, who in that year opened direct seat of whose cult was at Kutha or Cuthah, represented by the
communication between the Russian settlements in Transbaikalia mound of Tell-Ibrahim. The importance of Kutha as a religious
and those on the Amur which had been founded by Cossacks and and at one time also as a political centre led to his surviving the
fur-traders coming from the Yakutsk region. In 1689 was signed tendency to concentrate the various sun-cults of Babylonia in
between Russia and China the treaty of Nerchinsk, which Shamash (q.v.). He becomes, however, the representative of
stopped for two centuries the farther advance of the Russians into a certain phase only of the sun and not of the sun as a whole.
the basin of the Amur. After that Nerchinsk became the chief Portrayed in hymns and myths as a god of war and pestilence,
centre for the trade with China. The opening of the western there can be little doubt that Nergal represents the sun of noon-
route through Mongolia, by Urga, and the establishment of a time and of the summer solstice which brings destruction to man-
custom-house at Kiakhta in 1728 diverted this trade into a new kind. It is a logical consequence that Nergal is pictured also as the
channel. But Nerchinsk acquired fresh importance from the deity who presides over the nether-world, and stands at the head
influx of immigrants, mostly exiles, into eastern Transbaikalia, of the special pantheon assigned to the government of the dead,
the discovery of rich mines and the arrival of great numbers of who are supposed to be gathered in a large subterranean cave
convicts, and ultimately it became the chief town of Trans- known as Aralu or Irkalla. In this capacity there is associated
baikalia. In 181 2 it was transferred from the banks of the Shilka with him a goddess Allatu, though there are indications that at
to its present site, on account of the floods. Since the foundation, one time Allatu was regarded as the sole mistress of Aralu, ruling
NERI, PHILIP 389
in her own person. Ordinarily the consort of Nergal is Laz. of May. He had some thought of going to India as a missionary,
Nergal was pictured as a lion and on boundary-stone monuments but was dissuaded by his friends who saw that there was abundant
his symbol is a mace surmounted by the head of a lion. work to be done in Rome, and that he was the man to do it.
As in the case of Ninib, Nergal appears to have absorbed Accordingly he settled down, with some companions, at the
a number of minor solar deities, which accounts for the various hospital of San Girolamo della Carita, and while there tentatively
names or designations under which he appears, such as Lugalgira, began, in 1556, the institute with which his name is more especi-
Sharrapu (" the burner," perhaps a mere epithet), Ira, Gibil ally connected, that of the Oratory. The scheme at first was
(though this name more properly belongs to Nusku, q.v.) and no more than a series of evening meetings in a hall (the Oratory),
Sibitti. A certain confusion exists in cuneiform literature at which there were prayers, hymns, readings from Scripture,
between Ninib and Nergal, perhaps due to the traces of two from the fathers,and from the Martyrology, followed by a
different conceptions regarding these two solar deities. Nergal lecture, or by discussion of some religious question proposed
" "
is called the raging king," the furious one," and the like, and for consideration. The musical selections (settings of scenes
a
by play upon his name separated into three elements Ne-uru- from sacred history) were called oratorios. The scheme was
" "
gal lord of the great dwelling his position at the head of the developed, and the members of the society undertook various
nether-world pantheon is indicated. In the astral-theological kinds of mission work throughout Rome, notably the preaching
system he is the planet Mars, while in ecclesiastical art the great of sermons in different churches every evening, a wholly novel
lion-headed colossi serving as guardians to the temples and agency at that time. In 1564 the Florentines requested him to
palaces seem to be a symbol of Nergal, just as the bull-headed leave San Girolamo, and to take the oversight of their church
colossi are probably intended to typify Ninib. in Rome, San Giovanni dei Yiorentini, then newly built. He
The name of his chief temple at Kutha was E-shid-lam, from was at first reluctant, but by consent of Pius IV. he accepted,
"
which the god receives the designation of Sbidlamtaea, the while retaining the charge of San Girolamo, where the exercises
one that rises up from Shidlam." The cult of Nergal does not of the Oratory were kept up. At this time the new society
appear to have been as widespread as that of Ninib. He is included amongst its members Caesar Baronius, the ecclesi-
frequently invoked in hymns and in votive and other inscriptions astical historian, Francesco Maria Tarugi, afterwards archbishop
of Babylonian and Assyrian rulers, but we do not learn of many of Avignon, and Paravicini, all three subsequently cardinals,
temples to him outside of Kutha. Sennacherib speaks of one and also Gallonius, author of a well-known work on the Sufferings
at Tarbisu to the north of Nineveh, but it is significant that of the Martyrs, Ancina, Bordoni, and other men of ability and
although Nebuchadrezzar II. (606-5863.0.), the great temple- distinction.
builder of the neo-Babylonian monarchy, alludes to his opera- The Florentines, however, built in 1574 a large oratory or
tions at E-shid-lam in Kutha, he makes no mention of a sanctuary mission-room for the society contiguous to San Giovanni, in
to Nergal in Babylon. Local associations with his original order to save them the fatigue of the daily journey to and from
seat Kutha and the conception formed of him as a god of San Girolamo, and to provide a more convenient place of
the dead acted in making him feared rather than actively assembly, and the headquarters were transferred thither. As
worshipped. (M. JA.) the community grew, and its mission work extended, the need
NERI, PHILIP (FiLippo DE) (1515-1595), Italian churchman, of having a church entirely its own, and not subject to other
was born at Florence on the 2ist of July 1515. He was the claims, as were San Girolamo and San Giovanni, made itself
youngest child of Francesco Neri, a lawyer of that city, and felt, and the offer of the small parish church of Santa Maria in
his wife Lucrezia Soldi, a woman of noble birth, whose family Vallicella, conveniently situated in the middle of Rome, was
had long served the state. He was carefully brought up, and made and accepted. The building, however, as not large
received his early teaching from the friars at San Marco, the enough for their purpose, was pulled down, and a splendid
famous Dominican monastery in Florence. He was accustomed church erected on the site. It was immediately after taking
in after life to ascribe most of his progress to the teaching of possession of their new quarters that Neri formally organized,
two amongst them, Zenobio de' Medici and Servanzio Mini. under permission of a bull dated July 15, 1575, a community
When he was about sixteen years old, a fire destroyed nearly of secular priests, entitled the Congregation of the Oratory. The
all hisfather's property. Philip was sent to his father's childless new church was consecrated early in 1577, and the clergy of
brother Romolo, a merchant at San Germane, a Neapolitan the new society at once resigned the charge of San Giovanni
town near the base of Monte Cassino, to assist him in his business, dei Fiorentini, but Neri himself did not migrate from San Giro-
and with the hope that he might inherit his possessions. So lamo till 1583, and then only in virtue of an injunction of the
far as gaining Romolo's confidence and affection, the plan was pope that he, as the superior, should reside at the chief house
entirely successful, but it was thwarted by Philip's own resolve of his congregation. He was at first elected for a term of three
to take holy orders. In 1533 he left San Germano, and went years (as is usual in modern societies), but in 1587 was nominated
to Rome, where he became tutor in the house of a Florentine superior for life. He was, however, entirely free from personal
gentleman named Galeotto Caccia. Here he was able to pursue ambition, and had no desire to be general over a number of
his own studies under the guidance of the Augustinians, and to dependent houses, so that he desired that all congregations
begin those labours amongst the sick and poor which gained formed on his model outside Rome should be autonomous,
him in later life the title of "Apostle of Rome," besides paying governing themselves, and without endeavouring to retain
nightly visits for prayer and meditations to the churches of the control over any new colonies they might themselves send out
city and to the catacombs. In 1538 he entered on that course a regulation afterwards formally confirmed by a brief of Gregory
of home mission work which was the distinguishing charac- XV. in 1622. Much as he mingled with society, and with persons
teristic of his life; somewhat in the manner of Socrates he of importance in church and state, his single interference in
traversed the city, seizing opportunities of entering into con- political matters was in 1593, when his persuasions induced the
versation with persons of all ranks, and of leading them on, pope, Clement VIII., to withdraw the excommunication and
with playful irony, with searching questions, with words of wise anathema of Henry IV. of France, and the refusal to receive
and kindly counsel, to consider the topics he desired to set his ambassador, even though the king had formally abjured
before them. Calvinism. Neri saw that the pope's attitude was more than
In 1548 he founded the celebrated confraternity of the San- likely to drive Henry to a relapse, and probably to rekindle
tissima Trinita de' Pellegrini e de' Convalescente, whose primary the civil war in France, and directed Baronius, then the pope's
object is to minister to the needs of the thousands of poor confessor, to refuse him absolution, and to resign his office of
pilgrims who flock to Rome, especially in years of jubilee, and confessor, unless he would withdraw the anathema. Clement
also to relieve the patients discharged from hospitals, but still yielded at once, though the whole college of cardinals had
too weak for labour. In 1551 he passed through all the minor supported his policy; and Henry, who did not learn the facts
orders, and was ordained deacon, and finally priest on the 23rd till several years afterwards, testified
lively gratitude for the
39 NERO
Massillon were members of the famous branch established in Paris
timely and politic intervention. Neri continued in the govern- in 1611 B6rulle (after cardinal), which had a great success and
ment of the Oratory until his death, which took place on the by
a distinguished history. It fell in the crash of the Revolution, but
26th of May 1595 at Rome. He was succeeded by Baronius. was revived by P6re P6t6tot, cur6 of St Roch, in 1852, as the
"
There are many anecdotes told of him which attest his possession Oratory of Jesus and the Immaculate Mary "; the Church of the
of a playful humour, united with shrewd mother-wit. He Oratory near the Louvre belongs to the Reformed Church. An
considered a cheerful temper to be more Christian than a melan- English house, founded in 1847 at Birmingham, is celebrated as the
place at which Cardinal Newman fixed his abode after his sub-
choly one, and carried this spirit into his whole life. This is mission to the Roman Catholic Church. In 1849 a second congrega-
the true secret of his popularity and of his place in the folk-lore tion was founded in King William Street, Strand, London, with F. W.
Faber as superior; in 1854 it wa s transferred to Brompton. The
of the Roman poor. Many miracles were attributed to him
alive and dead, and it is said that when his body was dissected society has never thriven in Germany, though a few houses have been
founded there, in Munich and Vienna.
it was found that two of his nbs had been broken, an event AUTHORITIES. J. Marciano, Memorie istoriche della Congregazione
attributed to the expansion of his heart while fervently praying dell'Oratorio (5 vols., Naples, 1693-1702); Perraud, L'Oratoire de
in the catacombs about the year 1545. This phenomenon is France (2nd ed., Paris, 1866) ; Jourdain de la PassardiSre, L'Oratoire
de Si Ph. de Neri (1880); Ant. Gallonius, Vita Ph. Neri (Rome,
in the same category as the stigmata of St Francis of Assisi.
1600); Giacomo Bacci, Life of Saint Philip Neri, trans. Faber
Neri was beatified by Paul V. in 1600, and canonized by Gregory (2 vols., London, 1847); Crispino, La Scuola di San Filippo Neri
XV. in 1622. . (Naples, 1875); F. W. Faber, Spirit and Genius of St Philip Neri
"
Practical commonplaceness," says Frederick William Faber in (London, 1850) ; F. A. Agnelli, Excellencies of the Oratory ofSt Philip
Neri, trans. F. I. Antrobus (London, 1881); articles by F. Theiner
his panegyric of Neri, was the special mark which distinguishes his
and Hilgers in Wetzer und Welte's Kirchenlexicon, and by Reuchlin
form of ascetic piety from the types accredited before his day.
" and Zockler in Herzog's Realencyklopddie. Neri's own writings
He looked like other men ... he was emphatically a modern include Ricordi, or Advice to Youth, Letters (Padua, 1751), and a few
gentleman, of scrupulous courtesy, sportive gaiety, acquainted with sonnets printed in the collection of the Rime Oneste. Other lives by
what was going on in the world, taking a real interest in it, giving and
Posl (Regensburg. 1847); P. Guerin (Lyons, 1852); Mrs Hope
getting information, very neatly dressed, with a shrewd common
_
sense always alive about him, in a modern room with modern furni- (London, 1859); Abp. Capecelatro (2 vols., 1879; 2nd ed., 1884;
ture, plain, it is true, but with no marks of poverty about it in a Eng. trans., 1882; 2nd ed. by T. A. Pope, 1894).
word, with all the ease, the gracefulness, the polish of a modern NERO (37-68), Roman emperor 54-68, was born at Antium
gentleman of good birth, considerable accomplishments, and a very
various information." Accordingly, he was ready to meet the needs on the i sth of December 37. He was the son of Gnaeus Domitius
of his day to an extent and in a manner which even the versatile Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the younger, and his name was
Jesuits, who much desired to enlist him in their company, did not originally L. Domitius Ahenobarbus. His father died when Nero
rival; and, though an Italian priest and head of a new religious was scarcely three years old. In the previous year (39) his mother
order, his genius was entirely unmonastic and unmedieval he was ;
the active promoter of vernacular services, frequent and popular had been banished by order of her brother Caligula (Gaius)
preaching, unconventional prayer, and unsystematized, albeit on a charge of treasonable conspiracy, and Nero, thus early
fervent, private devotion. deprived of both parents, found shelter in the house of his aunt
Neri was not a reformer, save in the sense that in the active dis-
Domitia, where two slaves, a barber and a dancer, began his
charge of pastoral work he laboured to reform individuals. He had
no difficulties in respect of the teaching and practice of his church, training. The emperor Claudius recalled Agrippina, who spent
being in truth an ardent Ultramontane in doctrine, as was all but the next thirteen years in the determined struggle to win for Nero
inevitable in his time and circumstances, and his great merit wls the the throne which had been predicted for him. Her first decisive
instinctive tact which showed him that the system of monasticism
success was gained in 48 by the disgrace and execution of
could never be the leaven of secular life, but that something more
Messallina (q.v.), wife of Claudius. In 49 followed her own
homely, simple, and everyday in character was needed for the new
time. marriage with Claudius, and her recognition as his consort in the
Accordingly, the congregation he founded is of the least con- government. The Roman populace already looked with favour
1
ventional nature, rather resembling a residential clerical club than on Nero, as the grandson of Germanicus, but in 50 his claims
a monastery of the older type, and its rules (never written by Neri,
but approved by Paul V. in 1612) would have appeared incredibly obtained formal recognition from Claudius himself, who adopted
lax, nay, its religious character almost doubtful, to Bruno, Stephen him under the title of Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus. 2
Harding, Francis or Dominic. It admits only priests aged at least Agrippina's next step was to provide a suitable training for her
thirty-six, or ecclesiastics who have completed their studies and are son. The scholar L. Annaeus Seneca was recalled from exile
ready for ordination. The members live in community, and each and appointed his tutor. On the isth of December 51 Nero
pays his own expenses, having the usufruct of his private means
a startling innovation on the monastic vow of poverty. They have completed his fourteenth year, and Agrippina, in view of
indeed a common table, but it is kept up precisely as a regimental Claudius's failing health, determined to delay no 'longer his
mess, by monthly payments from each member. Nothing is pro-
vided by the society except the bare lodging, and the fees of a
adoption of the toga virilis. The occasion was celebrated in a
manner which seemed to place Nero's prospects of succession
visiting physician. Everything else clothing, books, furniture,
medicines must be defrayed at the private charges of each member. beyond doubt He was introduced to the senate by Claudius him-
.
There are no vows, and every member of the society is at liberty to self. The proconsular imperium and the title of princeps juven-
withdraw when he pleases, and to take his property with him. tutis were conferred upon him. 3 He was specially admitted as an
The government, strikingly unlike the Jesuit autocracy, is ot a
republican form; and the superior, though first in honour, has to extraordinary member of the great priestly colleges; his name
take his turn in discharging all the duties which come to each priest was included by the Arval Brethren in their prayers for the
of the society in the order of his seniority, including that of waiting
safety of the emperor and his house; at the games in the circus
at
tabje,
which is not entrusted in the Oratory to lay brothers, his appearance in triumphal dress contrasted significantly with
according to the practice in most other communities. Four deputies
assist the superior in the government, and all public acts are decided the simple toga praetexta worn by Britannicus. During the next
by a majority of votes of the whole congregation, in which the two years Agrippina followed this up with energy. Britannicus's
superior has no casting voice. To be chosen superior, fifteen years leading partisans were banished or put to death, and the all-
of membership are requisite as a qualification, and the office is
No one can important command of the praetorian guard was transferred
tenable, as all the others, for but three years at a time.
vote till he has been three to Afranius Burrus, a Gaul by birth, who had been the trusted
the deliberative
years in the society;
voice is not obtained before the eleventh year. There are thus three agent first of Livia and then of Tiberius and Claudius. Nero
classes ofmembers novices, triennials and decennials. Each house himself was put prominently forward. The petitions addressed
can call its to account, can depose, and can restore him, to the senate by the town of Bononia and by the communities
superior
without appeal to any external authority, although the bishop of
the diocese in which any house of the Oratory is established is its of Rhodes and Ilium were gracefully supported by him in Latin
ordinary and immediate superior, though without power to interfere and Greek speeches, and during Claudius's absence in 52 at
with the rule. Their churches are non-parochial, and they can the Latin festival it was Nero who, as praefect of the city,
perform such rites as baptisms, marriages, &c., only by {permission administered justice in the forum. Early in 53 his marriage with
of the parish priest, who is entitled to receive all fees due in
respect
of these ministrations. The Oratory chiefly spread in Italy and in 1
Tac. Ann. xii. 26, 36; see also Schiller, Nero, 67.
France, where in 1760 there were 58 houses all under the government
'
Tac. Ann. xii. 26; Zonaras xi. 10.
of a superior-general. Malebranche, Thomassin, Mascaron and 3
Tac. Ann. xii. 41.
NERO 39 1
Claudius's daughter Octavia drew still closer the ties which to to pieces.
fall But Agrippina saved herself by swimming,
connected him with the imperial house. Agrippina determined and wrote to her son, announcing her escape, and affecting entire
to hasten the death of Claudius, and the absence, through illness, ignorance of the plot. A
body of soldiers under Anicetus then
of the emperor's trusted freedman Narcissus, favoured her surrounded her villa, and murdered her in her own chamber.
schemes. On the I3th of October 54 Claudius died, poisoned, as Nero was horrorstruck at the enormity of the crime and terrified
all our authorities declare, by her orders, and Nero was presented at its possible consequences. But a six months' residence in
to the soldiers on guard as their new sovereign. From the steps Campania, and the congratulations which poured in upon him
of the palace he proceeded to the praetorian camp to receive from the neighbouring towns, where the report had been officially
the salutations of the troops, and thence to the senate-house, spread that Agrippina had fallen a victim to her treacherous
where he was promptly invested with all the honours, titles and designs upon the emperor, gradually restored his courage. In
September 59 he re-entered Rome amid universal rejoicing.
1
powers of emperor.
Agrippina's bold stroke had been completely successful. A prolonged carnival followed. Chariot races, musical and
Only a few voices were raised for Britannicus; nor is there any dramatic exhibitions, games in the Greek fashion rapidly
doubt that Rome was prepared to welcome the new emperor succeeded each other. In all the emperor was a prominent
with genuine enthusiasm. His prestige and his good qualities, figure, but these revels at least involved no bloodshed, and
carefully fostered by Seneca, made him popular, while his were civilized compared with the gladiatorial shows.
childish vanity, ungovernable selfishness and savage temper A far more serious result of the death of Agrippina was the
were as yet unsuspected. His first acts confirmed this favourable growing influence over Nero of Poppaea and her friends. In 62
impression. He modestly declined the title of pater patriae; Burrus died, it was said by poison, and Seneca retired from
the memory of Claudius, and that of his own father Domitius the unequal contest. Their place was filled by Poppaea, and the
were duly honoured. The senate listened with delight to his infamous Tigellinus, whose sympathy with Nero's sensual tastes
promises to rule according to the maxims of Augustus, and to had gained him the command of the praetorian guards in
avoid the errors which had rendered unpopular the rule of his succession to Burrus. The haunting fear of conspiracy was skil-
predecessor, while his unfailing clemency, liberality and affa- fully used by them to direct Nero's suspicions against possible
bility were the talk of Rome. Much no doubt of the credit of all opponents. Cornelius Sulla, who had been banished to Massilia
this is due to Seneca and Burrus. Seneca had seen from the in 58, was put to death on the ground that his residence in Gaul
first that the real danger with Nero lay in the savage vehemence was likely to arouse disaffection in that province, and a similar
of his passions, and he made it his chief aim to stave off by every charge proved fatal to Rubellius Plautus, who had for two years
means in his power the dreaded outbreak. The policy of indulging been living in retirement in Asia. 2 Nero's taste for blood thus
his tastes and helping him to enjoy the sweets of popularity whetted, Octavia was divorced, banished to the island of Panda-
without the actual burdens of government succeeded -for the teria and barbarously murdered. Poppaea's triumph was now
time. During the first five years of his reign, the golden quin- complete. She was formally married to Nero; her head appeared
quennium Neronis, little occurred to damp the popular enthusiasm. on the coins side by side with his; and her statues were erected
Nero's promises of constitutional moderation we're amply in the public places of Rome.
fulfilled, and the senate found itself free to discuss and even
In the course of the year 61 Rome was startled by the news of a
disaster in Britain. At the time of the Claudian invasion of Britain
to decide important administrative questions. Abuses were
in A.D. 43 Prasutagus, the king of the Iceni, had concluded a treaty
remedied, the provincials protected from oppression, and the with Claudius, by which no doubt he recognized the suzerainty of
burdens of taxation lightened. On the frontiers, thanks chiefly Rome and was himself enrolled among " the allies and friends of
to Corbulo's energy and skill, no disaster occurred serious enough the Roman people." The alliance was of value to Claudius, for the
to shake the general confidence, and even the murder of Britanni- territory of the Iceni (Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire) lay
immediately north of the new province and its capital town Col-
cus seems to have been accepted as a necessary measure of self- chester, and Prasutagus had loyally kept faith with Rome. But in
defence. But Seneca's fear lest Nero's sleeping passions should A.D. 61 he died, leaving no male heir. His kingdom therefore lapsed
once be roused were fully verified, and he seems to have seen to Rome, and Prasutagus, anxious that the transfer should be
effected in an orderly
allalong where the danger lay, namely in Agrippina's imperious way, divided his accumulated wealth between
his two daughters and the emperor. His plan failed, for the local
temper and insatiable love of power. The success of Seneca's Roman officials acted as though the kingdom had been conquered
own management of Nero largely depended on his being able in war; they seized on the property of the late king and his chiefs
gradually to emancipate the emperor from his mother's control. and insulted his family. Fearing that worse might follow when the
During the first few months of Nero's reign the chances of such kingdom should be annexed, and encouraged by the absence of the
legate and his legions, the Iceni, led by Prasutagus's daughter
an emancipation seemed remote, for he treated his mother with Boudicca (Boadicea) rose in revolt and were joined by the Trino-
elaborate respect and consulted her on all affairs of state. bantes in Essex, who had been long subject to Rome and had their
In 55, however, Seneca found a powerful ally in Nero's own grievances to redress. Colchester, since A.D. 50 a Roman colony,
was sacked. The ninth legion which had hurried from Lincoln was
passion for the beautiful freedwoman Acte, a passion which cut to pieces, and the insurgents prepared to march on London.
he deliberately encouraged. Agrippina's angry remonstrances The news of the outbreak found the legate Suetonius Paulinus en-
served only to irritate Nero, and caresses equally failed. She gaged in attacking Anglesey. His resolution was at once taken.
then rashly tried intimidation and threatened to espouse the At the head of such light troops as he could collect, he marched in
cause of Britannicus. Nero retaliated by poisoning Britannicus. haste along the Wathng Street, leaving orders for the legions to
follow. Though the tribes along the road were rising, Suetonius
Agrippina then tried to win over Nero's neglected wife Octavia, succeeded in reaching London, only however to find himself too
and to form a party of her own. Nero dismissed her guards, and weak to hold it. He was obliged to fall back along the road by
placed her in a sort of honourable confinement (Tac. Ann. which he had come. London first, and then Verulam, were abandoned
to the Britons. At last at some undefined point on the Watling
xiii. 12-20). During nearly three years she disappears from the Street his legions joined him. Thus reinforced he turned to face
history, and with her retirement things again for the time went the enemy. The engagement was severe but the Roman victory
smoothly. In 58, however, fresh cause for anxiety appeared, was decisive, and Roman authority was restored throughout central
when Nero was enslaved by Poppaea Sabina, a woman of a very and southern Britain.
different stamp from her predecessor. High-born, wealthy and The profound impression produced in Rome by the " British
"
accomplished, she was resolved to be Nero's wife, and set herself disaster was confirmed two years later in A.D. 63 by the partial
to remove the obstacles which stood in her way. Her first object destruction of Pompeii by an earthquake, and the news of the
was the finalruin of Agrippina, and by rousing Nero's jealousy evacuation of Armenia by the Roman legions. A far deeper and
and fear she induced him to seek her death, with the aid of a more lasting impression was produced by the great fire in Rome.
freedman Anicetus, praefect of the fleet of Misenum. Agrippina The fire broke out on the night of the i8th of July, 64, among the
was invited to Baiae, and after an affectionate reception, was wooden booths at the south-east end of the Circus Maximus.
conducted on board a vessel so constructed as, at a given signal, Thence in one direction it rapidly spread over the Palatine and
1
1
Tac. Ann. xii. 96; Suet. Nero, 8. Tac. Ann. xiv. 59.
392 NERO
Velia up to the low cliffs of the Esquiline, and in another it laid 65 was probably not lamented by any one but her husband, but
waste the Aventine, the Forum Boarium and Velabrum till it the general gloom was deepened by a pestilence, caused, it
reached the Tiber and the solid barrier of the Servian wall. seems, by the overcrowding at the time of the fire.
After burning fiercely for six days it suddenly started afresh in Early, however, in the summer of 66, the Parthian prince
the northern quarter of the city and desolated the regions of the Tiridates visited Italy. This event was a conspicuous tribute
Circus Flaminius and the Via Lata, and by the time that it was to the ability both as soldier and statesman of Cn. Domitius
finally quenched only four of the fourteen regiones remained un- Corbulo. As long ago as 54 the news reached Rome that the
touched; three had been utterly destroyed and seven reduced Parthian king Vologaeses had expelled the king recognized by
to ruins. The conflagration is said by all authorities later than Rome from Armenia and installed in his place his own brother
Tacitus to have been deliberately caused by Nero himself.
1
Tiridates. Orders were at once issued to concentrate all available
But Tacitus, though he mentions the rumours, declares that its forces on the Cappadocian frontier under Corbulo, the first soldier
origin was uncertain, and in spite of such works as Profumo's of his day. After some time spent in making his army efficient,
Le fonti ed i tempi dello incendio Neroniano (1905), there is no Corbulo invaded Armenia and swept victoriously through the
country. Armenia was rescued and Corbulo proposed that
2
proof of his guilt. By Nero's orders, the open spaces in the
Campus Martius were utilized to give shelter to the homeless Tiridates should become king of Armenia on condition of his
crowds, provisions were brought from Ostia and the price of receiving his crown as a gift from Nero. But the government in
-corn lowered. In rebuilding the city every precaution was taken Rome had a plan of its own, and a certain Tigranes, long resident
against the recurrence of such a calamity. Broad regular streets in Rome, but a stranger to the Armenians, was sent out, and
replaced the narrow winding alleys. The new houses were Corbulo was obliged reluctantly to seat him on the Armenian
limited in height, built partly of hard stone and protected by throne. Tigranes's position, always insecure, soon became un-
open spaces and colonnades. The water-supply, lastly, was tenable, and it became necessary for Rome to intervene once
carefully regulated. more. A Roman force under Caesennius Paetus was sent to
There is, however, no doubt that this great disaster told against restore Tigranes and re-establish Roman predominance. Paetus,
Nero in the popular mind. It was regarded as a direct mani- however, was no Corbulo. He was defeated, and Corbulo, now
festation of the wrath of the gods, even by those who did not legate of Syria, was obliged to come to his rescue. The result
suspect the emperor. This impression no religious ceremonies, was the final triumph of Corbulo's policy. Tiridates agreed to
nor even the execution of a number of Christians, as convenient accept the crown of Armenia from the hands of Nero. In royal
scapegoats, could altogether dispel. But Nero proceeded with state he travelled to Italy, and the ceremony of investiture was
the congenial work of repairing the damage. In addition to the performed at Rome with the utmost splendour. Delighted with
rebuilding of the streets, he erected a splendid palace, the this tribute to his greatness, Nero for a moment dreamt of
"
golden house," for himself. The wonders of his Domus aurea rivalling Alexander. Expeditions were talked of to the Caspian
were remembered and talked of long after its partial demolition Sea and Ethiopia, but Nero was no soldier and quickly turned
by Vespasian. It stretched from the Palatine across the low to a more congenial field. He had already, in 64, appeared on
ground, afterwards occupied by the Colosseum, to the Esquiline. the stage before the half-Greek public of Naples. But his mind
Gold, precious stones and Greek masterpieces adorned its walls. was now set on challenging the applause of the Greeks themselves
Most marvellous of all were the grounds in which it stood, with in the ancient home of art. Towards the end of 66 he arrived
their meadows and lakes, their shady woods and their distant in Greece with a retinue of soldiers, courtiers, musicians
views. To defray the enormous cost, Italy and the provinces, and dancers. The spectacle presented by Nero's visit was
says Tacitus, were ransacked, and in Asia and Achaia especially unique.
4
He went professedly as an enthusiastic worshipper of
the rapacity of the imperial commissioners recalled the days of Greek art and a humble candidate for the suffrages of Greek
Mummius and of Sulla.3 It was the first occasion on which the judges. At each of the great festivals, which to please him were
provincials had suffered from Nero's rule, and the discontent it for once crowded into a single year, he entered in regular form
caused helped to weaken his hold over them at the very moment for the various competitions, scrupulously conformed to the
when the growing dissatisfaction in Rome was gathering to a tradition and rules of the arena, and awaited in nervous suspense
head. Early in 65 Nero was panic-stricken by the discovery of a the verdict of the umpires. The dexterous Greeks humoured
formidable conspiracy involving such men as Faenius Rufus, him to the top of his bent. Everywhere the imperial competitor
Tigellinus's colleague in the prefecture of the praetorian guards, was victorious, and crowded audiences importuned him to
Plautius Lateranus, one of the consuls elect, the poet Lucan, display his talents. The emperor protested that only the Greeks
and, lastly, not a few of the tribunes and centurions of the were fit to hear him, and rewarded them when he left by the
praetorian guard itself. Their chosen leader, whom they destined bestowal of immunity from the land tax on the whole province,
to succeed Nero, was C. Calpurnius Piso (q.v.), a handsome, and by the gift of the Roman franchise; he also planned and
wealthy and popular noble, and a boon companion of Nero actually commenced the cutting of a canal through the Isthmus
himself. The plan to murder Nero was frustrated by a freedman of Corinth. If we may believe report, Nero found time in the
Milichus, who, in the hope of a large reward, disclosed the intervals of his artistic triumphs for more vicious excesses. The
whole plot. Piso, Faenius Rufus, Lucan and many of their stories of his mock marriage with Sporus, his execution of wealthy
less prominent accomplices, and even Seneca himself (though Greeks for the sake of their money, and his wholesale plundering
there seems to have been no evidence of his complicity) were of the temples were evidently part of the accepted tradition
executed. about him in the time of Suetonius, and are at least credible.
But, though largesses and thanksgivings celebrated the Far more certainly true is his ungrateful treatment of Domitius
suppression of the conspiracy, and the round of games and Corbulo, who, when he landed at Cenchreae, fresh from his
shows was renewed with even increased splendour, the effects successes in Armenia, was met by an order for his instant
of the shock were visible in the long list of victims who during execution and at once put an end to his life.
the next few months were sacrificed to his restless fears and Meanwhile the general dissatisfaction was coming to a head,
resentment. Conspicuous among them was Paetus Thrasea, as we may infer from the urgency with which the imperial
whose unbending virtue had long made him distasteful to Nero, freedman Helius insisted upon Nero's return to Italy. Far more
and who was now suspected, possibly with reason, of sympathy serious was the disaffection which now showed itself in the rich
with the conspirators. The death of Poppaea in the autumn of and warlike provinces of the west. In northern Gaul, early in
'Tac. Ann. xv. 38; Suet. Nero, 38; Dio Cass. Ixii. 16; Pliny, 68, the standard of revolt was raised by Julius Vindex, governor
N.H. xvii. 5. of Gallia Lugdunensis, and himself the head of an ancient and
*
This work is a reply to C. Pascal's L'Incendio di Roma e i primi
noble Celtic family. South of the Pyrenees, P. Sulpicius Galba,
Cristiani (Milan, 1900), which throws the guilt on the Christians.
*Tac. Ann. xv. 42; Suet. Nero, 31; cf. Friedlander, Sitten- governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, and Poppaea's former
4
geschichle, iii. 67-69. Suet. Nero, 19-24; Dio Cass. Epit. Ixiii. 8-16.
NERVA 393
husband, Marcus Salvius Otho, governor of Lusitania, followed Class. Rev. vol. xviii. p. 57), which contains
complete bibliography
of ancient and modern writers; see also H. Schiller's Nero, and
Vindex's example. At first, however, fortune seemed to favour
Geschichte d. Kaiserzeit; Lehmann, Claudius und Nero; histories of
Nero. It is very probable that Vindex had other aims in view Rome in general. (H. F. P.)
than the deposition of Nero and the substitution of a fresh
emperor in his place, and that the liberation of northern Gaul NERVA, MARCUS COCCEIUS, Roman emperor from the
from Roman rule was part of his plan. 1 If this was so, it is 1 8th ofSeptember 96 to the 25th of January 98, was born at
easy to understand both the enthusiasm with which the chiefs Narnia in Umbria on the 8th of November, probably in the year
of northern Gaul rallied to the standard of a leader belonging 35. He belonged to a senatorial family, which had attained
to their own race, and the opposition which Vindex encountered considerable distinction under the emperors, his father and
from the Roman colony of Lugdunum and the legions on the grandfather having been well-known jurists. A single inscription
Rhine. For it is certain that the latter at any rate were not (C.I.L. vi. 31,297) gives the name of his mother as Sergia
animated by loyalty to Nero. Though they defeated Vindex Plautilla, daughter of Laenas. In his early manhood he had been
and his Celtic levies at Vesontio (Besanfon), their next step on friendly terms with Nero, by whom he was decorated in 65
was to break the statues of Nero and offer the imperial purple (Tacitus, Annals, xv. 72) with the triumphal insignia after the
to their own commander Virginius Rufus. He declined their suppression of the Pisonian conspiracy (further valuable informa-
offer, but appealed to them to declare for the senate and people tion as to his career is given in an inscription from
Sassoferrato,
of Rome. Meanwhile in Spain Galba had been saluted imperator (C.I.L. xi. 5743).
by his legions, had accepted the title, and was already on his He was praetor (66) and twice consul, in 71 with the emperor
march towards Italy. On the road the news met him that Vespasian for colleague, and again in 90 with Domitian. Towards
Vindex had been crushed by the army of the Rhine, and for the close of the latter's reign (93) he is said to have excited sus-
the moment he resolved to abandon his attempt. Meanwhile, picion and to have been banished to Tarentum on a charge of
Nero had reluctantly left Greece, but returned to Italy only conspiracy (Dio Cass. Ixvii. 15; Philostr. A poll. Tyan. vii.
to renew his revels. When on the igth of March the news 8). On the murder of Domitian in September 96 Nerva was
reached him at Naples of the rising in Gaul, he allowed a week declared emperor by the people and the soldiers. He is described
to elapse before he could tear himself away from his pleasures, as a quiet, kindly, dignified man, honest of purpose, but unfitted
and then contented himself with proscribing Vindex, and setting by his advanced age and temperament, as well as by feeble
a price on his head. The revolts in Spain and Germany terrified health, to bear the weight of empire. Nevertheless, his selection,
him too late into something like energy. The senate almost in spite of occasional exhibitions of weakness, justified the choice.
openly intrigued against him, and the populace were silent or His accession brought a welcome relief from the terrible strain
hostile. The fidelity of the praetorian sentinels even was more of the last few years. The new emperor recalled those who had
than doubtful. When finally the palace guards forsook their posts, been exiled by Domitian; what remained of their confiscated
Nero despairingly stole out of Rome to seek shelter in a freed- property was restored to them, and a stop was put to the vex-
man's villa some four miles off. There he heard of the senate's atious prosecutions which Domitian had encouraged. But the
proclamation of Galba as emperor, and of the sentence of death popular feeling demanded more than this. The countless
passed on himself. On the approach of the horsemen sent to informers of all classes who had thriven under the previous
drag him to execution, he collected sufficient courage to save regime now found themselves swept away, to borrow Pliny's
himself by suicide. Nero died on the gih of June 68, in the metaphor (Pliny, Pane.g. 35), by a hurricane of revengeful fury,
thirty-first year of his age and the fourteenth of his reign, and which threatened to become as dangerous in its indiscriminate
his remains were deposited by the faithful hands of Acte in the ravages as the system it attacked. It was finally checked by
family tomb of the Domitii on the Pincian Hill. With his death Nerva, who was stung into action by the sarcastic remark of
ended the line of the Caesars, and Roman imperialism entered the consul Titus Catius Caesius Fronto that, " bad as it was
upon a new phase. His statues were broken, his name every- to have an emperor who allowed no one to do anything, it was
where erased, and his golden house demolished; yet, in spite worse to have one who allowed every one to do everything "
of all, no Roman emperor has left a deeper mark upon subsequent (Dio Cass. Ixviii. i).
tradition. The Roman populace for a long time reverenced his Nerva seems to have followed the custom of announcing the
memory as that of an open-handed patron, and in Greece the general lines of his future policy. Domitian had been arbitrary
recollections of his magnificence, and his enthusiasm for art, and high-handed, and had heaped favours on the soldiery while
were still fresh when the traveller Pausanias visited the country humiliating the senate; Nerva showed himself anxious to
a century later. The belief that he had not really died, but respect the traditional privileges of the senate, and such maxims
would return again to confound his foes, was long prevalent, of constitutional government as still survived. He pledged
not only in the remoter provinces, but even in Rome itself; himself to put no senator to death. His chosen councillors in
and more than one pretender was able to collect a following all affairs of state were senators, and the hearing of claims
by assuming the name of the last of the race of Augustus. More against the fiscus was taken from the imperial procuratores and
lasting still was the implacable hatred of those who had suffered entrusted to the more impartial jurisdiction of a praetor and a
from his cruelties. Roman literature, faithfully reflecting the court of judices (Dio Cass. Ixviii. 2; Digest, i. 2, 2; Pliny,
sentiments of the aristocratic salons of the capital, while it Paneg. 36).
almost canonized those who had been his victims, fully avenged No one probably expected from Nerva a vigorous admini-
their wrongs by painting Nero as a monster of wickedness. In stration either at home or abroad, although during his reign a
Christian tradition he even appears as the mystic Antichrist, successful campaign was carried on in Pannonia against the
who was destined to come once again to trouble the saints. Even Germans (Suebi), for which he assumed the name Germanicus.
in the middle ages, Nero was still the very incarnation of
splendid He appears, however, to have set himself honestly to carry out
iniquity, while the belief lingered obstinately that he had only reforms. The economical condition of Italy evidently excited
disappeared for a time, and as late as the nth century his his alarm and sympathy. The last mention of a lex agraria in
restless spirit was supposed to haunt the slopes of the Pincian Roman history is connected with his name, though how far the
Hill. measure was strictly speaking a law is uncertain. Under the
The chief ancient authorities for Nero's life and reign are Tacitus provisions of this lex, large tracts of land were bought up and
(Annals, xiii.-xvi., ed. Furneaux), Suetonius, Dio Cassius (Epit. allotted to poor citizens. The cost was defrayed partly from the
Ixiii.), and Zonaras (Ann. xi.). The most important
Ixi.,Ixii.,
imperial treasury, but partly also from Nerva 's private resources,
modern work is that of B. W. Henderson, The Life and Prmcipate
and the execution of the scheme was entrusted to commissioners
of the Emperor Nero (London, 1903; see an important notice in
(Dig. xlvii. 21, 3; Dio Cass. Ixviii. 2; Pliny, Ep. vii. 31;
J
Suet. Nero, 40; Dio Cass. Epit. Ixiii. 22; Plut. Galba, 4; Corp. Inscr. Lot. vi. 1548). He also founded or restored colonies
cf. also Schiller's Nero, pp. 261 seq. ; Mommsen in Hermes, xiii. 90. at Verulae, Scyllacium and Sitifis in Mauretania. The agrarian
394 NERVAL NERVE
law was probably as short-lived in its effects as preceding ones the boy modern languages and the elements of Arabic and
had been, but a more lasting reform was the maintenance at the Persian. Gerard found his favourite reading in old books on
public cost of the children of poor parents in the towns of Italy mysticism and the occult sciences. He distinguished himself
(Aur. Viet. Ep. 24), the provision being presumably secured by a by his successes at the College Charlemagne, however, and his
first work, La France guerriere, elegies nationales, was published
yearly charge on state and municipal lands. Private individuals
were also encouraged to follow the imperial example. In the while he was still a student. In 1828 he published a translation
hands of Trajan, Hadrian and the Antonines, Nerva's example of Goethe's Faust, the choruses of which were afterwards used
bore fruit in the institution of the alimentationes, the most by Berlioz for his legend-symphony, The Damnation of Faust.
genuinely charitable institution of the pagan world. These A number of poetical pieces and three comedies combined to
measures Nerva supplemented by others which aimed at lighten- acquire for him, at the age of twenty-one, a considerable literary
ing the financial burdens on the declining industry of Italy. reputation, and led to his being associated with Theophile
The cost of maintaining the imperial postal system (vehiculatio) Gautier in the preparation of the dramatic feuilleton for the
was transferred to thefiscus; from the same source apparently Presse. He conceived a violent passion for the actress Jennie
money was found for repairing the public roads and aqueducts; Colon, in whom
he thought he recognized a certain Adrienne,
and lastly, the lucrative but unpopular tax of 5 %
on all legacies who had fired his childish imagination. Her marriage and her
or inheritances (vicesima hereditatum) was so readjusted as to
,
death in 1842 were blows from which his nervous temperament
remove the grosser abuses connected with it (Pliny, Paneg. 37). At never really recovered. He travelled in Germany with Alexandre
the same time Nerva did his best to reduce the overgrown expendi- Dum^, and alone in various parts of Europe, leading a very
ture of the state (Pliny, Ep. ii. i). A commission was appointed to irregular and eccentric life. In 1843 he visited Constantinople
consider the best modes of retrenchment, and the outlay on shows and Syria, where, among other adventures, he nearly married
and games was cut down to the lowest possible point. Nerva the daughter of a Druse sheikh. He contributed accounts of his
seems nevertheless to have soon wearied of the uncongenial task travels to the Revue des Deux Mondes and other periodicals.
of governing, and his anxiety to be rid of it was quickened by the After his return to Paris in 1844 he resumed for a short time his
discovery that not even his blameless life and mild rule protected feuilleton for the Presse, but his eccentricities increased and he
him against intrigue and disaffection. Early, apparently, in committed suicide by hanging, on the 25th of January 1855.
97 he detected a conspiracy against his life headed by L. (or C.) The literary style of Gerard is simple and unaffected, and he has
Calpurnius Crassus, but he contented himself with a hint to the a peculiar faculty of giving to his imaginative creations an air of
conspirators that their designs were known, and with banishing naturalness and reality. In a series of novelettes, afterwards
Crassus to Tarentum. This ill-judged lenity provoked' a few published under the name of Les Illumines, ou les precurseurs
months later an intolerable insult to his dignity. The praetorian du socialisme (1852), containing studies on Retif de la Bretonne,
guards had keenly resented the murder of their patron Domitian, Cagliostro and others, he gave a sort of analysis of the feelings
and now, at the instigation of one of their two prefects, Casperius which followed his third attack of insanity. Among his other
Aelianus, whom Nerva had retained in office, they imperiously works the principal are Les Filles du feu (1854), which contains
demanded the execution of Domitian's murderers, the chamber- his masterpiece, the semi-autobiographical romance of Sylvie;
lain Parthenius and Petronius Secundus, Aelianus's colleague. Scenes de la vie orientale (1848-1850); Contes et faceties (1852);
Nerva vainly strove to save, even at the risk of his own life, the La Boheme and L Alchimiste, a drama in five
galante (1856);
men who had raised him to power, but the soldiers brutally acts, the joint composition of Gerard and Alexandre Dumas.
murdered the unfortunate men, and forced him to propose a His Poesies completes were published in 1877.
vote of thanks for the deed (Dio Cass. Epit, Ixviii. 4; Aur. There are many accounts of Gerard de Neryal's unhappy life.
Viet. Ep. 24) This humiliation convinced Nerva of the necessity
. Among them may be mentioned notices by his friend Theophile
Gautier and by Arsene Houssaye, prefixed to the posthumous
of placing the government in stronger hands than his own.
Le Reve et la vie (1855); Maurice Tourneux's sketch in his Age du
Following the precedent set by Augustus, Galba and Vespasian, romantisme (1887); and a sympathetic study of temperament in
he resolved to adopt as his colleague and destined successor, the Nevroses (1898) of Mme Arvede Barine. See also G. Ferrieres,
M. Ulpius Trajanus, a distinguished soldier, at the time in com- Gerard de Nerval (1906).
mand of the legions on the Rhine. In October 97, in the temple NERVE (Lat. nervus, Gr. vevpov, a bowstring) originally a sinew
,
of Jupiter on the Capitol, Trajan was formally adopted as his son or tendon (and still so used in the phrase " to strain every nerve "),
and declared his colleague in the government of the empire but now a term practically confined to the fibres of the nervous
(Pliny, Paneg. 8). For three months Nerva ruled jointly with system in anatomy, though consequentially employed as a general
Trajan (Aur. Viet. Ep. 24); but on the 25th (according to psychical term in the sense of courage or firmness, and sometimes
"
others, the 27th) of January 98 he died somewhat suddenly. (but more usually nervousness ") in the opposite sense. In
He was buried in the sepulchre of Augustus, and divine honours the present article the anatomy of the nerves is dealt with; see
were paid him by his successor. The verdict of history upon his also NERVOUS SYSTEM, MUSCLE AND NERVE, NEUROPATHOLOGY,
"
reign is best expressed in his own words I have done nothing &c.
which should prevent me from laying down my power, and living I. CRANIAL
hi safety as a private man." The memory of Nerva is still pre- The cranial nerves are those which
rise directly from the
served by the ruined temple in the Via Alessandrina (il Colonacce) brain, and for the most part are concerned with the supply of the
which marks the site of the Forum begun by Domitian, but which head. With one exception they all contain medullated fibres
Nerva completed and dedicated (Suet. Dom. 5; Aur. Viet. 12). (see NERVOUS SYSTEM). Twelve pairs of these nerves are
AUTHORITIES. Dio Cass. Ixviii. 1-4; Aurelius Victor 12, and recognized, and they are spoken of as often by their numbers as
Epit. 24; Zonaras xi. 20; compare also Pliny, Epistolae and
by their names. The folio wing is a list :
Paneeyrtcus; Tillemont, Histoire des empereurs remains, ii. ;
C. Merivale, History of the Romans under the Empire, ch. 63; H. (i) Olfactory; (2) Optic; (3) Oculo-motor or Motor oculi;
Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, i. pt. 2 (1883), p. 538; (4) Trochlearis or Patheticus; (5) Trigeminal or Trifacial; (6)
J. Asbach, Romisches Kaiserthum und Verfassung bis auf Trajan Abducens; (7) Facial; (8) Auditory; (9) Glosso-pharyngeal;
(Cologne, 1896);
A. Stein in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencydopadie
(10) Vagus or Pneumogastric; (ii) Spinal accessory; (12)
(s.v. Cocceius, 16); J. B. Bury, The Student's Roman Empire, ch. 23
(1893)- (H. F. P.) Hypoglossal.
The first, or olfactory nerve, consists of the bulb and
NERVAL, GERARD DE (1808-1855), the adopted name of olfactory
which are a modified lobe of the brain and he beneath the sulcus
tract,
Gerard Labrunie, French man of letters, born in Paris on the rectus on the frontal lobe of the brain (see At its posterior
fig. i).
22nd of May 1808. His father was an army doctor, and the end the tract divides to become continuous with the two extremities
child was left with an uncle in the country, while Labrunie Mme of the limbic lobe (see BRAIN), while at its anterior end is the bulb
from which some twenty small non-medullated nerves pass through
accompanied her husband in his campaigns. She died in Silesia. the cribriform plate of the ethmoid to supply the sensory organs in
In 1811 his father returned, and beside Greek and Latin taught the olfactory mucous membrane OLFACTORY ORGAN).
(see
NERVE 395
The second or optic nerve consists of the optic tract, the optic pass into a small compartment of the dura mater, in front of the
commissure or chiasma, and the optic nerve proper. The optic tract apex of the petrous bone, known as Meckel's cave; here the large
begins at the lower visual centres or internal and external geniculate crescentic Gasserian ganglion is formed upon the sensory root, and
bodies, the superior quadrigeminal body and the pulvinar (see fig. i), from this the three branches come off, earning the nerve its name
but these again are connected with the higher visual centre in the of trigeminal. The first of these divisions is the ophthalmic, the
occipital lobe by the optic radiations (see fig. 2). In the chiasma second the maxillary, and the third the mandibular, while the motor
some of the fibres cross and some do not, so that the right optic root only joins the last of these. The first or ophthalmic division of
tract forms the right half of both the right and left optic nerves. the fifth runs in the outer wall of the cavernous sinus, where it
In addition to this the fibres coming from the internal geniculate divides into frontal, lachrymal and nasal branches. They all enter
body of one side cross in the chiasma to the same body of the op- the orbit through the sphenoidal fissure. The frontal nerve divides
posite side, forming Gudden's commissure. The optic nerve passes into supraorbital and
supratrochlear,
which pass out of the upper
through the optic foramen in the skull into the orbit, where it is part of the anterior opening of the orbit and supply the skin of the
penetrated by the central artery of the retina, and eventually pierces forehead and upper part of the scalp as well as the inner part of the
the scelerotic just internal to the posterior pole of the eyeball. Its eyelids. The lachrymal nerve supplies that gland and the outer
final distribution is treated in the article EYE. part of the upper eyelid. The nasal nerve gives off a branch to the
The third or oculomotor nerve rises from a nucleus in the floor of ciliary or lenticular ganglion, which lies in the outer part of the
the aqueduct of Sylvius (see BRAIN, fig. 8), and comes to the surface ;
orbit, and through which, as well as through its own long ciliary
branches, it supplies the eyeball
with sensation. It leaves the
orbit through the anterior eth-
rnoidal canal, and lies for a short
distance on the cribriform plate
of the ethmoid; it then enters
Olfactory bulb bulb the nasal cavity through the nasal
slit and supplies this cavity, as
well as the surface of the nose as
far as the tip, with ordinary
Olfactory tract
tract sensation. The second or maxil-
Broca's area
lary division of the fifth nerve leaves
Olfactory tubercle the skull through the foramen
Mesial root of olfactory rotundum, and then runs across
nerve
Olfactory tubercle the roof of the spheno-maxillary
Lateral root
Optic nerve fossa; here the spheno-maxillary
chiasma or Meckel's ganglion hangs from
Optic chiasma
Ant. perforated spot it by two roots. The nerve then
Oculo-motor nerve 'Temporal lobe (cut) runs in the floor of the orbit,
tract
Trochlear nerve
giving off superior dental branches,
-motor nerve until it emerges on to the face at
the infraorbital foramen, where it
Trigeminal nerve. .Trochlear nerve divides into palpebral, nasal and
Abducent nerve- .Taenia semicircularis labial branches, the names of
Facial nerve Trigeminal nerve which indicate their distribution.
