Fundamentals of Machining

Mechanics of Cutting
Cutting Forces and Power
Temperatures in Cutting
Tool Life: Wear and Failure
Surface Finish and Integrity
 Machining Fundamentals

Fig 21.1 Some examples of common machining

operations.
Machining Fundamentals

Fig 21.2 Schematic illustration of the turning operation, showing various features.
 Machining Fundamentals - Mechanics of Cutting
(a)

Fig 21.3 Schematic illustration of a two-dimensional cutting process, also called orthogonal
cutting: (a) Orthogonal cutting with a well-defined shear plane, also known as the M.E.
Merchant model. Note that the tool shape, the depth of cut, to, and the cutting speed, V ,
are all independent variables.
 Machining Fundamentals - Mechanics of Cutting
(b)

Fig 21.3 Schematic illustration of a two-dimensional cutting process, also called orthogonal
cutting: (b) Orthogonal cutting without a well-defined shear plane.
Machining Fundamentals - Mechanics of Cutting

Table 21.1 Factors Influencing Machining Operations.

 Machining Fundamentals – Mechanics of Cutting

(a)

(b)

Fig 21.4 (a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation by shearing. (b)
Velocity diagram showing angular relationships among the three speeds in the cutting zone.
Machining Fundamentals – Mechanics of Cutting

Cutting ratio
𝑟𝑟 cos 𝛼𝛼
tan 𝜙𝜙 =
1 − 𝑟𝑟 sin 𝛼𝛼
and
𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 sin 𝜙𝜙
𝑟𝑟 = = 𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐 ← 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 , 𝛼𝛼, 𝜙𝜙
𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐 cos 𝜙𝜙 − 𝛼𝛼
where
𝛼𝛼 rake angle
𝜙𝜙 shear angle
𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 depth of cut
𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐 chip thickness
𝑟𝑟 chip thickness ratio
1⁄𝑟𝑟 chip-compression ratio
Machining Fundamentals – Mechanics of Cutting
Shear strain 𝛾𝛾
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
𝛾𝛾 = = + or 𝛾𝛾 = cot 𝜙𝜙 + tan 𝜙𝜙 − 𝛼𝛼
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
Large 𝛾𝛾 is associated with (a) low 𝜙𝜙 or (b) with low or negative 𝛼𝛼
Shear angle influences force and power requirements, chip
thickness and temperature in cutting.
According to some models,
𝛼𝛼 𝛽𝛽
𝜙𝜙 = 45° + − and 𝜙𝜙 = 45° + 𝛼𝛼 − 𝛽𝛽
2 2
and 𝜇𝜇 = tan 𝛽𝛽 where 𝜇𝜇 is coefficient of friction at the tool-chip
interface and is the 𝛽𝛽 friction angle.
Machining Fundamentals – Mechanics of Cutting
Velocities in the cutting zone (Fig 21.4b)
From mass continuity
𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐 or 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉

Hence the velocity of the chip 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 :

𝑉𝑉 sin 𝜙𝜙
𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 =
cos 𝜙𝜙 − 𝛼𝛼
From Fig 21.4b,
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐
= =
cos 𝜙𝜙 − 𝛼𝛼 cos 𝛼𝛼 sin 𝜙𝜙
where 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 is the velocity at which shearing takes place in the
shear plane.
 Machining Fundamentals - Chips in Cutting

(a) (b) (c)

Fig 21.5 Basic types of chips produced in orthogonal metal cutting, their schematic
representation, and photomicrographs of the cutting zone: (a) continuous chip, with narrow,
straight, and primary shear zone. (b) continuous chip, with secondary shear zone at the
chip–tool interface. (c) built-up edge.
 Machining Fundamentals - Chips in Cutting

(d) (e)
Fig 21.5 (d) segmented or nonhomogeneous chip; and (e) discontinuous chip. Source: After
M.C. Shaw, P.K. Wright, and S. Kalpakjian.
 Machining Fundamentals - Chips in Cutting

Fig 21.7 (a) Machining aluminum using an insert without a chip breaker; note the long chips
that can interfere with the tool and present a safety hazard. (b) Machining aluminum with a
chip breaker. Source: (b) Courtesy of Kennametal, Inc.
 Machining Fundamentals - Chips in Cutting
(c) (d)