Pars intermedia Ext. geniculate body
The third or mandibular division
1
Auditory .bducent nerve
of the fifth leaves the skull
Int. geniculate body
Pulvinar
through the foramen ovale, and
at once gives off a set of motor
Facial nerve
branches for the muscles cf mas-
Pars intermedia
tication; these are derived from
Auditory nerve the motor root of the fifth, except
Lateral ventricle that for the buccinator, which
Mid. cerebellar peduncle
really supplies only the skin and
Glosso-pharyngeal nerve mucous membrane in contact
Vagus nerve with the muscle. After the motor
Spinal accessory nerve branch is given off, the third
(accessory) division of the fifth divides into
Spinal accessory nerve
(spinal)
lingual, inferior dental and
Occipital lobe (cut)
auricula-temporal. The lingual is
Glosso-pharyngeal nervi joined by the chorda tympani
Vagus nei _ _ branch of the facial nerve, and
Spinal accessory nerve (accessory) Hypoglossal nerve then passes to the anterior two-
Spinal accessory nerve (spinal) Spinal cord
Hypoglossal nerve Vermis of Cerebellum (cut) thirds of the tongue. In its course
it passes deep to the submaxillary
From D. J. Cunningham, in Cunningham's Text-book of Anatomy.
gland, and here the small sub-
FIG. I . View of the Under Surface of the Brain, with the lower portion of the temporal and occipital maxillary ganglion is connected
lobes, and the cerebellum on the left side removed, to show the origins of the cranial nerves. with it by two roots. The in-
ferior dental nerve gives off a small
in a groove on the inner side of the crus cerebri (fig. i); it soon motor branch to the mylohyoid and posterior belly of the digastric
pierces the dura mater, and lies in the outer wall of the cavernous muscles, and then enters a canal in the lower jaw, where it gives
sinus, where it divides into an upper and! lower branch. Both off twigs to all the lower teeth. A
mental branch comes out through
these enter the orbit through the sphenoidal fissure, the
upper the mental foramen to supply the skin of the chin. The auricula
branch supplying the superior rectus and levator palpebrae temporal nerve rises by two roots, which embrace the middle men-
superioris muscles, the lower the inferior and internal rectus and the ingeal artery, and runs backward and then close to the
upward
inferior oblique, so that it supplies five of the seven orbital muscles. lower jaw joint to supply the parotid gland, the skin on the outer
The fourth or trochlear nerve is very small, and comes from a side of the ear,and the side of the scalp. At its beginning it com-
nucleus a little lower than that of the third nerve. It is specially municates with the otic ganglion, which lies just internal to it below
remarkable in that it crosses to the opposite side in the substance the foramen ovale, ana also receives a communication from the
of the valve of Vieussens of the fourth ventricle, after which it nerve to the internal pterygoid muscle.
winds round the outer side of the crus cerebri (fig. i) and enters the The sixth or abducent nerve rises from a nucleus in the floor of the
outer wall of the cavernous sinus to reach the orbit through the fourth ventricle deep to the eminentia teres (see fig. 3). It appears
sphenoidal fissure. Here it enters the superior oblique muscle on the surface of the brain just below the pons and close to the
on its orbital surface. middle line (see fig. i), soon after which it pierces the dura mater
The fifth or trigeminal nerve consists of motor and sensory roots. and runs in the floor of the cavernous sinus to the sphenoidal fissure.
The motor root rises from a nucleus in the upper lateral part of the Entering the orbit through this, it quickly supplies the external
floor of the fourth ventricle, as well as by a descending (mesence- rectus muscle.
phalic) from the neighbourhood of the Sylvian aqueduct
tract The seventh or facial r^rve begins in a nucleus which is about the
(see fig. 3). The large sensory root goes to a sensory nucleus a same level as that for the sixth, but much deeper from the floor of
little external to the motor one, and also, the fourth ventricle as well as farther from the middle line (see fig. 3).
by a spinal or descending
root, to the substantia gelatinosa Rolandi as low as the second The fibres of the facial loop round the nucleus of the sixth, and
spinal nerve (see fig. 3). The superficial origin of the fifth nerve is then emerge in the triangular interval between the medulla, pons
from the side of the pons (see fig. i), and the two roots at once and cerebellum, close to the eighth nerve, and having the pars
39 6 NERVE
intermedia between (see fig. l). Entering the internal auditory upper of these isthe ganglion of the root, and the lower the ganglion
meatus with these structures the facial nerve soon passes into a of the trunk (see fig. 4). From the former the auricular branch or
canal in the petrous bone known as the agueductus FaUopii, and in Arnold's nerve (see EAR) comes off, while from the latter are given
this it makes a sudden off the pharyngeal branches to the pharyngeal plexus (fig. 4, Ph.)
bend and forms the and the superior laryngeal branch which is the sensory nerve of the
geniculate ganglion, larynx (fig. 4, S.L.). Between the two ganglia the accessory part of
from which the great the eleventh nerve joins the tenth, and it is from this communication
superficial petrosal that the motor twigs to the pharynx, larynx, alimentary and re-
branch toMeckel's spiratory tracts are derived, as well as the inhibitory fibres of the
ganglion given off.
is heart. In the neck the vagus accompanies the carotid artery and
The canal ends at the internal jugular vein, and here it gives off superior and inferior
stylo-mastoid fora- cardiac branches. The left inferior cardiac branch passes to the
men on the base of superficial, while the three others go to the deep cardiac plexus.
the skull, and here the The nerve now enters the thorax, passing between the subclavian
nerve enters the par- artery and vein. On the right side its recurrent laryngeal branch
otid gland, in which it loops under the subclavian artery (fig. 4, R.), and runs up to supply
forms a plexus called all the muscles of the larynx except one (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM).
the pes anserinus. In the thorax the left vagus passes in front of the arch of the aorta,
From this, branches under which the left recurrent laryngeal loops, and on both sides a
pass to all the muscles thoracic cardiac branch is given to the deep cardiac plexus. Both
of the face except vagi pass behind the root of their own lung, and break up to form the
those of mastication. posterior pulmonary plexus after giving off some -branches for the
In the aqueduct the much smaller anterior pulmonary plexus; they then reach the
pars intermedia joins oesophagus, where they again break up into an oesophageal plexus
the seventh, and, be- or plexus gulae. As the diaphragm is approached the two nerves
yond the geniculate become distinct again, but the left one now lies in front and the
ganglion, leaves it as right behind the food tube, so that, when the stomach is reached,
the chorda tympani, the left vagus supplies the front of the organ and communicates with
which runs through the hepatic plexus, while the right goes to the back and communicates
the tympanum (see with the coeliac, splenic and renal plexuses.
EAR) to join the lin- The eleventh or spinal accessory nerve is entirely motor, and con-
gual branch of the sists of a spinal and an accessory part. The former rises from the
fifth. It is prob-
able that the pars
intermedia, geni-
culate ganglion
and chorda tym-
pani, represent
the sensory root
of the facial
nerve. Just out-
side the stylo-
mastoid foramen
From D. J. Cunningham, in Cunningham's Text-Book of th e
facial gives
the posterior off
FIG. 2. Diagram of the Central Connexions auricular branch
of the Optic Nerve and Optic Tract. to the occipitalis
and posterior
auricular muscles, as well as a branch of supply to the stylo-
hyoid and posterior belly of the digastric muscles.
The eighth or auditory nerve is in two bundles, cochlear and
vestibular. The former comes from the cochlear nuclei which lie
deep to the acoustic tubercle in the floor of the fourth ventricle
(see fig. 3) while the latter rises from the dorsal nucleus, nucleus
,
of Deiters and the nucleus of the descending root, which are
more deeply placed. The nucleus of Deiters is connected with
the cerebellum, and is concerned in maintaining the equilibrium
(q.v.) of the body, while, as is pointed out in the article BRAIN,
tne cochlear nuclei are connected with the inferior quadri-
-geminal body by the lateral fillet as well as with the internal
rACiAL
geniculate body, while this body again is connected with the
higher auditory centre in the grey cortex of the temporo-
sphenoidal lobe by the auditory radiations. The vestibular
root passes in front of the restiform body (see fig. 3), and the
cochlear behind that body. Together they enter the internal
auditory meatus, and, at the end of it, pierce the lamina
cribrosa, the vestibular nerve supplying the utricle and superior vcus
and external semicircular canals, the cochlear nerve the posterior
canal, the saccule and the cochlea (see EAR).
The ninth or glossopharyngeal nerve is chiefly, if not entirely,
sensory, and its deep termination in the brain is the solitary
bundle (see fig. 3; and BRAIN, fig. 4). It appears on the surface VAGUS
between the olive and restiform
body (see fig. l), and leaves the
skull through the posterior lacerated foramen as it does so two;
ganglia, the jugular and petrous, are formed on it, after which
it runs downward and forward, between the internal and ex-
ternal carotid arteries, and eventually reaches the back of the
tongue (see TONGUE). On its way it supplies the tympanum,
the stylopharyngeus muscle, though there is grave doubt as to
whether these fibres are not really derived from the facial nerve,
contributions to the pharyngeal plexus, the tonsil and part of
, the epiglottis. From D. J. Cunningham, in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
The tenth nerve or vagus has and motor fibres; the FIG. 3. Deep Origins of Cranial Nerves from the Fourth Ventricle,
sensory
former go to the anterior horn of the grey matter of the spinal cord as low as the
solitary bundle mentioned in the description
of the
last nerve (see fig. 3), while the latter come from the dorsal nucleus and fifth cervical nerve. Its fibres come to the surface mid-way between
nucleus ambiguus, both of which are found deep to the lower half the anterior and posterior nerve-roots, and run up through the
of the fourth ventricle. The nerve appears on the surface between foramen magnum to join the accessory part, the deep origin of
the olive and restiform body and just below the ninth (see fig. i). which is the lower part of the nucleus ambiguus. The accessory
It leaves the skull through the posterior lacerated foramen, and, part, as has been noticed, joins the vagus, while the spinal part
like the glossopharyngeal, has two ganglia developed on it; the pierces the sternc-mastoid muscle and runs obliquely downward
NERVE 397
and backward across the posterior triangle of the neck to enter
the trapezius; both these muscles are in part supplied by the
Cl. nerve.
The twelfth or hypoglossal nerve is motor, and rises from a nucleus
in the floor of the fourth ventricle deep to the trigonum hypoglossi
(see BRAIN, fig. 3). It emerges from the brain between the anterior
cz. pyramid and the olive (see fig. i), and leaves the skull in two bundles
through the anterior condylar foramen. Soon after this it is closely
bound to the vagus, and, in front of the atlas, receives an important
contribution from the loop between the first and second cervical
nerves. The nerve then passes downward until it reaches the
origin of the occipital artery, round which it loops, and then runs
forward on the surface of the hyo-glossus to the muscles of the
tongue. As it bends round the occipital artery it gives off its de-
scendens hypoglossi branch, which derives its fibres from the com-
munication with the first cervical already mentioned. This branch
runs down and forms a loop with the communicans cervicis branch
from the second and third cervical nerves, and from this loop (ansa
hypoglossi) many of the depressor muscles of the hyoid bone and
larynx are supplied. Farther forward special branches are given
off to the thyro-hyoid and genio-hyoid muscles, and these, like the
descendens hypoglossi, are derived from the first and second cervical
loop, thus leaving all the true muscles of the tongue to be supplied
by the medullary part of the nerve.
For the embryology and comparative anatomy of the cranial
nerves, see NERVOUS SYSTEM.
II. SPINAL
The
spinal nerves are those which arise from each side of the
spinal cord and are distributed to the trunk and limbs, though
some of the upper ones supply the lower parts of the head and
face. As is shown in the article NERVOUS SYSTEM, the division
between cranial and spinal nerves is rather one of convenience
than of any real scientific difference. There are generally
thirty-one pairs of these nerves, which are subdivided according
to the part of the vertebral column through which they pass out;
thus there are eight cervical (abbreviated C.), twelve thoracic
(Th.) formerly called dorsal, five lumbar (L.), five sacral (S.)
and one coccygeal (Coc.). As the thoracic nerves are the simplest
and most generalized in their arrangement, a typical one of these,
say the fourth or fifth, will be first described.
The nerve is attached to the spinal cord by two roots, of which
the ventral is purely efferent or motor and the dorsal
purely afferent
or sensory. On the dorsal root is a fusiform ganglion which lies in
the foramen be-
tween the verte- tirrmu.
brae through
which the nerve
passes. The two
roots then join to-
gether to form a
mixed nerve (see
fig.5), but very
soon divide once
more into anterior
(ventral) and pos-
terior (dorsal)
primary divisions.
These, however,
each contain sen-
From A.M. Paterson, in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. sory and motor
FIG. 4. The Distribution of the Pneumogastric Nerve.
fibres. Just before
it divides in this
Va.R, Right vagi. I.C, Internal, and way the mixed
Va.L, Left vagi. E.C, External carotid arteries. nerve gives and
r, Ganglion of the root and Co I, Superior cervical cardiac receives its rami
connexions with branch. [branch. communicantes
Sy, Sympathetic, superior cer- Ca2, Inferior cervical cardiac with the sympa-
vical ganglion. R.L, Recurrent laryngeal nerve. thetic (see NER-
G.Ph, Glosso-pharyngeal. Co3, Cardiac branches from VOUS SYSTEM).
Ace, Spinal accessory nerve. recurrent laryngeal The anterior
m, Meningeal branch. nerves. primary division
Aur, Auricular branch. Co4, Thoracic cardiac branch runs round the
I, Ganglion of the trunk (right vagus). trunk, between the
and connexions with A. P. PI, Anterior, and ribs, forming an
Hy, Hypoglossal nerve. P. P. PI, Posterior pulmonary intercostal nerve
Cl, 2 Loop between the first plexuses. and giving off a From A. M. Paterson. in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
two cervical nerves. Oes.Pl, Oesophageal plexus. lateral cutaneous FIG. 5. Scheme of the Distribution of a
Sy, Sympathetic. Gast.R, and Gast.L, Gastric branch, when the Typical Spinal Nerve.
Ace, Spinal accessory nerve. branches of vagus (right side of the body is
Ph, Pharyngeal branch. and left). reached, which divides into anterior and posterior secondary branches.
Ph.Pl, Pharyngeal plexus. Coe.Pl, Coeliac plexus. The rest of the division runs forward, supplying the intercostal
S.L, Superior laryngeal nerve. Hep. PI, Hepatic plexus. muscles, as far as the edge of the sternum, when it ends in an
I.L, Internal laryngeal branch. Spl.Pl, Splenic plexus. anterior cutaneous branch to the front of the chest. The dorsal
E.L, External laryngeal branch. Ren. PI, Renal plexus. primary division divides into an external (lateral) and internal
398 NERVE
(mesial) branch through which the skin and muscles of the back are supply no skin. Its anterior primary division joins those of the
supplied. second, third and fourth cervical nerves to form the cervical plexus,
It will be seen from the foregoing that the thoracic nerves are from which the skin of the side of the neck and lower part of the
almost completely segmental in their distribution, in other words, head and face are supplied by means of the small occipital, great
auricular, superficial cervical, suprasternal, supraclavicular and supra-
acromial nerves (see fig. 7), as well as those muscles of the neck
which are not supplied by the cranial nerves. The phrenic nerve,
which comes chiefly from the fourth cervical, deserves special notice
because it runs down, through the thorax, to supply the greater part
of the diaphragm. The explanation of this long course (see DIA-
PHRAGM) is that the diaphragm is formed in the neck region of the
embryo. The posterior primary division of the second cervical nerve
is very large, and its inner (mesial) branch is called the great occipital
and supplies most of the back of the scalp (fig. 7). The fifth, sixth,
seventh and eighth anterior primary divisions of the cervical nerves
as well as a large part of that of the first thoracic are prolonged into
the arm, and in the lower part of the neck and armpit communicate
with one another to form the brachial plexus. As a general law
underlies the composition of the limb plexuses it will be worth while
to study the structure and distribution of this one with some little
It will be seen from the
care. accompanying diagram (fig. 8) that
each component nerve with the exception of the first thoracic
divides into an anterior (ventral) and a posterior (dorsal) division
which are best spoken of as secondary divisions in order to prevent
any confusion with the anterior and posterior primary divisions
which all the spinal nerves undergo. In the diagram the anterior
secondary divisions are white, while the posterior are shaded. It
has been suggested by A. M. Paterson that the posterior secondary
branches correspond with the lateral branches of the thoracic nerves
already mentioned, but there are still certain difficulties to be
explained before altogether accepting this. Later on in the plexus
three cords are formed of which the posterior is altogether made up
of the posterior secondary divisions, while the anterior secondary
divisions of the fifth, sixth and seventh cervical nerves form the
From A. M. Paterson, in Cunningham's Text-Book oj Anatomy.
FIG. 6. The
Distribution of Cutaneous Nerves on the front of
the Trunk. On
one side the distribution of the several nerves is
represented, the letters indicating their nomenclature.
G.A., Great auricular nerve. I.H, Intercostohumeral.
S.C, Superficial cervical nerve. I.C, Internal cutaneous.
S.Cl, Supraclavicular nerves. M.S, Cutaneous branch of mus-
Acr, Acromial. culo-spiral nerve.
Cl, Clavicular. E.C, External cutaneous nerve.
St, Sternal. G.C, Genito-crural nerve.
T. 2-12, Lateral and anterior M.C1 2 Middle cutaneous nerve.
-
branches of thoracic nerves. I.C1 , Branch of internal cutane-
I.H, Ilio-hypogastric nerve. ous nerve.
/./, Ilio-inguinal nerve. P, Branches of pudic nerve.
Circ, Cutaneous branch of cir- S.Sc, Branches of small sciatic From Gray's Anatomy, Descriptive and Surgical.
cumflex nerve, [nerve. nerve. FIG. 9. Plan of the Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses.
L.I.C, Lesser internal cutaneous
external cord, and those of the eighth cervical and first thoracic
each supplies a slice of the body, but in the other regions this seg- the inner. As a general rule the nerves which rise from the ventral
mental character is masked by the development of the branchial secondary divisions of the limb plexuses run only to that surface of
skeleton and the limbs. In the cervical region the first cervical or the limb which was ventral in the embryo, while the dorsal secondary
suboccipital nerve comes put between the occiput and atlas and does divisions are confined to the original dorsal area, but, in order to
not always have a posterior root. When it has not, it obviously can apply this to the human adult, it must be realized that the limbs
NERVE 399
are at one time flattened buds coming off at right angles from the outer head of the median nerve (C. 5?, 6, 7), which joins the inner
side of the body and having dorsal and ventral surfaces, one (pre- head (C. 8, Th. i) and supplies most of the flexor muscles of the
axial) border toward the head of the embryo, and one (postaxial) front of the forearm as well as those of the ball of the thumb, the
toward the tail. If a person lies prone upon the floor with the arms outer two lumbricals and also the skin of the outer part of the palm
outstretched and the palms downward the embryqlogical position including the outer three digits and half the fourth.
of the forelimb is to some extent restored, and it will now be easily From the inner cord come the inner head of the median just
understood that the more preaxial part of the limb will be supplied mentioned, the ulnar nerve (C. 8, Th. i), which passes down behind
by those nerves which enter it from nearer the head, while the the internal condyle of the humerus, where it is
" " popularly known as
postaxial part draws its nerve supply from lower down the spinal the funny bone and supplies the flexor carpi ulnans, half the
"
cord. To use Herringham's words: (A) Of two spots on the skin, flexor
profundus digitorum, and most of the muscles of the hand
that nearer the preaxial border tends to be supplied by the higher as well as the inner digit and a half on the palmar and dorsal
nerve. (B) Of two spots in the preaxial area the lower tends to be aspects. Other branches of the inner cord are the internal cutaneous
supplied by the lower nerve, and of two spots in the postaxial area (C. 8, Th. i) supplying the inner side of the forearm, the lesser
the lower tends to be supplied by the higher nerve." Other points internal cutaneous (Th. i) which often joins the intercosto-humeral or
of general importance in regard to cutaneous nerve supply are, lateral cutaneous branch of the second intercostal nerve to supply
firstly, that the area of skin supplied by one spinal nerve is not the skin on the inner side of the upper arm, and the internal anterior
sharply marked off from that of the next, but the two are separated thoracic nerve (C. 8, Th. i) to the pectoralis minor and major.
From the posterior cord are derived the
three subscapular nerves (C. 5, 6, 7, 8)
which supply the subscapularis, teres
major and latissimus dorsi muscles, the
circumflex nerve (C. 5, 6) supplying the
deltoid and teres minor muscles, and the
skin over the lower part of the deltoid,
and the musculo-spiral nerve (C. 5, 6, 7, 8)
which is the largest branch of the
brachial plexus and gives off cutaneous
twigs to the outer side and back of the
arm and to the back of the forearm, as well
as muscular twigs to the triceps and
adjacent muscles. At the elbow this
nerve divides into the radial and posterior
interosseous. The radial is entirely sen-
sory and supplies the skin of the outer side
of the back of the hand, including three
digits and a half, while the posterior inter-
Great occ-'pit
osseous is wholly muscular, supplying the
nerve muscles on the back of the forearm. It
Small occipital will be seen that the posterior cord is
Mylo-hyoid
nerve nerve derived altogether from posterior second-
Great auricular
nerve
ary divisions of the plexus, but there
are three other nerves derived from these
Nerves to levator which should be mentioned.
anguli scapulae The posterior thoracic or respiratory
nerve of Bell comes off the back of the
Hypoglossal
Superficial cervical
nerv nerve fifth, sixth and seventh cervical nerves
Internal laryn- before the anterior and posterior secondary
Spinal accessory geal nerve divisions separate,and runs down to supply
Nerve to the serratus magnus muscle.
Nerve to trapezius thyro-hyoid The posterior scapular or nerve to the
branches f Descenders rhomboid muscles runs to those muscles
lypoglossi from the fifth cervical.
Clavicular
Ij The suprascapular nerve (C, 5, 6) passes
through the suprascapular notch to supply
Posterior scapular
the supraspinatus and infraspinatus
nerve muscles.
The spinal nerves which are distributed
Posterior thoracic
nerve
to the lower limbs first intercommunicate
in the lumbar and sacral plexuses, which,
with the perineal nerves, are sometimes
spoken of together as the lumbo sacral
plexus. The lumbar plexus (see fig. 9) is
formed as a rule of the first four lumbar
nerves, though the greater part of the first
number is segmental in its distribution
and resembles one of the thoracic nerves.
It divides into an ilio-hypogastric
From A. M. Paterson, in Cunningham's Text-book of Anatomy. early
The Triangles and ilio-inguinal branch, which run
FIG. 7. of the Neck (Nerves). round the abdominal wall in the sub-
by an overlapping region; and, secondly, that the area supplied by stance of the muscles, and of which the former gives off an iliac
any one spinal nerve is liable to variation in different individuals branch, which is in series with the lateral cutaneous branches of the
within moderate limits. This variation may affect the whole plexus, intercostal nerves and passes over the crest of the ilium to the
" "
and the term prefixed plexus has been devised by C.S. Sherring- gluteal region, while the hypogastric branch runs round to the skin
ton to indicate one in which the spinal nerves entering into its of the pubic region. The iho-mguinal, on the other hand, gives off
formation are rather higher than usual, while, when the opposite no lateral cutaneous or iliac branch, but is prolonged down the
"
is the case, the plexus is spoken of as postfixed." inguinal canal to supply the skin of the scrotum as well as that of
With regard to the muscular supply of a limb the general rule is the thigh which touches it. In all probability the hypogastric
that each muscle is supplied by fibres derived from more than one branch of the ilio-hypogastric and the whole of the ilio-inguinal
spinal nerve; this, of course, is made possible by the redistribution represent the anterior secondary division of the first lumbar nerve,
of fibres in the plexuses. Moreover, the muscular supply does not while the posterior secondary division is the iliac branch of the ilio-
necessarily correspond to that of the overlying skin, because (see hypogastric.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM) some of the primitive muscles have been sup- The other anterior secondary divisions of the lumbar plexus is
pressed, others have fused together, while others have shifted their the obturator (see fig. 8). The obturator nerve (L. 2, 3, 4) supplies
position to a considerable distance. Bearing the foregoing facts in the adductor group of muscles on the inner side of the thigh as
mind, the main distribution of the nerves of the brachial plexus may well as the hip and knee joints; it occasionally has a cutaneous
be surveyed, though the exact details must be sought in the human branch on the inner side of the thigh. The posterior secondary
anatomy text-books. The outer cord of the plexus gives off the branches of the plexus are the genito-crural, the external cutaneous
external anterior thoracic nerve (C. 5, 6, 7) to the pectoralis major, and the anterior crural. The genito-crural nerve (L. 1,2) is partly
the musculo-cutaneous nerve (C. 5, 6) to the muscles on the front of anterior (ventral) and partly posterior (dorsal). It sends one
the arm, and to the skin of the outer side of the forearm and the anterior branch through the inguinal canal to supply the cremaster
400 NERVI NERVOUS SYSTEM
muscle, and another (posterior) to the skin of the thigh just below cutaneous nerve supplies the peroneus longus and brevis muscles,
the groin. and the rest of the skin of the dorsum, of the foot, and lower part of
The external cutaneous nerve (L.2, 3) supplies the skin of the the leg, while the skin of the upper part of the dorsum of the leg,
outer side of the thigh, while the anterior crural (L.2, 3, 4) innervates below the knee, is supplied by the external popliteal before its
the muscles on the front of the thigh, the skin on the front and inner division. The internal popliteal nerve, after supplying the ham-
strings, is continued into the calf of the leg
as the posterior tibial and innervates all the
muscles on this, the ventral, surface. Behind
the inner ankle it divides into the external and
internal plantar nerves, from which the
muscles and skin of the sole are supplied. A
little above the knee each popliteal nerve
gives off a contribution to help form the
external or short saphenous nerve. That from
the internal popliteal is called the com-
municans tibialis, while that from the ex-
ternal popliteal is the communicans fibularis.
These join about the middle of the back of
the calf, and the, now formed, short saphenous
nerve runs down behind the outer ankle to
supply the outer side of the foot. Some-
times it encroaches on the dorsum of the
foot, replacing part of the musculo-cutaneous,
though, when this is the case, its dorsal con-
tribution from the external popliteal (com-
municans fibularis) is always larger than
usual. To return to the sacral plexus:
branches are given off from the anterior
secondary divisions to the short external
rotator muscles of the hip (pyriformis, quad-
ratus femoris, &c.), while from the posterior
secondary divisions come the superior glu-
From A. M. Paterson, in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. teal (L. I.S. 4, 5) and the inferior gluteal
FIG. 8. The Nerves of the Brachial Plexus. [L-5. S. i, 2) to the muscles of the buttocks.
In modern descriptions the lower branches
Sy, Sympathetic gangliated cord. Cb, Nerve to coraco-brachialis. of the lumbo-sacral plexus are grouped into
Phr, Phrenic nerve. M, Median nerve.
a pudendal plexus, and the plan, though open
C.4, 5, 6, 7, 8, r.i, 2, 3, Anterior primary divi- Inner Cord. to criticism on morphological grounds, has
anterior thoracic nerve. such descriptive advantages that it is followed
U r
pV^I^fho^-^n^f
^N^rvfto'XmboidlWerior scapular).
Subcl, Nerve to subclavius muscle.
"^
t0 mUSClCS-
^ c inte maUutaneous nerve.
Lesser internal cutaneous nerve.
Posterior Cord.
here. Contributions from the first, second,
third and fourth sacral, and the coccygeal
nerve, form it, and these contributions are
almost all anterior (ventral) secondary divi-
sions. The branches of this plexus are the
Int, Intercostal nerves. Circ, Circumflex nerve.
small sciatic, pudic, visceral, perforating
S.Sc, Supra-scapular nerve. The intercostal M.S, Musculo-spiral nerve, muscular and sacro-cpccygeal
cutaneous,
part of the first thoracic nerve is omitted. S.Sub, Short subscapular nerve.
nerves. The small sciatic (5.1, 2, 3) is partly
_ _ , M.Sub, Lower subscapular nerve. dorsal and partly ventral in its origin and
Outer Cord.
L.Sub, Long subscapular nerve.
External anterior thoracic Intercosto-humeral distribution; it supplies the skin of the
E.A.T, nerve. I.H, nerve.
buttock and the back of the
M.C, Muscular-cutaneous nerve. Lot, Lateral branch of third intercostal nerve. perineum,
thigh. The pudic nerve (S.2, 3, 4) helps
side of the thigh, through its middle and internal cutaneous branches, to supply 'the skin and muscles of the perineum and genital
and the skin of the inner side of the leg and foot through the internal organs. The visceral branches form the pelvic stream of white
saphenous branch. At first sight it is difficult to understand how the rami communicantes (see NERVOUS SYSTEM); they run from
anterior crural nerve, which supplies the skin of the front of the the second and third or third and fourth sacral nerves to the pelvic
thigh, is a posterior secondary division of the lumbar plexus, but plexuses of the sympathetic system. The perforating cutaneous
the explanation is that the front of the human thigh was originally nerve (S.2, 3) the great sacro-sciatic ligament and supplies
pierces
the dorsal surface of the limb bud, and the distribution of the nerve the skin over the lower internal part of the buttock. The muscular
is quite easily understood if the position of the hind limb of a lizard branches (8.3, 4) supply the external sphincter, levator ani and
or crocodile is glanced at. The fourth lumbar nerve is sometimes coccygeus.
called the nervus furcalis, because, dividing, it partly goes to the The sacro-coccygeal nerve (8.4, 5, Coc.i) runs down on each side
lumbar, and partly to the sacral plexus (fig. 8), though, when the of the coccyx to supply the adjacent skin, and represents the ventro-
plexus is prefixed, the third lumbar may be the nervus furcalis, or, lateral nerve of the tail of lower mammals. (F. G. P.)
when it is postfixed, the fifth lumbar. Under ordinary conditions
the descending branch of the fourth lumbar nerve joins the fifth, and NERVI, coast
a town of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Genoa,
together they make the lumbo-sacral cord, which, with the first three from which it is 75 m. S.E. by rail (also electric tramway), 82 ft.
sacral nerves, forms the sacral plexus. This plexus, like the others,
contains anterior and posterior secondary divisions of its spinal
above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 3480 (town); 6317 (commune).
nerves, and it resembles the brachial plexus in that the lowest nerve It is much frequented as a winter resort. It is surrounded with
to enter it contributes no dorsal secondary division. groves of olives, oranges and lemons, and its villas have beautiful
All the constituent nerves of the plexus run into one huge nerve,
gardens. It is moister and less dusty than the western Riviera,
the great sciatic, which runs down the back of the thigh and, before
and is especially in favour with those who suffer from lung
reaching the knee, divides into external and internal popliteal nerves.
These two nerves are sometimes separate from their first formation complaints. At Quarto, 2\ m. N.W., 1000 Garibaldians (i mille)
in the plexus, and may always be separated easily by the handle of embarked for Marsala in 1860.
a_ scalpel,
since they are only bound together by loose connective NERVOUS SYSTEM. The nervous system forms an extremely
tissue to form the great sciatic nerve. When they are separated in
complicated set of links between different parts of the body,
this way it is seen that the external popliteal is made
_ up entirely and is divided into
of posterior (dorsal) secondary divisions (see fig. 9), and is derived (A) the central nervous system, composed of
from the fourth and fifth lumbar and first and second sacral nerves, (i) the brain, and (2) spinal cord; (B) the peripheral nervous
while the internal popliteal is formed by the anterior (ventral)
system, consisting of (i) the cranial nerves, (2) the spinal nerves,
secondary divisions of the fourth and fifth lumbar and first, second
and third sacral nerves. The external popliteal nerve supplies the (3) the various sense organs, such as the eye, ear, olfactory organ,
short head of the biceps femoris (see MUSCULAR SYSTEM), and, just taste organ and tactile organs, and (4) the motor end plates;
below the knee, divides into anterior tibial and musculo-cutaneous (C) the sympathetic system. The anatomy and physiology of
branches, which both supply the dorsal surface of the leg and foot. of these parts are treated in separate articles (see BRAIN,
The anterior tibial nerve is chiefly muscular, innervating the muscles many
in front of the tibia and fibula as well as the extensor brevis digitorum
SPINAL CORD, NERVE, EYE, EAR, OLFACTORY ORGAN, TASTE,
on the dorsum of the foot, though it gives one small cutaneous TOUCH, MUSCLE AND NERVE, SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM).
pedis
branch to the cleft between the first and second toes. Themusculo- The object here is to deal with anatomical points which are
NERVOUS SYSTEM 401
common to the whole system, or for which a place does not 2. Pacinian corpuscles (fig. 3, B) are large enough to be seen by
the naked eye, and are oval bodies made up of a series of concentric
conveniently occur elsewhere.
capsules of connective tissue rather resembling the structure of an
HISTOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. onion; in the centre of this is a structureless core, at the distal
Three kinds of tissue are found in the nervous system, nerve extremity of which the nerve fibre ends in one or more knobs. These
fibres, nerve cells, and a supporting tissue called neuroglia. NERVE
FIBRES may be medullated or non-medullated, but, whichever they
are, they consist of the long process or axon of a nerve cell; in a
non-medullated nerve this process is either naked or enclosed in a
delicate membrane called the primitive sheath or neurilemma, but in
a medullated nerve the process or axis cylinder is encased by a white
" "
fatty substance called "myelin, and "so the term myelinated is
often used instead of medullated for these nerves (see fig. i).
Outside this white sheath the neurilemma is
Axis
cylinder present in most nerves, but is lost when they
are massed to form the white matter of the
central nervous system and in the optic nerve.
Myelin At regular intervals the myelin is interrupted
by some substance which stains deeply with
silver nitrate, and these breaks are known as
nodes of Ranvier. They do not, however, affect
the axis cylinder. In a large nerve, such as the
median, the nerve fibres are collected into small
Primitive bundles called funiculi, enclosed in a connective
sheath tissue sheath, the perineurium, and separated
from it by a lymph space. From this sheath
delicate processes penetrate among the fibres,
and_ these are known as the endoneurium. The
funiculi are collected into bundles called fasciculi,
and the whole nerve consists of a variable num-
ber of fasciculi surrounded by a dense fibrous
sheath, the epineurium. The various bundles
do not remain distinct, but break up and re-
arrange themselves, so that following them up
with the scalpel is a difficult and tedious work.
The nerve fibres, however, never join one another
and are often several feet in length.
NERVE CELLS are unipolar, bipolar or multi-
polar. Unipolar cells are found in the ganglia on
the posterior roots of the spinal nerves, and only
give off an axon or axis cylinder process; this,
however, soon divides in a T-shaped manner, and
all these cells were
originally bipolar, though the
cell has grown away from its two axons (or, as
they are often regarded, axon and dendrite),
leaving a stalk joining it to them at right angles.
Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
Bipolar cells are found as an embryonic stage of
unipolar, though in fish they persist in the spinal FIG. 2. Three Nerve-Cells from the Anterior Horn of Gray Matter
ganglia throughout life. They are also some- of the Human Spinal Cord.
times found in the sympathetic ganglia. Multi-
polar cells are found in the brain and cord, and bodies are found in the palm and sole, in the mesentery, the genital
are best studied in the anterior horns of the grey organs and in joints.
matter of the latter, where they are nearly visible Tactile corpuscles of Meissner and Wagner (fig. 3, C) are oval
3-_
Of their many bodies found in certain of the skin papillae and mucous membrane,
Cunningham's Text, to the naked eye (see fig. 2).
Book of Anatomy. processes only one is an axon, and it becomes especially of very sensitive parts like the hand and foot, lips, tongue
p IG j Nerve- tne axia ' cylinder of a motor spinal nerve. The and nipple. They are oval and made of a connective tissue capsule
fibre from a Frog, other fibres are called dendrites,
and break up from which septa enter the interior. The nerve fibre generally
mto delicate branches some of which surround, takes a spiraj course through them, loses its myelin sheath, and
(After v. Kolliker.j
but, it is generally believed, are not actually ends by breaking up into its fibrils, which eventually become bulbous.
continuous with, neighbouring cells or their processes. It is known 4. Tactile corpuscles of Grandry are found in the skin of those
that the axons are made up of delicate fibrils, and it is thought parts devoid of hair, and consist of a capsule containing two or more
by some observers that there is actual continuity between some
of these and those of an adjacent neuron, as the combination
of a nerve cell, its axon and dendrites, is called. The cells of
Purkinje in the cerebellum show a particularly rich arborization of
dendrites (see BRAIN, fig. 7). Nerve cells have generally a large clear
nucleus.
THE NEUROGLIA is the delicate connective tissue which supports
and binds together the nervous elements of the central nervous
system. One part of it, which lines the central canal of the cord
and ventricles of the brain, is formed of columnar cells, and is
called ependyma, while the rest consists of small cells with numerous
processes which sometimes branch and sometimes do not. These
fibres interlace with one another to form a delicate felt-work which
is unmixed with nervous elements on the surface of the grey matter
of the brain (see BRAIN, figs. 7 and 15). though elsewhere it is inter-
woven with them.
NERVE ENDINGS. Sensory nerves end by breaking up into _
fibrillae or by various tactile organs. In the former case the minute
fibrils, of which it has been shown that the axons or nerve fibres
consist, separate and end among epithelial cells of the mucous
membrane or skin. In the latter case the nerve fibres lose their From Robert Howden, in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
coating of myelin and end in one of the seven following organs: FIG. 3. Tactile Corpuscles. A, End bulb (Krause) B, Corpuscle
;
i. End bulbs
ofKrause (fig. 3, A), oval bulbs composed of elongated _ofPacini; C, Corpuscle of Meissner. (B, C, after Ranvier.)
cells among which the nerve fibrils end in knobs or coils; each
_is
surrounded by a sheath of neurilemma, and the organs are found in largish cells, between which the nerve fibre ends in the so-called
the lips, tongue, conjunctiva, epineurium of nerves, synovial mem- tactile discs.
branes of joints, and in the glans penis et clitoridis, where they have 5._ Rujjini's endings are flattened oval bodies with a thick con-
a mulberry-like appearance. nective tissue capsule, in which the nerve fibre divides into many
402 NERVOUS SYSTEM
branches which have a varicose appearance, form a rich plexus, and vertebrae. In addition to these cords there are numerous ganglia
end in knobs. These organs are found between the true skin and and plexuses through which the sympathetic nerves pass on their
subcutaneous tissue of the fingers. way to or from the viscera and blood-vessels.
6. Organs of Golgi are found in tendons. Nerve fibres penetrate A typical ganglion of the sympathetic chain is connected with its
the tendon bundles and divide in a tree-like manner to end in little corresponding spinal nerve by two branches called rami communi-
disks and varicosities. cantes, one of which is
7. Ncuro-muscular spindles are small fusiform bundles of em- grey and the other white
bryonic muscle fibres among which the nerve fibres end by en- (see fig. 4). The white
circling them and forming flattened disks. These are sensory endings, consists of medullated
and must not be confused with the motor end plates. They are fibres belonging to the
found in most of the striped muscles of the body. central nervous system,
Motor nerves end in striped muscle by motor end plates. These and these are splanchnic
are formed by a nerve fibre approaching a muscle fibre and suddenly afferent or centripetal,
losing its myelin sheath while its neurilemma becomes continuous and efferent or centri-
with the sarcolemma of the muscle fibre. The axis cylinder divides, fugal. The efferent fibres
and its ramifications are surrounded by a disk of granular matter lie in the anterior roots
containing many clear nuclei. In very long muscle fibres more of the spinal nerves, and,
than one of these end plates are sometimes found. Involuntary like all the fibres there,
motor endings are usually found in sympathetic nerves going to are either motor or secre-
unstriped muscle. The fibres form minute plexuses, at the points tory. They are the
of union of which small triangular ganglion cells are found. After motor paths for the
this the separate fibrils of the nerve divide, and each ends opposite unstriped muscle of the
the nucleus of an unstriped muscle cell. vessels and viscera, and
the secretory paths for
THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM the cells of the viscera.
This system is made up of two gangliated cords running down one In the course of each
on each side of the vertebral column and ending below in the median fibre from the nerve cell
in the spinal cord,
of which it is an
axon, to the vessel
or viscus it supplies,
there is always a
break where it
arborizes round a
ganglion cell, and
this may be in its
own ganglion of the
sympathetic chain,
in a neighbouring
ganglion above or
below, or in one of
the so-called col-
lateral ganglia in-
terposed between
the sympathetic
chain and the vis-
cera. In addition Cir.
to these there are a From
certain number of Anatomy.
^M Patcreon> , Cunningham's Tea-Book oj
vaso-dilator and p IG . ._The Distribution of the Sym-
viscero-inhibitory Gangliated Cord in the Neck.
fibres, which run c pathetic
c
without any cell %"
. .
,
Superior cervical ganglion, and con-
nexions and branches.
connexions from ,~
e sninal or cranial
the P
ne rve to the
.The splanchnic %*'
afferent or centri-
*- C
v^a! ^
Internal carotid artery.
*
'
Glosso-pharyngeal.
Vagus.
Hypoglossal.
C ' 1 '
2 3 4 Flrst four cervlcal nerves.
' ' '
petal fibres are the
sensory nerves from
the viscera, and Glosso-pharyngeal nerve.
have no cell con- E.C, To external carotid artery.
nexions until they Sy.2, Middle cervical ganglion, connexions
reach the spinal ,-, and branches.
, T" C ^\.
6
ganglia on the pos- T.Thv. fifth
terior roots of the
f&
and sixth cervical nerves.
Inferior thyroid artery.
-
which
Ansa Vieussenii.
spinal nerves, Inferior cervical ganglion, con-
they do by travers- nexions and branches.
ing gl t d
cord of ^?" 't f, C-7, 8, Seventh and eighth cervical nerves,
Vertebral plexus,
pathetic. ThefiCs
-
of the
Car
white rami
Cardiac branches, -
communicantes are remarkable for their small diameter, and
the efferent fibres, at all events, are only found in two regions,
one of which is called the thoracico-lumbar stream and extends
from the first or second thoracic to the second or third lumbar
nerve, while the pelvic stream is found from the second to the
fourth sacral nerves.
From A. 'M. Paterson, in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
The grey rami communicantes are found in connexion with all
the spinal nerves, though they are irregular in the paths by which
Cord they reach the sympathetic ganglia from the cells of which they
spring; their fibres are mainly non-medullated, and pass into
roots of the spinal nerves and also into the anterior and
the left the roots and trunks of spinal nerves ,.,,
,,... i,. c
amuse-
ment of the white ramus communicans above and of the gray ramus below. nerves. In this way they
d are somatic vaso-motor,
secretory and pilo-motor fibres, supplying the vessels, glands
coccygeal ganglion (g. impar). In the neck the cords lie in front of and hair muscles of the skin and its The sympathetic
the anterior tubercles of the transverse processes of the cervical glands.
ganglia, from which these nerves come, contain multipolar nerve
vertebrae, in the thorax, in front of the heads of the ribs, while cells with one axon and several dendrites as well as a number of
in the 'abdomen they lie in front of the sides of the bodies of the
medullated fibres passing through, and much connective tissue.
NERVOUS SYSTEM 403
Some of the axons of these cells pass in the connectives to ganglia (ansa Vieussenii) joining it to the middle cervical ganglion in front
above and below, while others pass with the splanchnic efferent of that vessel. communicates with the seventh and eighth spinal
It
nerves to the viscera. nerves, and gives branches of distribution to the heart and to the
The above sketch will give the general scheme of the sympathetic subclayian artery and its branches, especially the vertebral. The
system, but its exact topographical details in man must be sought thoracic part of the sympathetic cord has usually eleven ganglia,
in the modern text-books such as those of Gray, Quain or Cunning- which receive both white and grey rami communicantes from the
ham. Here only the larger and more important details can pe nerves (fig. 6) of the former the upper ones run up in the
;
spinal
given. In the gangliated chain there is a ganglion chain and come off from the cervical ganglia as already described,
corresponding
to nearly each spinal nerve, except in the neck, where only three are while the lower ones form the three abdominal splancnnics which
found of these the superior cervical ganglion is more than an inch
; pass through the diaphragm (q.v.) and join the abdominal plexuses.
long, and is connected with the first four spinal nerves as well as The great splanchnic (fig. 6, 5.i) comes from the sixth to the ninth
ganglia, and ends in the semi-lunar ganglion of the solar plexus
From A. M. Paterson, in Cun- (fig. 6, SL). The small splanchnic (fig. 6, 5.2) comes from the ninth
ningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. and tenth, or tenth and eleventh ganglia, and ends in the aortico-
FIG. 6. The Arrange- renal ganglion of the solar plexus, while the smallest splanchnic
ment of the Sympathetic (fig. 6, 5.3) comes from the last thoracic ganglion, whether it be the
System in the Thorax, tenth or eleventh, and ends in the renal plexus.
Abdomen and Pelvis. In the lumbar region the gangliated cord is very irregular; there
may be four or more ganglia, and these are often fused. Grey rami
T.I-I2, .1-5, 5.1-5, Co, communicantes are given to all the lumbar spinal nerves, and white
Anterior primary ones are received from the first two. Most of the branches of dis-
divisions of spinal tribution pass to the aortic plexus. The sacral gangliated cord runs
nerves, connected down just internal to the anterior sacral foramina; it usually has
to the gangliated four small ganglia, and the two cords end by joining the coccygeal
cord of the sym-
ganglion or ganglion impar, though the two-fourth sacral ganglia are
pathetic by rami united by transverse interfunicular commissures. The white rami
communicant es, communicantes, already mentioned as the pelvic stream, from the
white (double lines) second to the fourth sacral spinal nerves, do not enter the ganglia
and gray (single but pass directly to the pelvic plexuses (fig. 6, V).
lines). Sympathetic Plexuses. In the thorax are the superficial and deep
Oes, Oesophagus and cardiac plexuses and the coronary plexuses; the former receives the
left superior cervical cardiac of the vagus, and lies in the concavity
oesophageal plexus.
of the arch of the aorta. The deep cardiac plexus is larger, and
Ao, Aorta and aorta lies in front of the bifurcation of the trachea; it receives all the
plexus. other cardiac nerves, and communicates with the anterior pulmonary
Va, Vagus nerve joining plexuses of the vagus (see NERVES: Cranial). The right and left
oesophageal plexus. coronary plexuses accompany the coronary arteries; the former
S.I, Great splanchnic
communicates with both the cardiac plexuses, the latter only with
nerve. the deep cardiac plexus.
In the abdomen the solar plexus is by far the most important.
X, ,Great splanchnic It lies behind the stomach and surrounds the coeliac axis; in it are
ganglion. situated the semilunar, aortico-renal and superior mesenteric
5.2, Small splanchnic ganglia, and from it are prolonged subsidiary plexuses along the main
nerve. arteries, so that diaphragmatic, suprarenal, renal, spermatic, coeliac,
Least superior mesenteric, aortic and inferior mesenteric plexuses, are
5.3, splanchnic
nerve. recognized. The hypogastric plexus is the continuation downward
of the aortic, and lies just below the bifurcation of the aorta (see
Co, Coronary artery fig. 6, Hy); it divides into two branches, which accompany the
and plexus. internal iliac arteries and are joined by the pelvic stream of white
Spl, Splenic artery and rami communicantes from the sacral spinal nerves and some twigs
plexus.
from the ganglia of the sacral sympathetic to form the pelvic
plexuses. These are prolonged to the viscera along the branches of
H, Hepatic artery and the internal iliac artery, so that haemorrhoidal, vesital, prostatic,
plexus.
vaginal and uterine plexuses are found. By the side of the neck of
SL, Semilunar ganglion. the uterus in the last-named plexus several small ganglia are seen.
Di, Diaphragm. (For the literature of the sympathetic system, see Quain's Anatomy,
London, 1895.)
5..R, Suprarenal capsule. EMBRYOLOGY OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
Re, Renal artery and
The development of the brain, spinal cord and organs of special
plexus. sense (eye, ear, tongue), will be found in separate articles. Here
S.M, Superior mesenteric that of the cranial and spinal nerves and the sympathetic system is
artery and plexus. dealt with. The thoracic spinal nerves are the most typical, and
one of them is the best to begin with. In fig. 7, A the ganglion on
Sp, Spermatic artery
and the dorsal root (DR) is seen growing out from the neural crest, and
plexus.
the cells or neuroblasts of which it is composed become fusiform and
I.M, Inferior mesenteric
grow in two directions as the ganglion recedes from the cord. Those
artery and plexus. which run toward the spinal cord are the axons, while those growing
Hy, Hypogastric nerves into the mesoderm are probably enlarged dendrites. The ventral
and plexus. roots (VR) rise as the axons of the large cells in the ventral horn of
the grey matter, and meet the fibres of the dorsal root on the distal
Rec, Rectal plexus.
side of the ganglion (fig. 7, B). As the two roots join each divides
Ut, Uterine plexus. into an anterior (ventral) and a posterior (dorsal) primary division
Ves, Vesical plexus. (fig. 7, D), the latter growing into the dorsal segment of its muscle
plate and the skin of the back. The anterior primary division
V. V. V, Visceral branches
from sacral nerves. grows till it reaches the cardinal vein and dorsal limit of the coelom,
REC. UT VES and there forks into a somatic branch to the body wall (fig. 7_, C, So),
and a splanchnic or visceral branch (fig. 7, C, Vi) which joins the
with the ninth, tenth and twelfth cranial nerves (see fig. 5, 5y.i). sympathetic and forms the white ramus communicans. The somatic
Branches of distribution pass from it to the pharyngeal plexus, branch grows round the body wall and gives off lateral and anterior
the heart and the two carotid arteries. Of these the branch accom- branches (fig. 7, E). In the limb regions the anterior primary
panying the internal carotid artery passes to the carotid and cavern- djvisions of the nerves divide into anterior and posterior secondary
ous plexuses, and through these communicates with the spheno- divisions, which probably correspond to the anterior and lateral
maxillary, otic and ciliary ganglia, while the branch to the external branches of the thoracic nerves (fig. 7, Eand F). These unite with
carotid communicates with the submaxillary ganglion. The middle neighbouring nerves to form plexuses, and divide again, but the
cervical ganglion (fig. 5, 5y.2), when it is present, gives rami com- anterior nerves keep to the ventral side of the limb and the posterior
municantes to the fifth and sixth cervical nerves, as well as branches to the dorsal.
of distribution to the thyroid body and heart. The cranial nerves are developed in the same wayas the spinal,
The inferior cervical ganglion (fig. 5, Sy-3) lies behind the sub- so far as concerns the facts that the motor fibres are the axons
clavian artery, and, besides the main connective cord, has a loop of cells situated in the basal lamina of the mesencephalon and
404 NERVOUS SYSTEM
rhombencephalon (see BRAIN), and the sensory are the axons and den- there are two ventral roots to one dorsal. In the fishes and higher
drites of cells situated in ganglia which have budded off from the vertebrates the dorsal and ventral roots unite, though in selachian
brain. The evidence of comparative anatomy, however, shows that (shark) embryos F. M. Half our says that the dorsal and ventral
roots alternate (The Development of Elasmobranch
Fishes, London, 1878). When limbs are developed,
beginning with fishes, limb plexuses are formed.
Where the limbs are suppressed rudimentary
plexuses may persist, as in the snake, though
usually they disappear.
The cranial nerves are only represented by two
pairs in Amphioxus. In the Cyclostomata, fishes
and Amphibia, ten pairs of nerves are found,
which in their distribution do not always agree
with those of man. In the Amniota or reptiles,
birds and mammals, the eleventh and twelfth
nerves have been added. The researches of W.