(e)

Fig 21.7 (c) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip breaker; note that the chip breaker
decreases the radius of curvature of the chip and eventually breaks it. (d) Chip breaker
clamped on the rake face of a cutting tool. (e) Grooves in cutting tools acting as chip
breakers; the majority of cutting tools are now inserts with built-in chip-breaker features.
 Machining Fundamentals - Chips in Cutting
(a) (b)

(c)

Fig 21.8 Chips produced in turning: (a) tightly curled

chip; (b) chip hits workpiece and breaks; (c)
continuous chip moving radially away from
workpiece; and (d) chip hits tool shank and breaks off.
 Machining Fundamentals - Oblique Cutting
(a) (b)

(c) Fig 21.9 (a) Schematic illustration of cutting

with an oblique tool; note the direction of
chip movement. (b) Top view, showing the
inclination angle, i. (c) Types of chips
produced with tools at increasing
inclination angles.
Machining Fundamentals – Cutting Forces and Power

𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 cutting force 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 ⁄ ⁄ 𝑉𝑉

𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 thrust force 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 ⊥ 𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅 resultant force of 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐
and 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡

shear force 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠 and a normal force

𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛 at the shear plane:
𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 cos 𝜙𝜙 − 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 sin 𝜙𝜙
𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 sin 𝜙𝜙 + 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 cos 𝜙𝜙
(Shear and normal stress
in the shear plane!)
Fig 21.11 (a) Forces acting in the cutting zone during two-dimensional cutting. Note
that the resultant force, R, must be colinear to balance the forces.
 Machining Fundamentals – Cutting Forces and Power

𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅𝑅 sin 𝛽𝛽 − 𝛼𝛼
= 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 tan 𝛽𝛽 − 𝛼𝛼
𝛽𝛽 > 𝛼𝛼 → 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 > 0
𝛽𝛽 < 𝛼𝛼 → 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 < 0

Fig 21.11 (b) Force circle to determine various forces acting in the cutting zone.
 Machining Fundamentals – Cutting Forces and Power
Friction force 𝐹𝐹 and normal force 𝑁𝑁 at the tool-chip interface:
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑅𝑅 sin 𝛽𝛽 , 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑅𝑅 cos 𝛽𝛽 where is 𝛽𝛽 the friction angle. Thus
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 + 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 tan 𝛼𝛼
𝜇𝜇 = =
𝑁𝑁 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 − 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 tan 𝛼𝛼
Power input in cutting : 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 × 𝑉𝑉
Power dissipation : mainly
shear + friction
shearing = 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠 × 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠
friction = 𝐹𝐹 × 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐
Total specific energy
= 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 + 𝐹𝐹𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 ⁄ 𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉
w : width of cut