H. Gaskell (" On the structure, distribution and
functions of the nerves which innervate the
visceral and vascular systems," J. of Phys. vii.
i, 1886), Q. S. Strong (" The cranial nerves
of Amphibia," /. Morph. x. 101), I. B.
Johnston (/. Comp. Neural, xii. 2 and 87),
and others, show that the cranial nerves are
formed of at least five components: (i) Ven-
tral motor, (2) Lateral motor, (3) Somatic
sensory, (4) Visceral sensory, (5) Lateral line
nerves.
The ventral motor components are those which
_
rise from cells situated close to the mid line, and
probably correspond to the ventral roots of the
spinal nerves. The nerves to the muscles eye
(motor oculi, trochlearis and abducens) have this
origin (see NERVE Cranial), as also has the hypo-
:
glossal, which doubtless is a cephalized spinal
nerve.
The lateral motor components rise from cells situ-
ated more laterally, and comprise the motor roots
of the fifth (trigeminal), seventh (facial), and
ninth, tenth and eleventh (glossopharyngeal,
From A. M. Patcrson, in Cunningham's Text-book of Anatomy. vagus and spinal accessory). These nerves
FIG. 7. Development of the Spinal Nerves. supply muscles belonging to the branchial
skeleton, instead of the muscles of the primi-
A, Formation of nerve roots. C, Formation of nerves. tive cranium, of which the eye muscles are the
D.R, Dorsal root.
Somatic division. remnants.
So,
V.R, Ventral root. Vi, Visceral branch. The somatic sensory components supply the
N.T, Neural tube.
Posterior primary division. skin, and end in cells which, among the cyclo-
P,
No, Notochord. stomes and fishes, form a considerable elevation
Al.C, Alimentary canal. D, E, Formation of subordinate branches, in the rhombencephalon, known as the lobus
Ao, Aorta.
Lot, Lateral, and trigemini (fig. 8, Nuc. V.). These components,
V, Cardinal vein. in the lower forms, are found in the fifth, seventh
Ant, Anterior, branches.
M.P, Muscle plate. and tenth nerves, but in mammals practically
B, Formation of nerve trunk (N) F, Formation of nerve trunks in relation n 'y the fifth contains them. They correspond
D.G, Dorsal ganglion. to the limb
; dorsal and ventral to the dorsal roots of the spinal nerves,
Sy, Sympathetic ccrd. trunks corresponding to lateral and The splanchnic sensory or viscera sensory corn-
W.D, Wolffian duct. anterior trunks in D and E. ponents end in the brain in the medullary cells
Co, Coelom. known as the fasciculus communis in fishes, and
fasciculus sohtanus in mammals (see BRAIN, fig. 4),
the cranial nerves cannot be directly homologized with the spinal, nor as well as in- the lobus trigemini and lobus vagi (fig. 8, Nuc. X.). They
can the fact of there being twelve of them justify us in assuming are found in the fifth, seventh, ninth, tenth and eleventh nerves,
that the head contains the rudiments of twelve fused or unsegmented and supply visceral surfaces. In mammals the lingual and palatine
somites. To this we will return later. The case of the optic nerve
is different to that of any of the others. A. Robinson (Journ. Anat.
and Phys., vol. 30, p. 319) has shown that most of its fibres are the
axons of ganglion cells in the retina, and, as the retina is part of
the optic vesicle and an outgrowth from the brain, the so-called EPIPH.
optic nerve is only comparable to a tract of fibres within the brain.
The twelfth or hypoglossal nerve is regarded as a fusion of the
motor roots of three spinal nerves, and embryology bears this out, 'OPT.N.
for Froriep has described a small and transitory ganglion corre-
6AN6.HAB.
sponding to the posterior root ganglion of this nerve. Another link
in the chain of reasoning is that the first spinal or sub-occipital nerve OPT. LOBE
often has its posterior root suppressed.
The sympathetic system is developed from the posterior root
ganglia of the spinal nerves, by cells which in man migrate a few
at a time. A. M. Paterson, however, believes that the sympathetic -Nuci'v:
is developed, of the cerebro-spinal system, in the
independently
mesoderm (Phil. Trans, clxxxi. pt. B. p. 159). In embryos of
14-5 m.m. there are found masses of cells on each side of the ab-
dominal aorta, permeated with blood vessels, and having the same
structure as the carotid and known as NUC.X.
coccygeal bodies. They are
the organs of Zuckerkandl, and disappear soon after birth.
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
From Catalogue of Ike Museum of Ike Royal College of Surgeons of England, vol. a
_The comparative anatomy of the brain and spinal cord is dealt 2nd cd.
with in the separate articles devoted to them.
FIG. 8. Brain (A) and Choroid Plexuses (B) of Lamprey.
Spinal Nerves. In Amphioxus the dorsal and ventral roots do
not unite with one another but alternate, a dorsal root on one side branches of the fifth, the chorda tympani and great superficial
being opposite a ventral on the other. The dorsal roots are both petrosal (?) of the seventh, and all the sensory fibres of the ninth
sensory and motor, the ventral only motor. In the Cyclostomata and tenth except Arnold's nerve, represent these. In fishes and
(Petromyzon) the arrangement is nearly the same, but in some regions Amphibians the palate is supplied by the seventh nerve instead of
NESFIELD NESSELRODE 405
the fifth, but the explanation given for this difference is that in
these lower forms the Gasserian and geniculate ganglia are not
distinct, and so fibres from the compound ganglion may pass into
either nerve. These splanchnic sensory components of the cranial
nerves evidently correspond to the branches which have already
been mentioned as the splanchnic afferent fibres of the sympathetic.
The system of the lateral line or acustico-lateralis component is
sometimes regarded merely as a subdivision of the somatic sensory.
It is best developed in the fish, and may be divided into pre- and
post-auditory, and auditory. The pre-auditory part comprises the
pit and canal end organs supplied by the seventh, and also probable
the olfactory organ supplied by. the first nerve. The auditory
apparatus, supplied by the eighth nerve, is, according to modern
opinion, undoubtedly a part of this system, while the tenth nerve
sends a large branch along the lateral line supplying the special end
organs of the post-auditory part. All these components of the
lateral line pass to the tuberculum acusticum in the fourth ventricle,
as well as to the cerebellum, which J. B. Johnston (Zoo/. Bull.
I, S, p. 221, Boston) regards as a derivative of the rostral (anterior)
end of the acusticum. In mammals no doubt the olfactory and
auditory apparatus and nerves have the same morphological signi-
ficance as in fishes, but the seventh does not supply any cutaneous
sense organs en the head or face, and the only vestige of the post-
auditory supply of the tenth nerve to the lateral line is the small
auricular branch of the vagus, often called Arnold's nerve.
The following table, slightly modified from the one drawn up by
J. McMurrich, gives a fair idea of the present state of our knowledge
of the nerve components in the Mammalia.
Nerve.
406 NEST NESTOR
he was sent to Paris to join the embassy of Count Peter held since 1844. He died at St Petersburg on the 23rd of March
Tolstoy, whom he accompanied in the spring of the next year 1862.
to the meeting of the two emperors at Erfurt. After his return See Lettres et papiers du chancelier comte de Nesselrode 1760-1850,
to Paris he strengthened the understanding between Alexander I. the first volume of which was issued by his grandson Count Anatole
Nesselrode at Paris in 1904. This work includes letters of the
and Talleyrand consequent on the Erfurt meeting, and acted as chancellor's father, Count William, Nesselrode's correspondence, and
intermediary between the two. On the appointment of a important state papers. In vol. ii. is a fragment of an autobio-
successor to Count Tolstoy he retired to St Petersburg, but graphy (to 1814), which Count Nesselrode did not live to complete.
returned to Paris early in 1810 charged with a commission from See also Correspondance diplomatique du comte Pozzo di Borgo et du
comte de Nesselrode, edited by Charles Pozzo di Borgo (Paris, 2 vols.,
Speranski to Talleyrand and the marquis de Caulaincourt, 1890-1897).
formerly ambassador in St Petersburg, both of whom were
After the breach of NEST, the place where a bird lays its eggs, hatches them out,
hostile to Napoleon's policy of aggression.
and shelters them until they are fledged. The word is used by
diplomatic relations with Russia in 1811, Nesselrode returned
to St Petersburg by way of Vienna in order to exchange views analogy of other animals than birds, insects, &c. It appears
in much the same form in Teutonic languages; related to it
with Metternich. He sought to persuade Alexander to open
are Irish nead, and Lat. nidus, whence Fr. nid. It has been
negotiations with Napoleon, if only to throw the onus of breaking
referred to the Gr. v6ar<K, return home, but it is now established
the peace entirely on the French side. He joined the tsar's
that it represents a form nizdo- for nisido-, from ni-, down;
headquarters at Vilna in March 1812 and, though Rumiantzov "
was still foreign minister, it was Nesselrode who directed the
cf. nether," and sed-, to sit. Sanskrit has nida. The Lat.
nidus has given the scientific term for nest-building, nidification
foreign policy of Russia from this time forward. He was present
at the battle of Leipzig, and accompanied the invading army (q.v.).
to Paris; he negotiated the capitulation of Marmont and
NESTOR, in Greek legend, son of Neleus and Chloris, king
Mortier at Clichy, and signed the treaty of Chaumont on the ist
of Pylos in Messenia. When all his brothers were slain by
of March 1814. His former relations with Talleyrand facilitated Heracles, in consequence of the refusal of Neleus to purify him
for the murder of Iphitus, Nestor alone escaped, being absent
negotiations in Paris, and his great influence with the emperor
at Gerenia hence his epithet Gerenios in Homer (Apollodorus
was used in favour of the restoration of the Bourbons, and, after
i. 9). Hethe old warrior of the Iliad and the wise counsellor
is
Waterloo, against the imposition of a ruinous war indemnity on
of the Greeks before Troy. After the fall of the city he returned
France. At the congress of Vienna he was associated with
to Pylos, where Telemachus visited him to obtain news of his
Count Capo d'Istria, and when, in August 1816, Alexander
father. In his earlier years he took part in the battle of the
made him secretary of state for foreign affairs in succession
Centaurs and Lapithae, the Calydonian boar hunt, and the
to Rumiantzov, it was again in conjunction with the Greek
Argonautic expedition. The name is used in modern times
statesman, from whom he differed widely in temperament
for any old man of ripe experience, or the oldest member of a
and ideas. The emperor Alexander I., however, was apt to keep
class or corporation.
the direction of affairs in his own hands and so long as Alexander
inclined to Liberalism Capo d'Istria was the interpreter of his
NESTOR (c. ios6-c. 1114), the reputed author of the earliest
Russian chronicle, was a monk of the Pecherskiy cloister of
will, but as the emperor veered towards Metternich's system
Nesselrode became his mouthpiece. After Alexander's final
Kiev from 1073. The only other fact of his life is that he was
" "
to reactionary principles, Capo d'Istria was dis-
commissioned with two other monks to find the relics of St
conversion
missed (1822) and Nesselrode definitely took his place. He had Theodosius, a mission which he succeeded in fulfilling. The
" chronicle begins with the deluge, as those of most chroniclers
consistently advocated Alexander's project of a universal
the in contradistinction to
of the time did. The compiler appears to have been acquainted
union," symbolized by Holy Alliance,
with the Byzantine historians; he makes use especially of
the narrower system of the alliance of the great powers; and,
when the Greek insurrection broke out, he did much to determine John Malalas and George Hamartolus. He also had in all
the tsar to sacrifice his sympathy with the Orthodox Greeks probability other Slavonic chronicles to compile from, which
are now lost. Many legends are mixed up with Nestor's
to his dream of the European confederation (see ALEXANDER I.,
Chronicle; the style is occasionally so poetical that perhaps he
emperor of Russia).
After Alexander's death in 1825 Nesselrode retained office incorporated bilini which are now lost. The early part is rich in
these stories, among which are the arrival of the three Varangian
under Nicholas I. He was responsible for the change of policy
of Russia towards the Ottoman empire after 1829, viz. that brothers, the founding of Kiev, the murder of Askold and Dir,
the death of Oleg, who was killed by a serpent concealed in the
of abandoning the traditional idea of conquering Constantinople
skeleton of his horse, and the vengeance taken by Olga, the
in favour of keeping the Ottoman power weak and dependent
wife of Igor, on the Drevlians, who had murdered her husband.
on the tsar. This was his policy during the revolt of Mehemet
Ali (<?..), and it was Nesselrode who inspired the terms of the
The account of the labours of Cyril and Methodius among the
Slavs is also very interesting, and to Nestor we owe the tale
famous treaty of Unkiar Skelessi (1833). Nicholas I. was,
of the summary way in which Vladimir suppressed the worship
however, even less inclined than his brother to place himself
in the hands of a minister; and Nesselrode showed himself of Perun and other idols at Kiev. As an eyewitness he could
amenable, though when his views differed from those of the only describe the reigns of Vsevolodand Sviatopolk (1078-1112),
but he gathered many interesting details from the lips of old
emperor he stated them with great frankness. He conducted
the negotiations which led to the shelving of the treaty of men, two of whom were Giurata Rogovich of Novgorod, who
Unkiar Skelessi and to the alliance between Russia and Great gave him information concerning the north of Russia, Petchora,
Britain which, issuing ultimately in the Straits Convention of
and other places, and Jan, a man ninety years of age, who died
in 1106, and was son of Vishata the voivode of Yaroslavl and
1841 to which France also was a party healed the breach
which had so long divided the powers of eastern and western grandson of Ostromir the Posadnik, for whom the Codex was
Europe.
written. Many of the ethnological details given by Nestor of
In 1849 it was Nesselrode who suggested the intervention of the various races of the Slavs are of the highest value.
Russia in Hungary in favour of the Austrian government, The latest theory about Nestor is that the Chronicle is a patchwork
of many fragments of chronicles, and that the name of Nestor was
although he restrained the tsar from active intervention in attached to it because he wrote the greater part or perhaps because
France then as in 1830. During the crisis of 1853 he prolonged he put the fragments together. The name of a certain Sylvester,
negotiation in the hope of averting war. The last of his im- an Igumen, is affixed to several of the manuscripts as the author.
portant political acts, the signing of the treaty of Paris in 1856, The Chronicle has come down to us in several manuscripts, but
undid the results of his patient efforts to establish Russian unfortunately no contemporary ones, the oldest being the so-called
Lavrientski of the I4th century (1377). It was named after the
preponderance in the Balkan peninsula. He then retired from monk Lavrentii, who copied it out for Dimitri Constantinovich,
the foreign office, retaining the chancellorship, which he had the prince of Souzdal. The work, as contained in this manuscript,
NESTOR NESTORIANS 407
has had many additions made to it from previous and contemporary Island seems to have been preserved. The Phillip-Island Nestor
chronicles, such as those of Volinia and Novgorod. Soloviey, the
Russian historian, remarks that Nestor cannot be called the earliest may be distinguished from both of the New-Zealand species
Russian chronicler, but he is the first writer who took a national by its somewhat smaller size, orange throat, straw-coloured
point of view in his history, the others being merely local writers. breast, and the generally lighter shade of its tints.
The language of his work, as shown_in the earliest manuscripts just The position of the genus Nestor in the order Psittaci must
mentioned, is Palaeo-Slavonic with many Russisms. It has formed be regarded as uncertain, but it is now usually placed in the
the subject of a valuable monograph by Professor Miklosich.
The Chronicle has been translated into Polish, Bohemian, German sub-family Nestorinae of the Trichoglossidae (see PARROT).
and French. The compiler cannot very well be the author of the Further knowledge of t;his very .interesting form may be facilitated
lives of Boris and Gleb, the martyrs, and of the life of St Theodosius, by the following references to the Transactions and Proceedings
because they contradict many passages in the Chronicle. The of the New Zealand Institute, ii. 64, 65, 387, iii. 45-52, 81-90, v. 207,
work is of primary importance for early Russian history, and, vi. 114, 128, ix. 340, x. 192, xi. 377; and to Sir W. Buller's
Birds of New Zealand. (A. N.)
although devoid of literary merit, is not without its amusing episodes
of an Herodotean character. The reputed body of the ancient NESTORIANS. i. The Early Nestorians. Among those who
chronicler may be seen among the relics preserved in the Pecherskiy had been present at Ephesus in support of Nestorius (q.v.) was
monastery at Kiev.
See Louis Leger's Chronique dile de Nestor (Paris, 1884); Ibas, presbyter and head of the theological school of Edessa.
Bestuzhev Riumin, On the Composition of the Russian Chronicles In 435 he became bishop of Edessa and under his influence the
till the end of the I4th century (in Russian), (St Petersburg, 1869). Nestorian teaching made considerable progress. On the accusa-
(W. R. M.) tion of the orthodox he was deposed by the
"
Robber Synod "
NESTOR, the name of a small but remarkable
group of parrots of Ephesus, but at Chalcedon in 451 was pardoned on condition
peculiar to the New Zealand sub-region, of which the type of anathematizing both Nestorius and Eutyches and accepting
is the Psittacus meridionalis of Gmelin, founded on a species the Tome of Leo. He had not, however, changed his views, and
described by J. Latham (Gen. Synopsis i. 264), and subse- this was generally recognized. Meanwhile one of his pupils,
quently termed by him P. nestor, in allusion to its hoary head, Barsumas, had settled at Nisibis hi Persian territory where he
but now usually known as Nestor meridionalis, the
"
Kaka " became bishop in 435 and established a Nestorian school. And
of the Maories and English settlers in New Zealand, in some when the emperor suppressed the school of Edessa (" the Athens
parts of which it was very abundant, though its numbers are of Syria ") in 489, and expelled its members, they travelled far
fast decreasing. Forster, who accompanied Cook in his second afield as eager and successful missionaries of the Gospel. In
voyagej described it in his MSS. in 1773, naming it P. hypopolius, Persia their numbers and their zeal stimulated the old churches
and found it in both the principal islands. The general colour into vigour and led to the founding of new ones. And as they
of the kaka is olive-brown, nearly all the feathers being tipped were under ban from Rome and out of communion with the
with a darker shade, so as to give a scaly appearance to the Byzantine Church the Persian government welcomed them as a
body. The crown is light grey, the ear-coverts and nape purplish- political ally, though the religious opposition of the Magi was
bronze, and the rump and abdomen of a more or less deep still largely retained. In their new environment the Nestorians
crimson-red; but much variation is presented in the extent and abandoned some of the rigour of Catholic asceticism, and at a
tinge of the last colour,' which often becomes orange and some- synod held in 499 abolished clerical celibacy even for bishops
times bright yellow. The kaka is about the size of a crow; and went so far as to permit repeated marriages, in striking
but a larger species, generally resembling it, though with plumage contrast not only to orthodox custom but to the practice of
mostly dull olive-green, the Nestor notabilis of J. Gould, was Aphraates at Edessa who had advocated celibacy as a condition
discovered in 1856 by Walter Mantell, in the higher mountain of baptism. The liberty here granted to bishops was enjoyed
" "
ranges of the Middle Island. This is the Kea of the Maories, as late as the I2th century, but since then the Nestorian Church
and incurred the enmity of colonists by developing an extra- has assimilated its custom to that of the Greek Church. That
ordinary habit of assaulting sheep, picking holes with its powerful the ascetic ideal was by no means wholly extinct is evident
beak in their side, wounding the intestines, and so causing from the Book of Governors written by Thomas, bishop of Marga,
death. The bird is admittedly an eater of carrion in addition in 840 which bears witness to a Syrian monasticisin founded by
to its ordinary food, which, like that of the kaka, consists of one Awgin of Egyptian descent, who settled in Nisibis about
fruits, seeds and the grubs of wood-destroying insects, the last 350, and lasting uninterruptedly until the time of Thomas,
being obtained by stripping the bark from trees infested by them. though it had long been absorbed in the great Nestorian move-
The amount of injury the kea inflicts on flock-masters has ment that had annexed the church in Mesopotamia.
doubtless been much exaggerated, for Dr Menzies states that The Nestorian Church in Eastern Syria and Persia was under
on one " run," where the loss was unusually large, the proportion the jurisdiction of an archbishop (catholikos) who in 498 assumed
,
" "
of sheep attacked was about one in three hundred, and that the title Patriarch of the East and had his seat at Seleucia-
those pasturing below the elevation of 2000 ft. are seldom Ctesiphon on the Tigris, a busy trading city and a fitting centre
disturbed. for the great area over which the evangelizing activity of the
On the discovery of Norfolk Island (October 10 1774) a Nestorians now extended. The church traced its doctrines
parrot, thought by Forster to be specifically identical with the to Theodore of Mopsuestia rather than to Nestorius, whose name
kaghaa (as he wrote the name) of New Zealand though his at first they repudiated, not regarding themselves as having
"
son ( Voyage, ii. 446) remarked that it was infinitely brighter been proselytized to any new teaching.
"
coloured was found in its hitherto untrodden woods. Among 2. The Later Nestorians. In 608 Magian influence was so
the drawings of Bauer, the artist who accompanied Robert strong in Persia that the Christians were persecuted and the
Brown and Flinders, is one of a Nestor marked " Norfolk Isl. was vacant for 20 years, being filled again by
office of catholicus
19 Jan. 1805," on which Herr von Pelzeln in 1860 founded his Jesu-Jabus, during whose patriarchate the Mahommedan
N. norfolcensis. Meanwhile Latham, in 1822, had described, invasion overran Persia. The patriarch was able to secure
as distinct species, two specimens evidently of the genus Nestor, from the caliph permission for the Christians to practice their
one said, but doubtless erroneously, to inhabit New South religion hi return for tribute money and this was afterwards
Wales, and the other from Norfolk Island. In 1836 Gould de- remitted. Ibn Ali Talib, anxious to perpetuate their severance
scribed an example, without any locality, in the museum of the from the orthodox church and" the Byzantine empire, confirmed
Zoological Society, as Plyctolophus productus, and when some these privileges by charter and in 762 the patriarchate was
time after he was in Australia, he found that the home of this removed to Bagdad. For five centuries the Nestorians were
species, which he then recognized as a Nestor, was Phillip Island, a recognized institution within the territory of Islam, though
a very small adjunct of Norfolk Island, and not more than 5 m. their treatment varied from kindly to harsh. Blruni, a Mahom-
distant from it. Whether the birds of the two islands were medan writer, who lived at Khiva c. A.D. 1000, speaks of them
specifically distinct or not we shall perhaps never know, since as comprising the bulk of the population of Syria, Irak and
they are all extinct, and no specimen undoubtedly from Norfolk Khorasan, and as superior to the orthodox in intellectual ability.
408 NESTORIANS
They agreed with Byzantines in observing Lent, Christmas band of emigrants from Bagdad and Nineveh, and possibly the
" "
and Epiphany, but differed from them in the observance of all name Christians of St Thomas arose from confusion between
other feasts and fasts. The Latin church tried in vain during this man and the apostle. Other reinforcements came from
the Crusades to secure their adhesion to Rome. The barbaric Persia in 822, but the Malabar church never developed any
invasions of the i3th and i4th centuries fell with crushing intellectual vigour or missionary zeal. They had their own
force on the Nestorians. In 1258 Hulagu Khan took Bagdad, kings, lived as a close caste, and even imitated the Hindus in
and about 1400 Timur again seized and sacked the city. Though caste regulations of food and avoidance of pollution. In 1330
the Nestorians were numerous, their moral influence and their Pope John XXII. issued a bull appointing Jordanus, a French
church life had greatly deteriorated. Those who escaped capture Dominican, bishop of Quilon, and inviting the Nestorians to
"
by Timur fled to the mountains of Kurdistan, and the community enter the Christian Church." The invitation was declined,
that had played so large a part in Mesopotamian history for a but in the i6th century the Syrian Christians sought the help
thousand years was thus shattered. In 1552 they were further of the Portuguese settlers against Mussulman oppression, only
" "
weakened by a large secession known as the Chaldeans to find that before long they were subjected to the fiercer perils
arising out of a dispute about the succession to the patriarchate. of Jesuit antagonism and the Inquisition. The Syrians submitted
The discontented appealed to Rome, and the pope (Julius III.) to Rome at the synod of Dampier in 1599, but it was a forced
consecrated the Chaldean catholikos. The Chaldeans are now submission, and in 1653 when the Portuguese arrested the Syrian
chiefly found in rural districts east of the Tigris. They have a bishop just sent out by the catholicus of Babylon, the rebellion
see at Bagdad, a monastery (Rabban Hormuz) at Elkoosh, and broke out. The renunciation was not quite thorough, one party
are called by those Syrian Christians who have resisted the papal adhering to the Roman Church as Rome-Syrians, the others
overtures, Maghlabin (" the conquered ") Other attempts reverting wholly to Syrian usages and forming to-day about
during the i6th century to promote union between the Nestorians three-fourths of the whole community. In 1665 a curious thing
and Rome proved fruitless, but the Roman Church has never happened. Gregory, the Jacobite metropolitan of Jerusalem,
ceased in its efforts to absorb this ancient community. The visited Malabar, and, as the people had no consecrated bishop
history of the Jacobites or Syrian Monophysites who, like the at the time, he consecrated Mar Thomas, who had been filling
Nestorians, diverged from the Byzantine Church, but in an the office at the people's request, and remained in the country
exactly opposite direction, is told elsewhere (see JACOBITE jointly administering the affairs of the Church with Thomas.
CHURCH, &c.). Like the Nestorians they were great missionaries, Thus the Nestorian Church in India, voluntarily and with perfect
and up to the 7th century, and again in the i2th and i3th, pro- indifference to theological dogmas, passed under Jacobite rule,
duced the bulk of Syriac literature (<?..). The chief Nestorian and when early in the i8th century, Mar Gabriel, a Nestorian
authors were (a) in the 7th, 8th and gth centuries, Babbai the bishop, came to Malabar, he had a cool reception, and could only
elder and Isho-yabh of Gedhala, commentators; Sahdona, who detach a small following of Syrians whom he brought back
wrote on the monastic life; Abraham the Lame, a devotional to the old Nestorianism. The approaches of the Anglican Church
and penitential writer; Dionysius of Tell Mahre (see DIONYSIUS through the Church Missionary Society in the first part of the
TELMAHARENSIS), whose Annals are important; and Thomas igth century were politely repelled. On the death of the bishop
(q.v.) of Marga; (b) in the I4th century, Abdh-isho bar Berikha Mar Athanasius Matthew in 1877, litigation began as to his
(d. 1318) the author of a theological treatise Marganitha (" the successor; it lasted ten years, and the decision (since reversed)
Pearl"), 1298, and the Paradise of Eden, a collection of 50 was given against the party that held by the Nestorian connexion
theological poems. and the habitual autonomy of the Malabar church in favour of
The Nestorian Missionary Enterprise. The combined
3. the supremacy of the Jacobite patriarch of Antioch. The great
hostility ofthe orthodox church and the Byzantine empire need of the Indian Syrian church to-day is an educated ministry.
drove the Nestorians into exile, but they went much further Early evidence of Nestorian missions in China is extant in the
than was needed simply to secure immunity from persecution. tablet found in 1625 at Chang'an in the district of Hsi'en-fu,
"
They showed a zeal for evangelization which resulted in the province of Shensi. It commemorates the introduction and
establishment of their influence throughout Asia, as is seen propagation of the noble law of Tat'sin in the Middle Kingdom,"
from the bishoprics founded not only in Syria, Armenia, Arabia and beneath an incised cross sets out in Chinese and Syriac an
and Persia, but at Halavan in Media, Merv in Khorasan, Herat, abstract of Christian doctrine and the course of a Syrian mission
Tashkent, Samarkand, Baluk, Kashgar, and even at Kambaluk in China beginning with the favourable reception of Olopan,
(Pekin) and Singan fu Hsi'en fu in China, and Kaljana and who came from Judaea in 636. For two generations the little
Kranganore in India. In 1265 they numbered 25 Asiatic cause prospered, and again after persecutions in 699 and 813.
provinces and over 70 dioceses. Mongolian invasions and Later on a second mission arrived, many churches were built
Mahommedan tyranny have, of course, long since swept away and several emperors patronized the faith. This evidence is
all traces of many of these. The 400,000 Syrian Christians confirmed by (a) the canon of Theodore of Edessa (800) allowing
(" Christians of St Thomas," see THOMAS, ST) who live in metropolitans of China, India and other distant lands to send
Malabar no doubt owe their origin to Nestorian missionaries, their reports to the catholikos every six years; (b) the edict of
the stories of the evangelization of India by the Apostles Thomas Wu Tsung destroying Buddhist monasteries and ordering 300
and Bartholomew having no real historical foundation, and the foreign priests to return to the secular life that the customs of
Indian activity of Pantaenus of Alexandria having proved the empire might be uniform; (c) two 9th-century Arab travellers,
fruitless, in whatever part of India it may have been exercised. one of whom, Ibn Wahhab, discussed the contents of the Bible
The theology of the Indian Syrian Christians is of a Nestorian with the emperor; (d) the discovery in 1725 of a Syrian MS.
type, and Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century) puts us on the containing hymns and a portion of the Old Testament.
right track when he says that the Christians whom he found in In the loth century the Nestorians introduced Christianity
Ceylon and Malabar had come from Persia (probably as refugees into Tartary proper; in '1274 Marco Polo saw two of their
from persecution, like the Huguenots in England and the churches. The legend of Prester John is based on the idea of
Pilgrim Fathers in America). Pahlavi inscriptions found on
1
the conversion of a Mongol tribe, the Karith, whose chieftain
crosses at St Thomas's Mount near Madras and at Kottayam Ung Khan at baptism received the title Malek Juchana (King
in Travancore, are evidence both of the antiquity of Christianity John). And there has lately come to light a MS. of the gth or
in these places (7th or 8th century), and for the semi-patri- toth century in Sogdianese, an Indo-Iranian language spoken
passianism (the apparent identification of all three persons in the north-east of Asia, which shows that theNestorianshad trans-
of the Trinity in the sufferer on the cross) which marked the lated the New Testament into that tongue and had taught the
Nestorian teaching. In 745 Thomas of Kana brought a new natives the alphabet and the doctrine. Their activity may well
1 " be said to have covered the continent. Their campaign was one
In punishment
by the cross (was) the suffering of this One;
He who is the true Christ, and God alone, and Guide ever
pure." of deliberate conquest, one of the greatest ever planned by
NESTORIUS 409
Christian missionaries. Marco Polo is witness that there were Christ (see J. F. Bethune-Baker's Nestorius and his Teaching).
Nestorian churches all along the trade routes from Bagdad to To say that the modern Nestorians are not definitely and
Pekin. (A. J. G.) firmly orthodox is perhaps fairer than to charge them with
4. The Modern Nestorians. The Nestorians or East Syrians being distinctly heretical.
(Surayi) of Turkey and Persia now inhabit a district bounded 5. Missions amongst the Nestorians. The peculiar circum-
by Lake Urmia, or Urumia, on the east, stretching westwards stances, both ecclesiastical and temporal, of the Nestorians have
into Kurdistan, to Mosul on the south, and nearly as far as Van attracted much attention in western Christendom, and various
on the north. They are divided into the Persian Nestorians of missionary enterprises amongst them have resulted.
1. The Roman Catholic Missions. In Turkey these consist of the
the plain of Azerbaijan, and the Turkish Nestorians, inhabiting
Dominican mission, established at Mosul during the i8th century,
chiefly the sanjak of Hakkiari in the vilayet of Van, who are and in Persia of the French Lazarist mission, which sprang out of
subdivided into the Rayat or subject, and the Ashiret or tribal, some schools established by a French layman and scientific traveller,
the latter being semi-independent in their mountain fastnesses. Eugene Bore', in 1838. At M. Bora's entreaty the Propaganda sent
the first Lazarist father to Persia in 1840. The chief stations of the
Forming at once a church and a nation, they own allegiance
Lazarists are at Khosrova and Urmia. At the latter place there is
to their hereditary patriarch, Mar Shimun, Catholicus of the an orphanage under the superintendence of the Sisters of St Vincent
East, who resides at Qudshanis, a village about 7000 ft. above de Paul. The work of these missions is to extend and consolidate
the sea-level, near the Kurdish town of Julamerk. It is only of that Catholicized and partly Latinized offshoot of the Nestorians
late years, under the influence of the different missions, that known as the Uniat-Chaldean Church (see ante).
2. The American Presbyterian Mission, established in Persia in
education, ruined by centuries of persecution, has revived
1834-1835 by the Rey.Justin Perkins and Dr A.Grant, comprises large
amongst the Nestorians; and even now the mountaineers, cut buildings near Urmia, a college and a hospital. The influence of
offfrom the outer world, are as a rule destitute of learning, this mission does not extend much beyond the Turkish frontier, but
and greatly resemble their neighbours, the wild and uncivilized it is strong in the Persian
plains. The original aim was to influence
the old Nestorian Church rather than to set up a new religious body,
Kurds. They are, however, extraordinarily tenacious of their
but the wide difference between Presbyterians and an Oriental Church
ancient customs, and, almost totally isolated from the rest of rendered the attempt abortive, and the result of the labours of the
Christendom since the 5th century, they afford an interesting Americans has been the establishment since 1862 of a Syrian Pro-
study to the eccesiastical student. Their churches are rude testant community in Persia, with some adherents in Turkey.
3. The Archbishop of Canterbury's Mission to the Assyrian
buildings, dimly lighted and destitute of pictures or images,
Christians. This Anglican mission was promoted by Archbishop
save that of the Cross, which is treated with the deepest venera- and
Tait, finally established "by Archbishop Benson in 1886. Its
tion. The qanki, or sanctuary, is divided from the nave, by a aim is thus officially defined : To aid an existing Church, . . . not
solid wall, pierced by a single doorway; it contains the altar, or to Anglicanize, . not to change any doctrines held by them which
. .
madhb'kha (literary, the sacrificing place), and may be entered are not contrary to that faith which the
Holy Spirit, speaking
through the Oecumenical Councils of the Undivided Church of
only by persons in holy orders who are fasting. Here is cele- Christ, has taught us as necessary to be believed by all Christians,
brated the Eucharist (Qurbana, or the offering; cf. "Corban"), but ... to strengthen an ancient Church, at the earnest request
by the priest (qasha), attended by his deacon (shamasha). Vest- of the
Cathojicos, and with the knowledge and blessing of the
ments are worn only at the ministration of the sacraments; Catholic patriarch of Antioch, one of the four patriarchs of the
incense is used invariably at the Eucharist and frequently at Holy Orthodox Eastern Church, and occupant of the Apostolic See
from which the Church of the East revolted at the time of Nestorius."
other services. There are three liturgies of the Holy Apostles, This mission has its headquarters at Urmia, with a college for
of Theodore and of Nestorius. The first is quite free from candidates for holy orders and a printing-press. Two mission-
Nestorian influence, dates from some remote period, perhaps reside in Turkey, one at Qudshanis with Mar Shimun, the
priests
Nestorian Catholicus and Patriarch. The Anglican Church in
prior to 431, and is certainly the most ancient of those now in America co-operates with the mission.
use in Christendom; the other two, though early, are un- One of the Nestorian bishops joined
4. The Russian Mission.
doubtedly of later date. The Nestorian canon of Scripture the Russian Orthodox Church in 1898, and returned the same year
seems never to have been fully determined, nor is the sacra- with a small band of missionaries sent by the Holy
Synod of Russia.
mental system rigidly denned. Nestorian writers, however, This mission enrolled a very large number of adherents drawn
from the old Church, the Protestant Nestorians, and the Uniat-
generally reckon the mysteries as seven, i.e. Priesthood, Oil of Chaldeans, but it can hardly be said to have commenced any active
Unction, the Offering of the Body and Blood of Christ, Absolu- work, although the Anglican mission withdrew from competition by
tion, The Holy Leaven, the Signation of the life-giving Cross. closing its schools in the dioceses occupied by the Russians.
The " Holy Leaven " is reputed to be a part of the original AUTHORITIES. J. S. Assemani, Bibliotheca Orientalis, ii. and iv. ;
A. J. Maclean and G. F. Browne, The Catholicps of the East and his
bread of the first Eucharist, brought by Addai and Mari * and
People (London, 1892); G. P. Badger, Nestorians and their Rituals
maintained ever since in the Church; it is used in the confection (London, 1852) M. Labourt, Le Christianisme dans I'empire perse
;
of the Eucharistic wafers, which are rather thicker than those (Paris, 1904); W. F. Adeney, The Greek and Eastern Churches,
used in the Western Church. Communion is given in both kinds, PP- 477-53 8 (Edinburgh, 1908) J. Rendel Harris, Sidelights on New
;
Testament Research, Lect. iv. (London, 1908); G. Milne Rae, The
as throughout the East; likewise, confirmation is administered
Syrian Church in India (1892); K. Heussi und H. Mulert, Atlas
directly after baptism. Sacramental confession is enjoined, zur Kirchengeschichte, Map III. (Tubingen, 1905); P. Cams, The
but has recently become obsolete; prayers for the departed Nestorian Monument (Chicago and London, 1909); E. Gibbon,
and invocation of saints form part of the services. The bishops Decline and Fall, ch. xlvii.; J. W. Etheridge, Syrian Churches
are always celibates and are chosen from episcopal families. (1846) The Liturgy of the Holy Apostles Adai and Mari, Sfc. (London,
;
1893) Piolet, Les Missions catholiques au XIX" siecle (Paris, vol. i.) ;
4
;
The service-books were wholly in MS. until the press of the Quarterly Papers and Annual Reports of the Archbishop of Canter-
archbishop of Canterbury's mission at Urmia issued the Takhsa bury's Assyrian Mission. (J. A. L. R.)
(containing the liturgies, baptismal office, &c.) and several other NESTORIUS (d. c. 451), Syrian ecclesiastic, patriarch of
liturgical texts. Constantinople from 428 to 431, was a native of Germanicia
The Nestorians commemorate Nestorius as a saint, and invoke at the foot of Mount Taurus, in Syria. The year of his birth is
his aid and that of his companions. They reject the Third unknown. He received his education at Antioch, probably under
Oecumenical Council, and though showing the greatest devotion Theodore of Mopsuestia. As monk in the neighbouring monastery
to the Blessed Virgin, deny her the title of Theotokos, i.e. the of Euprepius, and afterwards as presbyter, he became celebrated
mother or bearer of God. Their theological teaching is in the diocese for his asceticism, his orthodoxy and his eloquence;
misty and perplexing; their earliest writings contain no hostile critics, such as the church historian Socrates, allege that
error, and the hymns of their great St Ephrem, still sung his arrogance and vanity were hardly less conspicuous. On the
" "
in their services, are positively antagonistic to Nestorianism ; death of Sisinnius, patriarch of Constantinople (December 427),
their theology dating from the schism is not so satisfactory. Theodosius II., perplexed by the various claims of the local
They attribute two Kiani, two Qnumi and one Parsopa in clergy, appointed the disinguished preacher of Antioch to the
1
The legendary founders of the Syrian Church. Addai was sup- vacant see. The consecration took place on the loth of April
posed to be one of the Seventy of Luke x. I, and Mari his disciple. 428, and then, almost immediately afterwards, in what is
NESTORIUS
said to have been hisfirst patriarchal sermon, Nestorius exhorted >for6nos, and bade Nestorius retract his erroneous teaching, on
"
the emperor in the famous words Purge me, O Caesar, the pain of instant excommunication, at the same time entrusting
earth of heretics, and I in return will give thee heaven. Stand the execution of this decision to the patriarch of Alexandria.
by me in putting down the heretics and I will stand by thee in On hearing from Rome, Cyril at once held a synod and drew up
putting down the Persians." In the spirit of this utterance, a doctrinal formula for Nestorius to sign, and also twelve ana-
steps were taken within a few days by the new prelate to suppress themas covering the various points of the Nestorian dogmatic.
the assemblies of the Arians; these, by a bold stroke of policy, Nestorius, instead of yielding to the combined pressure of his
anticipated his action by themselves setting fire to their meeting- two great rivals, merely replied by a counter excommunication.
"
house, Nestorius being forthwith nicknamed the incendiary." In this situation of affairs the demand for a general council
The Novatiansand the Quartodecimans were the next objects became irresistible, and accordingly Theodosius and Valentinian
of his orthodox zeal a zeal which in the case of the former at III. issued letters summoning the metropolitans of the catholic
least was reinforced, according to Socrates, by his envy of their church to meet at Ephesus at Whitsuntide 431, each bringing
bishop; and it led to serious and fatal disturbances at Sardis with him some able suffragans. Nestorius, with sixteen bishops
and Miletus. The toleration the followers of Macedonius had and a large folio wing of armed men, was among the first to arrive;
long enjoyed was also rudely broken, the recently settled Pela- soon afterwards came Cyril with fifty bishops. Juvenal of Jeru-
gians alone finding any respite. While these repressive measures salem and Flavian of Thessalonica were some days late. It
were being carried on outside the pale of the catholic church, was then announced that John of Antioch had been delayed on
equal care was taken to instruct the faithful in such points of his journey and could not appear for some days; he, however,
orthodoxy as their spiritual head conceived to be the most im- is stated to have written politely requesting that the opening
portant or the most in danger. One of these was that involved of the synod should not be delayed on his account. Cyril and
in the practice, now grown almost universal, of bestowing the his friends accordingly assembled in the church of the Theotokos
"
epithet GeoroKos, Mother of God," upon Mary the mother of on the 22nd of June, and summoned Nestorius before them to
Jesus. In the school of Antioch the impropriety of the expres- give an account of his doctrines. The reply they received was
sion had long before been pointed out, by Theodore of Mopsuestia, that he would appear as soon as all the bishops were assembled ;
among others, in terms precisely similar to those afterwards and at the same time the imperial commissioner, Candidian,
attributed to Nestorius. From Antioch Nestorius had brought presented himself in person and formally protested against the
along with him to Constantinople a co-presbyter named Anas- opening of the synod. Notwithstanding these circumstances,
tasius, who enjoyed his confidence and is called by Theophanes Cyril and the one hundred and fifty-nine bishops who were with
"
his syncellus." This Anastasius, in a pulpit oration which the him proceeded to read the imperial letter of convocation, and
patriarch himself is said to have prepared for him, caused great afterwards the letters which had passed between Nestorius and
scandal to the partisans of the Marian cultus then beginning by his adversary. Almost immediately the entire assembly with
"
saying, Let no one call Mary the mother of God, for Mary was one voice cried out anathema on the impious Nestorius and his
a human being; and that God should be born of a human being impious doctrines, and after various extracts from the writings
is impossible." The
opposition, which was led by one Eusebius, of church fathers had been read the decree of his exclusion from
" "
a or pleader who afterwards became bishop of
scholasticus the episcopate and from all priestly communion was solemnly
Dorylaeum, chose to construe this utterance as a denial of the read and signed by all present, whose numbers had by this time
divinity of Christ, and so violent did the dispute upon it become swelled to one hundred and ninety-eight. The accused and his
that Nestorius judged it necessary to silence the remonstrants friends never had a hearing. As Nestorius himself said, " the
by force. The situation went from bad to worse, and the dispute Council was Cyril "; it simply registered the Alexandrian
not only grew in intensity but reached the outer world. patriarch's views.
Matters were soon ripe for foreign intervention, and the When the decision was known the populace, who had been
notorious Cyril (q.v.) of Alexandria, in whom the antagonism eagerly waiting from early morning till night to hear the result,
between the Alexandrian and Antiochene schools of theology, 1 accompanied the members with torches and censers to their
as well as the jealousy between the patriarchate of St Mark lodgings, and there was a general illumination of the city. A
and that of Constantinople, found a determined and unscrupulous few days afterwards (June 26th or 27th) John of Antioch arrived,
exponent, did not fail to make use of the opportunity. He and efforts were made by both parties to gain his ear; whether
stirred up his own wrote to encourage the dissidents
clergy, he inclined or not to the cause of his former co-presbyter, he was
at Constantinople, he addressed himself to the sister and wife of naturally excited by the precipitancy with which Cyril had acted,
the emperor (Theodosius himself being known to be still favour- and at a conciliabulum of forty-three bishops held in his lodgings
able to Nestorius), and he beggared the clergy of his own diocese shortly after his arrival he was induced by Candidian, the friend
to find bribes for the officials of the court. 2 He also sent to Rome of Nestorius, to depose the bishops of Alexandria and Ephesus
a careful selection of Nestorius's sayings and sermons. Nestorius on the spot. The efforts, however, to give effect to this act on the
himself, on the other hand, having occasion to write to Pope following Sunday were frustrated by the zeal of J;he Ephesian
Celestine I. about the Pelagians (whom he was not inclined to mob. Meanwhile a letter was received from the emperor declar-
regard as heretical) gave from his own point of view an account
, ing invalid the session at which Nestorius had been deposed
of the disputes which had recently arisen within his patriarchate.* unheard; numerous sessions and counter-sessions were after-
While ordinarily Rome might have been expected to hold the wards held, the conflicting parties at the same time exerting them-
balance between the contrasted schools of thought, as Leo was selves to the utmost to secure an effective superiority at court.
able later to do, it is not surprising that this implied appeal proved In the end Theodosius decided to confirm the depositions which
unsuccessful, for Celestine naturally resented any questioning had been pronounced on both sides, and Cyril and Memnon
of the Roman decision concerning the Pelagians and was jealous as well as Nestorius were by his orders laid under arrest. Re-
of the growing power of the upstart see of the Nova Roma of the presentatives from each side were now summoned before him
East. He was not slow to use the opportunity of gaining what to Chalcedon, and at last, yielding to the sense of the evident
was at once an official triumph and a personal satisfaction. In "
majority, he gave a decision in favour of the orthodox," and
a synod which met in 430, he decided in favour of the epithet the council of Ephesus was dissolved. Maximian, one of the
At Alexandria the mystic and allegorical tendency prevailed,
1 Constantinopolitan clergy, a native of Rome, was promoted to
at Antioch the practical and historical, and these tendencies showed the vacant see, and Nestorius was henceforward represented
themselves in different methods of study, exegesis and presentation in the city of his former patriarchate only by one small con-
of doctrine.
2
Letters of the archdeacon Epiphanius to the patriarch Maxi-
gregation, which also a short time afterwards became extinct.
mianus (Migne, Pair. Gr. Ixxxiv. 826).
The commotion which had been thus raised did not so easily
The letter is given in F. Loofs, Nestoriana 166-168, partly trans- subside in the more eastern section of the church; the Antio-
lated in J. F. Bethune-Baker, Nestorius and Ms Teaching, p. l6seq. chenes continued to maintain for a considerable time an attitude
NESTORIUS 411
of antagonism towards Cyril and his creed, and were not pacified Christ lived on earth the life of man, and without questioning the
until an understanding was reached in 433 on the basis of anew equally genuine Divine element laid stress on this genuine human
consciousness. There is no reason to suppose that Nestorius in-
formula involving some material concessions by him. The union tended to introduce any innovations in doctrine, and in any estimate
even then met with resistance from a number of bishops, who, of him his strong religious interest and his fervent pastoral spirit
rather than accede to it, submitted to deposition and expulsion must have due weight. He was a great extempore preacher and
" "
from their sees; and it was not until these had all died out that, exposed to the peril of the unconsidered telling phrase. That
a man of such conspicuous ability, who impressed himself at the
as the result of stringent imperial edicts, Nestorianism may be outset on the people of Constantinople as an uncompromising
said to have become extinct throughout the Roman empire. opponent of heresy should within a few short years be an excom-
Their school at Edessa was closed by Zeno in 489. As for municated fugitive, sacrificed to save the face of Cyril and the
Nestorius himself, immediately after his deposition he withdrew Alexandrians, is indeed, as Duchesne says, a tragedy. No suc-
cessor of Chrysostom was likely to receive much good-will from the
into private life in his old monastery of Euprepius, Antioch,
nephew and successor of Theophilus of Alexandria.
until 435, when the emperor ordered his banishment to Petra in It is only within recent years that an attempt has been made to
Arabia. A second decree, it would seem, sent him to Oasis, judge Nestorius from some other evidence than that afforded by
the accusations of Cyril and the inferences drawn therefrom. This
probably the city of the Great Oasis, in Upper Egypt, where he other evidence consists partly of letters from Nestorius, preserved
was still living in 439, at the time when Socrates wrote his
among the works of those to whom they were written, some sermons
Church History. He was taken prisoner by the Blemmyes, a collected in a Latin translation by Marius Mercator, an African
nomad gave much trouble to the empire in Africa, and
tribe that merchant who was doing business m
Constantinople at the time of
when they set him
free in the Thebaid near Panopolis (Akhmim) the dispute, and other material gathered from Syriac manuscripts.
Since the helpful collection of Nestoriana published by Dr F. Loofs
c. 450, they exposed him to further persecution from Schenute
in 1905 there has also come to our knowledge the most valuable
the great hero of the Egyptian monks. There is some evidence evidence of all, Nestorius's own account of the whole difficulty,
that he was summoned to the Council of Chalcedon, 1 though viz. The Bazaar * of Heraclides of Damascus. This pseudonym served
he could not attend it, and the concluding portion of his book to protect the book against the fate that overtook the writings of
heretics, and in a Syriac version it was preserved in the Euphrates
known as The Bazaar of Heraclides not only gives a full account
valley where the followers of Nestorius settled. Ebed Jesu in the
of the
"
Robber Synod " of Ephesus 449, but knows that Theo- I4th century mentions it together with Letters and Homuies, as well
dosius is dead (July 450) and seems aware of the proceedings of as the Tragedy, or a Letters to Cosmos, the Theopaschites (of which
Chalcedon and the flight of Dioscurus the unscrupulous successor some fragments are still extant) and the Liturgy, which is still used
of Cyril at Alexandria. Nestorius was already old and ailing by the Nestorian Church. The discovery of The Bazaar, which is
the Apologia of Nestorius, was made public by Dr H. Goussen
and must have died very soon after. (though members of the Archbishop of Canterbury's Mission to the
The Nestorian Heresy. What is technically and conventionally Assyrian Christians had previously been acquainted with the book).
" "
meant in dogmatic theology by the Nestorian heresy must now The text has been edited by P. Paul Bedjan (Leipzig, 1910) and a
be noticed. As Eutychianism is the doctrine that the God-man French translation has been made by M. I'abb6 F. Nau. A repre-
has only one nature, so Nestorianism is the doctrine that He has sentative selection of extracts has been given to English readers in
two complete persons. So far as Nestorius himself is concerned, J. F. Bethune-Baker's Nestorius and his Teaching (Cambridge,
2
however, it is certain that he nev*r formulated any such doctrine; 1908), chapter ii. of which describes the MS. and its accounts.
nor does any recorded utterance of his, however casual, come so Much of the argument is thrown into the form of a dialogue between
near the heresy called by his name as Cyril's deliberately framed (l) Nestorius and an imaginary opponent Superianus, (2) Nestorius
" "
third anathema (that regarding the physical union of the two and Cyril. The book reveals a strong personality and helps us to
hypostases or natures) approaches Eutychianism. It must be know the man and his teaching, even though we have to gather his
remembered that Nestorius was as orthodox at all events as own views largely from his criticism of his antagonists. He is
Athanasius on the subject of the incarnation, and sincerely, even throughout more concerned for the wrong done to the faith at
fanatically, held every article of the Nicene creed. Hefele himself, Ephesus than to himself, saying that if he held the views attributed
one of the most learned and acute of Cyril's partisans, is compelled to him by Cyril he would be the first to condemn himself without
"
to admit that Nestorius accurately held the duality of the two mercy. All through the years of conflict he had but one end in
natures and the integrity of each, was equally explicitly opposed view, that no one should call the Word of God a creature, or the
to Arianism and Apollinarianism, and was perfectly correct in his Manhood which was assumed incomplete." In his letters to Celestine
assertion that the Godhead can neither be born nor suffer; all that he had laid stress on the point that the teaching he attacked was
"
he can allege against him is that the fear of the communicatio derogatory to the Godhead and so he called its champions Arians.
"
idiomatum pursued him like a spectre." But in reality the question If the Godhead of the Son had its origin in the womb of the Virgin
raised by Nestorius was not one as to the communicatio idiomatum, it was not Godhead as the Father's, and He who was born could
"
but simply as to the proprieties of language. I cannot speak of not be homoousios with God, and that was what the Arians denied
"
God," he said, as being two or three months old," a remark which Him to be." It is thus increasingly difficult to believe that Nestorius
was twisted to his disadvantage. He did not refuse to speak of was a " Nestorian." Pere J. Mah6 has shown (Revue d'Inst. eccUs.
Mary as being the mother of Christ or as being the mother of July, 1906) that in spite of notable differences of terminology and
Emmanuel, but he thought it improper to speak of her as the mother form the chronologies of Antioch and Alexandria were in essence
of God, and Leo in the Letter to Flavian which was endorsed at the same. Personal rather than doctrinal reasons had by far the
" "
Chalcedon uses the term Mother of the Lord which was exactly larger part in determining the fate of Nestorius, who was sacrificed
what Nestorius wished. And there is at least this to be said for to the agreement between the two great schools. This view is
him that even the most zealous desire to frustrate the Arian had confirmed by the evidence of the Synodicon Orientale (the collection
never made it a part of orthodoxy to speak of David as BeoT&Twp of the canons of Nestorian Councils and Synods), which shows that
or of James as d5e\<#>69eos. The secret of the enthusiasm of the the Great Syriac Church built up by the adherents of Nestorius
masses for the analogous expression Theotokos is to be sought not and ever memorable for its zeal in carrying the Gospel into
so much in the Nicene doctrine of the incarnation as in the recent Central Asia, China and India cannot, from its inception, be rightly
growth in the popular mind of notions as to the dignity of the Virgin described as other than orthodox. The " attenuated " (i.e. un-
"
Mary, which were entirely unheard of (except in heretical circles) Nestorian ") form which some historians have noted in the
for nearly three centuries of the Christian era. That the Virgin early centuries of Persian Nestorianism was really there from the
should be given a title that was quasi-divine mattered little. The beginning. The Nestorian Church, following its leader, formally
danger was that under cover of such a title an unhistorical con- recognizes the Letter of
"
Leo to Flavian and the decrees of the
ception of the facts of the Gospel should grow up, and a false doctrine Council of Chalcedon.
"
When I came," said Nestorius (Baz. Herac.),
of the relations between the human and the Divine be encouraged, upon that exposition and read it, I gave thanks to God that the
and this was to Nestorius a double danger that needed to be ex- Church of Rome was rightly and blamelessly making confession,
posed. He was thus forced into the position of one who brings even though they happened to be against me personally." His aim,
technical objections against a popular term. lie tells us, had been to maintain the distinct continuance of the two
The fact that Nestorius was trained at Antioch and inherited the natures of Christ when united through the Incarnation into one
"
Antiochene zeal for exact biblical exegesis and insistence upon the Person. In the Person the natures use their properties mutually.
recognition of the full manhood of Christ, is of the first importance . .The manhood is the person of the Godhead and the Godhead
.
in understanding his position. From the days of Ignatius, down is the person of the manhood." The ultimate union of these two
"
through Paul of Samosata and Lucian to the great controversies natures appears to lie in the will For there was one and the same
of the sth century which began with the theories of Apollinarius, will and mind in the union of the natures, so that both should will
the theologians of Antioch started from the one sure fact, that or not will exactly the same things. The natures have, moreover, a
" "
1
Coptic Life of Dioscurus (Rev. gyptologique, 1880-1883).
1
Syriac, tegurta, lit. merchandise. The Greek word may have
2
J.F. Bethune-Baker, Nestorius and his Teaching, ch. vi. been tn*t>pu>v. Nothing is certainly known of any such Heraclides.
412 NESZLER NET
mutual will, since the person of this is the person of that, and the breathe a net is to make a net. Dead netting is a piece without
person of that the person of this." The manner in which this either accrues or stole (stolen) meshes, which last means that a
union is realized is thus stated by Nestorius: "The Word also
Blessed Mary inasmuch as He did not receive a mesh is taken away by netting into two ineshe$ of the preceding
passed through
beginning by birth from her, as is the case with the body which was row at once.
born of her. For this reason I said that God the Word passed and
Hand-Netting. The tools used in hand-netting are the needle,
not was born, because He did not receive a beginning from her.
an instrument for holding and netting the material; it is made with
But the two natures being united are one Christ. And He who an eye E, a tongue T, and a fork F (fig. i). The
was born of the Father as to the Divinity, and from the Holy Virgin twine is wound on it by being passed alternately
as to the humanity is and is styled one; for of the two natures
between the fork and round the tongue, so that
there was a union." It may truly be said that the ideas for which
" the turns of the string lie parallel to the length of the
Nestorius and the Antiochene school strove won the day as regards
needle, and are kept on by the tongue and fork. A
the doctrinal definitions of the church. The manhood of Christ was
spool or mesh-pin is a piece of round or flat wood
safeguarded, as distinct from the Godhead: the union was left an on which the loops are formed, the perimeter of the
ineffable mystery."
AUTHORITIES. On Nestorius, in addition to the modern literature spool determining the size of the loops. Each loop
contains two sides of the square mesh; therefore,
cited in the article, and the standard histories of dogma (A. Harnack,
F. Loofs, R. L. Ottley's Doctrine of the Incarnation, &c.) see R. supposing that it be required to make a mesh I in.
square that is, measuring i in. from knot to knot,
Seeberg, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, Bd. ii. 27 (Leipzig, 1910), a spool 2 in. in circumference must be used.
L. Duchesne, Histoire ancienne de I'eglise, vol. iii. chs. x. xi. (Paris,
(J-S. BL.; A. J. G.)
Large meshes may be formed by giving the twine
1910). two or more turns round the spool, as occasion
NESZLER, VICTOR (1841-1890), German musical composer, may require; or the spool may be made flat, and of
a sufficient width. The method of making the
was born on the 28th of January 1841 at Baldenheim, near hand-knot in nets known as the fisherman's knot
Schlettstadt. At Strassburg he began his university career is more easily acquired by example than described in
with the study of theology, but he concluded it with the pro- writing. Fig. 2 shows the course of the twine in form-
duction of a light opera entitled Fleurelte (1864). To complete ing a single knot. From the last-formed knot the twine _'
IG I-
passes over the front of the mesh-pin h, and is caught
'
his knowledge of music Neszler went to Leipzig to study under behind by the little finger of the left hand, forming the loop 5,
Hauptmann. His opera Der Trompeter von Sackingen, based thence it passes to the front and is caught at d by the left thumb,
on Scheffel's poem, was composed and performed in 1884. then through the loops 5 and m as indicated, after which the twine
is released by the thumb and the knot is drawn
" "
Besides a number of other operas, Neszler wrote many songs taut or tight.
Fig. 3
is a bend knot used for
and choral works; but it is with the Trompeter von Sackingen
uniting two ends of twine. a b
that his name is associated. He died at Strassburg on the a8th of Machine-Netting. In
May 1890. In 1895 a monument to him by Marzolff was erected 1778 a netting-machine was
there. patented by William Hor-
ton, William Ross, Thomas
NET, 1 a fabric of thread, cord or wire, the intersections of Davies and John Golby.
which are knotted so as to form a mesh. The art of netting is In 1802 the French govern-
intimately related to weaving, knitting, plaiting and lace-making, ment offered a reward of
from all of which, however, it is distinguished by the knotting 10,000 francs to the person
of the intersections of the cord. It is one of the most ancient
who should invent an auto-
matic machine for net-
and universal of arts, having been practised among the most making. Jac-
whom the net is of great importance in hunting
primitive tribes, to
and fishing.
quard submitted
a model of a
machine which
d
Net-making, as a modern industry, is principally concerned was brought under the notice of Napoleon I.
with the manufacture of the numerous forms of net used in and Carnot, and he was summoned to Paris by
"
fisheries, but netting is also largely employed for many other the emperor who asked Are you the man
purposes, as for catching birds, for the temporary division of
who pretends to do what God Almighty cannot
tie a knot in a stretched string?" Jac-
fields, for protecting fruit in gardens, for screens and other
quard's model, which is incomplete, was de-
furniture purposes, for ladies' hair, bags, appliances used in des Arts et Metiers;
posited in the Conservatoire
various games, &c. Since the early part of the igth century it was awarded a prize, and he himself received
numerous machines have been invented for netting, and several an appointment in the Conservatoire, where he
perfected his famous attachment to the com-
of these have attained commercial success. Fishing nets were mon loom. In the United Kingdom, the first FIG. 2.
formerly made principally from hemp fibre technically called to succeed in inventing an efficient machine
"
twine "; but since the adaptation of machinery to net-making and in establishing the industry of machine net-making was
cotton has been increasingly used, such nets being more flexible James Paterson of Musselburgh. Paterson, originally a cooper,
and lighter, and more easily handled and stowed. served in the army through the Peninsular War, and was discharged
after the battle of Waterloo. He established a net factory in Mussel-
The forms of fishing nets vary according to the manner in
burgh about 1820; but the early form of machine
which they are intended to act. This is either by entangling the was imperfect, the knots it formed slipped readily,
fish in their complicated folds, as in the trammel; receiving and, there being much prejudice against machine
them into pockets, as in the trawl; suspending them by the body nets, the demand was small. Walter Ritchie,
native of Musselburgh, devised a method for
in the meshes, as in the mackerel-net; imprisoning them within
forming the ordinary hand-knot on the machine
their labyrinth-like chambers, as in the stake-net; or drawing nets, and the machine, patented in July 1835,
them to shore, as in the seine. The parts of a net are the head or became the foundation of an extensive and
upper margin, along which the corks are strung upon a rope flourishing industry.
called the head-rope; the foot is the opposite or lower margin,
The Paterson machine is very complex. It
consists of an arrangement of hooks, needles and
which carries the foot-rope, on which in many cases leaden sinkers, one of each being required for every mesh FIG. 3.
plummets are made fast. The meshes are the squares composing in the breadth being made. The needles hold the
the net. The width of a net is expressed by the term " over "; meshes, while the hooks seize the lower part of each and twist it
into a loop. Through the series of loops so formed a steel wire is
e.g. a day-net is three fathoms long and one over or wide. The
shot, carrying with it twine for the next range of loops. This twine
lever is the first row of a net. There are also accrues, false the sinkers successively catch and depress sufficiently to form the
meshes or quarterings, which are loops inserted in any given two sides and loop of the next mesh to be formed. The knot formed
loops is now tightened up, the last formed mesh
is
row, by which the number of meshes is increased. To bread or by threading the
freed from the sinkers and .transferred to the hooks, and the process
'This is a common Teut. word, of which the of looping, threading and knotting thus continues.
origin is unknown;
it is not to be connected with " knit " or " knot." The term " net," Another form of net-loom, working on a principle distinct from
i.e. remaining after all deductions,
j.i'
charges, &c., have been made, as that of Paterson, was invented and patented in France by Onesiphore
in "net profit," is a variant of " neat,"
in tidy, clean, Lat. nttidus, Pecqueur in 1840, and again in France and in the United King-
shining. dom in 1849. This machine was improved by many subsequent
NETHERLANDS
inventors; especially by Baudouin and Jouannin, patented in the Drusus and Tiberius. The Batavians were first brought under
United Kingdom in 1861. In this machine separate threads or Roman rule in the governorship of Drusus, A.D. 13. They were
cords running longitudinally for
each division of the mesh are em- not incorporated in the empire, but were ranked as allies, socii
ployed (fig. 4). It will be observed or auxtiia. Their land became a recruiting ground for the Roman
that the alternate threads a and armies, and a base for expeditions across the Rhine. The
b are differently disposed the a Batavians served with fidelity and distinction in all parts of the
series being drawn into simple
loops over and through which the
empire, and from the days of Augustus onwards formed a con-
threads of the b series nave to pass. siderable part of the Praetorian guard. The Frisians struggled
On the machine the a series of against Roman over-lordship somewhat longer, and it was not
threads are arranged vertically, until A.D. 47 that they finally submitted to the victorious arms
while the b series are placed hori-
of Domitius Corbulo. The Frisian auxiliaries were likewise
zontally in thin lenticular spools.
Over the horizontal b series is a regarded as excellent troops.
range of hooks equal in number In the confusion of the disputed succession to the imperial
with the threads, and set so that throne after the death of Nero, the Batavians (A.D. 60-70) under
they seize the 6 threads, raise the influence of a great leader, known only by his
them, and give them a double
twist, thus forming a row of open Roman name, Claudius Civilis, rose in revolt. Civilis of 'J/t/y/s.
loops. The loops are then de- had seen much service in the Roman armies, and was
FIG. 4. pressed, and, seizing the vertical a a man of statesmanlike ability. In revenge for his own
threads, draw them crotchet-like
imprisonment, and the death of his brother by order of Nero,
through the b loops into loops sufficiently long and open to pass
he took advantage of the disorder in the empire not only
right over the spools containing the b threads (fig. 5), after which
it only remains to tighten the threads and to stir up his fellow-countrymen to take up arms for independ-
the mesh is complete.
ence, but to persuade a large number of German and Belgic tribes
Wire-netting, which is in extensive de- to join forces with them. A narrative of the revolt is given
mand for garden use, poultry coops, and
numerous like purposes, is also a twisted in detail by Tacitus. At first success attended Civilis and the
structure made principally by machine Romans were driven out of the greater part of the Belgic province.
power. The industry was mainly founded Even the great fortress of Castra Vetera (Xanten) was starved
by Charles Barnard in 1844, the first net- into submission and the garrison massacred. But dissensions
made by hand on wooden rollers.
ting being
The
machine appeared in 1855, and,
first arose between the German and Celtic elements of Civilis's follow-
since that time many devices, generally of extremely complex con- ing. The Romans, under an able general, Cerealis, took
struction, have come into use. The wire chiefly used is common advantage of this, and Civilis, beaten in fight, retired to the
annealed Bessemer or mild steel (see B. Smith, Wire, Its Manufacture
island of the Batavians. But both sides were exhausted, and
and Uses, New York, 1891).
it was arranged that Cerealis and Civilis should meet on a broken
NETHERLANDS. The geographical features of the countries bridge over the Nabalia (Yssel) to discuss terms of peace. At
formerly known collectively as the Netherlands or Low Countries this point the narrative of Tacitus breaks off, but it would appear
are dealt with under the modern English names of HOLLAND that easy conditions were offered, for the Batavians returned to
and BELGIUM. Here we are concerned only with their earlier their position of socii, and were henceforth faithful in their steady
history, which is put for convenience under this heading in order allegiance to Rome. The insula Batavorum, lined with forts,
to separate the account of the period when they formed practically became for a long period the bulwark of the empire against the
a single area for historical purposes from that of the time when inroads of the Germans from the north.
Holland and Belgium became distinct administrative units. Of this period scarcely any record remains, but when at the
The sources of our knowledge of the country down to the 8th end of the 3rd century the Franks (q.v.) began to swarm over the
century are Caesar's De iv., the history of Velleius
Bella Gallico, Rhine into the Roman lands,' the names of the old
The
Paterculus, 105, the works of Tacitus, the Historia
ii. tribes had disappeared. The peoples within the Franks.
Prancorum (i.-iii.) of Gregory of Tours, the Fredegar's frontier had been transformed into Romanized pro-
Chronica (for the last two of which see D. Bouquet's vincials; outside, the various tribes had become merged in the
Recueil historiens des Gaules et de la France, 1738-
de common appellation of Frisians. The branch of the Franks
1876). The Netherlands first became known to the Romans who were a confederacy, not a people which gradually over-
through the campaigns of Julius Caesar. He found the country spread Gallia Belgica, bore the name of the Salian Franks.
peopled partly by tribes of Gallo-Celtic, partly by tribes of Nominally they were taken under the protection of the empire,
Germanic stock, the river Rhine forming roughly the line of hi reality they were its masters and defenders. In the days of
demarcation between the races. Several of the tribes along the their great king Hlodwig or Clovis (481-511) they were in
borderland, however, were undoubtedly of mixed blood. The possession of the whole of the southern and central',Netherlands.
Gallo-Celtic tribes bore the general appellation of Belgae, and The strip of coast from the mouth of the Scheldt to that of the
among these the Nervii, inhabiting the district between the Ems remained, however, in the hands of the free Frisians (<?..),
Scheldt and the Sambre were at the date of Caesar's invasion, in alliance with whom against the Franks were the Saxons (q.v.),
57 B.C., the most warlike and important. To the north of the who, pressing forward from the east, had occupied a portion of
Meuse, and more especially in the low-lying ground enclosed the districts known later as Gelderland, Overyssel and Drente.
between the Waal and the Rhine (insula Batavorum) lived the Saxon was at this period the common title of all the north German
Batavi, a clan of the great Germanic tribe, the Chatti. Beyond tribes;there was but little difference between Frisians and
these were found the Frisians (<?..), a people of German origin, Saxons either in race or language, and they were closely united
who gave their name to the territory between the Rhine and the for some four centuries in common resistance to the encroach-
Ems. Of the other tribes the best known are the Caninefates, ments of the Prankish power.
Chauci, Usipetes, Sicambri, Eburones, Menapii, Morini and The conversion of Clovis and his rude followers to Christianity
Aduatici. tended gradually to civilize the Franks, and to facilitate the
Julius Caesar, after a severe struggle with the Nervii and their fusion which soon took place between them and the
of
confederates, was successful in bringing the Belgic tribes into Gallo-Roman population. It tended also to accentuate Spread
Christi-
Their subjection toRome. Under Augustus, 15 B.C., the the enmity to the Franks of the heathen Frisians and anity.
relations conquered territory was formed into an imperial Saxons. In the south (of the Netherlands) Christianity
with the was spread by the labours of devoted missionaries, foremost
province, Gallia Belgica, and the frontier line, the
Romans. R nmC) was strongly held by a series of fortified camps. amongst whom were St Amandus, St Bavon and St Eligius,
With regard to the region north of the Rhine we first obtain and bishoprics were set up at Cambrai, Tournai, Arras, Th6rou-
information from the accounts of the campaigns of Nero, Claudius, anne and Liege. In the north progress was much slower, and
414 NETHERLANDS
though a church was erected at Utrecht by Dagobert I. about there was pillaging, burning, murder and slavery. In 873 Rolf
A.D. 630, itwas destroyed by the Frisians, who remained obstin- seized Walcheren, and became the scourge of the surrounding
ately heathen. The first successful attempt to convert them districts. In 880 the invaders took Nijmwegen, erected a
was made, under the powerful protection of Pippin of Heristal, permanent camp at Elsloo and pushed on to the Rhine. Liege,
by Willebrord, a Northumbrian monk, who became, A.D. 695, Aix-la-Chapelle, Cologne and Bonn fell into their hands. The
the first bishop of Utrecht (see UTRECHT). His labours were emperor, Charles the Fat, was roused to collect a large army,
continued with even more striking results by another English- with which he surrounded the main body of the Northmen under
man, Winfred, better known as St Boniface, the Apostle of the their leader Godfrey in the camp at Elsloo. But Charles .pre-
Germans, who suffered martyrdom at Dokkum in A.D. 754 at ferred negotiation and bribery to fighting. Godfrey received
the hands of some heathen Frisians. The complete conversion a large sum of money, was confirmed in the possession of Fries-
was, however, in the end due rather to the arms of the Carolingian land, and on being converted to Christianity in 882, received
kings than to the unaided efforts of the missionaries. Towards in marriage Gisela,daughter of Lothaire II. Three years later,
the end of the century, Charlemagne, himself a Netherlander however, Godfrey was murdered, and although the raids of the
by descent and ancestral possessions, after a severe struggle, Northmen did not entirely cease for upwards of another century,
thoroughly subdued the Frisians and Saxons, and compelled them no further attempt was made to establish a permanent dynasty
to embrace Christianity. in the land.
In the triple partition of the Carolingian empire at Verdun in At the close of the nth century the system of feudal states
843, the central portion was assigned to the emperor Lothaire, had been firmly established in the Netherlands under stable
separating the kingdoms of East Francia (the later dynasties hereditary or episcopal, and, despite the
Germanx) from West Francia (the later France). continual wars between them, civilization had begun to crusades.
of Lowe?
Lorraine. This middle kingdom formed a long strip stretching develop, orderly government to be carried on, and the
across Europe from the North Sea to Naples, and general condition of the people to be less hopeless and miserable.
embraced the whole of the later Netherlands with the exception It was at this time that the voice of Peter the Hermit roused the
of the portion on the left bank of the Scheldt, which river was whole of western Europe to enthusiasm by his preaching of the
made the boundary of West Francia. On the death of the first crusade. Nowhere was the call responded to with greater
emperor, his son Lothaire II. received the northern part of his zeal than in the Netherlands, and nowhere had the spirit of
father's domain, known as Lotharii or Hlutharii Regnum, adventure and the stimulus to enterprise, which was one of the
corrupted later into Lotharingia or Lorraine. Lothaire had no chief fruits of the crusades, more permanent effects for good. The
heir, and in 870 by the treaty of Meerssen his territory was foremost heroes of the first crusade were Netherlanders. Godfrey
divided between the kings of East and West Francia. In 879 of Bouillon, the leader of the expedition and the first king of
East Francia acquired the whole; from 912 to 924 it formed Jerusalem, was duke of Lower Lorraine, and the names of his
part of West Francia. Finally in 924 Lorraine passed in the brothers Baldwin of Edessa and Eustace of Boulogne, and of
reign of Henry the Fowler under German (East Frankish) Count Robert II. of Flanders are only less famous. The third
overlordship. Henry's son, Otto the Great, owing to the crusade numbered among its chiefs Floris III. of Holland, Philip of
disordered state of the country, placed it in 953 in the hands Flanders, Otto I. of Gelderland and Henry I. of Brabant. The
of his able brother, Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, for pacification. so-called Latin crusade of 1203 placed the imperial crown of
Bruno, who kept for himself the title of archduke, divided Constantinople on the head of Baldwin of Flanders. At the siege
the territory into the two duchies of Upper and Lower Lorraine. and capture of Damietta (1218) it was the contingent of North-
Godfrey of Verdun was invested by him with the government Netherlanders (Hollanders and Frisians under Count William I.
of Lower Lorraine (Nieder-Lothringen). The history of the of Holland) who bore the brunt of the fighting and specially
Netherlands from this time forward with the exception of distinguished themselves. To the Netherlands, as to the rest of
Flanders, which continued to be a fief of the French kings western Europe, the result of the crusades was in the main
is the history of the various feudal states into which the duchy advantageous. They broke down the intense narrowness of the
of Lower Lorraine was gradually broken up. life of those feudal times, enlarged men's conceptions and intro-
It is a melancholy history, telling of the invasion of the North- duced new ideas into their minds. They first brought the
men, and of the dynastic struggles between the petty feudal products and arts of the Orient into western Europe; and in the
Growth sovereigns who carved out counties and lordships
.
Netherlands, by the impulse that they gave to commerce, they
of the for themselves during the dark centuries which were one of the primary causes of the rise of the chartered towns.
feudal followed the fall of the Carolingian empire. It was a Little is known about the Netherland towns before the izth
states.
time of oppression and cruelty, and of war and devasta- century. The earliest charters date from that period. No place
tion, during which the country remained chiefly swamp and was reckoned to be a town unless it had received a Rlse ot
tangled woodland, with little communication save up and down charter from its sovereign or its local lord. The the cities
the rivers and along the old Roman roads. Its remoteness from charters were of the nature of a treaty between the '" **
the control of the authority of the German and French kings, city and its feudal lord, and they differed much in
together with its inaccessibility, gave special facilities in Lower character according to the importance of the place
Lorraine to the growth of a number of practically independent and the pressure it was able to put upon its sovereign. The
feudal states forming a group or system apart. Chief among extent of the rights which the charter conceded determined
these states were the duchy of Brabant, the counties of Flanders, whether the town was a free town (wye stodt villa franca)
Hainault, Holland, Gelderland, Limburg and Luxemburg, or a commune (gemeenle communia). In the case of a commune
and the bishoprics of Utrecht and Liege. For their separate the concessions included generally the right of inheritance,
local histories and their dynasties, their wars and political justice, taxation, use of wood, water, &c. The lord's repre-
relations with one another and with neighbouring countries,
" " " "
sentative, entitled justiciary (schout) of bailiff (baljuw),
reference must be made to the separate articles FLANDERS, presided over the administration of justice and took the command
HOLLAND, BRABANT, GELDERLAND, LIMBURG, LUXEMBURG, of the town levies in war. The gemeenle consisting only of those
UTRECHT, LIEGE. bound by the communal oath for mutual help and defence
During the gth and loth centuries the Netherlands suffered elected their own magistrates. These electors were often a small
cruelly from the attacks of the Northmen, who ravaged the proportion of the whole body of inhabitants: sometimes a few
The in- shores an,d at times penetrated far inland. In 834 influential families alone had the right, and it became hereditary.
"
vasioas Utrecht and Dorestad were sacked, and a few years This governing oligarchy was known as the patricians." The
of the later all Holland and Friesland was in their hands. name
magistrates bore the of scabini (schepenen or 6ckevins),
""" Year after year the raids went on under a succession of and at their head was the seigneurial official the schout or
leaders Heriold, Roruk, Rolf, Godfrey and far and wide baljuw. These schepenen appointed in their turn from the
NETHERLANDS 4*5
citizens to assist them a body of sworn councillors (gezworenen the heiress of Holland, Zeeland, Hainault and Friesland, to
"
or juris), whose presidents, styled burgomasters," had the surrender her possessions to him, 1428. On the death in 1430 of
supervision of the communal finances. Thus grew up a number his cousin Philip, duke of Brabant, he took possession of Brabant
of municipalities practically self-governing republics semi- and Limburgjthe duchy of Luxemburg he acquired by purchase,
independent feudatories in the feudal state. 1443. He made his bastard son David bishop of Utrecht, and
The most powerful and flourishing of all were those of Flanders from 1456 onwards that see continued under Burgundian
Ghent, Bruges and Ypres. In the i3th century these towns influence. Two other bastards were placed on the episcopal
Tlle
had become the seat of large industrial populations throne of Liege, an illegitimate brother on that of Cambrai.
Flemish (varying according to different estimates from 100,000 Philip did not live to see Gelderland and Liege pass definitively
com- to 200,000 inhabitants), employed upon the weaving under his rule; it was reserved for his son, Charles the Bold,
muaes.
o f C i t n ^th Jt s dependent industries, and closely to crush the independence of Liege (1468) and to incorporate
bound up by trade interests with England, from whence they Gelderland in his dominions (1473).
obtained the wool for their looms. Bruges, at that time connected This extension of dominion on the part of the dukes of Bur-
with the sea by the river Zwijn and with Sluis as its port, was gundy implied the establishment of a strong monarchical
the central mart and exchange of the world's commerce. In authority. They had united under their sway a number
these Flemish cities the early oligarchic form of municipal of provinces with different histories and institutions Ooo(
government speedily gave way to a democratic. The great mass and speaking different languages, and aim was
their
of the townsmen organized in trade gilds weavers, fullers, dyers, to centralize the government. The and clergy were on
nobility
smiths, leather-workers, brewers, butchers, bakers and others, the side of the ducal authority; its opponents were the munici-
of which by far the most powerful was that of the weavers palities, especially those of Flanders. Their strength had been
as soon as they became conscious of their strength rebelled against seriously weakened by the overthrow of Roosebeke, but Philip
the exclusive privileges of the patricians and succeeded in ousting on his accession found them once more advancing rapidly in
them from power. The patricians (hence called leliaerts) relied power and prosperity. He was quite aware that the industrial
upon the support of the French crown, but the fatal battle of wealth of the great Flemish communes was financially the main-
Courtrai (1302), in which the handicraftsmen (clauwaerls) laid stay of his power, but their very prosperity made them the chief
low the chivalry of France, secured the triumph of the democracy. obstacle to his schemes of unifying into a solid dominion the
The power of the Flemish cities rose to its height during the loose aggregate of states over which he was the ruler. On this
ascendancy of Jacques van Artevelde (1285-1345), the famous matter Philip would brook no opposition. Bruges was forced
citizen-statesman of Ghent, but after his downfall the mutual after strenuous resistance to submit to the loss of its most
jealousies of the cities undermined their strength, and with the cherished privileges in 1438, and the revolt of Ghent was quenched
" "
crushing defeat of Roosebeke (1382) in which Philip van Artevelde in the red sea (as it was styled) of Gavre in 1453. The
perished, the political greatness of the municipalities had entered splendour and luxury of the court of Philip surpassed that of
upon its decline. any contemporary sovereign. A permanent, memorial of it
In Brabant Antwerp, Louvain, Brussels, Malines(Mechlin) remains in the famous Order of the Golden Fleece, which was
and in the episcopal territory of Liege Liege, Huy, Dinant instituted by the duke at Bruges in 1430 on the occasion of his
Other there was a feebler repetition of the Flemish conditions. marriage with Isabel of Portugal, a descendant of John of Gaunt,
Nether- Flourishing communities were likewise to be found in and was so named from the English wool, the raw material used
land Hainault, Namur, Cambrai and the other southern in the Flemish looms, for which Bruges was the chief mart.
munici- The reign of Philip, though marred by many acts of tyranny
districts of the Netherlands, but nowhere else the
palities.
vigorous independence of Ghent, Bruges and Ypres, and harshness, was politically great. Had his successor been as
nor the splendour of their civic life. In the north also the I3th prudent and able, he might have made a unified Netherlands
century was rich in municipal charters. Dordrecht, Leiden, the nucleus of a mighty middle kingdom,
interposing
between
Haarlem, Delft, Vlaardigen, Rotterdam in Holland, and Middle- France and Germany, and a revival of that of the Carolingian
burg and Zierikzee in Zeeland, repeated with modifications the Lothaire.
characteristics of the communes of Flanders and Brabant. Before the accession of Charles, the only son of Philip, two
But the growth and development of the northern communal steps had been taken of great importance in the direction of
movement, though strong and instinct with life, was slower and unification. The first was the appointment of a grand
less tempestuous than the Flemish. In the bishopric of Utrecht, council with supreme judicial and financial functions, the Bold
in Gelderland and Friesland, the privileges accorded to Utrecht, whose seat was finally fixed at Malines (Mechlin) in
Groningen, Zutphen, Stavoren, Leeuwarden followed rather on 1473; the other the summoning of deputies of all the provincial
the model of those of the Rhenish " free cities " than of the " "
states of the Netherlands to a states-general at Brussels
Franco-Flemish commune. In the northern Netherlands gener- in 1465. But Charles, rightly surnamed the Bold or Head-
ally up end of the I4th century the towns had no great
to the strong, did not possess the qualities of a builder of states. Im-
political weight; their importance depended upon their river patient of control and hasty in action, he was no match for his
commerce and their markets. Thus at the close of the i4th crafty and plotting adversary, Louis XL of France. His
century, despite the constant wars between the feudal sovereigns ambition, however, was boundless, and he set himself to realize
who held sway in the Netherlands, the vigorous municipal life the dream of his father a Burgundian kingdom stretching from
had fostered industry and commerce, and had caused Flanders the North Sea to the Mediterranean. At first all went well with
in particular to become the richest possession in the world. him. By his ruthless suppression of revolts at Dinant and Liege
It was precisely at this time that Flanders, and gradually the he made his authority undisputed throughout the Netherlands.
other feudal states of the Netherlands, by marriage, purchase, His campaigns against the French king were conducted with
treachery or force, fell under the dominion of the success. His creation of a formidable standing army, the first
house of Burgundy. The foundation of the Burgundian of its kind in that age of transition from feudal conditions, gave
n<//aiT
dominion. ru l e in the Netherlands was laid by the succession of to the Burgundian power all the outward semblance of stability
Philip the Bold to the counties of Flanders and Artois and permanence. But Charles, though a brave soldier and good
in 1384 in right of his wife Margaret de Male. In 1404 Antony, military organizer, was neither a capable statesman nor a skilful
Philip's second son (killed at Agincourt 1415), became duke general. He squandered the resources left to him by his father,
of Brabant by bequest of his great-aunt Joan. The consolidation and made himself hateful to all classes of his subjects by his
of the Burgundian power was effected by Philip the Good, exactions and tyranny. When at the very height of power, all
grandson of Philip the Bold, in his long and successful reign of 48 his schemes of aggrandisement came to sudden ruin through a
years, 1410-1467. He inherited Flanders and Artois, purchased succession of disastrous defeats at the hands of the Swiss at
the county of Namur (1427) and compelled his cousin Jacqueline, Grandson (March 2, 1476), at Morat (June 22, 1476)
416 NETHERLANDS
was elected emperor. Charles V. had been born and
and at Nancy (January 5, 1477). At Nancy Charles was of Austria,
in the Netherlands, and retained a strong predilection
himself among the slain, leaving his only daughter Mary of brought up
Burgundy, then in her twentieth year, sole jheiress to his for his native country, but necessarily he had to pass Charles Y
the larger part of his life, at that great crisis of the
possessions.
The catastrophe of Nancy threatened the loosely-knit Bur- world's history, in other lands. During his frequent absences
gundian dominion with dissolution. Louis XI. claimed the he entrusted the government of the Netherlands to the tried
reversion of the French fiefs, and seized Burgundy, hands of his aunt, Margaret, who retained his confidence until
Mary at
But the Netherland her death (November 1530), and secured the affection of all
Burgundy Tranche Comte and Artois.
and Mail- provinces, though not loving the Burgundian dynasty, Netherlanders. Margaret was assisted by a permanent council
mil/an of j^j no (j es i re to have a French master. Deputies of regency, and there was a special minister charged with the
Austria.
representing Flanders, Brabant, Hainault and Holland administration of the finances, sometimes under the name of
met at Ghent, where Mary was detained almost as a superintendent of the finances, sometimes under the title of
prisoner, and compelled her (February 10, 14.77) to sign the treasurer-general and controller-general. The duties of this
" Great minister were of special importance, for it was to the Netherlands
Privilege." This charter provided that no war could
be declared nor marriage concluded by the sovereign, nor taxes that Charles looked for much of the resources wherewith to
raised without the assent of the states, that natives were alone carry on his many wars. During this time Charles consolidated
eligible for high office, and that the national language should be his dominion over the Netherlands. In 1524 he became lord
used in public documents. The central court of justice at of Friesland by purchase, and in 1528 he acquired the tempor-
Malines was abolished, but the Grand Council was reorganized alities of Utrecht. He now ruled over seventeen provinces
and made thoroughly representative. The Great Privilege was i.e. four duchies, Brabant, Gelderland, Limburg and Luxemburg;
supplemented by provincial charters, the Flemish Privilege seven counties, Flanders, Artois, Hainault, Holland, Zeeland,
granted (February 10), the Great Privilege of Holland and Namur and Zutphen; the margraviate of Antwerp; and
Zeeland (February 17), the Great Privilege of Namur and the five lordships Friesland, Mechlin, Utrecht, Overyssel, and
Joyeuse Entrie of Brabant, both in May, thus largely curtailing Groningen with its dependent districts.
the sovereign's power of interference with local liberties. On After the death of Margaret, Charles appointed his sister
these conditions Mary obtained the hearty support of the states Mary, the widowed queen of Hungary, to the regency, and for
against France, but her humiliations were not yet at an end; twenty years she retained herpost, until the abdication
two of her privy councillors, accused of traitorous intercourse in fact of Charles V. in 1555. She too governed ably,
Hungary.
with the enemy, were, despite her entreaties, seized, tried and though in entire subservience to her nephew, but was
beheaded (April 3). Her marriage four months later to not in such intimate touch with the national peculiarities of
Maximilian of Austria was the beginning of the long domination the Netherlanders as her predecessor. At the time of her
of the house of Habsburg. The next fifteen years were for accession to office Charles changed the form of administration
Maximilian a stormy and difficult period. The duchess Mary by the creation^ of three separate councils, those of State, of
died from the effects of a fall from her horse (March 1482), and Finance, and the Privy Council. The regent was president of
Maximilian became regent (mambourg) for his son. The peace of the council of state, of which the knights of the Golden Fleece
Arras with France (March 1483) freed him to deal with the dis- were members. The policy of Charles towards the Netherlands
cords in the Netherland provinces, and more especially with the was for many years one of studied moderation. He redressed
turbulent opposition in the Flemish cities. With the submission many grievances, regulated the administration of justice,
of Ghent (June 1485) the contest was decided in favour of the encouraged commerce, reformed the coinage, but as time went on
archduke, who in 1494, on his election as emperor, he was compelled to demand larger subsidies and to take severer
Joanna" was a ^' e to na ncl over the country to his son Philip measures against heretical opinions. Mary was forced to impose
in a comparatively tranquil and secure state. Philip, taxation which met with violent resistance, especially in 1 539
surnamed the Fair, was fifteen years of age, and his accession from the stiff-necked town of Ghent. The emperor himself
was welcomed by the Netherlanders with whom Maximilian had was obliged to intervene. On the I4th of February 1540 he
never been popular. Gelderland, however, which had revolted entered Ghent at the head of a large army and visited the
after Nancy, had Charles of Egmont for its duke, and the two city with severe punishment. All its charters were annulled,
bishoprics of Liege and Utrecht were no longer subject to its privileges and those of its gilds swept away, and a heavy
Burgundian authority. In 1496 Philip married Joanna of fine imposed. It was a lesson intended to teach the Netherlanders
Aragon, who in 1500 became heiress apparent to Castile and the utter futility of opposition to the will of their lord. The
Aragon. That same year she gave birth at Ghent to a son, struggle, however, with the Protestant princes of Germany not
afterwards the emperor Charles V. Philip's reign in the Nether- only led to continual demands of Charles for men and money
lands was chiefly noteworthy for his efforts for the revival of from his Netherland dominions, but to his determination to
trade with England. On the death of Queen Isabel, Philip and prevent the spread of Protestant opinions; and a series of
Joanna succeeded to the crown of Castile and took up their edicts was passed, the most severe of which (that of 1550) was
residence in their new kingdom (January 1506). A few months carried out with extreme rigour. Its preamble stated that its
"
later Philip unexpectedly died at Burgos (September 25th). object was to exterminate the root and ground of this pest."
His Burgundian lands passed without opposition to his son By its enactments, men holding heretical opinions werecondemned
Charles, then six years of age. to the stake, women to be buried alive. Yet despite the efforts
The claim of the emperor Maximilian to be regent during of the government the Reformation made progress in the land.
the minority of his grandson was recognized by the states-general. In 1548 Charles laid before the states a scheme for making the
Maximilian nominated his daughter Margaret, widow Netherlands an integral part of the empire under the name of
of Austria. ^ Philibert, duke of
Savoy, to act as governor-general, the Circle of Burgundy; but the refusal of the German Electors
and she filled the difficult post for eight years with to make his only son Philip king of the Romans led him to
great ability, courage and tact; and when Charles, at the age abandon the project, which was never renewed. Already the
of fifteen assumed the government he found the Netherlands emperor was beginning to feel weary of the heavy burdens
thriving and prosperous. In the following year, by the death which the government of so many realms had imposed upon him,
of Ferdinand of Aragon, his maternal grandfather, and the and in 1 549 he presented Philip to the states of the Netherlands,
incapacity of his mother Joanna, who had become hopelessly that they might take the oath of allegiance to him, and Philip
insane, he succeeded to the crowns of Castile and Aragon, which swore to maintain all ancient rights, privileges and customs.
carried with them large possessions in Italy and the dominion The abdication of Charles V. took place on the zsth of October
of the New World of America. In 1519 Maximilian died, and 1555 in the great hall of the palace at Brussels, and Philip II.
the following year his grandson, now the head of the house entered upon his long and eventful reign. His external policy
NETHERLANDS
was at first successful. Chiefly through the valour of Lamoral, carried out, and by the rising indignation among the populace.
count of Egmont, two great victories were won over the French William, Egmont, and Hoorn therefore placed themselves at
at St Quentin (August 10, 1557) and at Gravelines the head of a league of nobles against Granvelle (who had
Philip It.
(July 13, 1558), The terms of the treaty of Cateau- become cardinal in 1561) with the object of undermining his
Cambre'sis (February 1559) were entirely favourable to Philip. influence and driving him from power. They resigned their
Internal difficulties, however, confronted him. His proposal positions as councillors of state, and expressed their grievances
to impose a tax of i % on real property and of 2 % on movable personally to Margaret and by letter to the king in Madrid,
property was rejected by all the larger provinces. As a thorough asking for the dismissal of Granvelle. The duchess, herself
Spaniard who did not even understand the language of his aggrieved by the dictatorial manners of the cardinal, likewise
Netherland subjects Philip was from the first distrusted and his urged upon her brother the necessity of the retirement of the
acts regarded with suspicion. He himself never felt at home unpopular minister. At last Philip unwillingly gave way, and
at Brussels, and in August 1559 he set sail for Spain, never again he secretly suggested to the cardinal that he should ask per-
to revisit the Netherlands. mission from the regent to visit his mother at Besancon.
He appointed as regent, Margaret, duchess of Parma, a natural Granvelle left Brussels on the I3th of March 1 564, never to return.
daughter of Charles V. by a Flemish mother, and like the other But the king was only temporizing; he had no intention of
women of the House a strong and capable ruler, changing his policy. He did but bide his time.
o/parma She was nomma lly assisted by the members The Council of Trent had recently brought its long labours
of the
three councils the Council of State, the Privy Council to a close (December 4, 1563), and Philip resolved to enforce
and the Council of Finance, but in reality all power had been its decrees throughout his dominions. He issued an
placed by Philip in the hands of three confidential councillors order to that effect (August 18, 1564), and it was sent
J^rfentfn*
styled the Consulla Barlaymont, president of the Council to the duchess of Parma for publication. The nobles decrees.
of Finance, Viglius, president of the Privy Council, and Antony protested, and Egmont was deputed to go to Madrid
Perrenot, bishop of Arras, better known by his later title as and try to obtain from the king a mitigation of the edicts and
Cardinal Granvelle. This extremely able man, a Burgundian redress of grievances. Philip was inexorable. The activity of
by birth, was the son of one of Charles V.'s most trusted the Inquisition was redoubled, and persecution raged throughout
councillors, and it was largely to him that the government the Netherlands. Everywhere intense indignation was aroused
of the Netherlands was confided. Two burning questions at by the cruel tortures and executions. In the presence of the
the outset confronted Margaret and Granvelle the question rising storm the duchess was bewildered, seeing clearly the folly
of the new bishoprics and the question of the presence in the of the policy she was obliged to carry out no less than its difficulty.
Netherlands of a number of Spanish troops. The proposal to Following the example of William of Orange, Hoorn, Berghen
reorganize the bishoprics of the Netherlands was not a new one, and other governors, the magistrates generally declined to enforce
but was the carrying out of a long-planned project of Charles V. the edicts, and offered to resign rather than be the instruments
In 1555 there were but three dioceses in the Netherlands those for burning and maltreating their fellow-countrymen. It was
of Tournay, Arras and Utrecht, all of unwieldy size and under at this time that the lesser nobility, foremost among whom were
the jurisdiction of foreign metropolitans. It was proposed now Louis of Nassau (brother of William), Philip de Marnix, lord of
to establish a more numerous hierarchy, self-contained within Sainte Aldegonde, and Henry, count of Brederode,
the limits of Burgundian rule, with three archbishops and fifteen began to organize resistance, and in 1 566 a confederacy
diocesans. The primatial see was placed at Malines (Mechlin), was formed, all the members of which signed a docu-
having under it Antwerp, Hertogenbosch, Roermond, Ghent, ment called "The Compromise," by which they bound themselves
Bruges, and Ypres constituting the Flemish province; the to help and protect one another against persecution, and to
second archbishopric was at Cambray, with Tournay, Arras, St extirpate the Inquisition from the land. The signatories drew
"
Omer, and Namur, the Walloon province; the third at up a petition, known as the Request," which was presented by
Utrecht, with Haarlem, Middleburg, Leeuwarden, Groningen and the confederates to the regent (April 5, 1566) in the council
Deventer, the northern (Dutch) province. All these with the chamber at Brussels. As they approached, Barlaymont had
"
exception of Cambray and St Omer were within the boundaries been heard to say to Margaret, What, Madam, is The
of the Netherlands. The scheme aroused almost universal your Highness afraid of these beggars (gueux)?" Beggars.
distrust and opposition. It was believed that its object was The phrase was seized upon and made a party name,
the introduction of the dreaded form of the Inquisition established and it became the fashion for patriots to wear beggar's garb and
in Spain, and in any case more systematic and stringent measures a medal round the neck, bearing Philip's image on one side and
for the stamping out of heresy. It excited also the animosity a wallet on the other, with two hands crossed, and the legend
of the nobles jealous of their privileges, and of the monasteries, Fiddles au roi jusqu'd la besace.
which were called upon to furnish the revenues for the new sees. William of Orange, Egmont, and Hoorn were alarmed at the
Granvelle was made first archbishop of Malines, and all the violent passions that had been aroused, and held aloof at first
odium attaching to the increase of the episcopate was laid at from Brederode and his companions. At their instance, and
his door, though he was in reality opposed to it. The continued carrying with them instructions from the regent and the council,
presence of the Spanish troops caused also great dissatisfaction. the marquis of Berghen and Hoorn's brother (the lord of Mon-
The Netherlanders detested the Spaniards and everything tigny) were persuaded to go to Spain and lay before Philip the
Spanish, and this foreign mercenary force, together with the Philip received them courteously,
serious character of the crisis.
new bishops, was looked upon as part of a general plan for the but took care that neither of them should return home. Mean-
gradual overthrow of their rights and liberties. So loud was the while in the Netherlands the sectaries had been making rapid
outcry that Margaret and Granvelle on their own responsibility headway in spite of the persecution. Open-air conventicles were
sent away the Spanish regiments from the country (January held in all parts of the provinces, and the fierce Calvinist
1561). The most serious difficulty with which Margaret had to preachers raised the religious excitement of their hearers
deal arose from the attitude of the great nobles, and among these to such a pitch that it found vent in a furious outburst c/as <s^
"
especially of William (the Silent ") of Nassau, prince of Orange, of iconoclasm. During the month of August bands of
Lamoral, count of Egmont, and Philip de Montmorency, count fanatical rioters in various parts of the country made havoc in
of Hoorn. These great, magnates, all of them Knights of the the churches and religious houses, wrecking the altars, smashing
Fleece and men of peculiar weight and authority in the country, the images and pictures, and carrying off the sacred vessels and
were disgusted to find that, though nominally councillors of other treasures on which they could lay their hands. These acts
state, their advice was never asked, and that all power was of wild and sacrilegious destruction reached their climax at
placed in the hands of the Consulta. They began to be alarmed Antwerp (August 16 and 17), where a small body of rioters
by the severity with which the edicts against heresy were being forced their way into the cathedral and were permitted without
xix. 14 5
NETHERLANDS
any on the part of the magistracy to wreak their
interference should die before he left Brussels for the campaign in
will upon spendid and priceless contents.
its Friesland. They were pronounced by the Council of
The effect of the outbreak was in every way disastrous. The Blood to be guilty of high treason (June 2, 1568).
regent was alienated from the popular leaders, and was no longer On the 6th of June they were beheaded before the
disposed to help William of Orange, Egmont, and Hoorn to secure Broodhuis at Brussels.
a mitigation of religious persecution; and the heart of Philip A few months after the disaster of Jemmingen, Orange, who
was hardened in its resolve to exterminate heresy in the Nether- had now become a Lutheran, himself led a large army into
lands. He dissembled until such time as he could despatch his Brabant. He was met by Alva with cautious tactics.
greatest general, the duke of Alva, to Brussels at the head of a The Spaniards skilfully avoided a battle, and in AJva
picked force to crush all opposition. November the invaders were compelled to withdraw ^Jjnip*"
William of Orange was not deceived by the specious temporiz- across the French frontier through lack of resources,
ing of the king. He foresaw the coming storm, and he did his and were disbanded. Alva was triumphant; but though
utmost to induce Egmont, Hoorn and other prominent Alva's master had supplied him with an invincible army, he was
members of the patriotic party to unite with him in unable to furnish him with the funds to pay for it. Money had
Oran
taking measures for meeting tne approaching danger. to be raised by taxation, and at a meeting of the states-general
Egmont and Hoorn refused to do anything that might be con- (March 20, 1569) the governor-general proposed (ij an immediate
strued into disloyalty; in these circumstances William felt that tax of i% on all property, (2) a tax of 5% on all transfers of
the time had come to provide for his personal safety. He with- real estate, (3) a tax of 10% on the sale of all articles of commerce,
drew (April 1567) first to his residence at Breda, and then to the the last two taxes to be granted in perpetuity. Everywhere the
ancestral seat of his family at Dillenburg in Nassau. proposal met with uncompromising resistance. After a pro-
Margaret of Parma meanwhile, with the aid of a considerable longed struggle, Alva succeeded in obtaining a subsidy of
body of German mercenaries, had inflicted exemplary punish- 2,000,000 fl. for two years only. All this time the brutal work of
Puntsh-
ment upon the iconoclasts and Calvinist sectaries. the Blood Council went on, as did the exodus of thousands upon
went of A body of some 2000 men drawn principally from thousands of industrious and well-to-do citizens, and with
the sect- Antwerp were cut to pieces at Austruweel (March 13, each year the detestation felt for Alva and his rule steadily
***
1567), and their leader John de Marnix, lord of Thou- increased.
seule, slain. Valenciennes, the chief centre of disturbance in All this time William and Louis were indefatigably making
the south, was besieged and taken by Philip de Noircarmes, preparations for a new campaign, and striving by their agents
governor of Hainault, who inflicted a savage vengeance (April to rouse the people to active resistance. The first
1567). The regent therefore represented to her brother that the successes were however to be not on land, but on the
disorders were entirely put down and that the time had come to sea. In 1569 William in his capacity as sovereign
show mercy. But Philip's preparations were now complete, and prince of Orange issued letters-of-marque to a number
Alva out from Italy at the head of a force of some 10,000
set of vessels to prey upon the Spanish commerce in the narrow
veteran troops, Spaniards and Italians, afterwards increased by seas. These corsairs, for such they were, were known by the
a body of Germans, with which, after marching through Bur- name of Sea-Beggars (Gueux-de-Mer). Under the command of the
gundy, Lorraine and Luxemburg, he reached the Netherlands lord of Lumbres, the lord of Treslong, and William de la Marck
(August 8), and made his entry into Brussels a fortnight (lord of Lumey) they spread terror and alarm along the coast,
later. seized much plunder, and in revenge for Alva's cruelty com-
The powers conferred on Alva were those of military dictator. mitted acts of terrible barbarity upon the priests and monks and
The title of regent was left to the duchess Margaret, but she catholic officials, as well as upon the crews of the vessels that fell
speedily sent in her resignation, which was accepted into their hands. Their difficulty lay in the lack of ports in
The
(October 6). Before this took place events had been which to take refuge. At last by a sudden assault the
of Blood moving fast. On the 9th of September Egmont and Sea-Beggars seized the town of Brill at the mouth of
Hoorn were arrested as they left a council at the duke's the Maas (April i, 1572). Encouraged by this success
residence and were confined in the castle of Ghent. At the same they next attacked and took Flushing, the port of
time Orange's friend, the powerful burgomaster of Antwerp, Zeeland, which commanded the approach to Antwerp; and the
Anthony van Stralen, was seized. The next step of Alva was inhabitants were compelled to take the oath to the prince of
to create a special tribunal which was officially known as the Orange, as stadtholder of the king. They next mastered Delfs-
"
Council of Troubles," but was popularly branded with the name haven and Schiedam. These striking successes caused a wave of
"
of the Council of Blood," and as such it has passed down to revolt to spread through Holland, Zeeland, Gelderland,
jyevoft
history. As a tribunal it had no legal status. The duke himself Utrecht and Friesland. The principal towns gave in tn the
was president and all sentences were submitted to him. Two their submission to the prince of Orange, and acknow- northern
mvlac"-
members only, Vargas and del Rio, both Spaniards, had votes. ledged him as their lawful stadtholder. Within three P
A swarm of commissioners ransacked the provinces in search of months of the capture of Brill, Amsterdam was the only town in
delinquents, and the council sat daily for hours, condemning the Holland in the hands of the Spaniards.
accused, almost without a hearing, in batches together. The This revolt of the northern provinces was facilitated by the
executioners were ceaselessly at work with stake, sword and fact that Alva had withdrawn many of the garrisons, and was
gibbet. Crowds of fugitives crossed the frontier to moving to oppose an invasion from the south. Louis
Germany and England. The prince of
see ^ refuge in of Nassau, with a small force raised in France with the
Orange was publicly declared an outlaw and his connivance of Charles IX., made a sudden dash into
property confiscated (January 24, 1568). A few weeks later his Hainault (May 1572) and captured Valenciennes and
eldest son, Philip William, count of Buren, a student at the Mons. Here he was shut in by a superior force of Spaniards, and
university of Louvain, was kidnapped and carried off to Madrid. made preparations to defend himself until relieved by the army
William had meanwhile succeeded in raising a force in Germany which Orange was collecting on the eastern frontier. On the
with which his brother Louis invaded Friesland. He gained a 9th of July William crossed the Rhine, and captured Malines,
victory at Heiligerlee (May 23) over a Spanish force under Count Termonde and Oudenarde, and was advancing southwards
Aremberg. Aremberg himself was killed, as was Adolphus of when the news reached him of the massacre of St Bartholomew,
Nassau, a younger brother of William and Louis. But Alva which deprived him of the promised aid of Coligny and his army
himself took the field, and at Jemmingen (July 21) completely of 12,000 men. He made an attempt, however, to relieve Mons,
annihilated the force of Louis, who himself narrowly escaped but his camp at Harmignies was surprised by a night attack, and
with his life. One result of the victory of Heiligerlee William himself narrowly escaped capture. The next morning
was the determination of Alva that Egmont and Hoorn he retreated, and six days later Mons surrendered.