Table 21.2 Approximate Range of Energy Requirements in Cutting Operations at the Drive
Motor of the Machine Tool, Corrected for 80% Efficiency (for dull tools, multiply by 1.25).
 Machining Fundamentals – Cutting Forces and Power
Example The orthogonal cutting experiments, one has experiment
parameters depth of cut 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 = 0.13mm, width of cut 𝑤𝑤 = 2.5mm,
rake angle 𝛼𝛼 = −5°, cutting speed 𝑉𝑉 = 2mm/s. From measurement,
one also has chip thickness 𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐 = 0.23mm, cutting force 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 = 430N
and thrust force 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 = 280N . Determine the shear angle 𝜙𝜙, friction
coefficient 𝜇𝜇, shear stress 𝜏𝜏 and shear strain 𝛾𝛾 on the shear plane,
chip velocity 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 and shear velocity 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 as well as power for shearing and
for friction and power input.
Soln
𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 0.13
𝑟𝑟 = = = 0.565 ;
𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐 0.23
𝑟𝑟 cos 𝛼𝛼 𝑟𝑟 cos −5°
tan 𝜙𝜙 = = = 0.536 ⇒ 𝜙𝜙 = 28.2°
1−𝑟𝑟 sin 𝛼𝛼 1−𝑟𝑟 sin −5°
𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 +𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 tan 𝛼𝛼 280+430 tan −5°
𝜇𝜇 = = = 0.533 = tan 𝛽𝛽 ⇒ 𝛽𝛽 = 28°
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 −𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 tan 𝛼𝛼 430−280 tan −5°
 Machining Fundamentals – Cutting Forces and Power
Shear force 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 cos 𝜙𝜙 − 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 sin 𝜙𝜙 = 247N ;
Shear stress 𝜏𝜏 = 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠 ⁄ 𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 ⁄sin 𝜙𝜙 = 359MPa
Shear strain 𝛾𝛾 = cot 𝜙𝜙 + tan 𝜙𝜙 − 𝛼𝛼 = 2.52
sin 𝜙𝜙 sin 28.2°
𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 𝑉𝑉 =2× = 1.13m/s
cos 𝜙𝜙−𝛼𝛼 cos 28.2°+5°
cos 𝛼𝛼
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 2.38m/s
sin 𝜙𝜙
Power for shearing = 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠 × 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 587Nm/s
𝑅𝑅 = 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡2 + 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐2 = 513; 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑅𝑅 sin 𝛽𝛽 = 241N
Power for friction = 𝐹𝐹 × 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 272Nm/s
Power input in cutting = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 × 𝑉𝑉 = 860NM/s
Note: Power input ≈ Power for shearing + Power for friction
 Machining Fundamentals – Temperatures in cutting
Mean temp in orthogonal Energy becomes heat!
cutting
𝜎𝜎𝑓𝑓 3 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜 Heat sources
𝑇𝑇mean ∝
𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 𝐾𝐾
𝜎𝜎𝑓𝑓 flow stress
Lowers the
𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 volumetric specific heat
strength,
K thermal diffusivity
hardness,
(ratio of thermal
stiffness and
conductivity to
wear
vol specific heat)
resistance
metallurgical dimensional
changes changes
Fig 21.12 Typical temperature distribution in the cutting zone. Note the severe temperature
gradients within the tool and the chip, and that the workpiece is relatively cool.
 Machining Fundamentals – Temperatures in cutting
(a) (b)

Fig 21.13 Temperatures developed in turning 52100 steel: (a) flank temperature distribution.
(b) tool–chip interface temperature distribution. Source: After B.T. Chao and K.J. Trigger.
 Machining Fundamentals – Temperatures in cutting

Fig 21.14 Proportion of the heat generated in cutting transferred to the tool, workpiece, and
chip as a function of the cutting speed. Note that the chip removes most of the heat.
 Machining Fundamentals – Tool life
(a)

Fig 21.15 (a) Features of tool wear in a

turning operation. The VB indicates average
flank wear. Source: (a) Terms and
definitions reproduced with the permission
of the International Organization for
Standardization, ISO, copyright remains
with ISO.
 Machining Fundamentals – Tool life
(b)

(c)

Fig 21.15 (b)–(e)

Examples of wear in
cutting tools: (b)
flank wear. (c) crater
wear.
 Machining Fundamentals – Tool life
(d)

(e)

Fig 21.15 (b)–(e) Examples of wear in cutting tools: (d) thermal cracking. (e) flank wear and
built-up edge. Source: (b)–(e) Courtesy of Kennametal Inc.
 Machining Fundamentals – Tool life

(a)

Fig 21.18 (a) Schematic illustrations of types of wear observed on various cutting tools.
 Machining Fundamentals – Tool life
(b)

Fig 21.18 (b) Schematic illustrations

of catastrophic tool failures. A wide
range of parameters influence these
wear and failure patterns.
 Machining Fundamentals – Surface finish and Integrity

(a)

(b)

Fig 21.21 Machined surfaces produced on

steel (highly magnified), as observed with
a scanning-electron microscope: (a) turned
surface. (b) surface produced by shaping.
Source: After J T. Black and S. Ramalingam.
 Machining Fundamentals – Surface finish and Integrity

Fig 21.22 Schematic illustration of a dull tool with respect to the depth of cut in orthogonal
machining (exaggerated). Note that the tool has a positive rake angle, but as the depth of
cut decreases, the rake angle effectively can become negative. The tool then simply rides
over the workpiece (without cutting) and burnishes its surface; this action raises the
workpiece temperature and causes surface residual stresses.
Machining Fundamentals – Surface finish and Integrity

𝑓𝑓 2
𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡 =
8𝑅𝑅
𝑓𝑓 : feed

Fig 21.23 Schematic illustration of feed marks on a surface being turned (exaggerated).