NETHERLANDS 419
Orange however did not despair, and resolved to throw sudden death of Requesens (March 1576). The stadtholder
in his lot for good and all with the rebel province of the north. summoned a meeting of the states of Holland and Zeeland to
Already at his summons the states of Holland had Delft, and on the 25th of April an act of federation
met at Dort (July 15) under the presidency of Philip between the two provinces was executed. By this
his nsi- de Marnix, lord of Sainte Aldegonde, and they had compact the prince was invested with all the pre- between
deuce at
unanimously recognized William as their lawful stadt- rogatives belonging to the sovereign. He was made Holland
holder and had voted a large grant of supplies. The commander-in-chief of both the military and naval
l"^fallrf
prince now took up his permanent residence at Delft, and a forces with supreme authority, and in his hands was
regular government was established, in which he exercised placed the final appointment to all political and judicial posts
almost dictatorial authority. and to vacant city magistracies. He was required to maintain
Alva was now free to deal with rebellion in the north. Malines, the Protestant reformed religion and to suppress " all religion
which had surrendered to William, was given over for three at variance with the gospel." He also had authority to confer
days to the mercy of a brutal soldiery. Then the army under the protectorate of the federated provinces upon a foreign
Alva's son, Don Frederick of Toledo, marched northwards, prince.
and the sack of Zutphen and the inhuman butchery of Naarden In June 1576 the long siege of Zierikzee, the capital of
are among the blackest records of history. But the very horrors Schouwen, ended in its surrender to the Spanish general Mon-
of Don Frederick's advance roused a spirit of indomitable dragon, after the failure of a gallant attempt by
e great
resistance in Holland. Admiral Boisot to break the leaguer, in which he lost
The famous defence of Haarlem, lasting through the winter his life. Things looked ill for the patriots, and Zeeland
MMay.
of 1572 to July 1573, cost the besiegers 12,000 lives, and gave would have been at the mercy of the conqueror had
the insurgent provinces time to breathe. The example not the success been followed by a great mutiny of the Spanish
Haarlem f Haarlem was followed by Alkmaar, and with better and Walloon troops, to whom long arrears of pay were due.
and success. The assault of the Spaniards was repulsed, They chose their leader (eletto), marched into Brabant, and
A/tmaar- the
dykes were cut, and Don Frederick, fearing for established themselves at Alost, where they were joined by
his communications, beat a hasty retreat (August). A few other bands of mutineers. The principal fortresses of the country
weeks later (Oct. n) the fleet of Alva on the Zuyder Zee was were in the hands of Spanish garrisons, who refused obedience
completely defeated by the Sea-Beggars and its
'
to the council. William seized his opportunity, and with a body
draws admiral taken prisoner. Disgusted by these reverses, of picked troops advanced into Flanders, occupied Ghent, and
from the in bad odour with the king, and with his soldiers entered into negotiations with the leader of the states-
Netber-
mutinying for lack of pay, the governor-general general at Brussels, for a union of all the provinces on
resigned. On the i8th of December 1573 Alva, who the basis of exclusion of foreigners and non-interference
to the end had persisted in his policy of pitiless severity, with religious belief. The overtures were favourably
left Brussels, carrying with him the curses of the people over received, the council at Brussels was forcibly dissolved, and a
whom he had tyrannized for six terrible years of misery and congress met at Ghent on the loth of October to consider what
oppression. measures must be taken for the pacification of the country.
Philip sent the grand commander, Don Luis Requesens, In the midst of their deliberations the news arrived that the
as governor-general in his place, and after some futile attempts mutineers had marched from Alost on Antwerp, overpowered
the war went on. The prince of Orange, the troops of Champagney, and sacked the town with terrible
Don Luis at negotiation "
Requesens, who had now formally entered the Calvinist communion, barbarities (Nov. 3). This tragedy, known as the Spanish
governor- was inexorable in laying down three conditions as Fury," silenced all disputes and differences among the repre-
general.
indispensable: (i) Freedom of worship and liberty sentatives of the provinces. A treaty establishing a firm alliance
to preach the gospel according to the Word of God; (2) the between the provinces, represented by the states-general,
restoration and maintenance of all the ancient charters, privileges, assembled at Brussels on the one part, and on the other by the
and liberties of the land; (3) the removal of all Spaniards and prince of Orange, and the states of Holland and
other foreigners from all posts and employments civil and military. Zeeland, was agreed upon and ratified under the title
" t
In February 1574 the Spaniards by the fall of Middleburg lost of the Pacification of Ghent." It was received with
their last hold upon Walcheren and Zeeland. This triumph was great enthusiasm. The provinces agreed first to eject
however far more than counterbalanced by the complete defeat the foreigner, then to meet in states-general and regulate all
of the army, led by Count Louis of Nassau, at Mookerheide near matters of religion and defence. It was stipulated that there
Nijmwegen (i4th March). The gallant Louis and his younger was to be toleration for both Catholics and Protestants; that the
brother Henry both lost their lives. This was a grievous blow Spanish king should be recognized as de jure sovereign, and the
to William, but his courage did not fail. The Spaniards laid prince of Orange as governor with full powers in Holland and
siege to Leiden, and though stricken down by a fever at Delft Zeeland.
the prince spared no exertion to save the town. The Meanwhile Philip had appointed his natural brother, Don
Th sle e
~.
.f f
dykes were cut, the land flooded, but again and again John of Austria, to be governor-general in the place of Requesens.
Leiden. a relieving force was baulked in its attempts to reach After many delays he reached Luxemburg on the 4th rjoajoha
the place, which for more than four months bravely of November (the date of the Spanish Fury at Ant- O f Austria
defended itself. But when at the very last extremity through werp) and notified his arrival to the council of state, become*
famine, a tempestuous flood enabled the vessels of Orange His letter met with a cold reception. On the advice Oovernor-
to reach Leiden, and the investing force was driven to retreat of the prince of Orange the states-general refused to
" Paci-
(October This was the turning-point of the first stage
3, 1574). receive him as governor-general unless he accepted the
in the struggle for Dutch independence. In honour of this fication of Ghent." Negotiations were entered into, but a dead-
great deliverance, the state of Holland founded the university, lock ensued. At this crisis the hands of Orange and the patriotic
which was speedily to make the name of Leiden illustrious party were greatly strengthened by a new compact entitled
"
throughout Europe. The Union of which was
Brussels," extensively
In the spring of 1575 conferences with a view to peace were signed, especially in the southern Netherlands. This Brussels""
held at Breda, and on their failure Orange, in the face of Spanish document (Jan. 1577) engaged all its signatories to
successes in Zeeland, was forced to seek foreign help in ejecting the foreign soldiery, in carrying out the
He "
succ ur. sought at first in vain. The sovereignty Pacification," in recognizing Philip's sovereignty, and at the
f Holland and Zeeland was offered to the queen of same time in maintaining the charters and constitutions which
England, but she, though promising secret support, that king on his accession had sworn to observe. The popular
declined. The situation was, however, relieved through the support given to the Union of Brussels forced Don John to yield.
420 NETHERLANDS
"
He promised to accept the Pacification of "Ghent," and finally like At the same time negotiations were successfully
force.
an agreement was drawn up, styled the Perpetual Edict," carried on withJohn Casimir, with Elizabeth and with Henry of
" Per
which was signed by Don John (February i2th) and Navarre, and their help secured for the national cause. Mean-
ratified by Philip a few weeks later. The states- while Don John had aroused the mistrust of his brother, who met
j
firffct" general undertook to accept Don John as governor- his urgent appeal for funds with cold silence. Deeply
**h
general and to uphold the Catholic religion, while hurt at this treatment and disappointed at his failure, Don
n John.
,,f '
Don John, in the name of the king, agreed to carry out the the governor-general fell ill and died on the ist of
"
provisions of the Pacification." The authority conferred upon October. Philip immediately appointed Alexander Farnese to
Orange as stadtholder by the provinces of Holland and Zeeland the vacant post. In him Orange was to find an adversary
was thus ratified, but that astute statesman had no confidence who was not only a great general but a statesman of insight
that Philip intended to observe the treaty any longer than it and ability equal to his own.
suited his convenience. He therefore refused, with the approval Farnese at once set to work with subtle skill to win over to
of the representatives of these provinces, to allow the publica- the royalist cause the Catholic nobles of the south. The moment
" " in Holland and
tion of the Perpetual Edict Zeeland. As was propitious, and his efforts met with success. Alexander
events were to prove, he was in the right. Ghent had fallen into the hands of John Casimir, Farnese
Don John made his state entry into Brussels on the ist of May, and under his armed protection a fierce and intolerant governor-
Calvinism reigned supreme in that important city. *
" eflerat
but only to find that he had no real authority. The prince of
" " "
Orange," he informed the king, has bewitched the To the Malcontents (as the Catholic party was styled) the
Brussels, all men.
rninds of They keep him informed of every- domination of heretical sectaries appeared less tolerable than the
thing,and take no resolution without consulting evils attendant upon alien rule. This feeling was widespread
him." In vain the fiery young soldier strove to break loose throughout the Walloon provinces, and found expres-
from the shackles which hampered him. He was, to quote the sion in the League of Arras (sth of January 1579).
"
words of a contemporary, like an apprentice defying his By this instrument the deputies of Hainault, Artois
master." Irritated and alarmed, the governor suddenly left and Douay formed themselves into a league for the defence of the
Brussels in the month of July with some Walloon troops and Catholic religion, and, subject to his observance of the political
went to Namur. It was a virtual act of abdication. The eyes stipulations of the Union of Brussels, professed loyal allegiance
of all men turned to the prince of Orange. Through his exertions to the king. The Protestant response was not long in coming.
the Spanish troops had not only been expelled from Holland The Union of Utrecht was signed on the 2pth of January by the
and Zeeland, but also from the citadels of Antwerp and Ghent, representatives of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelder-
which were now in the hands of the patriots. He was invited land and Zutphen. By it the northern provinces
to come to Brussels, and after some hesitation, and not without bound themselves together "as if they were one
" "
having first obtained the approval of the states of Holland and province to maintain their rights and liberties with life-blood
Zeeland, he assented. William made his triumphal entry into and goods " against foreign tyranny, and to grant complete
the capital (September 23), which he had quitted as an outlawed freedom of worship and of religious opinion throughout the
fugitive ten years before. In a brief period he was the acclaimed confederacy. This famous compact was the work of John of
leader of the entire Netherland people. Nassau, at that time governor of Gelderland, and did not at first
But it was not to last. The jealousy of Catholic against commend itself to his brother. William was still struggling to
Protestant, of south against north, was too deeply rooted. carry out that larger scheme of a union of all the seventeen
" "
Two distinctive nationalities, Belgian and Dutch, were provinces, which at the time of the Pacification of Ghent
Matthias, already in course of formation, and not even the had seemed a possibility. But his efforts were already doomed
tactful and conciliatory policy of the most consummate to certain failure. The die was cast, which decreed that from
statesman of his time could unite those whom the whole trend 1579 onwards the northern and southern Netherlands were to
of events was year by year putting farther asunder. On the 6th pursue separate destinies. For their later history see HOLLAND
of October, at the secret invitation of the Catholic nobles headed and BELGIUM.
by the duke of Aerschot, the archduke Matthias, brother of the BIBLIOGRAPHY. General history: For the early authorities
emperor, arrived in Brussels to assume the sovereignty of the consult Collections de chroniques Beiges inedites, publ. par ordre du
Netherlands. He was but twenty years of age, and his sudden gouvernement (89 vols., 1836-1893) and Collections des chroniqueurs.
;
Trouveres Beiges, publ. par I'Acadfimie de Bruxelles (58 vols., 1868^-
intrusion was as embarrassing to the prince of Orange as to Don
1870); among later writers, J. P. Arend, Algemeane geschiedenis
John. William, however, whose position had been strengthened des vaderlands van de vroegste tijden (4 vols., 1840-1883); J. Wage-
by nomination to the post of ruwaard of Brabant, determined
his naar, Vaderlandsche hislorie (21 vols., 1749-1759); J. P. Blok,
to welcome Matthias and use him for his own purposes. Matthias A History of the People of the Netherlands (trans, from the Dutch by
O. Bierstadt and R. Putnam), vols. i. and ii. (1898-1900). For the
was to be the nominal ruler, he himself with the title of lieutenant-
Burgundian period A. B. de Burante, Histoire des dues de Burgogne
general to hold the reins of power. (1364-1477), (13 vols., 1824-1826); L. Vanderkindere, Le Sikcle
But Philip had now become thoroughly alarmed, and he des Artevelde (1879); J. F. Kirk, History ef Charles the Bold, Duke
despatched Alexander Farnese, son of the duchess of Parma, to of Burgundy (3 vols., 1863-1868). For the Habsburg period to
J555 Th. Juste, Charles Quint et Marguerite d'Autriche (1858);
The Date J* n ^' s unc ^ e Don John with a veteran force of 20,000 A. Le Glay, Maximilienl. et Marguerite d Autriche (1839) A. Henne, ;
otAajou troops. Strengthened by this powerful reinforcement, Histoire du regne de Charles V. en Belgique (10 vols., 1858-1860).
and John Don John fell upon the patriot army at Gemblours
Casimir.
The Revolt of the Netherlands: Contemporary authorities:
near Namur on t }je ^tst of January 1578, and with P. C. Gachard, Correspondance de Philippe II. sur les affaires des
scarcely any loss completely routed the Netherlanders. All was Pays-Bas (5 vols., 1848-1879); Correspondance de Guillaume le
now terror and confusion. The " malcontent " Catholics now taciturne (6 vols., 1847-1857); G. Groen van Prinsterer, Archives
ou Correspondance inedite de la maison d' Orange, ! s6rie (9 vols., 1841-
turned for help from Matthias to the duke of Anjou, who had
1861) Poullet et Plot, Correspondance du cardinal Granvelle (12 vols.,
;
invaded the Netherlands with a French army and seized Mons. 1879-1899); J. M. B. C. Kervyn de Lettenhove, Relations politiques
At the same time John Casimir, brother of the elector palatine, des Pays-Bas et de I'Angleterre sous le regne de Philippe II. (5 vols.,
at the invitation of the Calvinist party and with the secret 1882-1886); Collection de memoires sur I'histoire de Belgique au
financial aid of Queen Elizabeth, entered the country at the head
X VI; X
VII', et X
VIII' sticks (47 vols., 1858-1875) (chiefly dealing
with the period of the Revolt) P. Bor, Oorspronch, begin ende aenwang
of a body of German mercenaries from the east. Never did the der Nederlandscher oorlogen, beroertcn ende borgelijcke oneenicheyden
diplomatic talents of the prince of Orange shine brighter than at ('595); ] Ghysius, Oorsprong en voortgang der nederlandscher
this difficult crisis. The duke of at his earnest instigation beroerten (1626) ; Hugo Grotius, Annales et histoire de rebus belgicis
Anjou
"
Defender of the liberties of the Nether- (1657); P. C. Hooft, Nederlandscher historien, 1555-1587 (1656);
accepted the title of E. V. Reyd, Voornaenste gheschiedennissen in de Nederlanaen, 1566-
lands," and promised, if the provinces would raise an army of 1601 (1626); A. Carnero, Historia de las guerras civiles que ha avido
10,000 foot and 2000 horse, to come to their assistance with a en los estados de Flandres des del anno 1559 hasta el de 1609, y lot
NETHERSOLE NETTLE 421
causasde la, rebelion de los dichos eslados (1625); B. Mendoca, " "
of those who could not show their father's house (Ezra
Commentaires memorable! des guerres de Flandres et Pays-Bas, avec
une sommaire description des Pays-Bas 1567-1577 (1591); F.
ii.60; Neh. vii. 62). The Greek versions, as well as Josephus,
refer to them as Up65ov\oi, which can mean one thing only.
Strada, De hello Belgico decades duae (1640-1647); L. Guicciardini,
Descrittione di tutti i Paesi Bassi (1588). Later works: R. Fruin, The Talmudic authorities have an abstract term, Nethinuth,
Het voorspel van den tachtigjariger oorlog (1866) J. M. B. C. Kervyn
;
indicating the status of a Nathin (Tos. Kidd. v. i) ed. Zucker-
de Lettenhove, Les Huguenots et les Gueux 1560-1585 (6 vols., 1883-
Th. Juste, Histoire de la revolution des Pays-Bas sous mandel, p. 341), and corresponding to the abstract Mamziruth,
1885) ; "
Philippe II., 1555-1577 (4 vols., 1855-1867); W. J. Nuyens, Ge- bastardy." The existence of this degraded class up to the
schiedenis der Nederlandsche berverten (2 vols., 1889); E. Marx, Exile throws considerable light upon the phraseology of the
Studien zur Geschichie des niederldndischen Aufstandes (1902); prophets hi referring to idolatry as adultery and the scenes
W. H. Prescott, History of the Reign of Philip II. 1555-1568 (1855) ;
connected with it as prostitution. Their continued existence
J. L. Motley, Rise of the Dutch Republic 1555-1584 (3 vols., 1856) ;
as a pariah class after the Exile would be a perpetual reminder
Cambridge Modern History, vol. i., c. xiii. (1902), and vol. Hi., cc. vi.
and vii. (1904). (Bibliographies, vol. i. pp. 761-769, vol. iii. pp. of the dangers and degradation of the most popular Syrian
798-809). (G. E.) creed.
NETHERSOLE, OLGA (1863- English actress, of Spanish
), These unfortunate creatures had no alternative but to accept
descent, was born in London, and made her stage d6but at the provisions made for them out of the Temple treasury, but
Brighton in 1887. From 1888 she played important parts in after the fall of the Temple they would naturally disappear
London, at first under John Hare at the Garrick, and in 1894 by intermarriage with similar degraded classes (Mishna Kidd.
took the Court Theatre on her own account. She also toured in viii. 3). In the Code of Khammurabi 191, 192, they could
Australia and America, playing leading parts in modern plays, be adopted by outsiders.
notably Clyde Fitch's Sapho (produced in London in 1902), The above explanation of the special degradation of the
which was strongly objected to in New York. Her powerful Nethinim, though they were connected with the Temple service,
emotional acting, however, made a great effect in some other seems to be the only way of explaining the Talmudic reference
plays, such as Carmen, in which she again appeared in America to their tabooed position, and is an interesting example of the
in 1906. light that can be reflected on Biblical research by the Talmud.
NETHINIM, the name given to the Temple assistants in See Joseph Jacobs, Studies in Biblical Archaeology (1894), 104-122 ;
ancient Jerusalem. They are mentioned at the return from W. Ba\idissin,GeschichtedesAlttestamentlichen Priesterthums, 142 sea,.
the Exile and particularly enumerated hi Ezra ii. and Neh. vii. This view, however, is not accepted by Cheyne, Encyclopaedia
. The original form of the name was Nethunim, as in the Khetib Biblica, s.v. (]. JA.)
(consonantal reading) of Ezra viii. 17 (cf. Numbers iii. 9), and NETLEY, a village in the Fareham parliamentary division of
means " given " or " dedicated," i.e. to the temple. The Talmud Hampshire, England, 3 m. S.E. of Southampton on the east
has also the singular form Nathin. In all, 612 Nethinim came shore of Southampton Water, and on a branch of the London
back from the Exile and were lodged near the " House of the & South Western railway. Here a Cistercian abbey was founded
"
Nethinim at Ophel, towards the east wall of Jerusalem so as to in 1237 by Henry III., and its ruins are extensive, including a
be near the Temple, where they served under the Levites and were great part of the cruciform church, abbot's house, chapter house
free of all tolls, from which they must have been supported. and domestic buildings. The style is Early English and
It is mentioned that they had been ordered by David and the Decorated, and many beautiful details are preserved. The
princes to serve the Levites (Ezra viii. 20). gatehouse was transformed into a fort hi the time of Henry VIII.
Notwithstanding their sacred service, the Nethinim were Netley Hospital for wounded soldiers (i m. S.E. of the abbey),
regarded by later Jewish tradition as especially degraded, being was built hi 1856 after the Crimean War. It is a vast pile giving
placed in tables of precedence below bastards (Talm. Jer. Hor. accommodation for upwards of a thousand patients, and is the
iii. 5, Jeb. vii. 5) and hi the Mishna (Jeb. viii. 3) it is stated principal military hospital in Great Britain.
that the prohibition against intermarriage with the Moabites, NETSCHER, CASPAR (1630-1684), German portrait and
Ammonites, Egyptians and Edomites, though given in the Bible, genre painter, was born at Heidelberg in 1639. His father died
only applied for a certain number of generations and did not when he was two years of age, and his mother, fleeing from
"
apply at all to their daughters, but, it is added, Bastards and the dangers of a civil war, carried him to Arnheim, where he was
Nethinim are prohibited (to marry Israelites), and this prohibition adopted by a physician named Tullekens. At first he was
isperpetual and applies both to males and females." destined for the profession of his patron, but owing to his great
To explain this combination of sacred service and exceptional aptitude for painting he was placed under an artist named de
degradation, it has been suggested by Joseph Jacobs that the Koster, and, having also studied under Ter Borch, he set out for
Nethinim were the descendants of the Kedishoth, i.e. women Italy to complete his education there. Marrying, however, at
dedicated to the worship of Astarte and attached to the Temple Lige, he settled at Bordeaux, and toiled hard to earn a livelihood
before the Exile. There is evidence of these practices from the by painting those small cabinet pictures which are now so highly
time of Solomon (i Kings xi. 5) down to Josiah (2 Kings xiii. 4-6) ,
valued on account of their exquisite finish. After removing to
and even as late as Ezekiel (Ezek. xxiii. 36-48), giving rise to The Hague, he turned his attention to portrait-painting, and in
the command of Deuteronomy xxiii. 17. thisbranch of his art was more successful. He was patronized by
An examination of the name lists given in duplicate in Ezra William III., and his earnings soon enabled him to gratify his
ii.
43-58, Neh. vii. 46-59, together with the additional names in own taste by depicting musical and conversational pieces. It
the Greek Esdras (v. 29-35), shows that the Nethinim were in was in these that Netscher's genius was fully displayed. The
charge of the rings and hooks connected with the temple service; choice of these subjects, and the habit of introducing female
they sheared the sheep offered for sacrifice in the temple and figures, dressed in glossy satins, were imitated from Ter Borch;
poured the libations. Some of them were derived from the wars they possess easy yet delicate pencilling, brilliant and correct
with the Meunim; others from the campaign with Rezin of colouring, and pleasing light and shade; but frequently their
Damascus. One of the names given in i Esdras v. 34, viol refinement passes into weakness. The painter was gaining both
would seem to throw
Sou/Si, ed. Fritzsche, Sou/Sis, ed. Swete, fame and wealth when he died prematurely in 1684. His sons
light on the puzzling reading D'ID (A.V. " Sabeans," R.V. Constantyn (1668-1722), and Theodorus (1661-1732), were also
"
Drunkards ") of Ezek. xxiii. 42, and if so would directly painters after their father's style, but inferior in merit.
connect the list of the Nethinim with the degraded worship of NETTLE (O. Eng. netele, cf. Ger. Nessel), the English equivalent
Astarte in the Temple. of Lat. Urtica, a genus of plants which gives its name to the
A large majority of the names of the parents mentioned seem natural order Urticaceae. It contains about thirty species in
to be feminine in form or meaning, and suggest that the Nethinim the temperate parts of both east and west hemispheres. They
could not trace back to any definite paternity; and this is con- are herbs covered with stinging hairs, and with unisexual flowers
firmed by the fact that the lists are followed by the enumeration on the same or on different plants. The male flowers consist of a
422 NETTLERASH NETZE
perianth of four greenish segments enclosing as many stamens, undertaken to compile a new Latin lexicon for the Clarendon
which latter, when freed from the restraint exercised upon them Press, but the work proved more than he could accomplish,
by the perianth-segments while still in the bud, suddenly uncoil and in 1887 he published some of the results of twelve years'
themselves, and in so doing liberate the pollen. The female labour in a volume entitled Contributions to Latin Lexicography ,
perianth is similar, but encloses only a single seed-vessel with a a genuine piece of original work. In conjunction with J. E.
solitary seed. The stinging hairs consist of a bulbous reservoir Sandys, Nettleship revised and edited Seyffert's Dictionary of
filled with acrid fluid, prolonged into a long slender tube, the Classical Antiquities, and he contributed to a volume entitled
"
extremity of which is finely pointed. By this point the hair Essays on the Endowment of Research an article on The Present
penetrates the skin and discharges its irritant contents beneath Relations between Classical Research and Classical Education
the surface. Nettle tops, or the very young shoots of the nettle, in England," in which he pointed out the great value of the
may be used as a vegetable like spinach; but from the abundance professorial lecture in Germany. In his views on the research
of crystals (cystoliths) they contain they are apt to be gritty, question he was a follower of Mark Pattison, whose essays he
though esteemed for their antiscorbutic properties, which they edited in 1889 for the Clarendon Press. In Lectures and Essays
do not possess in any exceptional degree. The fibre furnished on Subjects connected with Latin Literature and Scholarship,
by the stems of several species is used for cordage or paper- Nettleship revised and republished some of his previous publica-
making. Three species of nettle are wild in the British Isles: tions. A second series of these, published in 1895, and edited
Urtica dioica, the common stinging nettle, which is a hairy by F. Haverfield, contains a memoir by Mrs M. Nettleship,
perennial with staminate and pistillate flowers in distinct plants; with full bibliography.
U. urens, which is annual and, except for the stinging hairs, See obituary notices in The Times (iith of
July, 1893);
Classical
Review (October, 1893); Oxford Magazine (i8th of October, 1893).
glabrous, and has staminate and pistillate flowers in the same
panicle; and U. pilulifera (Roman nettle), an annual with the NETTLESHIP, RICHARD LEWIS (1846-1892), English
pistillate flowers in rounded heads, which occurs in waste places philosopher, youngest brother of Henry Nettleship, was born on
in the east of England, chiefly near the sea the more virulent the 1 7th of December 1846, and educated at Uppingham and
of the British species. From their general presence in the neigh- Balliol College, Oxford, where he held a scholarship. He won
bourhood of houses, or in spots where house refuse is deposited, the Hertford scholarship, the Ireland, the Gaisford Greek verse
it has been suggested that the nettles are not really natives, a prize, a Craven scholarship and the Arnold prize, but took only
supposition that to some extent receives countenance from the a second class in Litterae Humaniores. He became fellow and
circumstance that the young shoots are very sensitive to frost. tutor of his college and succeeded to the work of T. H. Green,
In any case they follow man in his migrations, and by their whose writings he edited with a memoir (London, 1880). He
presence usually indicate a soil rich in nitrogen. The trailing left an unfinished work on Plato, part of which was published
subterranean root-stock renders the common nettle somewhat after his death, together with his lectures on logic and some
difficult of extirpation. essays. His thought was idealistic and Hegelian. His literary
NETTLERASH, or URTICARIA, a disorder of the skin char- style was excellent; but, though he had considerable personal
acterized by an eruption resembling the effect produced by the influence on his generation at Oxford, a certain nebulousness
sting of a nettle, namely, raised red or red and white patches of view prevented his making any permanent contribution to
occurring in parts or over the whole of the surface of the body philosophy. He was fond of music and outdoor sports, and
and attended with great irritation. It may be acute or chronic. rowed in his college boat. He died on the 25th of August 1892,
In the former variety the attack often comes on after indulgence in from the effects of exposure on Mont Blanc, and was buried at
certain articles of diet, particularly various kinds of fruit, shell- Chamounix.
fish, cheese, pastry, &c., also occasionally from the use of certain NETTLE TREE, the name applied to certain trees of the genus
drugs, such as henbane, copaiba, cubebs, turpentine, &c. There Celtis, belonging to the family or natural order Ulmaceae.
is at first considerablefeverishnessandconstitutional disturbance, The best-known species have usually obliquely ovate, or lanceo-
together with sickness and faintness, which either precede or late leaves, serrate at the edge, and marked by three prominent
accompany the appearance of the rash. The eruption may appear nerves. The flowers are inconspicuous, usually hermaphrodite,
on any part of the body, but is most common on the face and with a 4- or 5-parted perianth, as many stamens, a hairy disk
trunk. The attack may pass off in a few hours, or may last for and a i -celled ovary with a 2-parted style. The fruit is succulent
several days, the eruption continuing to come out in successive like a little drupe, a character which serves to separate the genus
patches. The chronic variety lasts with interruptions for a alike from the nettles and the elms, to both of which it is allied.
length of time often extending to months or years. This form Celtis australis is a common tree, both wild and planted, through-
of the disease occurs independently of errors in diet, and is not out the Mediterranean region extending to Afghanistan and the
attended with the feverish symptoms characterizing the acute Himalayas; it is also cultivated in Great Britain. It is a rapidly
attack. As regards treatment, the acute variety generally yields growing tree, from 30 to 40 ft. high, with a remarkably sweet
quickly to a purgative and the use of some antacid, such as mag- fruit, recalling a small black cherry, and was one of the plants
" " was
nesia or liquor potassae. The local irritation is allayed by to which the term lotus applied by Dioscorides and the
sponging with a warm alkaline solution (soda, potash or ammonia) , older authors. The wood, which is compact and hard and takes
or a solution of acetate of lead, and a lotion of ichthyol has a high polish, is used for a variety of purposes. C. occidentalis,
been found useful. Chronic cases have been known to benefit a North American species, is the hackberry (q.v.).
from the administration of creosote or salol. NETTUNO, a fishing village of the province of Rome, Italy,
NETTLESHIP, HENRY (1830-1893), English classical scholar, 2 m. E.N.E. of Anzio by rail, and 39 m. S.S.E. of Rome, 36 ft.
was born at Kettering on the 5th of May 1839. He was educated above sea-level. Pop. (1001) 3406 (town), 5072 (commune).
at Lancing, Durham and Charterhouse schools, and Corpus It has a picturesque castle built by Alexander VI. from the
Christi College, Oxford. In 1861 he was elected to a fellowship designs of Antonio da Sangallo the elder in 1496. It is said to
at Lincoln, which he vacated on his marriage in 1870. In have been a Saracen settlement. The picturesque costume
1868 he became an assistant master at Harrow, but in 1873 of the women is now worn only at festivals. To the E. on the
he returned to Oxford, and was elected to a fellowship at Corpus. sandy coast on the way to Astura is a military camp and a range
In 1878 he was appointed to succeed Edwin Palmer in the for the trial of field artillery.
professorship of Latin, which post he held till his death at Oxford NETZE, a river of Germany, having a small portion of its
on the loth of July 1893. Nettleship had been from the first upper course in Poland. It is a right-bank tributary of the
attracted to the study of Virgil, and a good deal of his time Warthe, and rises in the low-lying lake district, through which
was devoted to his favourite poet. After Conington's death the Russo-German frontier runs, to the south of Inowrazlaw.
in 1869, he saw his edition of Virgil through the press, and revised The frontier crosses Lake Goplo, which is not far from the source
and corrected subsequent editions of the work. In 1875 he had of the Netze, which on leaving it (in Prussian territory), flows
NEU-BRANDENBURG NEUCHATEL 423
north-west to the Trlonger lake, and continues thereafter in united again with the Rhenish Palatinate, with which it passed
the same general direction, but with wide fluctuations, to Nakel. in 1777 to Bavaria.
Here it joins the Bromberg canal, which gives access to the river See Gremmel, Geschichte des Herzogtums Neuburg (Neuburg,
Brahe and so to the Vistula. The Netze then turns west- 1872); and Fuhrer durch die Stadt Neuburg und deren Umgebung
south-west and waters the moorland (much of which, however, (Neuburg, 1904).
has been brought under cultivation) known as the Netzebruch. NEUCHATEL (Ger. Neuenburg), one of the cantons of western
It joins the Warthe at Zantoch, after a course of 273 m. It is Switzerland, on the frontier towards France. It is the only
navigable for 130 m. up to the Bromberg canal and thereafter Swiss canton that is situated entirely in the Jura, of which it
for smaller boats for 40 m. up to Pakosch on the Trlonger lake. occupies the central portion (its loftiest summit is the Mont
Its drainage area is 5400 sq. m. From 1772 to 1807 that part Racine, 4731 ft. in the Tete de Rang range). The canton has
of Poland which was given to Prussia at the first partition a total area of 311-8 sq. m.,of which 267-1 sq. m. are reckoned
" "
was known as the Netze District, as it extended along the productive (forests occupying 88-6 sq. m. and vineyards
Netze. It was almost all given back to Russia at the peace 4-4 sq. m.). It consists, for the most part, of the longitudinal
of Tilsit, but was restored to Prussia in 1815 under the treaty ridges and valleys characteristic of the Jura range, while its
of Vienna. drainage is very unequally divided between the Thiele or Zihl,
NEU-BRANDENBURG, a town Germany, in the grand
of and the Doubs, which forms part of the north-west boundary
duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, is situatedon a small lake called of the canton, and receives only the streams flowing from the Le
the Tollense See, 58 m. N.W. of Stettin by rail. Pop. (1903) Locle and La Chaux de Fonds valley. Three regions make up
11,443. It is still partly surrounded with walls, and possesses the territory. That stretching along the shore of the lake is
four interesting old Gothic gates, dating from about 1300. The called Le Vignoble (from its vineyards) and extends from about
principal buildings are the Marienkirche, a Gothic building of 1500 to 2300 ft. above the sea-level. An intermediate region
ft.
the I3th century, the Johanniskirche, the town-hall and the is named Les Values, for it consists of the two principal valleys
grand ducal palace. It possesses a bronze statue of Fritz Reuter of the canton( the Val de Ruz, watered by the Seyon, and the Val
(1893); a monument to Bismarck (1895); another commemorat- de Travers, watered by the Areuse) which lie to a height of about
ing the war of 1870-71 (1895); a small museum of antiquities; 2300 ft. to 3000 ft. above the sea-level. The highest region is
and an art collection. On the other side of the lake is the grand- known as Les Montagues, and is mainly composed of the long
ducal palace, Belvedere. Iron-founding, machine-making, wool- valley in which stand the industrial centres of La Chaux de
spinning and the making of paper, tobacco and musical instru- Fonds (q.v.), and Le Locle (q.v.) to which must be added those
ments are carried on here, and the trade in wool and agricultural of La Sagne, Les Fonts and Les Verrieres, the elevation of these
products is considerable. The horse fair is also important. upland valleys varying from 3000 ft. to 3445 ft. The canton is
Neu-Brandenburg was founded in 1248, and has belonged to well supplied with railways, the direct line from Bern past
Mecklenburg since 1292. Kerzers (Chietres), Neuchatel, the Val de Travers and Les
See Boll, Chronik der Vordersladt Neubrandenburg (1875). Verrieres to Pontarlier for Paris passing right through it, while
NEUBREISACH, a town and fortress of Germany in the La Chaux de Fonds is connected by a line past Le Locle with
imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, situated on the Rhine-
Morteau in France. Other lines join the capital, Neuchatel,
Rhone canal, 12 m. E. from Colmar by the railway to Freiburg- to La Chaux de Fonds, as well as to Yverdon at the south-west
im-Breisgau. Pop. (1905 including a garrison of 2300 men) extremity of the lake, and to St Blaise at its north-east end, not
3520. It is built in the form of a hectagon, and together with very far from Bienne.
Fort Mortier, which lies on an arm of the Rhine opposite, forms In 1900 the population numbered 126,279 souls according to
a place of great strategic strength. It contains an Evangelical the federal census (a cantonal census of 1906 makes the figure at
that date 134,014), of whom 104,551 were French-speaking,
(garrison) church, a Roman Catholic church and a non-com-
There are electrical works in the 1 7,629 German-speaking and 3664 Italian-speaking, while 107,291
missioned officers' school.
town. were Protestants, 17,731 Romanists or Old Catholics, and 1020
"
Neubreisach was founded by Louis XIV. in 1699 and fortified Jews. There are three " established and state-endowed
by Vauban, the Neubreisacher canal being constructed to churches, the National Evangelical (in 1907 a proposal to
disestablish it was rejected by a huge majority), the Roman
transport the necessary materials. In the Franco-German War,
it was bombarded by the Germans from the 2nd to the loth of Catholic, and the Old Catholic (this sect in La Chaux de Fonds
November 1870, when it capitulated. only), while the pastors of the Free Evangelical church and of
See Wolff, Geschichte des Bombardements von ScUettstadt wid the Jews (mostly in La Chaux de Fonds) are so far recognized
Neubreisach (Berlin, 1874); and von Neumann, Die Eroberung von as such by the state as to be exempt from military service.
ScUettstadt und Neubreisach im Jahre 1870 (Berlin, 1876). Besides the capital, Neuchatel (q.v.), the chief towns are La
NEUBUR6, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, Chaux de Fonds (the most populous of all), Le Locle and
is pleasantly situated on the Danube, 12 m. W. of Ingolstadt, Fleurier (3746), the principal village in the Val de Travers.
on the railway to Neuoffingen. Pop. (1005) 8532. It is a place The most valuable mineral product is asphalt, of which there is
of ancient origin, but is chiefly noteworthy because formerly a large and rich deposit in the Val de Travers, belonging to the
for two centuries it was the capital of the principality of Pfalz- state but worked by an English company. The wine of the
Neuburg. Its most important building is the old residence of its Vignoble region (both sparkling and still) is plentiful and has a
princes, the handsomest part of which is in the Renaissance style good reputation, the red wines of Neuchatel, Boudry and Cor-
of the i6th century. The town also contains an Evangelical taillod being largely exported, though the petit vin blanc of
and seven Roman Catholic churches, a town hall, several Neuchatel is all but wholly consumed within the canton.
schools and convents, a theatre, and an historical museum with Absinthe is largely manufactured in the Val de Travers, but
a valuable library. It has electrical works and breweries, while lace is no longer made there as of old. The well-known manu-
fruit and vegetables are cultivated in the neighbourhood, a factory of Suchard's chocolate is at Serrieres, practically a
considerable trade in these products being carried on by the suburb of the town of Neuchatel, while in the canton there are
Danube. also cement factories and stone quarries. But the most char-
Neuburg was originally an episcopal see. In the roth century acteristic industry is that of watch-making and the making of gold
itpassed to the counts of Scheyern, and through them to Bavaria, watch cases, which is chiefly carried on (since the early i8th
being ceded to the Rhenish Palatinate at the close of a war in 1 507. century) in the highland valleys of La Chaux de Fonds and of
From 1557 to 1742 it was the capital of a small principality Le Locle, as well as at Fleurier in the Val de Travers. At
ruled by a cadet branch of the family of the elector palatine of the Couvet, also in the Val de Travers, there is a large factory of
Rhine. This principality of Pfalz-Neuburg had an area of about screws and knitting machines.
1000 sq. m. and about 100,000 inhabitants. In 1742 it was The canton is divided into 6 administrative districts, which
4.24 NEUCHATEL NEUCHATEL, LAKE OF
comprise 63 communes. The cantonal constitution dates in Switzerland. This anomaly led in 1848 to the establishment
its main features from 1858, but has been modified in several (attempted in 1831) of a republican form of government, brought
important respects. The legislature or Grand Consett consists about by a peaceful revolution led by A. M. Piaget. A royalist
of members elected (since 1903) in the proportion of one to every attempt to power in 1856 was defeated, and finally,
regain
1200 (or fraction over 600) of the population, and holds office for renounced his claims
after long negotiations, the king of Prussia
three years, while since 1906 the principles of proportional repre- to sovereignty, though retaining the right (no longer exercised)
sentation and minority representation obtain in these elections. to bear the title of "prince of Neuchatel." Thus in 1857
Since 1906 the executive of 5 members (since 1882) or Conse.il Neuchatel became a full republican member of the Swiss con-
d'tat is elected by a popular vote. The 2 members of the federal federation.
Conseil des tats are named by the Grand Conseil, but the 6 BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Bachelin, L'Horlogerie Neuchdteloise (Neu-
members of the federal Conseil National are chosen by a popular chatel, 1888); E. Bourgeois, Neuchatel etla politique prussienne en
" Franche Comte, 1702-1713 (Paris, 1887) ; J. Boyve, Annales historiques
vote. Since 1879, 3000 citizens have the right of facultative
" du comte de Neuchdtel et de Valangin (6 vols., Berne and Neuchatel,
referendum as to all laws and important decrees, while since
1855); F. de Chambrier, Histoire de Neuch&tel et Valangin jusqu'a
1882 the same number have the right of initiative as to all Vavknement de la maison de Prusse, 1707 (Neuchatel, 1840); L. .
legislative projects, this right as to the partial revision of the Grandpierre, Histoire du canton de Neuchatel sous les rots de Prusse,
cantonal constitution dating as far back as 1848, the number in 1707-1848 (Neuchatel, 1889), L. Junod, Histoire du canton de
Neuchatel sous les rois de Prusse, 1707-1848 (Neuchatel, 1889); A.
the case of a total revision having been raised in 1906 to 5000. Humbert and J. Clerc, A. M. Piaget et la republique neuchdteloise de
We first hear of the novum castettum, regalissimam sedem in 1848 a 1858 (2 vols., Neuchatel, 1888-1895); G. A. Matile, Monu-
the will (ion) of Rudolf III., the last king of Burgundy, on ments de I histoire de Neuchatel (3 vols., Neuchatel, 1844-1848), and
Histoire de la seigneurie de Valangin jusqu'a sa reunion a la directe,
whose death (1032) that kingdom reverted to the empire. About
1502 (Neuchatel, 1852); Musee Neuchatelois (published by the
1034 the emperor Conrad II. gave this castle to the lord of Cantonal Historical Society), from 1864; Le Patois neuchatelois
several neighbouring fiefs, his successors establishing themselves (an anthology) (Neuchatel, 1895); A. Pfleghart, Die schweizerische
permanently there in the i2th century and then taking the title Uhrenindustrie (Leipzig, 1908); E. Quartier-la-Tente, Revue
" historique et monographique des communes du canton de Neuchatel
of count." In 1288 the reigning count resigned his domains
to the emperor Rudolf, who gave them to the lord of Chalon-sur- (Neuchatel, 1897-1904). (W. A. B. C.)
Sa6ne, by whom they were restored to the count of Neuchatel on NEUCHATEL, capital of the above Swiss canton, situated
his doing homage for them. This act decided the future history near the north-east corner of the lake of Neuchatel. It is the
of Neuchatel, for in 1393 the house of Chalon succeeded to the meeting-point of several important railway lines, from Bern
principality of Orange by virtue of a marriage contracted in 1388. past Kerzers (27 m.), from Bienne (19 m.), from La Chaux de
The counts gradually increased their dominions, so that by 1373 Fonds (19 m.), from Pontarlier (in France), by the Val de Travers,
they held practically all of the present canton, with the exception (33$ m.), and from Yverdon (23 m.). The railway station (1575
of the lordship of Valangin (the Val de Ruz and Les Montagnes, ft.) at the top of the town is connected by an electric tramway
this last region only colonized in the early I4th century), which with the shore of the lake some 150 ft. lower. The older portion
was held by a cadet line of the house till bought in 1592. In of the town is built on the steep slope of the Chaumont, and
1395 the first house ended in an heiress, who brought Neuchatel originally the waters of the lake bathed the foot of the hill on
to the count of Freiburg im Breisgau. As early as 1290 the which it stood. But the gradual growth of alluvial deposits,
reigning count had made an alliance with the Swiss Fribourg, in and more recently the artificial embankment of the shore of
1308 with Bern, and about 1324 with Soleure, but it was not till the lake, have added much dry ground, and on this site the
" " modern buildings have been erected. The 16th-century
1406 that an everlasting alliance was made with Bern (later finest
in 1495 with Fribourg, and in 1501 with Lucerne). This alliance castle and the 13th-century collegiate church of Notre Dame
resulted in bringing the county into the Swiss confederation (now Protestant) stand close together and were founded in the
four centuries later, while it also led to contingents from Neuchatel 1 2th century when the counts took up their permanent residence
helping the Confederates from the battle of St Jakob (1444) in the town, to which they granted a charter of liberties in 1214.
onwards right down into the early iSth century. In 1457, through Among the buildings on the quays are the Musee des Beaux
another heiress, the county passed to the house of the marquises Arts (modern Swiss paintings and also various historical collec-
of Baden-Hochberg, and in 1504 similarly to that of Orleans- tions, including that of Desor relating to the Lake Dwellings),
Longueville (a bastard line of the royal house of France). From the Gymnase or College Latin (in which is also the museum of
1512 to 1529 the Swiss occupied it as the count was fighting for natural history and the town library), the university (refounded
France and so against them. In 1532 the title of "prince" in 1866 and raised from the rank of an academy to that of a
was taken, while by the treaty of Westphalia (1648) the princi- university in 1909), the Ecole de Commerce and the post office.
pality became sovereign and independent of the empire. In 1530 The town owes much to the gifts of citizens. Thus David de
(the very year Farel introduced the Reformation at Neuchitel) Purry (1709-1786) founded the town hospital and built the town
the overlordship enjoyed by the house of Chalon-Orange passed, hall, while James de Purry bequeathed to the town the villa
by virtue of a marriage contracted in 1515, to that of Nassau- in which the ethnographical museum has been installed (1904).
Orange, the direct line of which ended in 1702 in the person of In 1811 J. L. de Pourtales (1722-1814) founded the hospital
William III., king of England. In 1707 the Longueville house which bears his name, while in 1844 A. de Meuron (1789-1852)
of Neuchatel also became extinct, and a great struggle arose as constructed the lunatic asylum at Pr6fargier, a few miles from
to the succession. Finally the parliament (states) of Neuchatel the town. Among natives of the town are the theologians J. F.
decided in favour of Frederic I., the first king of Prussia, whose Ostervald (1663-1747) and Frederic Godet (1812-1900), the
mother was the elder paternal aunt of William III., and so heiress geologist E. Desor (1811-1882), the local historian G. A. Matile
of the rights (given in 1288) of the house of Chalon, to which the (1807-1881) and the politicians A. M. Piaget (1802-1870) and
fief had reverted on the extinction of the line of the counts of Numa Droz (1844-1899). Neuchatel (partly because very good
Neuchatel. Thus the act of 1288 determined the fate of the French is spoken there) attracts many foreign students, while the
principality, partly because Frederic I. was a Protestant, while town is a literary centre. In 1900 Neuchatel numbered 20,843
the other claimants were Romanists. The nominal rule of the inhabitants (in 1850 only 7727 and in 1870, 12,683), 15,277 being
Prussian king (for the country enjoyed practical independence) French-speaking and 4553 German-speaking; there were 17,237
lasted till 1857, with a brief interval from 1806 to 1814, when the Protestants, 3459 Romanists and 80 Jews. (W. A. B. C.)
principality was held by Marshal Berthier, by virtue of a grant NEUCHATEL, LAKE OF. This lake, in W. Switzerland, is
from Napoleon. In 1814 its admission into the Swiss confedera- with the neighbouring lakes of Bienne and Morat (both connected
tion was proposed and was effected in
1815, the new canton with it by canals), the modern representative of the large body of
being the only non-republican member, just as the hereditary water which at one time seems to have filled the whole of the
rulers of Neuchatel were the last to maintain their position in lower valley of the Aar. It is now the most considerable sheet
NEUENAHR NEUILLY-SUR-SEINE 425
of water which is.wholly within Switzerland (since parts of those gloves, beer, malt, cheese and sugar, while large pig markets are
of Geneva and Constance belong to foreign countries), though it held here.
does not belong entirely to any one Canton of its total area See Behrends, Chronik Her Stadt Neuhaldensleben (new ed., 1903).
of 925 sq. m., 365 sq. m. are in the Canton of Neuchatel and NEUHOF, THEODORE STEPHEN, BARON VON (c. 1690-1756),
rather over 33 sq. m. in that of Vaud, while Fribourg claims German adventurer and time nominal king of Corsica,
for a short
2oJ sq. m. and Berne 2 sq. m.It is about 23$ m. in length, was a son of a Westphalian nobleman and was born at Metz.
varies from 35 to 5 m. and has a maximum depth of
in width, Educated at the court of France, he served first in the French
502 ft., while its surface is 1427 ft. above sea-level. It is mainly army and then in that of Sweden. Baron de Goertz, minister to
formed by the Thiele or Zihl river, which enters it at its south- Charles XII., realizing Neuhof's capacity for intrigue, sent
western end and issues from it at its north-eastern extremity, him to England and Spain to negotiate with Cardinal Alberoni.
but it also receives, near its north-west end, the Areuse (flowing Having failed in this mission he returned to Sweden and then
through the Val de Travers) and the Seyon (which traverses went to Spain, where he was made colonel and married one of
the Val de Ruz), as well as, near its north-east end, the Broye the queen's ladies-in-waiting. Deserting his wife soon afterwards
(that flows through a canal from the Lake of Moral). Successive he repaired to France and became mixed up in Law's financial
drainages have brought to light the remains of many lake dwell- affairs; then he wandered about Portugal, Holland and Italy,
ings, of which there is a good collection in the natural history and at Genoa he made the acquaintance of some Corsican
museum at Neuchatel. The scenery of the lake, though pleasing, prisoners and exiles, whom he persuaded that he could free their
cannot compare with that of the other Swiss lakes, despite the country from Genoese tyranny if they made him king of the
fact that from it the giants of both the Mont Blanc and Bernese island. With their help and that of the bey of Tunis he landed
Oberland ranges are clearly seen. The first steamer was placed in Corsica in March 1736, where the islanders, believing his
on the lake in 1827. On the south-eastern shore the picturesque statement that he had the support of several of the great powers,
and historical little town of Estavayer is the chief place. At proclaimed him king. He assumed the style of Theodore I.,
the south-western extremity of the lake is Yverdon (the Eburo- issued edicts, instituted an order of knighthood, and waged
dunum of the Romans and the residence of the educationalist war on the Genoese, at first with some success. But he was
Pestalozzi, 1806-1825). Far more populated is the north- eventually defeated, and civil broils soon broke out in the
western shore, where, from S.W. to N.E., we find Grandson island; the Genoese having put a price on his head and published
(famous for the battle of 1476 wherein Charles the Bold, duke of an account of his antecedents, he left Corsica in November
Burgundy, was defeated by the Swiss), Cortaillod (producing 1736, ostensibly to seek foreign assistance. After trying in
excellent sparkling wine), Serrieres (with the famous manu- vain to induce the grand duke of Tuscany to recognize him,
factories of Suchard chocolate) and Neuchatel itself. On the he started off on his wanderings once more until he was arrested
north shore is La Tene, famous for the remarkable relics cf the for debt in Amsterdam. On regaining his freedom he sent his
Iron Age that have been discovered there. (W. A. B. C.) nephew to Corsica with a supply of arms; he himself returned
NEUENAHR, a spa of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine to the island in 1738, 1739 and 1743, but the combined Genoese
province, situated at the foot of a basalt peak, in the pleasant and French forces and the growing strength of the party opposed
valley of the Ahr, 10 m. N.W. of Remagen on the Rhine by the to him again drove him to wandering about Europe. Arrested
railway to Adenau. Pop. (1905) 3388. It is well laid out, for debt in London he regained his freedom by mortgaging
has an Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, and " "
his kingdom of Corsica, and subsisted on the charity of
carries on a considerable trade in the red wines of the district. Horace Walpole and some other friends until his death in
There are five alkaline springs with temperatures from 69 to London on the nth of December 1756. His only son, Frederick
102 F., the waters of which are specific in chronic catarrh of (c. 1725-1797), served in the army of Frederick the Great
the respiratory organs, gout, rheumatism and diabetes. In the and afterwards acted as agent in London for the grand-duke of
immediate vicinity lies the Apollinaris spring. Wiirttemberg.
See Schmitz, Erfahrungen uber Bad Neuenahr (sth ed., Ahrweiler, Frederick wrote an account of his father's life, Memoires pour
servira I'histoire de la Corse, and also an English translation, both
1887); and Schwenke, Die Kurmittel des Bodes Neuenahr (Halle,
1900). published in London in 1768. In 1795 he published a new edition
on Description of Corsica with an account of its union to the crown of
NEUENDORF, a village of Germany, in the province of Great Britain. See also Fitzgerald, King Theodore of Corsica (London,
Brandenburg, 2 m. E. from Potsdam, on the Nuthe, with a 1890).
station on the railway from Berlin to Potsdam. Pop. (1905) NEUILLY-SUR-SEINE, a town of northern France, in the
6877. The place has considerable industries, chief among department of Seine, 3^ m. N.W. of the centre of Paris, of which
which are carpet- weaving, jute-spinning and the manufacture of it is a suburb, between the fortifications and the Seine. Pop.
railway plant. Within its area lies the colony of Nowawes laid (1906) 39,222. A castle at Neuilly, built by the count of Argenson
out by Frederick the Great in 1754. in the i8th century, ultimately became the property and favourite
NEUFCH ATEAU, a town of eastern France, in the department residence of the duke of Orleans (Louis Philippe), the birthplace
of Vosges at the confluence of the Meuse and the Mouzon, 49 m. of nearly all his children, and the scene of the offer of the crown
W.N.W. of Epinal by rail. Pop. (1906) 3924. The churches of in 1830. The buildings were pillaged and burned by the mob
St Christopher (i3th and isth and St Nicholas, the
centuries) in 1848. The park, which extended from the fortifications to the
latter combining the Romanesque and Gothic styles and built river, as well as the neighbouring park of Villiers (also belonging
above a Romanesque crypt, are of interest. A sub-prefecture, to the princes of Orleans), was broken up into building lots, and
a tribunal of first instance and communal colleges are among is occupied by many small middle-class houses and a few fine
the public institutions. Neufchateau carries on wool-spinning villas. Within the line of the fortifications, but on Neuilly
and the manufacture of embroidery, nails and chains. The soil, stands the chapel of St Ferdinand, on the spot where the
town, which is said to occupy the site of the Roman Neomagus, duke of Orleans died in 1842 from the results of a carriage
belonged in the middle ages to the dukes of Lorraine, ruins accident. The stained-glass windows were made at Sevres after
of whose chateau are still to be seen. In 1641 it passed to designs by Ingres; the ducal cenotaph, designed by Ary Scheffer,
France. was sculptured by de Triqueti; and the chapel also contains
"
NEUHALDENSLEBEN, a town of Germany, in the province a Descent from the Cross," by the last-named artist, and
of Prussian Saxony on the Ohre, situated 18 m. N.W. from an angel executed in Carrara marble by the princess Marie
Magdeburg by the railway to Obisfelde and at the junction of a d'Orleans, sister of the duke. The fine bridge, designed in the
line to Eisleben. Pop. (1905) 10,421. It has an Evangelical i8th century by Perronet, is noteworthy as the first level bridge
church, an old equestrian statue of Henry the Lion and a gym- constructed in France. The Galignani Institution, founded by
nasium. There are several active industries, notably the the brothers Galignani for aged booksellers, printers and others,
manufacture of majolica and terra-cotta wares, machinery, has accommodation for 100 residents. The manufactures
426 NEUMANN, F. E. NEUQUEN
include perfumery, chocolate, colours, varnish, automobiles, at Heidelberg, where he graduated Ph.D. After some experience
carpets, &c. in field-geologyunder C. W. von Giimbel he joined the Austrian
NEUMANN, FRANZ ERNST (1798-1895), German mineralogist, geological survey in 1868. Four years later he returned to
physicist and mathematician, was born at Joachimstal on the Heidelberg, but in 1873 he was appointed professor of palaeon-
nth of September 1798. In 1815 he interrupted his studies at tology in Vienna, and occupied this post until his death on the
Berlin to serve as a volunteer in the campaign against Napoleon, 29th of January 1890. His more detailed researches related
and was wounded in the battle of Ligny. Subsequently he to the Jurassic and Cretaceous Ammonites and to the Tertiary
entered Berlin University as a student of theology, but soon freshwater mollusca; and in these studies he sought to trace
turned to scientific subjects. His earlier papers were mostly the descent of the species. He dealt also with the zones of
concerned with crystallography, and the reputation they gained climate during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, and en-
him led to his appointment as Privatdozent at Konigsberg, deavoured to show that the equatorial marine fauna differed
where in 1828 he became extraordinary, and in 1829 ordinary, from that of the two temperate zones, and the latter from
professor of mineralogy and physics. In 1831, from a study that of the arctic zone, much as the faunas of similar zones differ
" from each other in the present day; see his "Uber klimatische
of the specific heats of compounds, he formulated Neumann's
" Zonen wahrend der Jura und Kreidezeit" (Denkschr. K. Akad.
law," which expressed in modern language runs: The mole-
cular heat of a compound is equal to the sum of the atomic Wiss. Wien, 1883); he was author also of Erdgeschichte (2 vols.,
heats of its constituents." Devoting himself next to optics, 1887); and Die Stiimme des Thierreiches (vol. i only, 1889).
he produced memoirs which entitle him to a high place among Obituary by Dr W. T. Blanford in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.
the early searchers after a true dynamical theory of light. In (1890).
1832, by the aid of a particular hypothesis as to the constitution NEUMUNSTER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of the ether, he reached by a rigorous dynamical calculation of Schleswig-Holstein, lies on both banks of the small river
results agreeing with those obtained by A. L. Cauchy, and Schwale, in the basin of the Stor, 40 m. N. of Altona-Hamburg
succeeded in deducing laws of double refraction closely resembling by rail, and at the junction of lines to Kiel, Vamdrup (Denmark)
those of A. J. Fresnel; and in subsequent years he attacked and Tonning. Pop. (1905) 31,347. It has an Evangelical and
the problem of giving mathematical expression to the conditions a Roman Catholic church and several schools. It is, after
holding for a surface separating two crystalline media, and Altona, the most important industrial town in the province, and
worked out from theory the laws of double refraction in strained contains extensive cloth-factories, besides manufactories of
crystalline bodies. He also made important contributions to the leather, cotton, wadding, carpets, paper, machinery, beer and
mathematical theory of electrodynamics, and in papers published sweetmeats. Its trade is also brisk. The name, which was
in 1845 and I ^47 established mathematically the laws of the Wipendorp, is derived from an Augustine monastery,
originally
induction of electric currents. His last publication, which founded in 1130 by Vicelin, the apostle of Holstein, and is
appeared in 1878, was on spherical harmonics (Beitrdge zur mentioned as " novum monasterium " in a document of 1136.
Theorie der Kugelfunclionen) He took part in founding the Mathe-
. Its industrialimportance began in the I7th century, when the
matisch-Physikalisches Seminar, to give students a practical cloth-workers of Segeberg, a town to the south-east, migrated
acquaintance with the methods of original research. He retired to it. It became a town in 1870.
from his professorship in 1876, and died at Konigsberg on the See Kirmis, Geschichte der Stadt Neumunster (1900) ; and Dittmann,
23rdof May 1895. His son, CARL GOTTFRIED NEUMANN (b. 1832), Aus dem alien Neumunster (1879).
became in 1858 Privatdozent, and in 1863 extraordinary NEUNKIRCHEN, or OBER-NEUNKIRCHEN, a town of Germany,
professor of mathematics at Halle. He was then appointed in the Prussian Rhine province, on the Blies, 12 m. N.W. of
to the ordinary chair of mathematics successively at Basel (1863), Saarbrucken by rail. Pop. (1005) 32,358, consisting almost
Tubingen (1865) and Leipzig (1868). equally of Protestants and Roman Catholics. It contains two
NEUMANN, KARL FR1EDRICH (1793-1870), German Gothic Evangelical and a Romanesque Roman Catholic church,
orientalist,was born, under the name of Bamberger, at several schools, and a monument to Freiherr von Stumm (d.igoi),
Reichsmannsdorf, near Bamberg, on the 28th of December a former owner of the iron-works here. The principal industrial
1793. He studied philosophy and philology at Heidelberg, establishment is a huge iron-foundry, employing upwards of
Munich and Gottingen, became a convert to Protestantism and 4800 hands, and producing about 320,000 tons of pig-iron per
took the name of Neumann. From 1822 to 1825 he was a teacher annum; and there are also boiler- works, saw- mills, soap manu-
at Spires; then he learned Armenian in Venice and visited factories and a brewery. Around the town are important
Paris and London. In 1829 he went to China, where he studied coal mines from which about 2\ million tons of coal are raised
the language and amassed a large library of valuable books annually. The castle built in 1570 was destroyed in 1797, and is
and manuscripts. These, about 12,000 in number, he presented now a ruin. The town is first mentioned in 1280, and became
to the royal library at Munich. Returning to Germany in 1831 important industrially during the i8th century.
Neumann was made professor of Armenian and Chinese in the NEUQUEN, an inland territory of Argentina on the Chilean
university of Munich. He held this position until 1852, when, frontier, between the Colorado and Limay rivers, with the
owing to his pronounced revolutionary opinions, he was removed province of Mendoza on the N. and the territory of Rio Negro
from his chair. Ten years later he settled in Berlin, where he on the E. and S. Area, 42,345 sq. m. Pop. (1895) 14,517;
died on the I7th of March 1870. (1904, estimate) 18,022. The
greater part of the territory is
Neumann's leisure time after his enforced retirement wasoccupied mountainous, with well-watered valleys and valuable
fertile,
in historical studies, and besides his Geschichte des The eastern part, however, contains large barren
englischen Reichs forests.
in Asien (Leipzig, 1851), he wrote a history of the United States of
plains, showing some stunted vegetation, and having numerous
America, Geschichte der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika (Berlin,
saline deposits. Long drouths prevail in this region and there
1863-1866). His other works include Versuch einer Geschichte der
ormenischen Literatur (Leipzig, 1836); Die Volker des sudlichen is no inducement for
settlement, the nomadic Indians visiting
Russland (1846, and again 1855); and Geschichte des englisch- itonly on their hunting expeditions. Guanacos and Argentine
chinesischen Kriegs (1846, and again 1855). He also issued some hares are found in abundance in Neuquen, and to a lesser degree
translations from Chinese and Armenian : Catechism of the Shamans
(1831); Vahram's Chronicle of the Armenian Kingdom in Cilicia
the South American ostrich. The Neuquen, which unites with
(1831) and History of the Pirates in the China Sea (1831). The the Limay near the 68th meridian to form the Rio Negro, is the
of the Royal Asiatic Society (London, 1871) contains a full
journal principal river of the territory. The largest of a group of beauti-
list of his works.
ful lakes in the higher Andean valleys is the celebrated Nahuel-
NEUMAYR, MELCHIOR (1845-1800), German palaeontologist, Huapi (Lion Grass), which is nearly 50 m. long from E. to W.
was born at Munich on the 24th of October 1845, the son of and about 20 m. from N. to S. at its widest part, and which h'es
Max von Neumayr, a Bavarian Minister of State. He was partly in the S.W. angle of the territory, partly in Rio Negro,
educated in the university of Munich, and and partly in the republic of Chile. It is the source of the Rio
completed his studies
NEURALGIA 427
Limay and receives the overflow from two smaller neighbouring along the side of the nose. There is also pain in the eyelid,
lakes. The temperature of the Andean region .is cold even in redness of the eye, and flow of tears. When the second division
summer, but on the lower plains it is hot in summer, and only of the nerve is affected the pain is chiefly in the cheek and upper
moderately cold in winter. The principal industry is the raising jaw, the painful points being immediately below the lower eyelid,
of stock for the Chilean markets, as there is little cultivation. over the cheek bone, and about the upper lip. When the third
Cereals, forage crops, vegetables and fruits of the cold temperate division of the nerve suffers the pain affects the lower jaw,
zone can be produced easily, but distance from markets and lack and the chief painful points are in front of the ear and about the
of transport have restricted their production to local needs. chin.
The territory is reached by a light-draft river steamer which Hemicrania, migraine, brow-ague and sick headache are various
ascends the Rio Negro to Fort Roca at the confluence of the terms employed to describe what by some is considered to be
Limay and Neuquen, and by a branch of the Great Southern another form of neuralgia. An attack may come on suddenly,
railway from Bahia Blanca to the same point. The population but, in general, begins by a dull aching pain in the brow or
is concentrated in a few small towns on the rivers and in some temple, which steadily increases in severity and extent, but
colonies, established by the national government to check remains usually limited to one side of the head. It attains at
Chilean invasions, in the fertile districts of the Andes. A times an extreme degree of violence, and is apt to be aggravated
majority of the population, however, is of Chilean origin. The by movement, loud noises or bright light. Accompanying the
capital is Chos Malal, a small town on the upper Neuquen, in pain there is more or less of nausea, and when the attack reaches
the mountainous district in the northern part of the territory. its height vomiting may occur, after which relief comes, especially
NEURALGIA (Gr. veupov, nerve, and 0X70$, pain), a term if sleep supervene. An attack of this kind may last for a few
denoting strictly the existence of pain in some portion or through- hours or for a whole day, and after it is over the patient feels
out the whole of the distribution of a nerve without any distinctly comparatively well. It may recur periodically, or, as is more
recognizable structural change in the nerve or nerve centres. common, at irregular intervals. During the paroxysms, or even
This strict definition, if adhered to, however, would not be preceding them, certain sensory disturbances may be experienced,
applicable to a large number of cases of neuralgia; for in not a more especially affections of vision, such as ocular spectra,
few instances the pain is connected with some source of irritation, hemiopia, diplopia, &c. Gout, eyestrain and intestinal toxaemia
by pressure or otherwise, in the course of the affected nerve; have been put forward as causes of migraine, and Sir W. Gowers
and hence the word is generally used to indicate pain affecting regards it as the equivalent of a true epileptic attack.
a particular nerve or its branches from any cause. There are Intercostal neuralgia is pain affecting the nerves which emerge
few ailments which give rise to greater human suffering. The from the spinal cord and run along the spaces between the ribs to
existence of neuralgia usually betokens a depressed or enfeebled the front of the body. This form of neuralgia affects the left side
state of health. It is often found to affect the hereditarily rheu- more than the right, is much more common in women than in
matic or gouty. In weakened conditions of the system from men, and occurs generally in enfeebled states of health. It might
improper or insufficient food, or as a result of any drain upon the be mistaken for pleurisy or some inflammatory affection of the
body, or in anaemia from any cause, and in such diseases as lungs; but the absence of any chest symptoms, its occurrence
syphilis or malaria, neuralgia is a frequent concomitant. Any independently of the acts of respiration, and other considerations
strain upon the nervous system, such as mental overwork or well establish the distinction. The specially painful points are
anxiety, is a potent cause; or exposure to cold and damp, chiefly at the commencement of the nerve as it issues from the
which seems to excite irritation in a nerve already predisposed spinal canal, and at the extremities towards the front of the body,
to suffer. But irritation may be produced by numerous other where it breaks up into filaments which ramify in the skin. This
causes besides this such as a decayed tooth, diseased bone, form of neuralgia is occasionally the precursor of an attack of
local inflammations in which nerves are implicated, by some shingles (Herpes zoster) as well as a result of it.
source of pressure upon a nerve trunk, or by swelling of its sheath Sciatica is another of the more common forms of neuralgia.
in its passage through a bony canal or at its exit upon the surface. It affects the great sciatic nerve which emerges from the pelvis
The pain is generally localized, but may come to extend beyond and runs down the leg to the foot. It is in most instances
the immediate area of its first occurrence. It is usually of traceable to exposure to cold or damp, to overuse of the limbs
paroxysmal character, and not unfrequently periodic, occurring in walking, &c. Any source of pressure upon the nerve within
at a certain time of the day or night. It varies in intensity, the pelvis, such as may be produced by a tumour or even by
being often of the most agonizing character, or less severe and constipation of the bowels, may excite an attack of sciatica.
more of a" tingling kind. Various forms of perverted nerve It is often connected with a rheumatic or gouty constitution.
function may be found co-existing with or following neuralgia. In general the nerve of one side only is affected. The pain which
Thus there may be hyperaesthesia, anaesthesia, paralysis, is felt at first a little behind the hip-joint steadily increases in
or alterations of nutrition, such as wasting of muscles, whitening severity and extends along the course of the nerve and its branches
of the hair, &c. in many instances as far as the toes. The specially painful
The forms in which neuralgia most commonly shows itself points are about the knee, and ankle joints; besides which a
are facial neuralgia or tic douloureux, migraine (hemicrania or feeling of numbness is experienced throughout the whole limb.
brow ague), intercostal neuralgia and sciatica. In severe cases all movement of the limb aggravates the pain,
Facial neuralgia, or tic d&wltntreux, affects the great nerve of and the patient is obliged to remain in bed. In prolonged attacks
sensation of the face (fifth nerve), and may occur in one or more the limb may waste and be drawn up and fixed in one position.
of the three divisions in which the nerve is distributed. It is Attacks of sciatica are often attended with great suffering, and
usually confined to one side. When the first or upper division are apt to be very intractable to treatment.
of the nerve is involved the pain is mostly felt in the forehead In the treatment of all forms of neuralgia it is of first im-
and side of the head. It is usually of an intensely sharp, cutting portance to ascertain if possible whether any constitutional
or burning character, either constant or with exacerbations, morbid condition is associated with the malady. When the
and often periodic, returning at a certain hour each day while attack is periodic the administration of a large dose of quinine
the attack continues. The skin over the affected part is often two or three hours previous to the usual time of the seizure
red and swollen, and, even after the attack has abated, feels will often mitigate, and may even prevent the paroxysm. Many
stiff and tender to the touch. In this, as in all forms of neuralgia, topical applications are of great efficacy. Liniments containing
there are certain localities where the pain is more intense, these opium, belladonna or aconite rubbed into the affected part
"
painful points," as they are called, being for the most part in will often soothe the most severe local pain. And antipyrin,
those places where the branches of the nerves emerge from bony phenacetin, aspirin and similar analgetics are commonly taken.
canals or pierce the fascia to ramify in the skin. Hence, in this The plan at one time resorted to of dividing or excising a portion
form, the greater severity of the pain above the eyebrow and of the affected nerve is now seldom employed, but the operation
428 NEURASTHENIA NEURITIS
of nerve-stretching in some forms of neuralgia, notably sciatica, tionsand modern distribution, appears to be the original location
is sometimes successful. It consists in cutting down upon and of the Slavs (q,v.). The wolf story again recalls the tales of
exposing the nerve, and in seizing hold and drawing upon it werewolves so common among Slavonic peoples, and there is
so as to stretch it. Such an operation is obviously justifiable much probability in Schafarik's conjecture that the Neuri are"
only in cases where other less severe measures have failed to nothing but the ancestors of the Slavs. (E. H. M.)
giverelief. The employment of electricity, in long continued NEURITIS (Gr. vevpov, nerve), a term applied to the in-
and intractable forms of neuralgia, proves in many instances flammation of one or more bundles of nerve fibres. Two varieties
eminently serviceable. In the severest forms of tic doloureux are known, the localized and the multiple. The localized form
complete relief has followed the extirpation of the Gasserian frequently follows on exposure to cold and may attack a single
ganglion. (F. W. Mo.) nerve. Facial paralysis (Bell's palsy) is commonly seen following
NEURASTHENIA (Gr. vevpov, nerve, and &<r6ev.a, weakness), a neuritis of the facial nerve. Neuritis may follow blows and
the general medical term for a condition of weakness of the wounds of a nerve, injuries involving stretching of a nerve or
nervous system. The symptoms may present themselves as long continued pressure such as may occur in a dislocation of
follows: (i) general feeling of malaise, combined with a mixed the elbow joint, or the nerve may share in the extension of a
state of excitement and depression; (2) headache, sometimes neighbouring inflammation. The first symptom of a localized
with the addition of vertigo, deafness and a transitory clouding neuritis is pain of a boring character along the course of a nerve
of consciousness simulating petit mat or migraine; (3) disturbed and its distribution, the part being sensitive to pressure. There
and restless, unrefreshing sleep, often troubled with dreams; may be slight redness and oedema along the course of the nerve,
(4) weakness of memory, especially for recent events; (5) movement becomes painful in the muscles to which the nerve
blurring of sight, noises or ringing in the ears; (6) variable is distributed, numbness may follow and the tactile sense be
disturbances of sensibility, especially scattered analgesia (partial impaired, finally the muscles atrophy, and degenerative changes
and symmetrical) affecting the backs of the hands especially, may take place in the nerve or nerve sheath. Slight cases follow-
and in women the breasts; (7) various troubles of sympathetic ing cold or injury may pass off in a few days, while severe cases
origin,notably localized coldness, particularly in the extremities, such as those following the pressure of an unreduced dislocation
morbid heats, flushings and sweats; (8) various phenomena of may last for months.
nervous depression associated with functional disturbances of Multiple neuritis or polyneuritis is a disease which may affect
organs, e.g. muscular weakness, lack of tone, and sense of fatigue many of the peripheral nerves symmetrically and at the same
upon effort, dyspepsia and gastric atony with dilatation of the time. For the pathological changes see NEUROPATHOLOGY. The
stomach and gastralgia; pseudo-anginal attacks and palpitation difference in these changes is due mostly to the difference in the
of the heart; loss of sexual power with nocturnal pollutions aetiology of the neuritis. The causes may be divided as follows:
and premature ejaculations leading to apprehension of oncoming (1) The toxins of acute infective diseases, such as diphtheria,
impotence. Objective signs met with in organic disease are influenza, typhoid fever, malaria, scarlet fever and septicaemia.
absent, but the knee-jerks are usually exaggerated. (2) Acute or chronic poisoning by lead, arsenic, mercury, copper
According to the complexity of symptoms, the neurasthenia and phosphorus. (3) General disorders: gout, rheumatism,
is more
particularly defined as cerebral, spinal, gastric and tubercle, carcinoma. (4) The local action of leprosy and syphilis.
sexual. The cerebral form is sometimes termed psychasthenia, (5) Endemic disease: beri-beri. (6) Alcohol, the most common.
and liable to present morbid fears or phobias, e.g. agoraphobia
is
Alcoholic neuritis occurs as a result of constant steady drinking,
(fright in crowds), monophobia (fright of being alone), claustro- particularly in those who drink beer rather than spirit. The earliest
phobia (fright of being in a confined place), anthropophobia symptom is numbness of the feet and later of the hands, then painful
(fright of society), batophobia (fright of things falling), sidero- cramps in the legs appear and there is pain on moving the limbs, or
the patient complains of deadness, tingling and burning in the hands
dromophobia (fright of railway travelling). There may also be and feet, and superficial tenderness is occasionally present. In
mental ruminations, in which there is a continuous flow of other varieties of the disease the earliest symptoms are weakness of
connected ideas from which there is.no breaking away, often "
the legs and extreme fatigue, leading to a characteristic steppage
most insistent at night and leading to insomnia. Sometimes gait," or marked inco-ordination of movement may occur and the
there is arithmomania (an imperative idea to count). Such gait become ataxic. Trophic changes soon appear, in some cases
early and rapid muscular wasting occurs, the skin becomes dry and
cases often exhibit a marked emotionalism and readily manifest
glossy, the nails brittle and the hair thin. In time actual con-
joy or sorrow; they may be cynical, pessimistic, introspective tractures takes place, the hip and knee-joints become flexed and the
and self-centred, only able to talk about themselves or matters foot dropped at the ankle. In cases that recover there may be
of personal interest, yet they frequently possess great intellectual permanent deformity. Should the case progress the patient may
become bedridden and powerless, and degenerative mental changes
ability, and although there may be mental depression, there is
may take place, loss of memory, irritability of temper and emotional
an absence of the insane ideas characteristic of melancholia. instability. Various complications such as bronchitis, fatty changes
Traumatic neurasthenia is the neurasthenia following shock in the heart, albuminuria and a liability to
" " pulmonary tuberculosis,
from injury; it is sometimes termed railway spine," railway tend to carry off the victim of chronic alcoholic neuritis. Cases seen
early in the progress of the disease, who can be placed under
brain," from the frequency with which it occurs after railway supervision, may recover under treatment, but those in whom the
accidents, especially in people of a nervous temperament. The attacks have recurred several times and >n whom there is much
physical injury at the time may be sh'ght, so that the patient mental impairment rarely make a complete recovery. The treat-
is able to resume work, but symptoms develop later which may
ment consists in putting the patient to bed, with the administration
of strychnine hypodermically, and attention should be paid to the
simulate serious organic disease. As in all forms of neurasthenia,
position of the limbs so as to avoid the development of contractures,
the subjective symptoms may be numerous and varied, whereas cradles being used, the limbs kept in the correct positions by sand-
the objective signs are but few and slight. Many difficulties, bags, and gentle massage being employed as soon as possible. Should
contractures have already formed some mechanical device adapted
therefore, present themselves in arriving at a sound opinion
to stretch the contracted muscle must be resorted to. Biers' hyper-
as to the future in such cases. It is desirable not only to study
aemic suction apparatus is very useful in the painless stretching of
the case carefully, but to obtain some knowledge of the previous contracted joints, or old-standing adhesions may have to be broken
history of an individual who is claiming damages on account of down under an anaesthetic, extension apparatus being afterwards
traumatic neurasthenia. (F. W. Mo.) worn. In the later treatment the galvanic and faradaic currents
combined with massage are useful in helping to restore the wasted
NEURI, an ancient tribe placed by Herodotus (iv. 105) to
muscles, and hot-air baths and warm applications are appreciated.
the north-east of Scythia. He says of it that it is not Scythian, Arsenical neuritis mostly affects the lower extremities, as con-
but has Scythian customs. Every member of it, being a wizard, trasted with lead, which mainly paralyses the fingers and wrists;
becomes a wolf once a year. The position assigned to their recovery is even sjower than in alcoholic neuritis, the treatment
district appears to be about the head waters of the Dniester being on the same lines, with the removal of the cause of the disease.
In the neuritis of chronic lead poisoning a fine tremor of the hands is
and Bug (Bugh) and the central course of the Dnieper just the an early symptom and sensory symptoms are usually absent; the
region which, on general grounds, place-names, recorded migra- muscles affected are the extensors of the wrists, thumb and fingers
NEUROPATHOLOGY 429
(see LEAD POISONING). The course of the disease is long, and an the study of (i) the causes which give rise to morbid conditions,
attempt should be made to eliminate the lead from the system by which are often complex and due to various combinations of
purgatives and the administration of potassium iodide. factors arising from without and within the body, and (2) the
The diabetic neuritis paraesthesia is slight, and the legs are chiefly
affected; weakness and ataxia may be present. Trophic sores on changes in the structure and functions of the nervous system
the feet are of frequent occurrence in this variety. The treatment is brought about by intrinsic and extrinsic causes.
that of the disease. The causes of pathological processes occurring in the nervous
Post-diphtheritic neuritis occurs in about 10% of all cases of units (neurones) may be divided into internal and external, and
diphtheria. In this form paralysis of the soft palate is the earliest
it may be remarked that in all cases except direct injury the
symptom, and this may be the only one, or the pharynx may be
affected. The limbs are affected much later, usually about the 5th two groups are generally more or less combined.
or 6th week. Atrophy of the muscles is frequently rapid. If the A. Internal Causes. Of all the causes of nervous disease
respiratory muscles are unaffected the prognosis is good, but the/ stands pre-eminently first; it may be
of the limbs may last for several months. The treatment^ hereditary predisposition
paralysis
is complete rest, good food and the administration of strychnine. convergent, paternal, maternal; from grandparents or even
Acute polyneuritis with numbness and motor weakness has been more remote ancestors. Moreover, no study of heredity is com-
noted after influenza, together with slight muscular wasting and
plete that does not take into consideration collaterals. Especially
electrical degeneration. Later, loss of sensation in the peripheral
does this statement apply to functional neuroses, e.g. epilepsy,
portion of the limbs is complained of, and the motor weakness may
affect the muscles of the trunk and face. Such cases tend towards migraine, hysteria and neurasthenia; and to psychoses, e.g.
complete recovery. delusional insanity, mania and melancholia, manic-depressive,
NEUHOPATHOLOGY, the general name for the science con- recurrent or periodic insanity and dementia-praecox or adolescent
cerned with diseases of the nervous system. As regards the insanity.
anatomy and physiology, see the articles NERVE, NERVOUS In 70% of 150 cases of idiocy or imbecility in the London county
SYSTEM, BRAIN, SPINAL CORD, and SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM. asylums, Dr Tredgold found a family history of insanity in some form
or another. Strictly speaking, it is the tendency to nervous disease
The morbid processes affecting the nervous system are numerous rather than the disease itself that is inherited, and this is frequently
and varied, but usually they are clinically divided into two great spoken of as a neuropathic or psychopathic taint. There are,
groups of (i) organic disease, (2) functional disturbance. Such besides, a number of inherited diseases, which, although somewhat
a classification depends upon whether or not symptoms observed rare, are of interest inasmuch as they affect members of a family,
the same disease frequently commencing in each individual at about
during life can be associated with recognizable changes of the the same age. These are termed family diseases, and include
nervous system, gross or microscopical, after death. Sometimes hereditary ataxia (Friedreich's disease), myotonia (Thomson's
this is the morbid process itself, sometimes only the ultimate disease), hereditary (Huntingdon's) chorea, amaurotic idiocy and
result of the process. It must be remarked, however, that many various forms of idiopathic muscular atrophy. Alcoholism, tubercu-
losis and syphilis in the parents, especially if one or both come from
diseases which we now look upon as functional may be found
a neuropathic or psychopathic stock, frequently engender idiocy,
due to recognizable changes when suitable methods of investiga- imbecility, epilepsy and general paralysis in the offspring, by the
tion shall have been discovered. The paroxysmal neuroses and production of defects in the vitality of the germinal plasm, causing
arrest, imperfect development or premature decay of groups, com-
psychoses may be considered a priori to be due to temporary
munities or systems of neurones, especially those which are latest
morbid functional conditions. Our knowledge of the first group
developed the symptoms manifested depending upon the portions
is naturally much more advanced than of the latter, for, given of the nervous system affected. To explain the hereditary neuro-
certain symptoms during life, we are able, as a rule, to predict pathic tendency morphologically, we may suppose that there is an
not only the nature of the morbid process, but its particular inherited defect in the germinal plasm which is concerned in the
formation of the neurones. We may regard the neurone as a complex
locality.
cell, and the nervous system as a community of neurones arranged in
The histological elements which make up the nervous system systems and groups having special functions. Like all cells, the
may also be divided into two groups: (i) the nervous units or neurone nourishes itself and is not nourished; certainly it depends
for its development, life and functional activity upon a suitable
neurones, (2) the supporting, protecting and nutrient tissues.
environment, but it must also possess an inherent vital energy by
Organic diseases may start primarily in the nervous units or which it can assimilate and store up nutrient material which may be
neurones and cause their degeneration; such are true diseases regarded as potential (latent nerve energy), to be converted into
of the nervous system. But the nervous units may be affected nerve force as required. A constant constructive and destructive
bio-chemical process occurs in the neurones of a healthy nervous
secondarily by diseases starting in the supporting, protecting
and nutrient tissues of the nervous system; such are essentially system, latent nervous energy is high and the sense of fatigue is the
natural indication for sleep and repose, whereby it is constantly
diseases within the nervous system, and include diseases of the
recuperated. In the neuropathic or psychopathic individual it may
blood-vessels, lymphatics, membranes and the special nervous be conceived that in some portion of the nervous system, especially
connective tissue, neuroglia (a residue of the embryonal structure the brain, there may exist communities, systems or groups of neu-
rones with inherited low potential, readily becoming exhausted, and,
from which the nervous system was developed). Tumours and
under the influence of altered blood states or stress, especially liable
new growths must also be included. to functional depression, from which arise function-paralysis and
The modern conception of the " neurone " as an independent melancholia. Again, the bio-chemical substance which represents
complex cell with branching processes, in physiological rather potential in the nervous system may be in a chemically unstable
than anatomical association with other neurones, has modified condition, so as readily to fulminate when excited by abnormal
conditions (e.g. toxic conditions of the blood), thus acting as a centre
our ideas of the morbid processes affecting the nervous system, of discharge of nervous energy, which may be manifested by mental
especially as regards degenerations of systems, communities or or bodily symptoms. We know that in strychnia and tetanus
collections of neurones subserving special functions. It was poisoning the most localized peripheral excitation will cause general
muscular spasm; in both toxic conditions the spread is probably
formerly believed, and generally taught, that the primary due to a bio-chemical change in the protoplasm of the spinal neurones,
systemic degenerations were due to a sclerosis; thus locomotor whereby the excitability is greatly increased and a slight stimulus is
ataxy was believed to be caused by an overgrowth of the sup- sufficient to fulminate the whole system of motor neurones. In
porting glia tissue of the posterior columns of the spinal cord, epilepsy and other paroxysmal neuroses and psychoses it is possible
that some altered condition of the blood, when associated with an
which caused a secondary atrophy of the nervous tissue. We inherited bio-chemical instability of certain groups, systems or
now know that this overgrowth of glia tissue is secondary to the communities of neurones, may act as a fulminating agent. In
atrophy of the nervous elements, and the only true primary neuralgia and local hyperaesthesia the slightest general or distant
local irritation suffices to produce pain; thus coughing, the vibration
overgrowth of glia tissue is really of the nature of the new
of a passing train or the slamming of a door may produce pain by
growth (gliosis). But even in this case it is doubtful if the mere the stimulation of the hyper-excitable neurones. -Moreover, it must
proliferation of the glia tissue elements could destroy the nervous be borne in mind that the symptoms of nervous disease are due as
elements, if it were not for the fact that it leads to changes in much to normal physiological functional activity improperly applied,
the vessel walls and to haemorrhages. as to actual loss of function occasioned by disease. Thus squint,
The symptoms manifested during life depend upon the nature caused by paralysis of one of the muscles of the eyeball, causes less
trouble to the patient than the double vision occasioned by the physio-
of the morbid process and the portion of the nervous system
logical activity of the two retinae, upon the corresponding points
affected. A correct understanding of neuropathology involves of which the images are prevented by the paralysis from falling.
430 NEUROPATHOLOGY
B. The external causes producing morbid changes in the should the oxidation process be incomplete, owing to functional or
nervous elements are: I. Abnormal conditions of the blood and organic disease of the liver, or should these substances accumulate in
the blood, owing to inadequate function of the kidneys, a toxic
lymph, by which the neurones are poisoned and their metabolism condition, called uraemia, may supervene, the nervous manifestations
morbidly affected. II. Excess or deficiency of normal stimula- of which are headache, drowsiness, unconsciousness or coma, epilepti-
tion, or existence of abnormal stimulation. III. Injury or form convulsions and sometimes symptoms of polyneuritis. Again,
in Graves's disease.neryous phenomena, in the form of exophthalmos.
diseases of supporting, enclosing or vascular tissues.
fine tremors, palpitation and mental excitement, have by some
I. Abnormal Conditions of the Blood and Lymph. The im- authorities been explained by the excess of thyroid internal secretion,
mediate environment of allthe cellular elements of the body is due to the enlargement and increased functional activity of the
lymph, and in the central nervous system there is a special form gland. The successful treatment of Graves's disease by the ad-
of lymph, the cerebro-spinal fluid, which is secreted by the choroid
ministration of the blood serum and milk of animals (goats), which
had the thyroid glands removed, supports this theory.
plexus in the venticles of the brain. The neurones, like other (c) The presence of abnormal constituents in the blood is a most
cellular elements, arebathed in the lymph, and extract from it important cause of disease of the nervous elements. We may
the materials necessary for their growth and vital activities, consider the subject under the following headings Poisons produced
:
within the body (a) by perverted function of organs or tissues, auto-
casting out the waste products incidental to the bio-chemical
intoxication (ft) by the action of micro-organisms, protozoa and
changes which are continually taking place. The lymph, there-
;
bacteria, upon the living fluids and tissues of the body ;'()) poisons
fore, serves as a medium of exchange between the blood and the introduced into the body from without, in the food and drink, or
tissues, consequently the essential causes of change in environ- by inhalation.
ment of the nervous elements (neurones) are: (i) Deficiency or (a) Poisons resulting from perverted Function of the Organs. In
the process of digestion a number of poisonous substances, e.g.
absence of blood-supply to the nervous system in general (as are
albumoses, &c., produced, which, although absorbed in the ali-
after severe haemorrhage), or to some particular portion, owing mentary canal, are prevented by the living epithelium, and possibly
to local vascular disturbance or occlusion. (2) Alterations in by the liver, from entering the systemic circulation. Fatigue pro-
the normal condition of the blood, due to (a) deficiency or ducts, e.g. sarcolactic acid in prolonged muscular spasms, may lead
to auto-intoxication. Excess of uric acid in the blood is associated
absence of certain essential constituents, (b) excess of certain
with high arterial pressure, deposits of lithates in the urine, headache
normal constituents, (c) the presence of certain abnormal and nervous irritability; it is an indication of imperfect metabolism
constituents produced within the body, or entering it from and auto-intoxication, as shown by the fact that marked improve-
without. ment occurs by suitable diet and treatment. Phosphoruria, oxaluria
and glycosuria, tokens of deranged metabolism, may be associated
(1) Quantity of Blood Supply. Syncope or fainting occurs when the with various nervous phenomena. Bile in the blood, cholaemia,
blood supply suddenly fails to reach the higher centres of the brain ; resulting from obstructive jaundice, may be attended by stupor and
this usually arises from sudden reflex arrest of the heart's action.
psychical depression;
and the term melancholia, signifying " black
If a portion of the central nervous system is cut off from its arterial bile," indicates the importance which has long been attached to the
blood supply by embolic plugging or by clotting of the blood in a liver as an organ the derangement of which causes nervous depression.
vessel with diseased walls, the portion of the brain substance thus The rapidly fatal results attending acute yellow atrophy of the iiver,
deprived of blood undergoes softening, the nervous elements are namely, the profound changes in the urine, the jaundice and the
destroyed, and the systems of nerve fibres, which have had their nervous phenomena of delirium, motor irritation, delusions, stupor
trophic and genetic centres in the area destroyed, undergo secondary and coma, demonstrate the important part this organ plays in pre-
degeneration. Clotting of the blood in the veins may also give rise serving the normal quality of the blood. The delirium and coma
to destructive softening of the brain, and similar secondary which sometimes supervene in diabetes, heralded by acetonaemia,
degeneration. is another instance of auto-intoxication. The coma is very possibly
(2) Quality of Blood Supply. (a) Insufficiency of oxygen, due to due to the saturation of the sodium salts of the blood by aceto-acetic
poverty of the colouring matter or of the number of the red corpuscles, and oxybutyric acids, products of imperfect proteid metabolism.
which constitutes the various forms of anaemia, leads to functional The effect of this would be an interference with the elimination of
depression, lassitude and mental fatigue. Impoverishment of the carbonic acid in the processes of tissue and pulmonary respiration.
blood in women by frequent pregnancies and excessive lactation Again, in pernicious and certain grave anaemias, the degenerative
causes neuralgia, nervous exhaustion and, in the neuropath, hysteria, changes in the spinal cord found in some cases is due, not so much
neurasthenia, melancholia and mania. The mental depression, and to the defect in the red corpuscles, as to some neuro-toxin.which
the tendency that the various neuroses and psychoses have to occur probably arises from imperfect metabolism or absorption from the
and recur at the time of the menstrual and climacteric periods in alimentary canal. In this question of auto-intoxication, it must be
women, suggests the possibility of an alteration in the composition remarked that all the tissues of the body are mutually interde-
"
of the blood, either in the nature of an auto-intoxication or sub- pendent. If one suffers, all suffer, and a disease of one organ or tissue
minimal deficiency," as the probable contributory factor of the is thereby apt to establish a vicious circle which is constantly en-
mental disturbance. It may be remarked that eclampsia, puerperal larging; therefore nervous symptoms manifesting themselves in the
and lactational mania are relatively common forms of insanity in course of a disease add much to the gravity of the complaint.
women although sometimes of septic origin, they more frequently
; 03) Poisons produced by Infective Micro-organisms. Some of these
are occasioned by some morbid metabolism as yet little understood.
poisons
have a general devitalizing influence, by an alteration of the
The most striking examples we have, however, of the effect of blood and the production of fever. In the course of the acute
" "
absence or sub-minimal deficiency of a normal constituent of the infectious diseases, typhoid, typhus, smallpox, scarjet fever, measles,
blood upon the development and functions of the nervous system influenza, also tuberculosis and septicaemia, delirium is a frequent
are afforded by cretinous idiots, who are born without thyroid glands, complication; it may be the result of high fever or prolonged fever,
and whose brains never develop in consequence; and by those or directly due to the poison, or the two combined. In severe cases
people who suffer from the disease known as myxoedema, occasioned stupor and coma may occur, and it has been shown that in this
by the absence of iodothyrin, a product of the internal secretion of extreme stage the nerve cells undergo an acute morbid bio-chemical
the thyroid gland. The proof of this is shown by the disappearance change. These particular poisons have no selective toxic action upon
of the nervous phenomena, slowness of thought, slowness of a particular part of the nervous system, and symptoms not only
speech,
&c., after a preparation of the gland has been continuously ad- during, but after, the acute illness are liable to supervene, especially
ministered by the mouth. Even cretinous idiots when subjected in in a neuropathic individual. Thus many cases of neurasthenia,
early life to thyroid treatment improve considerably. The removal insanity, neurosis, also neuritis, date their origin from an acute
of the testicles in the male In cerebro-spinal meningitis, tubercular meningitis,
may produce a profound effect upon the specific fever.
nervous temperament; for probably there is an internal secretion acute delirious mania and leprous neuritis, the inflammation of the
of this gland in the male, as of the ovary in the female, which has membranes of the brain and spinal cord is due to the growth of the
some subtle influence upon the functional activity of the nervous specific organism in the lymph and interstitial tissue elements.
system. The seminal fluid contains a large amount of complex Poisons may have a selective influence upon some part of the nervous
phosphorus-containing substances, which, lost to the body by system. The syphilitic poison is the most important factor in the
sexual excess or onanism, have to be production of two progressive degenerations of the nervous system
replaced by the blood; the
nervous system, which also needs these complex organic phosphorus one affecting especially the afferent conducting tracts of the spinal
compounds, is thereby robbed, and neurasthenia ensues. Brown- cord, namely, locomotor ataxy, and the other affecting espe -ially
Sequard s testicular injection treatment for many nervous com- the frontal and central convolutions of the cerebral hemispheres,
plaints, based upon this idea, has not, however, met with much namely, general paralysis of the insane^. A striking instance of the
success. selective action of the syphilitic poison is shown in the fact that only
(6) Excess of certain Normal Constituents in the Blood. Excess of in persons affected with acquired or inherited syphilis is a syi iptom
carbonic acid causes drowsiness, and in asphyxia is one of known as Argyll-Robertson pupil found this is the absence of the
probably
the causes of the convulsions. All the series of the nitrogenous
;
pupil reflex contraction to light, while that for accommodation
waste products the most highly oxidized, most soluble and least this is the most common objective phenomenon
persists. Seeing that
harmful of which is urea are normal constituents of the blood but ; in the two diseases mentioned, it strengthens the presumption,
NEUROPATHOLOGY PLATE I.
FlG. I. Left hemisphere, case of delusional
FIG. 3. Left hemisphere, case of abscess
insanity; this in all respects might pass for a of the frontal lobe: the convolutions and
normal brain.
sulci are obliterated and the membranes
thickened, so that the fore part of the
brain presents the appearance of a mem-
branous bag; this contained a large amount
of pus.
FIG. 2. Brain of a micro-cephalic idiot,
which weighed only eight ounces although
its possessor was an adult woman. The
striking lack of development of the
hemispheres is shown in their small
size,whereby the cerebellum is
almost entirely uncovered more- ;
over the convolutional pattern
is simpler than that of an an-
thropoid ape's brain.
FIG. 4. Right hemisphere seen from above
instead of laterally a hole corresponding to the
:
middle of the central convolutions is seen, out of
which a tumour is Displaced towards the middle
line. w FIG. 7. Left hemisphere: a case of ad-
vanced dementia, showing atrophy of the
convolutions, with deep and wide sulci in-
tervening.
FIG.
Brain from a case
6.
the tops of
of apoplexy:
the hemispheres have been
sliced off to show the hae-
morrhagp (dark patch) in FIG. 8. The brain of an adult congenital imbecile.
the right centrum ovale, There is a very simple convolutional pattern in com-
which has ruptured the parison with the other brains shown in the figures.
n fibres from the The convolutions are small, the secondary gyri are
FIG. 5. Left hemisphere of a woman who for years motor proceeding
suffered with Motor aphasia paralysis of the lower half of the a ea of th b raln deficient in numbers. The sylvian fissure turns
j
sl uated between the basal
;
.
right side of the face, deviation of the tongue to the right obliquely upwards and there is an obvious deficiency
and some weakness in the right leg and arm. ganglia. in the superior and inferior parietal lobes.
FIG. 9. Right hemisphere of a woman who for many years was the FIG. 10. Left hemisphere and cerebellum of a case of porencephaly.
subject of sensory aphasia. The left hemisphere showed a similar A local atrophy of the convolutions, owing to a vascular lesion
lesion to the right but rather more extensive. before birth, is seen in the parietal lobe.
PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE BRAIN (ABOUT $ THEIR NATURAL SIZE) ILLUSTRATING VARIOUS
PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS.
PLATE II. NEUROPATHOLOGY
FIG. I. Trypanosoma gambiense in the FIG. 3. Section of the brain of a
blood from a case of sleeping sickness in FIG. 2. A. and B. The spirochaete European who died of sleeping sickness,
a European. The undulatory membrane pallidum. A shows the organisms seen showing an enormous increase of large
the head of the organism in a section of mucous tubercle stained
is clearly seen ; branching neuroglia cells around a small
with its micronucleus is in contact with by Levaditi's silver method the lowest
; vessel of the cortex. Magnification 450.
a red blood corpuscle. Magnification with 8 equal spirals and a pointed end is
2000 diameters. the most typical. Magnification 1200.
B. Spirochetes in a smear preparation
stained by Leishman. Magnification 2260.
FIG. 4. Very marked syphilitic arter- FIG. 5. Section of the base of the FIG. 6. Longitudinal section of a
showing great diminution of the
itis, brain of a monkey that died of experi- perivascular sheath of the cortex of a
lumen, mainly caused by an inflammatory mental sleeping sickness caused by in- monkey that died of experimental
thickening of the inner coat. Magnifica- oculation of the Trypanosoma gambiense. sleeping sickness. The large branching
tion 5. Magnification 250. neuroglia cells are seen undergoing pro-
liferation. Magnification 600.
IT
*
'
s * &&
V
e
v^x^C
' '
Vt* W3> **
*" % \pr
' -.
FIG. 7. Longitudinal section of a FIG. 8.Transverse section of a small FIG. 9. Transverse section of a small
small vessel of the cortex from a case of from a case of sleep-
vessel of the cortex vessel of the cerebral cortex from a case
well-marked general paralysis of the ing sickness, showing the perivascular of syphilitic gummatous meningitis, show-
insane. Magnification 250. cell infiltration of lymphocytes and ing the same perivascular cell infiltration
plasma cells. Magnification 250. of lymphocytes and plasma cells as seen
in figs. 7 and 8. Magnification 250.
NEUROPATHOLOGY
based on experience, that the syphilitic poison is the cause of these and syphilis. These changes were proliferation of the interstitial
diseases in the majority of instances. Again, syphilis, when it connective tissue cells forming the supporting structure of the
attacks the supporting, enclosing and nutrient vascular tissues, ganglion and hyperplasia of the lymphatic endothelial cells forming
shows a predilection to affect structures about the base of the brain, the capsule containing the nerve cells.
and paralyses of the third nerve are almost pathognomonic of this The diagram here given (fig. i) after Volpino explains the supposed
disease. In rabies, although the whole nervous system is charged developmental cycle of the protozoon which is presumed to be the
with the poison, the medulla oblongata (as shown by the symptoms) cause of rabies. The weak link in the chain is the assumed sporozoit
is especially affected. Again, in' tetanus the bacilli are only found in which is so small as to be capable of passing through a Berkfeldt
the wound; they must therefore be comparatively few in number, filter. It has taken twenty years to lead to the complete knowledge
but they elaborate a virulent poison, which affects particular groups of the life history of the malarial parasite and its relation to the
of neurones. The fact that lockjaw nearly always occurs first, shows disease, and all we can say is that there is now a certain amount of
that the poison selects the motor nucleus of the fifth nerve but it is
;
evidence forthcoming which tends to show that rabies is due to a
remarkable that experiment has shown that the tetanus toxin, if protozoon, which Calkins, who discovered a similar body in the
mixed with an emulsion of nervous matter before injection into an epithelial cells of variola, places among the rhizopods.
animal, loses its toxicity. This fact indicates its affinity for nervous There are certain chronic trypanosome infections in which the
matter, and also a power of absorption of the poison by some chemical nervous symptoms form a special feature of the disease, TWMHO-
substance in the iwffvous matter. Another example is offered by nptably sleeping sickness (see Plate II. fig. i) and a S0lae^
diphtheria. A neuro-toxin is produced by the local action of the disease affecting horses, termed mal de coit or dourine.
T*l_ !_ ff 1
/*;..
Qi&KBaeS
bacilli, for they do not become freely generalized in the blood and 1 he chronic trypanosome affections resemble in many
M|j
tissues. Whether the poison is a direct production of the bacilli respects syphilis they are characterized by local infection, a //ed/ons
;
themselves, or is an auto-toxin created in the body itself, by an enlargement of the nearest lymphatic glands, a general oftl]e
influence exerted on the living fluids and tissues by a ferment-like polyadenitis and
.
successive eruptions,
r . accompanied byJ nervous
-,.,
product of the bacilli, is not determined. But whatever may be the fever. The tissue changes are the same whether we
sysiem
source of the toxin, its effects upon the neurones are constant, as examine the primary seat of infection, papular eruptions
shown by the sufferings of the patients paralysis of the soft palate, on the mucous membrane or the skin, or the lymphatic glands.
with nasal speech ancf regurgitation of fluids through the nose when When the nervous system is affected a local or general chronic
swallowing is attempted; inability to read, owing to the paralysis meningo-encephalitis is set up, characterized by a meningeal and
of the muscle of accommodation; weakness and mco-ordination of
the limbs, which may amount to paralysis; absence of the knee-
jerks; and often skin anaesthesia 8
The relation of protozoa to the existence of widespread diseases
Protozoa affecting men and animals is becoming yearly of
and greater importance and interest. -Certain hitherto ob-
scure diseases in which the nervous Bvgtpm is profoundly Stadlo del virus f iltrabik
diseases
affected are now explained
of the by the inva's'lUll ol Uie tissues
of the body by these lowly organisms, for example,
nervous
system.
Sleeping Sickness, the cause of which has been definitely
proved to be the Trypanosoma gambiense (see Plate II.
fig. I).
The discovery by Schaudinn of the presence of the Spirochaete
Pallida (see Plate II. fig. 2) in the primary and secondary lesions of
seventy successive cases of syphilis, and the general acceptance of
this organism as the cause of the disease, taken together with the
fact that in many respects it simulates the trypanosome in its mode
of division and other characters, tend to prove that syphilis is also a
protozoal disease.
The bacterial invasion of tissues is generally characterized by a
migration of polymorpho-nuclear leucocytes, but protozoal invasion
is characterized by a formative
hyperplasia of the fixed cell tissues,
endothelial, epithelial and conjunctival, and there is a close similarity
in the defensive reaction of the tissues to all forms of protozoal
invasion (see Plate II. with explanatory text).
If the cause of rabies be regarded as proved since the discovery of
Negri bodies, we may assume that just as in malaria the Haematozoon
malariae undergoes its endocellular development in the red blood
corpuscle, the protozoon of rabies undergoes its endocellular de-
velopment in the nerve cell.
Only a short time has elapsed since Negri showed that in cases of
rabies, whether experimental or otherwise, curious bodies measuring From a coloured plate Centralblati far Bakleriolcgie, by permission of Gustav
from i /i to 20 n could be constantly found in the nerve cells, and that Fischer.
these bodies are not found in the nerve cells in any other disease; FIG. i.
so that even if the theory advanced that they are endocellular forms
of protozoa prove not true, yet the discovery affords a valuable and perivascular infiltration with lymphocytes and plasma cells, occa-
expeditious means of determining whether a suspected animal sioned by a chronic irritative process, presumably caused in the
suffered with rabies or not. It is known that the salivary glands and case of sleeping sickness by the presence of trypanosomes in the
saliva contain the virus, even before the animal shows symptoms. cerebro-spinal fluid (see fig. 8, Plate II.). The same perivascular
It is known too that the central nervous system contains the virus and meningeal infiltration with plasma cells and lymphocytes is
and that it multiplies there. Experimental inoculation can be made found in syphilitic and parasyphihtic diseases of the nervous system
either from the saliva or an emulsion of the central nervous system (see Plate II., figs. 7 and 9).
of an animal suffering with rabies. Moreover, the virus can pass The significance of pathological changes in the cerebro-spinal fluid
through a Berkfeldt filter; and if the filtrable product be injected has recently become of great importance in the diagnosis of nervous
into an animal, the animal thus inoculated will die of rabies and diseases, and a short account of the subject in this article
exhibit the Negri bodies. There are only two conclusions to be drawn will therefore not be out of place. The cerebro-spinal
from these observations (l) If it be a protozoal disease, the organism
: fluid is clear like water; it has a specific gravity of 1006
reb
at one period of its developmental cycle must be so small as to be able and resembles in its composition the blood minus its
splaal
to pass through the pores of the Berkfeldt filter. (2) Negri bodies corpuscular and albuminous constituents. It is secreted fluid.
are the result of intra-cellular degenerative changes caused by an by the choroid plexus, and if any cause, such as tumour or
elective affinity of the virus for the protoplasm of the nerve cell. meningitis, should interfere with its escape from the ventricles it
The virus, whatever it may be, does not exist in the blood and other gives rise by pressure to internal hydrocephalus and cerebral anaemia
organs and tissues. Seeing that the Negri bodies cannot be found in which may occasion epileptic convulsions and various degrees of
the saliva, although the saliva contains the virus, nor can they be drowsy stupor, lethargy, unconsciousness and even coma. With-
found in the peripheral nerves, although the virus passes by the drawal of the fluid by lumbar puncture and by tapping the ventricles
lymphatics of the nerves to the nerve cells of the spinal ganglia and of the brain has been employed in treatment, but without very
central nervous system, it must be concluded that the filtrable virus satisfactory results. If, however, lumbar puncture has proved of but
travels to the central nervous system and there increases. little use in treatment, it has proved of inestimable service in the
It is a remarkable fact that before the discovery of the Negri diagnosis of various diseases of the central nervous system. The
bodies, the diagnosis of rabies was made by microscopic examination fluid withdrawn may be examined in various ways which are comple-
of the spinal and sympathetic ganglia, particularly the ganglia of the mentary to one another.
vagus and fifth nerves. Changes were found similar to those met It should be centrifuged and the deposit examined microscopically
with in other protozoal diseases, namely, sleeping sickness, dourine if necessary after staining by suitable methods; the existence of cells
432 NEUROPATHOLOGY
in a fluid which normally contains no cellular elements indicates these lipoid substances and globulin in proportion to the degree of
disease of the central nervous system. In general paralysis, syphilis decay of the neural structure; they arise from the destructive .
of the nervous system and tabes dorsalis even in early stages of these metabolism of the neural elements. But the same lipoid substances
diseases, the deposit is seen to consist almost entirely of lymphocytes. and globulin are found only in the blood of syphilitic individuals,
Some evidence of the progress of the disease and the effect of treat- consequently it must be supposed that in general paralysis and tabes
ment may be obtained by counting the number of cells at different certain groups and systems of neurones undergo decay from ex-
In tubercular meningitis there are also lymphocytes in cessive metabolic activity which is brought about by two factors
periods.
abundance although usually tubercle bacilli cannot readily be found, (i) a bio-chemical stimulus, the syphilitic poison, (2) excessive
into a guinea pig is a which in non-syphilitic individuals would only
yet bacilli are present, for injection of the fluid physiological stress,
certain means of determining whether it is tubercular meningitis or lead to cerebral or spinal neurasthenia.
not; for if it is, the animal is sure to develop tubercle. In epidemic Sleeping Sickness is characterized by a progressive lethargy,
cerebro-spinal meningitis the cells in the deposit are polymorpho- paresis, tremors and the signs and symptoms of neural exhaustion
nuclear leucocytes, and in the leucocytes can be seen the specific without neural destruction; it comes on slowly and insidiously
organism Diplococcus intracettularis with its characteristic staining often years after infection and eventually terminates fatally by
and cultural characters. Septic, pneumonic and pypgenic organisms intercurrent disease or paralysis of the bulbar centres. Examination
may also invade the central nervous system giving rise to meningitis, of the central nervous system explains the fatal lethargy; the
and in these cases the deposit will be polymorpho-nuclear leucocytes, perivascular and meningeal lymphatics are filled with lymphocytes
and perhaps the specific organisms may be seen in stained prepara- and plasma cells (Plate II. fig. 6.); moreover, the neuroglia support-
tions; but if not, they can be obtained by cultural methods. In all ing cells have undergone a rapid formative proliferation (Plate II. figs.
operations of this kind antiseptic precautions must be adopted both 3 and 5). The effect of this morbid process is to deprive the neural
for the safety of the patient and the reliability of the findings, other- elements of oxygen and nutrition; the neurones in consequence,
wise organisms in the skin may contaminate the fluid withdrawn. although not destroyed, are nevertheless unable to function for more
Other formed elements which may be found are large cells, macro- than a brief period.
phages containing blood pigment; these cells indicate that
some (y) Poisons introduced into the Body. The most widespread and
haemorrhage has occurred. One of the most important uses of potent cause of nervous and mental disease is the abuse of alcoholic
lumbar puncture has been the discovery of the cause of sleeping stimulants. %
At least 20 of the inmates of the asylums of London
sickness. The fluid withdrawn and centrifuged contains, as one are admitted with a history of alcoholism. In not more than 10 %is
would expect from the lesions in the brain and spinal cord, large alcohol the efficient cause of the mental disease; in many it is only
numbers of lymphocytes and plasma cells (see Plate II. fig. 10), but a contributory factor, and in not a few the lapse from moderation to
besides, the actively moving organisms (Trypanosoma gambiense) intemperance is the first sign of the mental breakdown. Most of
(see Plate II. fig. i) which are the essential cause of the disease. It the patients admitted inherit the neuropathic tendency, and it is a
has been remarked that the normal cerebro-spinal fluid is devoid of rare thing, among such, to find cirrhosis of the liver with ascites, a
proteins, but in the various forms of disease above described as con- condition which indicates long persistent spirit-drinking. The
taining cells in the centrifuged deposit, there is also in the fluid an writer, from a very large experience as pathologist to the asylums of
appreciable amount of proteins. If pathological cerebro-spinal fluid London, only remembers one such case, and that was in a notorious
be added to an equal quantity of saturated solution of sodium woman who was convicted nearly four hundred times for drunken-
sulphate there will be a distinct turbidity indicating the presence of ness before she could be certified as of unsound mind, a fact which
proteins in appreciable quantity. This appreciable quantity of indicates that she inherited a very stable nervous constitution. To
proteins is especially significant in the case of fluid withdrawn from people with unstable nervous systems a relatively small quantity
cases of general paralysis or tabes, for it goes pari passu in amount of alcohol may act as a poison. Thus epileptics, imbeciles, criminals,
with a reaction which is known as the Wassermann sero-diagnostic potential lunatics, hysterics,
neurasthenics and the subjects of head
reaction for syphilis; a reaction, however, which is too complicated injury are liable to become anti-social and dangerous to themselves
to explain here, but which is of the greatest importance for the and others by indulgence in quantities of alcohol which would have
diagnosis of general paralysis and tabes dorsalis. The finding of the no harmful effect upon the mentally stable and sound individual.
Trypanosoma gambiense in the cerebro-spinal fluid in sleeping sickness Alcohol may produce acute delirium, with fine tremors, and, gener-
led to the belief that the
specific organism
of syphilis, Spirochoete ally, visual hallucinations of a horrible nature, indicating acute toxic
pallidum might be found in the cerebro-spinal fluid in syphilitic influence upon the brain. This apparently acute form of alcohol
diseases of the nervous system, but although in a few instances poisoning is met with in chronic inebriates especially; it is much
successful inoculation of animals with of the commoner in in women, and it is remarkable how a severe
men than
syphilis by injection
cerebro-spinal fluid has been effected, yet the organism has only once injury or such as pneumonia, will bring out delirium tremens
illness,
been found in the fluid withdrawn by lumbar puncture. It has long in a drunkard. Chronic alcoholism manifests itself in a variety of
been a puzzle why only certain individuals, about 5 %-8 % of those
ways according to the inborn temperament of the individual. The
infected with syphilis, should subsequently suffer with diseases of the well-fed man with an inborn stable well-balanced mental organization
nervous system. The skin and mucous orifices are the most common is able to consume daily large quantities of alcohol with no other
sites of secondary and tertiary lesions and after this the nervous obvious effect than the lowered moral sense of indulgence in a vicious
system, but no tissue or structure in the body is exempt. It is habit. However, chronic alcoholics form a large proportion of those
probable that the virus attacks tissues when in a low state of re- convicted for crimes of violence, homicide, suicide and sexual
sistance in a random metastatic manner. It is necessary to dis- offences. Alcohol acts especially upon the higher centres of the
"
tinguish between these true syphilitic lesions which are the result of brain, and a drunken man may exhibit the abstract and brief
the reaction of the tissues to the living virus and the parasyphilitic chronicle of insanity, going through its successive phases in a short
"
affections, which own a different cause. The former may be most period of time (Maudsley). The effect on the nervous system of
successfully treated with mercury, which has the power of devitaliz- chronic tippling
may be dementia, a very characteristic manifesta-
ing the specific virus and preventing its multiplication, the same as tion of the mental degradation being absence of knowledge of time
atoxyl prevents the multiplication of the trypanosomes. Iodide of and place, personal illusions and loss of memory of recent events,
potassium favours the absorption of the degenerative products of the indicating a failure of receptivity and of the formation of memory-
cells, and syphilitic tumours may rapidly resolve and disappear under pictures in the higher centres, mental confusion, delusions of persecu-
the influence of these drugs. Nervous symptoms even so severe as to tion, and especially a morbid jealousy with suspicions of fidelity of
threaten a rapidly fatal termination may disappear with energetic the husband by the wife or of the wife by the husband. A certain
treatment when they are due to the syphilitic virus producing an amount of improvement may occur when total abstinence is enforced,
inflammatory reaction of the tissues; not so, however, when the which shows the poison has damaged but not destroyed the nervous
symptoms are slow, insidious and progressive, due to a primary elements. There is also a form of mental disease characterized
decay of the neurones, e.g. the parasyphilitic affections tabes dorsalis especially by hallucinations of hearing and vision, associated with
and general paralysis of the insane, which are really one and the same delusions usually of a persecuting nature, unaccompanied by other
disease owning the same cause. We can understand that it may be marked mental disorder. Abstinence and proper control generally
a chance whether a man suffers with true brain or spinal cord ends in recovery, but such cases so frequently relapse that it is_ fairly
syphilis, because it may be a chance whether the virus is carried certain that alcohol is an exciting factor to a morbid or insane
there by the blood-vessels and lymphatics, and if carried there finds a temperament. Besides mental symptoms of chronic alcoholic
suitable nidus to develop. But the parasyphilitic affections appear to poisoning, there is frequently paralysis, affecting especially the lower
be due to a premature primary limbs (structures suffer most where vitality is least), although the
decay of the neural elements owing
to
bio-chemical changes in the body induced by reaction to the syphilitic upper limbs, and even the respiratory muscles, may be affected in
virus. There are a good facts now which show severe cases. The patient, usually of the female sex, becomes help-
many forthcoming
that the subjects of parasyphilis present mild symptoms of less and bedridden, and death frequently occurs from heart failure.
and upon an average it is not until ten years later that they syphilis,
develop Characteristic features of this affection are great tenderness on
nervous symptoms, _which are aggravated rather than benefited by pressure of the muscles, especially of the calves, absence of reflexes,
mercury. Such subjects are immune to a second attack of syphilis, a variable degree of skin anaesthesia, wasting of muscles and altera-
and the examination of the blood and cerebro-spinal fluid by the tion of the normal electrical reactions, and frequently pyrexia. There
Wassermann reaction of the deviation of the Complement reveals the is no loss of control over the bladder and bowels, unless there is very
fact that there is a bio-chemical change; the presence of this reaction marked dementia. This "complex of symptoms" points to a
may be correlated with the fact that these fluids contain lipoid sub- peripheral polyneuritis, although frequently changes occur also in the
stances and a globulin in excess. The cerebro-spinal fluid contains ganglion cells, from which the axis cylinders of the nerves have their
NEUROPATHOLOGY 433
origin (vide figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5). Alcoholic
polyneuritic psychosis
duced into the system produces
progressive degenerative changes
in
affecting women in many ways resembles delirium tremens; the the brain and spinal cord, which are manifested by psychical dis-
fact that neuritis occurs much more frequently in women is probably turbances, such as slowness of thought, weakness of memory, dulness
associated with a greater liability to the influence of microbial of perception, sometimes
toxins by absorption from the organs of reproduction. Many other delirium and incoherence; -
poisons, notably lead and othersymptomsareblunted
arsenic, the specific fevers sensibility, dilated pupils,
before mentioned, syphilis muscular spasms, perhaps
and alterations of the blood even epileptiform seizures
due to imperfect meta- and ataxy, and, lastly,
bolism, such as occur in stupordeepeningintocoma.
diabetes and gout, may Sausage disease, due to eat-
produce, or become impor- ing decayed meat and fish
tant factors in producing, infected with Bacillus bolu-
peripheral neuritis. The linus, is associated with
outbreak of arsenical symptomswhichfrequently
neuritis from beer contain- terminate fatally, and it
ing this poison in Man- has been shown that the
chester in 1900 is of in- symptoms are due to a
terest, from the fact that poison which has a very
the symptoms closely re- destructive effect upon the
sembled acute alcoholic nerve cells (fig. 6).
neuritis. A distinctive
II. Normal and Abnor-
feature, however, was the
pigmentation of the skin mal Stimulation. The
and the severity of the nervous system, irf order
nervous symptoms. A to develop and manifest
disease which is common
in the East, termed Beri- functional activity, re- FIG. 6. Cell illustrating swelling of
beri, is a form of neuritis, quires suitable stimula- nucleus and chromatolysis in acute tox-
the cause of which is not tion from without Strnr aemia produced by poison of bacillus
mt. btruc-
botulinus Compare with the appear-
exactly known (see BERI- ture and function are ances
BERI). Anaesthetic leprosy presented by a normal cell, fig. 12.
is an interstitial inflamma- mutually reciprocal and
tion of the nerves due to interdependent; for a structure which is not used will
the Lepra bacillus. Among while its nutrition will also
gradually lose its function,
the nervous diseases due to
suffer, and in time atrophy may occur. Consciously and
occupation may be cited
lead-poisoning. This is unconsciously, a continuous stream of impulses is pouring into
peculiar in selecting the the nervous system from without by the sensory channels,
nerve which supplies the which are the avenues of experience and intelligence, and our
extensor muscles of the
somatic and psychical life depends upon the existence of such
wrist and fingers, so that
dropped wrist is almost
stimuli. The nervous system in the form of systems, groups and
characteristic of this form communities of neurones, each with special functions, yet all
of toxic neuritis. Lead woven together in one harmonious whole, develops in a particular
also produces a chronic in-
flammation of the cerebral way inconsequence of the awakening influence of these stimuli
cortex, Encephalitis satur-
from without. Consequently nervous structures which are not
nina, causing a complex of used are liable to undergo regressive metamorphosis and atrophy ;
symptoms, namely, de- thus amputation of a limb in early life causes atrophy of the
mentia, loss of
memory, nervous structures which presided over the sensation and
weakened intellect, paresis
and epileptiform seizures, movement of the part. This is seen both in the grey and white
hallucinations of sight and matter of the spinal cord; there is also an atrophy of the psycho-
hearing, and mental motor neurones of the brain presiding over the movements of
exaltation or depression. the limb.
Mirror-makers suffer with
characteristic fine tremors, A healthy physical, intellectual and moral environment of the
from the slow absorption of individual is an essential factor in the prevention and cure of psy-
mercury into the system. choses and neuroses, because it tends to develop and strengthen body
Workmen at indiarubber and mind, deliberation, judgment and the higher controlling functions
factories may from
suffer of the brain. A function not used will gradually disappear, and
severe mental symptoms, become more and more difficult to evoke. This fact is of importance
owing to the inhalation of in functional neuroses and psychoses, e.g. hysterical paralysis,
FiG. 5. melancholia and delusional insanity, because the longer mental or
the fumes of bisulphide of
FIGS. 2,3,4 ands- Spinal motor cells carbon. Serious nervous bodily function is left in abeyance, the more likely is the defect to
in various stages of destruction, from a symptoms have followed become permanently installed. The converse is also true; the
case of acute alcoholic poly-vacuolation. carbon monoxide poison- longer a perverted function exists, the more unlikely it is to disappear.
Compare with the appearances of a nor- ing. Cases which have re- Thus auditory hallucinations, a very important and frequent
mal cell, fig. 12. covered from the immedi- symptom in "the insane, commence with indistinct noises: these are
ate effects have suffered followed by voices," which eventually become so distinct and real
with dementia and symptoms of disseminated sclerosis, the result of that the greater part of the patient's psychical existence is con-
multiple haemorrhagic softenings. centrated upon, and determined by, this abnormal stimulus from
There are a certain number of poisons, besides alcohol, which act within, indicating progressive strengthening and fixation of the
upon the nervous system when continually entering the body as the perverted functions of the mind, and progressive weakening and
result of a habit, namely, absinthe, ether, cocaine, opium, dissolution of the normal functions.
morphia,
hashish and tobacco. Each of these poisons produces a train of Mental pain in the form of grief, worry, anxiety, fright, shock,
symptoms denoting a selective influence upon certain parts of the violent emotions (pleasurable or painful), disappointed love, sexual
nervous system. In illustration thereof may be mentioned impair- excesses or perversions, and excessive brain work, frequently precede
ment of central vision in tobacco amblyopia. and determine, in persons with the insane or neuropathic taint,
The disease pellagra, an affection of the skin associated with de- various forms (a) of psychoses, e.g. mania, melancholia, delusional
generative changes in the brain and spinal cord and characterized by insanity; (b) of neuroses, e.g. chorea, hysteria, epilepsy, hystero-
melancholy with suicidal impulses, sometimes mania associated with epilepsy; (c) or organic brain disease, e.g. apoplexy, thrombosis,
paresis, was long considered to be due to the eating of bad maize. general paralysis.
But in 1910 the recent research on this disease, still in progress, Visceral reflex irritation affords many examples of neuroses and
seemed to negative this theory (see PELLAGRA). Another disease, psychoses, the symptoms of which are set up by irritation of the
ergotism, in an epidemic form, has affected poor people in Russia and viscera, e.g. intestinal worms. Teething and indigestible food are
North Germany when obliged to subsist upon bread made of rye often the exciting cause in infants and young children of convulsions,
which has been attacked by the ergot fungus. The poison thus intro- spasms of the glottis and tetany. Various functional and organic
434 NEUROPATHOLOGY
diseases of the female reproductive organs act as exciting causes in in marasmus at all periods of life, but especially in the very young
the production of hysteria, hystero-epilepsy, melancholia and and very old. But thickening, roughening and a degenerated con-
mania; moreover, paroxysmal attacks in these diseases are more dition of the cerebral arteries known as atheroma when associated
liable to occur at the menstrual period or menopause. The irritation with a weak acting heart is especially liable to give rise to thrombosis
of a carious tooth may produce spasmodic tic and trigeminal neuralgia. and softening, and this is a very common cause of apoplexy, paralysis
Wax in the car may occasion vertigo and tinnitus; and errors of and dementia in people who have passed middle life. General
refraction in the eyes may be the cause of attacks of migraine, and disease of the arteries of the body, associated especially with chronic
even tend to excite epileptic fits in a person suffering from epilepsy. Bright's disease and high arterial pressure, is frequently attended
Numerous other examples of peripheral disturbance could be with the formation of minute miliary aneurisms upon the cerebral
mentioned as exciting causes of nervous affection in neurotic indi- arteries, which may rupture and cause apoplexy. Haemorrhage into
viduals. Irritation of the terminals of the vagus in almost any part the brain from this cause is especially liable to occur in certain
of its widespread visceral distribution may lead to vomiting. The situations; one vessel in particular, supplying the basal ganglia,
characteristic pain of angina pectoris, which radiates down the inner most frequently gives way, the effused blood tearing through the
side of the left arm, is explained by the fact that the cardiac branches motor efferent fibres, which, proceeding from the cerebral cortex in
of the sympathetic arise from the same segments of the spinal cord the shape of a funnel, become aggregated together to form the neck
as the sensory branches of the ulnar nerve; consequently the pain is between the two masses of grey matter the optic thalamus and the
referred to the corresponding skin area supplied by this nerve. This corpus striatum (Plate II. fig. 6). The result is hemiplegia of the
is one example of a great number of referred pains. opposite side of the body. Disease of the arteries of the central
nervous system, occurring in a person under forty, is generally due to
III. Injury or disease of enclosing or supporting structures syphilis, the virus of which produces an inflammation of the coats of
may lead to paralytic or irritative lesions of the nervous system, the vessel, especially the inner (see Plate II. figs. 4, 9, 10). The
or the two may be combined. Blows or wounds of the head and thickening and narrowing of the lumen with loss of elasticity of the
arteries of the brain generally, may suddenly or gradually set up
spine may damage or destroy the nervous structures by shock
conditions of cerebral anaemia and give rise to semi-comatose and
or direct injury. Concussion of the brain or spinal cord may
comatose or even apoplectic states. Occlusion by the inflammatory
occur, as a result of injury, without any recognizable serious proliferation or by the sudden clotting of blood in the diseased vessel
damage of the enclosing structures or even the central nervous may occur, the immediate effect of which may be an epileptic or
system. Shock, due to concussion, can only be explained by a apoplectic fit; the result is softening; and seeing that any or all
the arteries of the brain may be affected successively, simultaneously,
molecular or bio-chemical change in the nervous structures.
or at random, the symptoms may be manifold. They may be general
Direct injury or a fall fracturing the skull, driving the frag- or local, and not uncommonly are associated with inflammation of
ments into the brain, will cause direct destruction of the nervous the membranes. The disease, under treatment, may abate, and the
tissue; but wounds and diseases of the enclosing and supporting paralytic or mental phenomena partially or completely disappear,
indicating the restoration, or partial restoration, of the circulation in
structures, if producing simple non-infective inflammation, give the diseased arteries; sometimes with the lapse of treatment and
rise only to such symptoms as accord with the nerve structure sometimes without, new symptoms, such as paralysis of a fresh
irritated or destroyed. Should, however, the wound or diseased group of muscles or of the opposite side of the body, may manifest
structure become infected with micro-organisms, the disease themselves, showing that the disease has attacked a fresh set of
arteries. Disseminated sclerosis (insular) is another random morbid
spreads and becomes generalized likewise the symptoms. Of
all the causes of infective inflammation, middle-ear disease, on process, affecting especially the white matter, with certain character-
istic symptoms of a progressive character, the pathology of which is
account of its frequency and insidious onset, is the most im- not understood fully, but is probably due to some toxic cause.
portant. It is very liable, when neglected, to be followed by a Islands of nervous tissue undergo a morbid change, commencing in
septic meningitis, encephalitis and brain abscess, the most Fool & Toei
Knee
frequent seat of which is in the adjacent temporal lobe, but it Hip Great Toe
Tactile & Muscular sensation
may be in other parts of the brain, e.g. the cerebellum and frontal
lobe (Plate I. fig. 3). The peripheral nerves may be destroyed Written Speech
Hand
or irritated by direct injury, disease or new growth in adjacent Index
tissues, or they may be involved in the callus thrown out round Thumb __
the seat of a fracture. Upper Face .
Diseases of the blood-vessels are among the most frequent Lower Face
causes of organic brain disease. Arteries or veins more fre- Motor Speech -
Hearing,
Tongue Auditory word
quently the former may become blocked or ruptured from Larynx Memory
various causes. The immediate effect is a disturbance or loss of
" "
consciousness, and the individual may be struck down (see
and never consciousness Should Movements of
APOPLEXY) regain (see COMA). Eye (probable)
I
Half Vision centre
the individual recover consciousness more or less permanent loss Smell''
or disturbance of function will be the result. Paralysis of some FIG. 7. Diagram of left cerebral hemisphere, showing localization
form, especially hemiplegia, is the commonest result, but the of function. The motor region is situated in front of the central
loss or disturbance of function will depend upon the seat of the " "
sulcus, and is arranged in a series from toe to larynx downwards,
injury. corresponding in an inverse manner to the spinal series. Irritation
of any part o? this area will cause localized convulsive spasms, which
The cerebral arteries may be occluded by embolism a portion of
; may spread in a definite march to the whole motor area, as in
a clot or vegetation from a diseased valve of the left side of the heart Jacksonian" epilepsy. Destructive lesions will cause paralysis. The
"
may be detached, and escape into the circulation; and this is carried centre for taste and smell is represented at the tip of the uncinate
" "
into one of the arteries of the brain, usually the middle cerebral, more convolution. The centre for half-vision is only in small part
often of the left side than the right. The area of brain tissue " "
supplied represented, for the larger part is on the mesial surface. Hearing
by that artery is deprived of blood, and undergoes softening in is represented occupying the posterior half of the first temporal
consequence, resulting in paralysis of the opposite half of the body convolution, but only a small part of the centre is seen, for the greater
(hemiplegia) associated with aphasia when the paralysis affects the part lies above within the fissure of Sylvius. Included in this area,
right side in a right-handed person (Plate I. figs. 5 and 9). When but in the left hemisphere only, is the centre for " auditory word
"
the embolus is infective, as it frequently is in ulcerative endocarditis, memory destruction of this causes inability to understand the
;
its lodgment in an artery of the brain, not
only blocks the vessel but meaning of words uttered, although the patient is able to read aloud.
leads to an infective inflammation and softening of its coats, with Behind this, in the angular gyms, is the centre for " visual word
the formation of an aneurism. The aneurism may suddenly rupture "
memory destruction of this causes loss of power of understanding
;
into the substance of the brain and produce apoplexy. In fact the of written or printed words therefore inability to read. In front of
"
majority of cases of apoplexy from cerebral haemorrhage recurring the motor area is Broca's convolution, the centre of " motor speech ;
in young people are due to this cause. Softening may also arise from destruction of this produces motor aphasia, or inability to articulate
coagulation of the blood (thrombosis) in the arteries or veins. There words. Above this is a centre which is connected with written speech.
are many causes which generally combine or conspire together to These four centres concerned with verbal and written language are
produce thrombosis, viz. a weak acting heart and altered conditions connected by commissural fibres, and destruction of these connexions
of the blood, and sometimes independently of vascular disease leads to various defects in verbal and written language. It will be
spontaneous coagulation in a vessel of the brain may occur. It is understood from this diagram that diseases of the left hemisphere in
sometimes met with in the cachexia of certain grave diseases, viz. in right-handed persons are associated with results of more significance
phthisis and cancer, in typhus and pneumonia, after parturition and than similar affections of the right hemisphere.
NEUROPATHOLOGY 435
the myelin sheath and ending in an increase of the supporting upon the seat of the tumour and whether it destroys or only irritates
neuroglia tissue at the expense of the true nervous tissue. the adjacent nervous tissue. Tumours situated within the cranial
Tumours and new growths in the central and peripheral nervous cavity cause general symptoms, namely, optic neuritis, severe head-
systems may be primary or secondary: the former arise in the ache and vomiting; these symptoms, which are caused by increased
supporting, enclosing or nutrient tissue elements; the latter are intracranial pressure, are more severe in rapidly-growing vascular
metastatic deposits from tumours originating elsewhere. Tumours tumours, even though small, than in large slow-growing tumours.
may be single or multiple, the special symptoms occasioned depending
FIG. 8. Diagram of section of the spinal cord in the upper cervical FIG. 10. Diagram of spinal cord, fifth lumbar segment, from a
case of advanced tabes dorsalis. The posterior column is shrunken,
region, showing recent degeneration of the crossed pyramidal tract of
the right side and direct pyramidal tract of the left side. The black and but faintly stained, except in the anterior part; the shrinkage
dots indicate the degenerated fibres stained by the Marchi method. and the loss of stainability are due to the absence of fibres of the
This degeneration is secondary to haemorrhage into the internal posterior roots, which normally form the greater part of this region
of the cord. The fibres which are seen in the anterior part of the
capsule of the left hemisphere, and it will be observed by the number
of degenerated fibres that the greater bulk have crossed over to the posterior column are derived from cells within the spinal cord, and
right side of the spinal cord, thus agreeing with the fact that the
belong to spinal association neurones.
paralysis is of the right half of the body.
^y a Association Neurons
0] Cerebral Cortex
CLa.rhes
wicfi /ifferenC
CerebetCar cr*
Neuron of
Ant Horn.
FIG. ii. Diagramillustrating the relative number and wealth of
cells and the cerebral cortex in the normal brain, in amentia
fibres in
and dementia. The horizontal systems of fibres are association
systems, and it will be observed that these are especially diminished
fiaCe in amentia, and still more in dementia, whereas the radial fibres are
less affected. In the normal, there are five layers of cells arranged in
FIG. 9. A diagram to indicate afferent, efferent and association columns (Meynert's); in the pathological conditions it will be ob-
systems of neurones. It will be observed that there are three nervous served that the pyramidal-shaped cells no longer have their apical
circles indicated by the arrows spinal, cerebellar and cerebral. processes pointing vertically upwards. The processes are broken off,
In every perfect co-ordinate movement impulses properly adjusted the cells are distorted in shape and diminished in numbers, and the
are flowing along these three systems of neurones. In systemic degree of dementia in a wasted brain is proportional to the atrophy
degenerations one or more of these systems may be affected, and the and destruction of the small and medium-sized pyramids of the whole
symptoms will depend partly upon the function which is lost or dis- cerebral cortex, and the of
disappearance of the superficial layers
turbed, and partly upon the disturbance of equilibrium of the three fibres. This is specially manifested in paralytic dementia and the
co-ordinated systems. dementia of chronic insanity.
436 NEUROPATHOLOGY
Some tumours are highly vascular and a large thin-walled vessel may of structures connected with the higher functions of the mind,
suddenly rupture and cause an apoplectic fit. If the growth is namely, the association neurones in the superficial layers of the
situated in a portion of the cortex having some special localizing
cerebral cortex (fig. n). Conditions of dementia, primary or
function, e.g. the motor area (vide fig. 7), it may give rise to epilepti-
form convulsions, starting in a limb or definite group of muscles; secondary, are associated with progressive decay and atrophy of
but the irritation usually spreads to the whole motor area of the same the superficial layers of the grey matter of the cortex, and naked-
side, and even extends to the opposite hemisphere, by
an overflow
eye evidence thereof is afforded by partial or general wasting
of the discharge through the corpus callosum. In such case there is
of the cerebral hemispheres, accompanied with thickening of
loss of consciousness. If, however, the tumour destroys the cerebral
cortex of a particular region, it may give rise to a paralytic lesion, the pia-arachnoid membrane, atrophy of the convolutions, and
e.g. paralysis of the
arm (vide Plate I., fig. 4). with deepening and widening of the intervening sulci (Plate I.,
fig- 7)-
Organic diseases of the blood-vessels, or of supporting and
enclosing tissues, produce secondary degenerations of the nervous The cerebro-spinal fluid fills up the space in the cranial cavity
system. The symptoms, like the lesion, are obvious, coarse and caused by the atrophy of the brain; consequently there is a great
obtrusive; frequently arising suddenly, they may in a
short time terminate fatally, or tend towards partial
or complete recovery. Various forms of motor and
sensory loss and disturbance of function may arise,
indicating destruction or disturbance of particular
regions of the central nervous system; and degenera-
tions in certain tractsand systems of fibres arise, cor-
responding in histological character with those ob-
served when a nerve fibre is separated from its cell of
origin by section (secondary degeneration of Waller
and Turck) (vide fig. 8, with explanation). This form
of degeneration must be distinguished from primary
degeneration, which is due to an inherent nutritional
defect of the nerve cell and all its processes (the
neurone), in which a regressive metamorphosis occurs;
FIG. 13.
it starts in the structures of the neurones latest
developed (namely, the myelin sheath and the fine
terminal twigs of the axis cylinder and dendrons), FIG. 12.
and proceeds back to the main branches and trunk,
eventually destroying the trophic and genetic centre
itself, the nerve cell. These primary degeneration pro-
cesses are insidious in origin, progressive in character,
and nearly always fatal in termination; they affect
definite systems, groups and communities of neurones
in a progressive manner, and, therefore, are associated
with a progressive evolution of symptoms, related to
the structures affected (vide figs. 9 and 10).
To cite some examples: (i) Locomotor ataxy, on the one
hand, is a primary degeneration affecting the afferent
system of neurones it is characterized by muscular inco-
;
ordination without wasting, inability to stand with the
eyes shut, lightning pains in the limbs, absent knee-jerks,
Argyll-Robertson pupils, and other symptoms pointing to
a morbid process affecting especially the afferent sensory
system of neurones. (2) Progressive muscular atrophy, on
the other hand, is a disease of the efferent motor system FIG. 14. FIG. 16.
of neurones of the brain and spinal cord, characterized by
progressive wasting of groups of muscles innervated by Motor Cells, drawn from Microphotographs of Preparations stained by NissI
groups of neurones which are undergoing degeneration. A method to show Microchemical Changes produced by various diseases.
fatal termination to this disease frequently arises from
affection of the medulla oblongata, causing what is known FIG. 12. Normal motor cell from cerebral cortex, showing a mosaic pattern
as bulbar paralysis. Infantile paralysis is an acute of the cytoplasm due to a substance stainable by basic aniline dyes; this stain-
inflammation of the anterior horns of the spinal cord, able substance exists also on the dendrons. By comparing the appearances of
causing destruction of the spinal motor neurones of the this cell with the other figures a just idea can be obtained of the morbid
anterior horn. It differs from the above chronic disease changes which result in various pathological conditions.
its sudden onset and non-progressive character; it FIG. 13. Cell from a case of hyper-pyrexia disappearance of the mosaic
resembles it in producing paralysis of muscles without pattern, substance uniformly stained; absence of the chromatic elements on
sensory disturbance. (3) General paralysis of the insane the dendrons, due to a precipitation of cell-globulin by the heat.
is a degeneration which begins in the association system FIG. 14. Cell in an advanced stage of coagulation necrosis, complete absence
of neurones of the cerebial cortex, but which may be, of mosaic pattern; diffuse fine dust-like stain; breaking off of the processes;
and frequently is, associated with degeneration of the all caused by softening of the brain from vascular obstruction.
afferent or efferent systems (fig. 9). FIG. 15. Another specimen from the same brain in a still more advanced
Neuroses and psychoses have not hitherto been stage of destruction, and showing a phagocyte attached to the cell and devouring
the decayed structure.
satisfactorily explained by definite morphological FIG. 16. A cell with enormously swollen nucleus, the result of hydration
changes in the brain (Plate I., fig. i). We know little due to absorption of fluid after ligature of cerebral vessels. Such a cell will
or nothing accurately about the morbid histology probably recover.
of insanity, except as regards the morphological
changes met with in cases of amentia and dementia. The excess of this fluid. Before general paralysis was recognized as a
disease some of the cases which died suddenly in a fit were doubtless
conditions of amentia, namely, idiocy and imbecility, are
termed serous apoplexy. This wasting so characteristic of general
associated with arrest of development of the brain, as a whole
paralysis is especially due to atrophy of the cells and fibres of the
or in part, the naked-eye evidence of which may be afforded superficial grey matter of the cortex, sections of which, examined
by small size and simplicity of convolutions of the brain as a microscopically, after suitable methods of staining have been
employed, show great poverty, or complete loss, of three sets
of
whole or in part (Plate I., figs. 2, 8 and 10) ; and the microscopical
delicate and the
evidence by arrest of development, or imperfect development, myelinated fibres, namely, tangential, super-radial
inter-radial corresponding to the line of Baillarger. This degeneration
NEUROPATHOLOGY 437
of the superficial association fibres of the cerebral cortex affects Microscopical Changes in Degeneration of the Neurone.
especially the frontal and central convolutions, and is the earliest About 1850, Waller demonstrated that a nerve fibre underwent
and most constant microscopical change in progressive paralytic
dementia; it is accompanied usually by meningeal and vascular degeneration to its termination when separated from its cell
changes, atrophy of the nerve cells, and proliferation of the neuroglia of origin; hence the term "Wallerian degeneration." Embryo-
(fig. n); especially characteristic is the perivascular infiltration logical researches by Professor His showed that the axis-cylinder
with lymphocytes and plasma cells (see Plate II., fig. 7). It was
process (the essential conducting portion of the nerve fibre)
indeed thought that this condition of the vessels was pathognomonic
of general paralysis; it certainly is not, for it is found throughout
is an outgrowth of the nerve cell. The cell, therefore, is the
the central nervous system in sleeping sickness and cerebro-spinal trophic and genetic centre of the nerve fibre. Acute alterations
syphilis (Plate II., figs. 8 and 9). It sometimes occurs in the neigh- and death of the nerve cells may occur from toxic conditions of
bourhood of cerebral tumours but it is not found in uraemia or lead the blood; from high fever (io7-no F.); arrest of the blood
encephalitis. Possibly new methods may enable us to show changes
of structure in diseases such as epilepsy and delusional insanity, in supply, as in thrombosis and embolism; or actual destruction
which hitherto no naked eye or microscopical structural defects by injury, haemorrhage or inflammation. These morbid pro-
accounting for the symptoms have been certainly demonstrated. cesses produce, as a rule, bio-chemical as well as morphological
In conditions of acute mania there is usually considerable vascular
changes in the nerve cell and its processes. Space will not allow
engorgement. Weshould, however, probably be more correct in
of a full description, but some of these changes are indicated
assuming that insanity (especially those forms in which there_ is
neither amentia or dementia) is due to alterations in the quality in figs. 18-22, with explanatory text. When a nerve cell dies,
the nerve fibre undergoes secondary degeneration and death;
that is to say, the whole neurone dies, and regeneration, at any
rate in the higher vertebrates, does not take place. Restoration,
or partial restoration, of function is due to other structures taking
on the function, and the more specialized that function is, the less
likely is restoration to
take place. If, however,
a peripheral nerve is
divided, its component
fibres are merely severed
from theircells of origin.
All that portion of the
nerve which is in con-
nexion with the nerve
cells of origin practically
undergoes no change. The
peripheral portion un-
dergoes degeneration, but
from the central end of
the nerve new axis cylin-
ders again grow out and
a new nerve is formed.
With this regeneration
comes restoration of
FJG l8 ._ D ; drawn from
function, which
may be photomicrograph to show different
hastened by suturing the forms of neuroglia cells in a patch of
ends of the cut nerve, sclerosis secondary to degeneration and
A similar disappearance of the neurones. Ob-
regeneration,' oe*r\rt*
serve the large
Km nr-rnari cells
f no lo*-rr branched Ic r\t
e^t->\ IAI t-Ai*o
of Deiters.
I
however, does not occur
after section of fibres of the white matter of the central ner-
vous system, and this may be due to the fact that the nerve
FIG. 17. Diagram to illustrate various stages in degeneration and
fibres of thewhite matter of the cerebro-spinal axis possess
regeneration of medullated nerve fibres.
no nucleated sheath of Schwann, which, by the light of recent
1, Normal medullated nerve with 5, Complete absorption of de-
node of Ranvier. generated myelin, proto-plas- investigations, is shown to play an important part in regenera-
mic basis of new fibre formed tion; in the writer's opinion, the neurilemmal sheath of the old
2, Degenerated nerve, ten days
after section, out of neurilemmal cells. fibre forms a new protoplasmic basis, into which the axis-
showing de- A new fibre, with axis-cylinder.
6,
generated myelin stained Central end of cut nerve at cylinder from above grows, the passage of stimulus determining
black; disappearance of axis- 7,
its function. Fig. 17, Nos. 1-8, with explanatory text, shows
cylinder. junction, showing an axis-
cylinder sprouting and form- the changes which occur in degeneration and regeneration of a
Central end of cut nerve, show-
3,
ing a number of axis-cylinder peripheral nerve after section, with loss of function; and sub-
ing at the top an axis-cylinder processes, which grow into the
budding out, proliferated sequent union, with restoration of function. The writer, in
peripheral end to form new
neurilemmal cells, and still channels of conduction. conjunction with Professor Halliburton, has shown that the
some degenerated myelin in 8, Is a new regenerated fibre re- characteristic microscopical changes in the myelin sheath which
sheath. occur in the process of degeneration are due to a splitting up
sembling a sympathetic fibre
4, Peripheral cut end of same, in having as yet no myelin " "
of the complex phosphoretted substance protagon into
showing proliferated neuri- sheath; as the nerve becomes
lemmal cells, still some de- excitable and stimulus passes, glycero-phosphoric acid, choline and oleic acid a
by process of
generated myelin. a myelin sheath is formed. hydration. The Marchi reaction, which has been found so useful
for demonstrating degeneration of the central and peripheral
rather than the quantity of blood in the brain. The primary de- nervous systems, is dependent upon the fact that the myelin
mentia of adolescence, which in 80% of the cases occurs before the
age of 25, in which hereditary taint is most common, and which sheath, after hardening in a solution of bichromate of potash, does
frequently is accompanied by, or terminates in, tuberculosis, can be not turn black when acted upon by osmic acid, whereas the simpler
explained by the effect of toxaemic conditions of the blood on non-phosphoretted fatty product of degeneration is stained black.
cerebral neurones with an inborn low specific energy and metabolic When the Marchi reaction of degeneration is fully developed,
activity. The histological changes found in the brain do not serve to
it has been ascertained that the nerve yields no phosphorus.
explain the symptoms, and we must look to bio-chemical changes in
the body acting upon an innately unstable brain to explain the The degeneration resulting from section of a nerve is termed
problems of the disordered mind in this disease. secondary, to distinguish it from another, primary, due to slow
438 NEUROPTERA
" "
and progressive decay of the whole neurone, beginning usually by Linnaeus and others as Neuroptera are included, but they
at the terminal twigs and proceeding back towards the cell body are distributed into the orders agreed upon by the majority
with its contained nucleus. These primary degenerations of modern observers, and short characters of these orders and
involve systems of neurones, correlated by function rather than their principal families are given. For further details the reader
by anatomical situation. Examples are afforded by locomotor should consult the special articles on these groups, to which
ataxy and progressive muscular atrophy, the former being a cross-references will be found.
degeneration of the afferent sensory system of neurones, the Sub-class EXOPTERYGOTA
latter of the motor efferent system. The cause of primary Order Plecoptera.
degenerations is probably a defect inherited or acquired in the This order was founded (1869) by F. Brauer the name having
" " of
vita propria the neurones affected. They slowly atrophy been long previously suggested by H. Burmeister (1832) to include
and disappear, and their place is filled up by an overgrowth the single family of the Perlidae or stone-flies. They resemble the
of the supporting neuroglia tissue (figs. 10 and 18). This over- Orthoptera more nearly than do any other group of the Linnean
Neuroptera, having the anal area of the hind-wings folding fanwise
growth of dense tissue is termed sclerosis, and was erroneously beneath the costal area and the whole hind-wing covered by the fore-
considered to be the cause, instead of the effect, of the atrophy wing when the insect is at rest, though the forewing is not firmer in
texture than the hind-wing, as is the case in the
of the nervous tissue. Orthoptera. In the
For further information the reader may consult the Croonian opinion of J. H. Comstock and J. G. Needham the wing-neuration
in this order is the most primitive to be found in the Hexapoda.
Lectures on the Degeneration of the Neurone, by F. W. Mott,
" The tenth abdominal segment carries a pair of jointed cerci which are
published in the Lancet (1900); and the same writer's Introduc-
often elongate, and the feelers are always long, while the jaws are
tion to Neuropathology," in Albutt's System of Medicine. Also
Gower's Handbook of the Nervous System, von Monakow's Gehirn usually feeble and membranous, though the typical parts of a
mandibulate mouth are present mandibles, maxillae with inner and
Pathologie, Ford- Robertson's Pathology of Mental Diseases and outer lobes and palps, and second maxillae (labium) whose lacinae
Mott's Archives of Neurology, vols. I, 2, 3 and 4. (F. W. Mo.)
are not fused to form a Hgula. Both head and trunk are somewhat
NEUROPTERA (Gr. vtvpov, a nerve, and irrtpbv, a wing), flattened dorso-ventrally, giving the insects a very distinct and
a term used in zoological classification for an order of the class characteristic aspect. The stone-flies further resemble the Orthoptera
in their numerous Malpighian
Hexapoda (q.v.). No ordinal name used in the class has had so excretory tubes, which vary in number
from twenty to sixty. The reproductive organs, both ovaries and
many varying meanings given to it by different authors. As testes, become fused together in the middle of the body. A re-
first used by Linnaeus (1735) it included all insects with mandi- markable point in the Plecoptera is the presence in some forms
bulate jaws and two pairs of net-veined wings dragon-flies, (Pteronarcys) of small branching gills on the three thoracic and the
front abdominal segments. These organs
May-flies, stone-flies, lacewing-flies and caddis-flies and it has appear, however, from the
observations of H. A. Hagen not to be functional in the adult insect
been employed in the same wide sense by D. Sharp (Cambridge
they are merely survivals from ths aquatic nymphal stage.
Nat. Hist. vol. v., 1895). But detailed study of these various Life-history and Habits. The nymphs of the Perlidae are closely
groups of insects shows that beneath their common superficial like their parents and breathe dissolved air by means of tracheal gills
resemblances lie important distinctions in structure, and essential on the thoracic segments, for they all live in the water of streams.
differences in the course of the life-history. Some of the families They feed upon weaker aquatic creatures, such as the larvae of May-
flies.
the stone-flies, for example have the young insect much like The perfect insects, whose flight is feeble, are never found far from
the adult, growing its wings visibly outside the thoracic segments, the water. A curious feature among them is the frequent reduction
of the wings in the males of certain species,
and active at all stages of its life. The dragon-flies and May-flies contrary to the usual
condition among the Hexapoda, where if the sexes differ in the de-
are also active throughout their lives and possess external wing-
velopment of their wings it is the female which has them reduced.
rudiments, though the young insects differ rather strikingly The Plecoptera are world-wide in their range and fossils referable to
from their parents. All such families falling into the group them have been described from rocks of Eocene, Miocene and Jurassic
Exopterygota as defined in the classification of the Hexapoda age, while C. Brpngniart states that allied forms lived in the
Carboniferous Period.
were separated from the Neuroptera by W. E. Erichson (1839)
Order Isoptera.
and united with the Orthoptera, with which order some ento- The two
families included in this order agree with the Plecoptera
"
mologists still associate them under the name of Pseudo- in the young insect resembling the parent, but they are all terrestrial
neuroptera." The other groups of the old Linnean order (such
as lacewing-flies and caddis-flies) which are hatched as larvae
markedly unlike the parent, develop wing-rudiments hidden
under the larval cuticle, and only show the wings externally
in a resting pupal stage, passing thus through a
" "
complete
metamorphosis and falling into the sub-class Endopterygota
were retained in the order Neuroptera, which thus became much
restricted in its extent. More recently the subdivision of the
Linnean Neuroptera has been carried still further by the separa-
tion of the caddis-flies and scorpion-flies as distinct orders
(Trichopteraand Mecaptera respectively), and by the withdrawal
" "
of the Pseudo-neuroptera from the Orthoptera with whose
typical families they have little in common and their division
into a number of small orders. Altogether, eight orders are
recognized in the classification adopted here, the first five of
these belonging to the sub-class Exopterygota and the last three
to the Endopterygota (see HEXAPODA).
Themultiplication of orders is attended with practical diffi-
and the distinctions between the various groups of the
culties,
Linnean Neuroptera are without doubt less obvious than those
between the Coleoptera (beetles) and the Diptera (two-winged After C. L. Mariatt, Ent. Bull. 4 (ff.S.), V.S. Dept. Agrlc.
flies) for example. Butclassification is to express relationship,
if FIG. I. Termes flavipes, N. America.
it is impossible to associate in the same order families whose a, Male from above. Mag- b and c, Hind segments of male and
6 times.
nified female abdomens, showing short
kinship to insects of other orders is nearer than their kinship to
d, Male from side. cerci magnified 24 times.
each other. And no student can doubt that the stone-flies are ;
e. Abdomen of female from /, End of shin and foot-segments magni-
akin to Orthoptera and the caddis-flies to the Lepidoptera, side. Magnified 4 times. fied 40 times.
while dragon-flies and May-flies stand in an isolated position
with regard to all other insects. In the present article, for throughout life. The hind-wings have no folding anal area and the
wings of both pairs, when present, are closely alike (see fig. i) whence
the sake of convenience, all the insects which have been regarded the name Isoptera (=equal winged) lately applied to the group by
NEUROPTERA 439
G. Enderlein. The eleventh abdominal segment which carries the which have wings of the type described above, are further character-
short jointed cerci (fig. I, b, c) may remain in a reduced condition ized by the presence of minute but distinct maxillulae, while the
distinct from the tenth. There are only six or eight Malpighian inner lobe (lacinia) of the first maxilla is an elongate, hard structure
"
tubes-^contrasting with the large number of these excretory organs (thepick," fig. 3, e) and the outer lobe is convex and soft. The
found in the Orthoptera and Plecoptera. labial (second maxillary) palps are reduced to small, rounded
The Embiidae are feeble, somewhat soft-skinned insects with the prominences external to the still smaller prominences that represent
prothorax small and the mesothorax and metathorax elongate. the lobes (fig. 3, c). The feelers of these insects are elongate and
The feelers are long and simple, and the wings are very narrow, each thread-like, consisting of from a dozen to nearly thirty segments.
with a sub-costal, a radial, a median and a cubital nervure; the The prothorax is very small.
branches of the median and the cubital, however, as well as the anal The book-lice are familiar wingless insects, often found in houses
nervures, are vestigial, and there are a few short cross-bars between running about among old papers and neglected biological collections.
They belong to the family Psocidae which has a few score species
most of them winged living out of doors on the bark of trees and
among vegetable refuse. In some Psocidae the wings are in a
vestigial state, and the fully winged species rarely if ever fly. H. A.
Hagen observed that some genera possess wing-like outgrowths on
the prothorax, comparable to those seen in certain insects of the
Carboniferous Period. The Psocidae themselves have not been
traced back beyond theOligocene, in the amber of which period their
remains are fairly numerous.
Mallophaga. This term was first applied by C. L. Nitzsch (1818)
a to the degraded wingless parasites (fig. 4) commonly known as bird-
After Mirlatt, Eni. Bull. 4 (-V-S.), U.S. Deft. Agric. lice or biting-lice, differing from the true lice (see HEMIPTERA,
FIG. 2. Head of termite, o, Front view. 6, Hind view, showing LOUSE) by their jaws adapted for biting (not for piercing or sucking).
jaws (note the distinct inner and outer lobes of the second maxillae). By their structure they are evidently allied to the Copeognatha.
Magnified.
They are abundantly distinct, however, through the short feelers
with only three to five segments and the conspicuous prothorax.
the radial and the median. Some Embiidae are entirety wingless in The head is relatively very large, but the
the adult state, and it has been suggested that this is always the
eyes are degraded and often absent. A
condition in the female sex. According to the recent investigations remarkable feature is the frequent con-
of K. W. Verhoeff the family contains only thirteen known species.
,
crescence of mesothorax and metathorax
The Embiidae live in warm countries, and are very retiring in and in some cases, even, their fusion with
their habits, hiding under stones where they spin webs formed of silk the anterior abdominal segments. The legs
produced by glands in the basal segments of the fore-feet. are stout and spiny, and well adapted for
The Termitidae (so-called " white ants ") are the other family of
clinging to the hair or feathers of the host
Isoptera. They are relatively shorter and broader insects than the animal. It is usual to divide the Mal-
Embiidae with large prothorax and long wings, which have a trans-
lophaga into two families the Liotheidae,
verse line of weakness at the base and are usually shed after the
possessing labial palps and two foot-claws,
nuptial flight. The Termitidae are numerous in species in warm being fairly active insects, which are
countries. The vast majority of individuals in a community consist
" " capable, on the death of their host, of
of wingless forms workers and " soldiers," which are unde-
seeking another, and the Philopteridae,
veloped members of either sex. Their economy is fully described in without labial palps and with a single foot-
a special article on TERMITES. claw modified for clasping (fig. 4) which
Order Corrodentia. never leave the host and perish themselves
The insects included in this order differ from those of the two
soon after its death.
preceding orders in their more condensed abdomens which bear no Order Ephemeroptera.
cerci, while the number of Malpighian tubes is reduced to four.
'
This order includes the single family of After Osbora, Ent. Bull. ^
In the absence of cerci the Corrodentia are more specialized than the the Ephemeridae or May-flies. The name, <a >'
"^ Dep A?"c . -
!;.
Isoptera and Plecoptera, but some of them show a more primitive although quite recently proposed by A. J 4. Biting-louse
character in the retention of vestigial maxillulae the minute pair of E. Shipley, should be used rather than (Tnchodectes scalaris) of
jaws that
are found behind the mandibles in the Aptera (qj>.). A A. S. Packard's older term Plectoptera on cattle. Magnified 30
large proportion of the Corrodentia are wingless. When wings are account of the great liability of confusion times,
present the front pair are much larger than the hind pair, and the between the latter and Plecoptera. The May-flies are remarkably
neuration is remarkable for the concresence of the median with the
primitive in certain of their characters, notably the elongate cerci,
the paired, entirely mesodermal genital ducts, and the occurrence
of an ecdysis after the acquisition of functional wings. _ On the
other hand, the reduced feelers, the numerous Malpighian tubes
(40), the large complex eyes, the vestigial condition of the jaws,
the excessive size of the fore-wings as compared with the hind-wings
and their complex neuration with an enormous number of cross-
nervules are all specializations. So in some respects is the life-
history, with a true larval preparatory stage, unlike the parent
form, and living an aquatic life, breathing dissolved air by means
of a paired series of abdominal tracheal gills. Except for its
aquatic adaptations, however, the ephemerid larva is wonderfully
thysanuran in character, and possesses conspicuous and distinct
maxillulae. See special article on MAY-FLIES.
Order Odonala.
The distinctness of the dragon-flies from other insects included in
Linnaeus's Neuroptera was long ago recognized by J. C. Fabricius,
(X -S.). Da. Eat. VS. Dept. Agric.
After Marlatt, Bull. 4
who proposed for them the ordinal name "
of Odonata U775)-
"
They resemble the May-flies in their hemimetabolous life-
FIG. 3.Book-louse (Atropos divinatoria, Fab.), Europe.
history; the young insects are markedly unlike their parents, in-
a. From below. c, Second maxillae.
habiting fresh water and breathing dissolved air, either through
b. From above, magnified 30 d, Mandible. trachea! gills at the tip of the abdomen, or by a branching system of
"
times (eyes, feeler, feet and e, Lacinia or " pick of first air-tubes on the walls of the rectum into which water is periodically
claws more highly magni- maxilla. admitted. The winged insects resemble the May-flies in their short
fied). /, Its palp. Highly magnified. feelers and in the large number (50 to 60) of their Malpighian tubes,
cubital trunk, and the zigzag course of many of the branches. All but differ most strikingly from those insects in their strong well-
the insects of this order are of small size and the cuticle is im- armoured bodies, their powerful jaws adapted for a predaceous
perfectly chitinized, so that the body as a whole is soft. The name manner of life, and the close similarity of the hind-wings to the fore-
Corrodentia was first used by H. Burmeister (1832) and has reference wings. All the wings are of firm, glassy texture, and very complex in
to the biting habits of the insects. Originally, however, the Corro- their neuration a remarkable and unique feature is that a branch
;
dentia included the order which Enderlein has recently separated as of the radius (the radial sector) crosses the median nervure, while,
Isoptera (see above). As at present restricted, the Corrodentia by the development of multitudinous cross-nervules, the wing-area
include two distinct sub-orders. becomes divided into an immense number of small areplets. The
Copeognatha. This sub-ordinal name has been applied by tenth abdominal segment carries strong, unjointed cerci, while the
"
Enderlein to the book-lice." These frail insects, the majority of presence of reproductive armature on the second abdominal segment
440 NEUSALZ NEUSTADT
of the male is a character found in no other order of the Hexapoda. Leptoceridae, Hydropsychidae, Rhyacophilidae and Hydroptilidae the
See special DRAGON-FLY. palps of the males have five segments like those of the females.
The stone-built cases of the carnivorous Hydropsychid larvae are
Sub-class ENDOPTERYGOTA familiar objects in the water of swift streams.
Order Neuroplera. BIBLIOGRAPHY. For a general account of the various orders
The insects retained in the order Neuroptera as restricted by mentioned the present article see D. Sharp, Cambridge Natural
in
modern systematists are distinguished from the preceding orders by History, v. (London, 1895); L. C. Miall, Nat. Hist. Aquatic Insects
the presence of a resting pupal stage in the life-history, so that a (London, 1895) J. G. Needham, &c., Aquatic Insects in New
;
" "
complete metamorphosis is undergone. Structurally the Neuro- York State (Albany, N.Y., 1903); F. Brauer, Die Neuropteren
ptera are distinguished by elongate feelers,
a large, free
prothorax,
a Europas (Wien, 1876); J. A. Palmen, Zur Morphologie des Tracheen-
labium with the inner lobes of the second maxillae fused together to systems (Leipzig, 1877). Noteworthy writings on the special orders
form a median ligula, membranous, net-veined wings without hairy are: PLECOPTERA: F. J. Pictet, Histoire naturelle des insectes
covering, those of the two pairs being usually alike, the absence of Neuropieres-Perlides (Geneve, 1871-1872); A. Imhof, Beitrage zur
abdominal cerci, and the presence of six or eight Malpighian tubes. Anatomic von Perla maxima (Aarau, 1881); K. I. Morton, Trans.
The larvae are active and well-armoured, upon the whole of the Ent. Soc. Land. (1894-1896). ISOPTERA: For Embiidae see H. A.
" "
camrjodeiform type,
but destitute of cerci; they are predaceous Hagen, Canadian Entom. xvii. (1885); G. Enderlein, Zool. Anz.
in habit, usually with slender, sickle-shaped mandibles, wherewith xxvi. (1903); K. W. Verhoeff, Abhandl. K. Leopold. Carolin. Akad.
they pierce various insects so as to suck their juices. The order Ixxxii. (1904). For Termitidae see TERMITES. CORRODENTIA: For
contains nine families, most of which are wide in their geographical Copeognatha see G. Enderlein, Ann. Hist. Nat. Mus. Nat. Hungar,
"
i.
distribution. Fossil Neuroptera occur in the Lias and even in the (1903), and Zool. Jahrb. Syst. xviii. (1903); R. McLachlan, British
"
Trias if the relationships of certain larvae have been correctly Species in Ent. Mo. Mag. iii. (1867). For Mallophaga see E. Piaget,
surmised. Les Pediculines (Leiden, 1880-1885); F- Grosse, Zeits. vriss. Zoolog.
The Sialidae or alder-flies (q.v.) differ from other Neuroptera in the xlii. (1885). ForEpHEMEROPTERAandOnONATA, see MAY-FLY and
jaws of the larva which is aquatic, breathing by paired, jointed DRAGON-FLY. NEUROPTERA (sens, str.) H. A. Hagen, Proc.
:
abdominal gills resembling those of the imago, and being adapted Boston, Nat. Hist. Soc. xv. (1873); F. Brauer, Verh. Zool. hot. Gesells.
for the mastication of solid food. Some American genera (Corydalis) Wien, xix. (1869); R. McLachlan, "British Neuroptera Planipennia"
which belong to this family are gigantic among insects and their in Trans. Entom. Soc. (1868). MECAPTERA: F. Brauer (loc. cit.).
males possess enormous mandibles. The Raphidiidae or snake-flies TRICHOPTERA: R. McLachlan, Trichoptera of the European Fauna
" "
(q.v.)
are remarkable for the long, narrow, tapering prothorax which (London, 1874-1880), and British Trichoptera in Trans. Entom.
gives the appearance of a constricted neck, while the female has a long Soc. (1865 and 1882); R. Lucas, Arch. f. Naturg. lix. (1893); G.
ovipositor. Both these families are very sparingly represented in Ulmer, Abhandl.
naturhist. Verein Hamburg, xviii. (1903) A.;
our fauna. Thienemann, Zoolog. Jahrb. System, xxii. (1905). (G. H. C.)
The Myrmeleonidae are large insects with short clubbed feelers on NEUSALZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
their prominent heads, and two pairs of closely similar net-veined
Silesia, on the Oder, 20 m. by rail N.W. of Glogau. Pop. (1905)
wings, with regular oblong areolets at the tips. Their predaceous,
suctorial larvae are the well-known ant-lions (q.v.). No members of 13,002. It has three Evangelical churches, one of which belongs
this family inhabit our islands, though a few species occur in neigh- to the Herrnhut brotherhood, a Roman Catholic church and an
bouring parts of the continent. The same is the case with the orphanage. Its largest industry is, perhaps, the manufacture
allied Ascalaphidae, which are distinguished from the Myrmeleonidae
of thread; there are also in the town ironworks, breweries,
by their elongate feelers as long as the body and by the irregular
apical areolets of the wings. The curious Nemopteridae have slender shipbuilding yards and electrical works. Neusalz became a town
feelers and very long strap-shaped hind-wings. The Mantispidae in 1743.
are remarkable among the Neuroptera for their elongate prothorax, See Bronisch, Geschichte von Neusalz an der Oder (Neusalz, 1893).
raptorial fore-legs and hypermetamorphic life-history, the young NEUSS, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province,
campodeiform larva becoming transformed into a fat eruciform grub lies 4 m. to the W. of Diisseldorf and i m. from the W. bank
parasitic on young spiders
or wasp-larvae (see MANTIS-FLY). The
last-named two families are confined to warm regions of the earth. of the Rhine, with which it is connected by the Erft canal.
The lacewing-flies (q.v.), however, of which there are two families, It lies at the junction of lines to Cologne, Viersen, Zevenaar
the Hemerobiidae and Chrysopidae, whose larvae feed on Aphids,
(Holland), Dusseldorf, Dtiren and Rheydt. Pop. (1905) 30,494,
sucking their juices, are represented in our fauna. So are the tiny
Coniopterygidae, which are covered with a white powdery secretion,
of whom 95 %
were Catholics. The chief building in the town
and have very small hind-wings. Their larvae resemble those of the is the church of St Quirinus, a remarkably fine example of the
lacewings, attacking scale-insects and sucking their juices. transition from the Round to the Pointed style; and there are
Order Mecaptera. six other Roman Catholic churches, two Protestant churches
This small order was founded (1869) by F. Brauer under the and a gymnasium, which contains a collection of Roman
name of Panorpata for the small family of the Panorpidae or antiquities. The town hall was built in the I7th and altered
scorpion-flies (q.v.). The name Mecaptera is due to Packard. They in the 1 8th century. The old fortifications are now laid out as a
may be distinguished from the Neuroptera by the elongation of the promenade encircling the town. Neuss produces oil and meal,
head into a beak, the small prothorax, the narrow, elongate wings
with predominantly longitudinal neuration, the presence of abdominal and also manufactures woollen stuffs, chemicals and paper,
cerci and the eruciform larva. They are generally but sparingly bricks and iron-ware. Its markets for cereals are among the
distributed over the earth's surface and can be traced back in time most important in Prussia, and it is also the centre of a brisk
to the early Jurassic epoch.
trade in cattle, coals, building materials and the products of its
Order Trichoptera. various manufactories.
The caddis-flies (q.v.) constitute this order, the name of which Neuss, the Novaesium of the Romans, frequently mentioned
(suggested by H. Burmeister) indicates the hairy covering of the by Tacitus, formerly lay close to the Rhine, and was the natural
wings. They are abundantly distinct from the Neuroptera and centre of the district of which Diisseldorf has become the chief
Mecaptera, through the absence of mandibles
in the imago, the
maxillae both pairs of which possess the typical inner and outer town. Drusus, brother of the emperor Tiberius, threw a bridge
lobes and jointed palps forming a suctorial apparatus. The feelers across the Rhine here, and his name is preserved in the Drusustor,
are long, slender and many-jointed. While the fore-wings are the lower half of which is of Roman masonry. In 1474-1475
elongate and narrow, the hind-wing^ are broad, with a folding anal Charles the Bold of Burgundy besieged the town in vain for
area. At the base of each wing projects a dorsal lobe the jugum
and the neuration is predominantly longitudinal, resembling so eleven months, during which he lost 10,000 men; but it was
closely that of the lower Lepidoptera (q.v.) that a nearer relationship taken and sacked by Alexander Farnese in 1586. Since 1887
of the Trichoptera to that order than to any group of the old Linnean extensive excavations have been made of the foundations of a
Neuroptera is certain. Fossil Trichoptera occur in rocks of Liassic
age.
huge Roman camp, and many valuable Roman treasures have
Frequently the whole of the Trichoptera are included in a single
been unearthed.
family, but most special students of the order recognize seven families. See C. Tucking, Geschichte der Stadt Neuss (Dusseldorf, 1891);
In all the maxillary palps of the female are five- F. Schmitz, Der Neusser Krieg, 1474-1475 (Bonn, 1896); W.
Trichojptera
segmented. The family Phryganeidae have males with four- Effmann, Die St Quirinus Kirche zu Neuss (Dusseldorf, 1890); and
segmented hairy palps the larvae inhabit stagnant water and make
;
Band xx. of the Chroniken der deutschen Stadte.
cases of vegetable fragments. In the Limnephilidae the maxillary NEUSTADT (Polish, Prudnik), a town of Germany, in the
palp is three-segmented in the male, the larvae are variable in habit, Prussian province of Silesia, on the river Prudnik, 60 m. by rail
many forming cases of snail-shells. The males of the Sericoslomatidae
have two or three segmented palps; their larvae inhabit running S.E. of Breslau. It has four Roman Catholic churches and one
water and make cases of grains of sand, or of small stones. In the
% Evangelical. Pop. (1903) 20,187, the greater part of whom are
NEUSTADT-AN-DER-HAARDT NEUTRALITY 44 1
Roman Catholics. The chief industries are tanning, dyeing comprised only the Frankish dominions beyond the Rhine,
and the manufacture of damask, linen, woollen stuffs, leather perhaps with the addition of the three cities of Mainz, Worms
and beer. and Spires on the left bank. The districts between Neustria
In 1745, 1760 and 1779 engagements between the Austrians and Austrasia were called Media Francia or simply Francia.
and Prussians took place near Neustadt, which on the last In 843 Brittany took from Neustria the countships of Rennes
occasion was bombarded and set on fire. and Nantes; and gradually the term Neustria came to be
See Weltzel, Geschichte der Stadt Neustadt (Neustadt, 1870). restricted to the district which was later called Normandy.
NEUSTADT-AN-DER-HAARDT, a town of Germany, in the Dudo of Saint Quentin, who flourished about the year 1000,
Bavarian Palatinate, picturesquely situated under the eastern gives the name Neustria to the lands ceded to Rollo and his
slope of the Haardt Mountains and at the mouth of the valley followers during the loth century. In the year 1663, the Pere
of the Speyerbach, 14 m. W. of Spires, and at the junction of de Moustier gave to his work on the churches and abbeys of
railway lines to Worms, Weissenburg and Monsheim. Pop. Normandy the title of Neustria pia.
(1905) 18,576. It has four churches, two Evangelical and two At the time Charlemagne, Lombardy was divided into five
of
Roman Catholic. The Protestant abbey church, a fine Gothic provinces: Neustria, Austrasia, Aemilia, Littoraria maris and
edifice dating from the I4th century, contains the tombs of several Tuscia. Austrasia was the name given to eastern Lombardy,
of the counts palatine of the Rhine. The Roman
Catholic and Neustria that given to western Lombardy, the part last
Ludwigskirche is a modern Gothic structure. The chief indus- occupied by the Lombards.
tries of the town are cloth, paper, furniture, soap, starch and "
See F. Bourquelet, Sens des mots France et Neustrie sous le
hats. It has also breweries and distilleries. A brisk trade is regime meVovingien," in the Bibliotheque de I'Scole des chartes,
carried on in wood, grain, fruit and wine, all of which are xxvi. 566-574; Longnon, Atlas historique de la France, both atlas
and text. (C. PF.)
extensively produced in the vicinity. Neustadt, which became a
town in 1275, is one of the centres of the Rhenish "grape-cure," NEUTITSCHEIN (Czech Novy Jitin), a town of Austria, in
and thus attracts numerous visitors. Moravia, 75 m. N.E. of Brilnn by rail. Pop. (1900) 11,891,
NEU-STETTIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province chiefly German. It is situated on a spur of the Carpathians, and
of Pomerania, on the small Streitzig lake, 90 m. by rail on the banks of the Titsch, an affluent of the Oder. It is the chief
N.E. of Stettin, at the junction of railways to Belgard, Posen place in the Kuhlandchen, a fertile valley peopled by German
and Stolpmiinde. Pop. (1905) 10,785. Its industries are iron- settlers, who rear cattle and cultivate flax. At Neutitschein
founding, dyeing, brewing and the manufacture of machinery, manufactures of woollen cloth, flannel, hats, carriages and
soap and matches. There is a considerable trade in cattle, tobacco are carried on; and it is also the centre of a brisk trade.
grain and other agricultural produce, and in timber and spirits. The town was founded in 1311. Neutitschein was in 1790 the
Neu-Stettin was founded in 1313 by Wratislaus, duke of headquarters of the Austrian field-marshal Loudon, who died
Pomerania, on the model of Stettin. here in the same year and is buried in the parish church.
See Wilcke, Chronik der Stadt Neu-Stettin (Neu-Stettin, 1862); NEUTRALITY, the state or condition of being neutral (Lat.
and F. W. Kasiski, Beschreibung der vaterldndischen Alterthumer in
neuter, neither of two) of not being on or inclined to one side or
,
Neu-Stellin (Danzig, 1881).
another, particularly, in international law, the condition of a
NEU-STRELITZ, a town of Germany, capital of the grand- state which abstains from taking part in a dispute between other
duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, situated between two small lakes, states. Neutrality is the most progressive branch of modern
the Zierker See and the Glambecker See, 60 m. N. of Berlin, on International Law. It is also that branch of International
the railway to Stralsund, at the junction of lines to Warnemunde Law in which the practice of self-restraint takes the place
and Buschhof. Pop. (1005) 11,656. It is built in the form of a of the direct sanctions of domestic law most effectively. The
star, the eight rays converging on a market-place adorned with rapid changes it is undergoing are in fact bringing the state-
a statue of the grand-duke George (d. 1860). The ducal residence system of the modern world nearer to the realization of the dream
is a handsome edifice in a pseudo-classical style, with a library of many great writers and thinkers, of a community of nations
of 75,000 volumes, and collections of coins and antiquities. just as much governed by legal methods as any community of
Other buildings are the churches (two Evangelical and one civilized men. While the right of war was simply the right of
Roman Catholic), the Carolinum (a large hospital), the town hall, the stronger, there was no room for neutral rights, for, without
the barracks, the gymnasium and the theatre. Its manufactures going back to the time of the ancients, the so-called rights of war
are iron-ware, machinery, pottery, beer and mineral waters. and conquest are nothing but survivals of the right of brute
Its trade, chiefly in corn, meal and timber, is facilitated by the strength. No nation or community down to comparatively recent
Zierker See and by a canal connecting the town with the Havel times was treated as having a right to what it could not keep.
and the Elde. It is the growth of a law of neutrality, through the modern
About 1 5 m. to the south lies Alt-Strelitz, the former capital possibility of concerted action among neutral states, which is
of the duchy, a small town the inhabitants of which are employed bringing about improvement, and, though the signs of our times
in the manufacture of tobacco, leather and wax candles. Neu- are not always reassuring, we have taken a long stride forward
Strelitz was not founded till 1726. In the vicinity is the chateau since Molloy, in his De Jure maritime et navali (1680), wrote:
"
of Hohen-Zieritz, where Queen Louise of Prussia died in 1810. As a neuter neither purchases friends nor frees himself from
NEUSTRIA, the old name given to the western kingdom of enemies, so commonly he proves a prey to the victor; hence it
the Franks, as opposed to the eastern kingdom, Austrasia is held more advantage to hazard in a conquest with a companion
(#..). N
The most ancient form of the word is luster, from niust, than to remain in a state wherein he is in all probability of being
which would make the word signify the " most recent " con- ruined by the one or the other."
quests of the Franks. The word Neustria does not appear as It was the great commercial communities, the Hansa in the
early as the Hisloria Francorum of Gregory of Tours, but is north and Venice and the Mediterranean maritime republics in
found for the first time in Fredegarius. The kingdom of Chilperic the south, which were first able to insist on some sort of regulation
was retrospectively given this name, and in contemporary usage of the usages of war for their own protection. With the growth of
it was given to the kingdom of Clovis II., as opposed to that of intercourse among nations a further advance was made, by treaty
Sigebert III., the two sons of Dagobert; and after that, the stipulations entered into in time of peace, to provide rules for
princes reigning in the West were called kings of Neustria, and their guidance in the event of war, but it is only in our own
those reigning in the East, kings of Austrasia. Under the new time that the idea of a substantive neutral right has obtained
Carolingian dynasty, Pippin and Charlemagne restored the unity recognition. To our own time belongs the final acceptance of the
of the Frankish realm, and then the word Neustria was restricted principle that the neutral flag protects an enemy's goods except
to the district between the Loire and the Seine, together with contraband, the conception of neutralization of territory, the
part of the diocese of Rouen north of the Seine; while Austrasia abolition of fictitious blockades, the practice of declarations of
442 NEUTRALITY
neutrality, the detachment from the high sea and neutralization 2. Neutral right of official representation and mediation-
of the zone called territorial waters, and the Areopagus of nations of intercourse of neutral citizens with citizens of either belligerent
called the European Concert, in which the right of neutrals is of convoy, &c.
asserted as a brake upon the operation of the still venerated 3. Belligerent right of blockade, angary, visit and search,
right of conquest. The rights of neutrals have received their capture and confiscation of contraband of war.
most recent affirmation in several of the decisions of the Hague 4. Neutral duties: (absolute) of abstention from any direct
Peace Conferences. corporate assTslance to either belligerent, of enforcement of
International trade and intercourse have become so intricate respect by both belligerents for neutral territory; (relative)
that war can no longer be waged without causing the most serious of prevention of any recruiting for either belligerent, or arming
loss to neutral nations, which, moreover, suffer from it without or equipping of vessels for their service; and (contingent) of
any of the possible contingent benefits it may procure for the allowing commercial access to the one or other belligerent without
immediate parties. So much is it so, that most great powers have distinction, and of granting impartially to one or the other
found it necessary for their self-protection to enter hi to defensive belligerent any rights, advantages or privileges, which, according
alliances with others, the direct object of which is the preservation to the usages recognized among nations, are not considered as an
of European peace by the threat of making war"so gigantic a intervention in the struggle.
venture that no state will again embark on it with a light This subdivision, we believe, covers the whole ground of
heart." The next step will probably be alliances between neutrality. We shall follow it in this article.
states which, by their nature or by their having reached the Belligerent Duty. It is now universally recognized among
limit of their expansion, have nothing further to gain by war European states that a belligerent army must make no use
with each other, for the purpose of securing perpetual peace as of its strength in the field to .carry its operations into Doty to
between themselves. neutral territory or into neutral waters. Belligerent respect
Different attempts have been made to define neutrality, forces entering neutral territory are by the practice
but the word defines itself, so far as a succinct definition serves of nations bound to surrender their arms to the neutral
any purpose. The subject covers too wide and varied state, and remain hors de combat till the close of the war. (Com-
d an area * ma tter to be condensed into a short state- pare arts, ii and 12 of the Hague Convention relating to the
"cope. "
ment any kind. Neutrality entails rights and duties
of Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers and persons in case of
on both the and the neutral sides. Theoretically,
belligerent war on land " i8th of October 1907.)
neutrality, to be complete, would require the neutral to abstain Through territorial waters belligerent vessels are allowed to
from everything which could even remotely be of assistance pass freely as in time of peace. Nor does the usage of nations
to either belligerent. To this obligation would theoretically forbid a belligerent vessel from entering a neutral port,
^cces* to
correspond that the belligerent should carry on the war without Motives of humanity have sanctioned this distinction ta a duty
doing anything which could even remotely disturb or interfere between territorial and maritime warfare. The Ad- to respect
with the neutral state or the free activity of its citizens. Neither miralty Instructions (1893) set out the rights of bel- ^^
the one nor the other is found to be practicable. It is not even ligerents as Great Britain views them as follows:
"
easy for the belligerent to observe absolutely the duty of doing Subject to any limit which the neutral authorities
no direct injury to neutral territory. A battle may be fought to may place upon the number of belligerent cruisers to be admitted
the very edge of the neutral frontier, and shells may explode in into any one of their ports at the same time, the captain, by
any neutral town within the firing range of modern artillery. the comity of nations, may enter a neutral port with his ship for
The present respect paid by belligerents to territorial waters the purpose of taking shelter from the enemy or from the weather,
is a palliative in the case of a seaboard frontier; but even the or of obtaining provisions or repairs that may be pressingly
three-mile limit acknowledged by most countries would permit necessary (I. section 592). He is bound to submit to any regula-
belligerent vessels with present range of artillery to fire land- tions which the local authorities may make respecting the place
wards far into neutral territory. Compensation it is true, would of anchorage, the limitation of the length of stay in the port, the
be due for any damage done, but this does not alter the fact that interval to elapse after a hostile cruiser has left the port before
acts of war can produce direct consequences on neutral territory his ship may leave in pursuit, &c. (I. section 593). He must
which have the character of carrying war into a neutral state. abstain from any acts of hostility towards the subjects, cruisers,
The neutral state, moreover, is obliged to incur heavy ex- vessels or other property of the enemy which he may find in
penditure to protect its frontier from being traversed by either the neutral port (section 594). He must also abstain from
belligerent, and thus avoid itself being exposed to claims for number of his guns, from procuring military stores,
increasing the
compensation for an act which it would otherwise be powerless and from augmenting his crew even by the enrolment of British
"
to prevent. In the case of a maritime war, the neutral state subjects (section 595).
is bound to exercise strict supervision to prevent its ports
also Nor may the commander of a British warship take a capture
from being used by either belligerent for the purpose of increasing into a neutral port against the will of the locals-authorities
- In
its military strength. short, war cannot be carried on without (Holland, Manual of Naval Prize Law, 1888, section 299). This
heavy expense and inconvenience to neighbouring neutral states. subject was one of those dealt with at the Hague Conference of
The inconvenience "
to the intercourse of neutral citizens is still 1907. (See art. 18 of the Convention relating to the rights and
greater. Their ships are liable to be taken out of their course, duties of neutral powers in naval war.")
and their cargoes to be discharged to the bottom of the hold in Neutral Rights. Neutral Bowers have the right to remain,
search of articles which are contraband according to circum- as far as possible, unaffected by the war operations, and, therefore,
stances over which they have no control, and they may be continue their diplomatic relations with the belligerent
confiscated without recourse by judges appointed by one of the states. The immunities and exterritoriality of their legation.
interested parties. Even whole trade with specific ports
their diplomatic agents attach to them as in time of peace,
of the one belligerent be stopped by the ships of the other
may subject only to necessity of war, which may entitle a belligerent to
belligerent without indemnity. On the other hand, a great deal place restrictions on this intercourse. Thus, during the Franco-
of vital assistance can be given by neutral citizens to the one German War, on the surrounding of Paris, foreign diplomatists
or the other belligerent in money, or by supplies of arms, ammuni- in the besieged city were refused by the German authorities all
tion, food and other commodities, which it is not at present the possibility of corresponding with their governments, except by
duty of neutral states to interfere with. letters left open for their inspection. Neutral legations may also
The respective rightfe and duties of belligerent neutrals in undertake the representation of private interests of subjects of the
current practice may be subdivided as follows: one belligerent on the territory of the other. Thus in the Franco-
i. Belligerent duty to respect neutral territory and neutral German War of 1871 the Germans in France were placed under the
territorial waters. protection of the United States legation, and the French in
NEUTRALITY 443
Germany under that o the British legation; in the war of 1898 any specific and exclusive government purpose. Public ships in
between the United States and Spain, American interests in this sense are invested with an extra-territorial character, and
Spain were committed to the care of the British legation, and the state to which they belong is directly responsible
those of Spaniards in the United States to that of the Austro- for their acts. They are therefore not liable to visit and 0/
Hungarian legation. By legations are understood both diplo- search for contraband of war, and are exempt from tern- public
matic and consular authorities. The protection granted is in torial jurisdiction even in belligerent waters. As regards S *<P* aaa
the nature of mere mediation. It confers no rights on the belli- vessels which are engaged partly in private traffic and
gerent subjects in question, nor does it give the neutral legation partly on public service, such as mail steamers and
any right to protect a belligerent subject or his property against government packets, the position is necessarily different. Under
any ordinary rights of war. the Japanese Prize Law, adopted in view of the Chino-Japanese
Good properly speaking, are a mild form of mediation
offices, campaign, any vessel carrying contraband of war, whose destina-
or tentative mediation, i.e. mediation before it has been accepted tion is hostile, may be detained, without exception being made
Right at
kv the parties. Article 3 of the Hague Convention for mail steamers. The United States proclamation of April
ottering foj,' the pacific settlement of international disputes 1898 in connexion with the Spanish War stated that mail steamers
"
rood of October 18, 1907, however, provides that powers, would only be stopped in case of grave suspicion of their carrying
Stran 8 ers to the dispute, have the right to offer contraband or of their violating a blockade.
good offices or mediation, even during the course of On the arrest of the German mail steamers " Bundesrath " and
" " "
hostilities," and that the exercise of this right can never be General during the South African War, the German govern-
"
regarded by one or other of the parties in conflict as an un- ment represented to the British government that it was highly
"
friendly act." The Hague Convention puts an end to the doubt desirable that steamers flying the German mail-flag should not
whether a neutral power can mediate without involving itself be stopped, and the British government thereupon issued orders
in some way with the one or the other side in the dispute. Media- not to stop them on suspicion only (Parliamentary Papers,
tion had already been provided for in several existing treaties, Africa, No. i, 1900). This was a precedent of the greatest
such as the Treaty of Paris (3oth March 1856), which provides importance. It would have practically assimilated mail steamers
"
that if any dissension should arise between the Sublime Porte to public ships. Yet the mere circumstance of carrying the mails
and one or more of the other signatory powers and threaten the does not manifestly per se change the character of the ship.
maintenance of their good relations, the Sublime Porte and each Both this subject and the position of packets under state owner-
of these powers before resorting to force shall give an opportunity ship, which may carry on trade and may consequently transport
to the other contracting parties in order to prevent such extreme contraband, require deliberate adjustment by treaty. The
"
measures the Treaty of Yedo between the United
(article 8) ;
convention between Great Britain and France respecting postal
States and Japan (zgth July 1858) stipulating that in the case of communications (soth August 1890) provides that " in the case
"
difference between Japan or any other state, the president of of war between the two nations the packets of the two adminis-
the United States, at the request of the Japanese government, trations shall continue their navigation, without impediment or
will act as a friendly mediator in such matters of difference as molestation until a notification is made on the part of either
may arise between the government of Japan and any other of the two governments of the discontinuance of postal com-
"
European power (article 2) ; and the General Act of Berlin munications, in which case they shall be permitted to return
"
relating to West Africa (1885), which provides that "in the freely to their respective ports (article 9). The position of
case of a serious dissension having arisen on the subject of, or either as neutral is not dealt with. The tendency seems to be
within the territories" in question, between the signatory towards exemption, but in this case there should be official
powers, they undertake, before taking up arms, to have certification that the ships in question carry nothing in the
recourse to the mediation of one or more of the friendly powers nature of contraband.
(article 12). Meanwhile the Hague Conference of 1907 has adopted rules
In the Venezuela-Guiana boundary question, the mediation under which postal correspondence of neutrals or belligerents
of the United States government was declined by Great Britain, is inviolable, whether it be official or private, or the
but its good offices were accepted. In the difficulty which arose carrying vessel be neutral or an enemy vessel, but in
between Germany and Spain in connexion with the hoisting of so far as mail ships are concerned they are not otherwise exempt
the German flag on one of the Caroline Islands, Spain did not from the application of the rules of war affecting merchant ships
consider arbitration consistent with the sovereign power she generally (see Convention on restrictions on the exercise of the
claimed to exercise over the island in question, but she accepted right of capture in maritime war, October, 1907). Connected
the mediation of the pope, and the matter was settled by pro- with the position of public ships is the question of the right of
tocols, signed at Rome (tyth December 1885). These incidents convoy. Neutral merchant ships travelling under the escort of
show the uses of variety and gradation in the methods of a warship or warships of their own flag are held by some
diplomacy. authorities to be exempt from visit and search. The Japanese
Neutral subjects have the right to carry on trade and inter- Prize Law, which is largely based on English practice, following
course with belligerent subjects in so far as they do not interfere on this point the recommendations of the Institute of Inter-
Rights of
w ' tn t ^le operations or necessities of war, and it is no national Law (see Reglement des prises maritime*, Annuaire 1888,
neutral violation of the neutral character that this trade or p. 221), provides that "when the commander of a neutral convoy
subject* on intercourse is of benefit to either side. This is subject declares that there is no contraband of war on board the vessels
eingerent a i wa S to tne
y belligerent right to capture and confiscate under convoy, and that all the papers are in order in these vessels,
"
contraband of war (see below) On the other hand, the
. the vessels shall not be visited (article 23).' The United States,
property of subjects and citizens of neutral states follows the 1
At the outset of the Chino-Japanese War, Vice-Admiral Sir E. R.
fortune of the belligerent state within whose territorial juris- Fremantle sent a note to the Japanese admiral requesting him to
"
diction it is situated. It is liable to the same charges as that of give orders to the ships under his command not to board, visit or
native subjects and citizens, and in case of military contributions interfere in any way with British merchant vessels, observing that the
neutral subjects on belligerent soil can claim no protection or British admiral had directed all British ships under his orders to
afford protection to such merchant vessels, and not to allow them to
exemption (see below, Angary). They have also the same rights be molested in any way." Professor Takahashi, in his International
to all indemnities for loss as are granted to native subjects and Law of the Chino-Japanese War, relates that the Japanese admiral
"
citizens. replied that as the matters demanded by the British admiral
The position of neutral public ships and the relative assimila- belonged to the sphere of international diplomacy, and consequently
were outside his official responsibility, they should be communicated
tion to them of mail steamers has been the subject of some "
The idea
directly to the Japanese Department of Foreign Affairs." "
controversy. A
public ship is a ship having an official character. of the British admiral," observes Professor Takahashi, seemed to be
It includes not only warships, but also any ships affected to not only to claim a right of convoy, which has never been recognized
444 NEUTRALITY
in treaties withMexico (sth April 1831), Venezuela (2oth January she is good prize and should be sent in for adjudication;
1836), Peru (6th Sept. 1870), Salvador (6th December 1870) and but should the formal notice not have been given, the rule
Italy (26th February 1871), have agreed to accept the commander's of constructive knowledge arising from notoriety should be
declaration as provided in the Japanese Prize Law. Wharton construed in a manner liberal to the neutral." Thus the United
quotes in his International Law Digest a passage from a despatch States government abandoned the system of individual notifica-
of Mr Secretary Forsyth (i8th May 1837) in which he states that tion inserted in the proclamation of igth April 1861, which was
"
it is an ordinary duty of the naval force of a neutral during only found practicable in the case of vessels which had presumably
either civil or foreign wars to convoy merchant vessels of the sailed without knowledge. In such cases it was provided by
nation to which it belongs to the ports of the belligerents. This, the more recent instructions that they should be boarded by
however, should not be done in contravention of belligerent an officer, who should enter the notice in the ship's log, such
rights as defined by the law of nations or by treaty." The entry to include the name of the blockading vessel giving notice,
Spanish Naval Instructions (24th April 1898) in the war with the extent of the blockade, and the date and place, verified
the United States granted unconditional exemption to convoyed by his official signature. The vessel was then to be set free,
neutral ships (article n). The subject has now been dealt with with a warning that, should she again attempt to enter the same
by the Declaration of London (1908-1909), which requires the or any other blockaded port, she would be good prize. The
commander of a convoy to give a statement in writing as to the Declaration of London (1908-1909) exhaustively treats of this
character of the vessels and cargoes (see CONVOY). A neutral subject and has regulated it with a leaning towards continental
merchant ship, travelling under enemy's convoy, places itself, views (see BLOCKADE).
with the assistance of the belligerent force, beyond the application Angary, or Droit a" Angarie, is a contingent belligerent right,
of the belligerent right of visit and search, and thus commits a arising out of necessity of war, to dispose over, use and destroy,
1
breach of neutrality. if need be, property belonging to neutral states. Aa a
Belligerent Rights. Since the declaration of Paris providing During the Franco-German War imminent necessity
that blockades hi order to be binding must be effective, that is was pleaded by the German government, as the justification
to sav> must '3e maintained by a force sufficient really of using force to seize and sink six British coal-ships in the Seine
Blockade
to prevent access to the enemy's coast, the tendency to prevent French gun-boats from running up the river and
has been to give a precise form to all the obligations of the interfering with the tactics of the German army operating on
blockading belligerent. Thus it is now generally agreed that its banks. The captains of the Vessels refused to enter into any
notification to the neutral should be sufficiently detailed to agreement with the commanding German general, and the vessels
enable neutral vessels to estimate, with practical accuracy, the were then sunk by being fired upon. The British government
extent of their risks. French writers consider a general notifica- raised no objection to the exercise of the right, and confined itself
tion, though desirable, as insufficient, and hold an individual to demanding compensation for the owners, which the German
notification to each neutral ship which presents itself at the line government declared itself ready to pay. Count Bismarck
of blockade as requisite. This theory was applied by France in evidently felt the use which might be made against Germany,
the Franco-German War, and earlier by the Northern States in as a neutral power, of such an extreme measure, and took care
the American Civil War. The new Japanese Prize Law (1894) in the correspondence with the British government to emphasize
does not attempt to prescribe any such notification to each ship, the pressing character of the danger, which could not be other-
but sets out that notice of blockade to each ship is either actual wise parried.
" " A case given in the text-books as another one of angary
or constructive. Actual it describes as being when the
master is shown to have had knowledge of the blockade, in during the same war was the temporary seizure and conversion
whatever way he may have acquired such knowledge, whether to war purposes of Swiss and Austrian rolling-stock in Alsace,
by direct warning from a Japanese warship or from any other without any apparent military necessity. Ordinary private
"
source; constructive," when a notification of its existence has neutral property on belligerent soil, it must be remembered,
been made to the proper authorities of the state to which the follows the fate of private property generally. The only
vessel belongs, and sufficient time has elapsed for such authorities distinction between the right of angary and the right of
to communicate the notification to the subjects of that nation, assimilating private neutral property- to private property
whether or not they have in fact communicated it. No blockade, generally on belligerent soil which seems based on reason is
however, was attempted by the Japanese government, and the that, whereas private property of neutrals generally which has
application of the rules was not put to the test. remained on belligerent soil is sedentary, or, so to speak, domi-
In the war with Spain the United States proclamation of the ciled there, neutral vessels are mere visitors with a distinct
investment of Cuba stated that an efficient force would be external domicile. The writer thinks the assimilation of neutral
posted, so as to prevent the entrance and exit of vessels from railway carriages to neutral vessels in this respect not unreason-
'
the blockaded ports, and that any neutral vessel approaching able.2
" A neutral state in its corporate capacity, we have seen, must
or attempting to leave any of them, without notice or know-
ledge" of the establishment of the blockade, would be duly abstain from acts which can be of assistance to either belligerent,
warned by the commander of the blockading forces, who would and it is bound to exercise reasonable diligence to
endorse on her register the fact and date of such warning, and prevent its territory being used as a base for belligerent
"
where such endorsement was made. The words without notice operations. The duties of a neutral state as a state
"
or knowledge were explained fully in the instructions to go no further. Commercial acts of its citizens, even the export
"
blockading vessels (2oth June 1898). Neutral vessels," said of arms and munitions of war to a belligerent country, do not,
these instructions, " are entitled to notification of a blockade in the present state of international usage, so long as both
before they can be made prize for its attempted violation." belligerents are free to profit by such acts alike, involve liability
"
The character of this notification is not material. It may on the part of the neutral state. But relief from the obligation
be actual, as by a vessel of the blockading force, or con- of repressing breaches of neutrality by contraband traffic of
structive, as by a proclamation of the government maintaining subjects has its counterpart in the right granted to belligerent
the blockade, or by common notoriety. If a neutral vessel warships of visit and search of neutral merchant vessels, and
'can be shown to have notice of the blockade in any way, in the possible condemnation, according to circumstances, of
by British prize courts, but also to extend it over all waters of the the ship and confiscation of goods held to be contraband.
Far East, where British warships were not actually engaging in 1
Angaria (from Hyyapos, a messenger), a post station. The French
convoy. Soon afterwards the matter was settled without any diffi- word-/ja|ar or shed is probably of the same origin.
culty. On i ith August the under-Secretary of the Japanese Foreign
1
Treaties between the Zollverein and Spain (3Oth March 1868) and
Office received a letter from the British Minister in T6ky6 stating between Germany and Portugal (2nd March 1872) contain special
that there must be some misunderstanding, and that the British provisions for the fixing of indemnities in case of any forced utiliza-
government would never try to interfere with belligerent right." tion by either state of private property of the citizens of the other.
NEUTRALITY 445
Contraband is of two kinds absolute contraband, such as Britain, as above stated, put in force her practice of treating
arms of all kinds, machinery for manufacturing arms, ammuni- coal as contraband, and thereupon France exercised her corre-
tion, and any materials which are of direct application in naval sponding belligerent right of searching British vessels. The
or military armaments; and conditional contraband, consisting closing of British coaling stations to French warships was a
"
of articles which are fit for, but not necessarily of direct, applica- serious inconvenience to France, and she proclaimed that in
"
tion to hostile uses. The British Admiralty Manual of Prize the circumstances in which war was being carried on the
Law (1888), following this distinction, enumerates as absolutely cargoes of rice which were being shipped to the northern Chinese
contraband: arms of all kinds and machinery for manufacturing ports were contraband. By depriving the Chinese government
arms; ammunition and materials for ammunition, including of part of the annual tribute sent from the southern provinces
lead, sulphate of potash, muriate of potash, chlorate of potash in the form of rice she hoped to bring pressure on the Peking
and nitrate of soda; gunpowder and its materials, saltpetre government. This was a manifest stretching of the sense
and brimstone; also guncotton; military equipments and of conditional contraband. Besides, no distinction was made
clothing; military stores, naval stores, such as masts, spars, as to destination. The British government protested, but no
rudders, and ship-timber, hemp and cordage, sailcloth, pitch cases were brought into the French prize courts, and the
and tar, copper fit for sheathing vessels, marine engines and legality of the measure has never been judicially examined.
the component parts thereof, including screw propellers, paddle The controversy during the South African War was confined
wheels, cylinders, cranks, shafts, boilers, tubes for boilers, to theory. In practice no stoppage of food-stuffs seems to have
boiler plates and fire-bars, marine-cement and the material taken place, though the fact that the whole able-bodied popula-
used in the manufacture thereof, blue lias and Portland cements; tion of the enemy states formed the fighting force opposed to
iron in any of the following forms anchors, rivet iron, angle Great Britain made it clear that the free import of food supplies
iron, round bars of iron of from to f of an inch diameter, rivets, from abroad helped the farmer-soldiers to carry on warfare
strips of iron, sheets, plate iron exceeding J of an inch, and without the immediate care of raising food crops.
Low Moor and Bowling plates; and as conditionally contraband: The two cases cited show the great difficulty of fixing the
provisionsand liquors fit for the consumption of army or character of conditional contraband in a way to prevent arbitrary
navy, money, telegraphic materials, such as wire, porous cups, seizures. During the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) there was
platina, sulphuric acid, materials for the construction of a a warm controversy between the British and Russian govern-
railway, such as iron bars, sleepers and so forth, coal, hay, ments on the scope of the belligerent right to declare
horses, rosin, tallow, timber.
1
certain articles contraband. The Conference of London (1908-9),
The classing of coal as conditional contraband has given by enumerating the articles which are absolute contraband,
rise to much controversy. Great Britain has consistently held limiting those which may be declared contraband, and fixing
Coal.
it to be so. During the war of 1870 the French and certain articles which can in no case be declared contraband,
German warships were only allowed to take at English has endeavoured to meet the difficulties which arise in practice
ports enough to return to a French or German port respectively. (see CONTRABAND).
In 1885, during the Franco-Chinese campaign, after protest Trade between neutrals has a prima facie right to go on, in
by the Chinese government, Great Britain applied the same spite of war, without molestation. But if the ultimate destina-
rule at Hong-Kong and Singapore. During the Spanish-American tion of goods, though shipped first to a. neutral port,
"
War neither belligerent seems to have treated coal as contraband. is enemy's territory, then, according to the doctrine
In the case of the coal-ships which were prevented from landing of continuous voyages," the goods may be treated as if
voyages.
their cargoes at Cuba, the prevention seems to have been con- they had been shipped to the enemy's territory direct.
nected with the blockade only. At the West African conference This doctrine, though Anglo-Saxon in its origin and develop-
"
of 1884 Russia declared that she would categorically refuse ment, has been put in force by an Italian court in the case of the
her consent to any articles in any treaty, convention or instru- Doelwijk, a Dutch vessel which was adjudged good prize on the
ment whatever which would imply " the recognition of coal ground that, although bound for Jibouti, a French colonial port,
as contraband of war (Parliamentary Papers, Africa, No. 4, it was laden with a provision of arms of a model which had
1885). Coal, however, is so essential to the prosecution of war gone out of use, and which could only be intended for use by
that it is impossible to avoid classing it as conditional contra- the Abyssinians, with whom Italy was at war. The subject has
band, so long as such contraband is recognized. The alternative, been fully discussed by the Institute of International Law, by
of course, would be to allow both belligerents freely to supply whom the following rule has been adopted: " Destination to
themselves at neutral ports, and neutral vessels freely to supply the enemy is presumed where the shipment is to one of the
belligerent coaling stations. enemy's ports, or to a neutral port, if it is unquestionably proved
During the Franco-Chinese campaign of 1885 and the South by the facts that the neutral port was only a stage (etape) towards
African War there was controversy as to the legality of treating the enemy as the final destination of a single commercial
2
Food-
food-stuffs as conditional contraband. During the operation."
stuffs.
former the subject-matter was rice, and the circum- The question of the legality of the doctrine was raised by
stances were exceptional. The hostilities being at Chancellor von Btilow during the South African War in connexion
the outset reprisals, and not actual war, France at first exercised with the stopping of German ships bound for Delagoa Bay, a
no right of search over British merchant ships. Great Britain, neutral port. He contended that such vessels were quite,
on her side, for the same reason did not object to French war 2
The only person in that eminent assemblage who raised an
vessels coaling, victualling and repairing at British ports. objection to the principle of the doctrine was the distinguished French
writer on maritime law, M. Desjardins, who declined to acknowledge
On China protesting against this indulgence to France, Great that any theory of continuous voyages was, or could be, consistently
with the existing law of neutrality, juridically known to International
1
The Japanese Prize Law (aist August 1894) makes the following Law. He admitted, at the same time, that penalties of contraband
distinction: (l) Arms of all kinds, brimstone, dynamite, nitrate of would be incurred if the shipping to a neutral port were effected
"
potash, and all goods fit for the purpose of war exclusively: the merely in order to deceive tne belligerent as to the real destina
