C++ Programming Language

All computer systems consist of similar hardware devices and software components.

• Hardware: Hardware refers to the physical components that a computer is made of. A
computer is not an individual device, but a system of devices. A typical computer system
consists of the following major components:
1. The central processing unit (CPU)
2. Main memory (RAM)
3. Secondary storage devices
4. Input devices
5. Output devices

• Software: Software refers to the programs that run on a computer. There are two general
categories of software: operating systems and application software. An operating system is a
set of programs that manages the computer's hardware devices and controls their processes.
Application software refers to program that the computer useful to the user. These programs
solve specific problems or perform general operations that satisfy the needs of the user.

Programming Languages

There are two categories of programming languages: low level and high level. A low
level language is close to the level of the computer, which means it resembles the numeric
machine language of the computer more than natural language of humans. The easiest
languages for people to learn are high level language. They are called "high level" because
they are closer to the level of human readability than computer-readability like C++.

How C++ Programming Works

The C++ programming language is a popular and widely used programming language for
creating computer programs. Programmers around the world embrace C++ because it gives
maximum control and efficiency to the programmer.

If you are a programmer, or if you are interested in becoming a programmer, there are a
couple of benefits you gain from learning C++:

• You will be able to read and write code for a large number of platforms -- everything
from microcontrollers to the most advanced scientific systems can be written in C++,
and many modern operating systems are written in C++.
• C++ is an object oriented language. C++ is an extension of C, C++ also includes
several other improvements to the C language, including an extended set of library
routines.

We will walk through the entire language and show you how to become a C++
programmer, starting at the beginning. You will be amazed at all of the different things
you can create once you know C++!

1
What is C++?

C++ is a computer programming language. That means that you can use C++ to create
lists of instructions for a computer to follow. C++ is one of thousands of programming
languages currently in use. It gives programmers maximum control and efficiency. C++ is an
easy language to learn. It is a bit more cryptic in its style than some other languages, but you
get beyond that fairly quickly.

C++ is what is called a compiled language. This means that once you write your C++
program, you must run it through a C++ compiler to turn your program into an executable
that the computer can run (execute). The C++ program is the human-readable form, while
the executable that comes out of the compiler is the machine-readable and executable form.

When a C++ program is written, it must be typed into the computer and saved to a
file. A text editor, which is similar to a word processing program, is used for this task. The
statements written by the programmer are called source code, and the file they are saved in is
called the source file. After the source code is saved to a file, the process of translating it to
machine language can begin.

During the first phase of this process, a program called the preprocessor reads the
source code. The preprocessor searches for special lines that begin with the (#) symbol. These
lines contain commands that cause the preprocessor to modify the source code in some way
as we will see later.

During the next phase the compiler steps through the preprocessed source code,
translating each source code instruction into the appropriate machine language instruction.
This process will uncover any syntax errors that may be in the program. Syntax errors are
illegal uses of keywords, operators, punctuation, and other language elements. If the program
is free of syntax errors, the compiler stores the translated machine language instructions,
which are called object code, in an object file.

Although an object file contains machine language instructions, it is not a complete

program, because C++ is conveniently equipped with a library of prewritten code for
performing common operations or sometimes difficult tasks. For example, the library
contains mathematical functions, such as calculating the square root of a number. The
collection of code, called the run time library, is extensive. Programs almost always use
some part of it. When the compiler generates an object file, however, it does not include
machine code for any run time library routines the programmer might have used. During the
last phase of the translation process, another program called the linker combines the object
file with the necessary library routines. Once the linker has finished with this step, an
executable file is created. The executable file contains machine language instructions, or
executable code, and is ready to run on the computer.

Libraries

Libraries are very important in C++ because the C++ language supports only the most basic
features that it needs. C++ does not even contain I/O functions to read from the keyboard and
write to the screen. Anything that extends beyond the basic language must be written by a
programmer. The resulting chunks of code are often placed in libraries to make them easily
reusable. We have seen the standard I/O, or stdio, library already: Standard libraries exist for

2
standard I/O, math functions, string handling, time manipulation, and so on. You can use
libraries in your own programs to split up your programs into modules. This makes them
easier to understand, test, and debug, and also makes it possible to reuse code from other
programs that you write.

The Simplest C++ Program

Let's start with the simplest possible C++ program and use it both to understand the basics of
C++ and the C++ compilation process.

#include <iostream.h>

int main()
{
cout << "Hello";
return 0;
}

When executed, this program instructs the computer to print out the line "Hello" -- then the
program quits. You can't get much simpler than that!

You should see the output "Hello" when you run the program. Here is what happened when
you compiled the program:

If you mistype the program, it either will not compile or it will not run. If the program does
not compile or does not run correctly, edit it again and see where you went wrong in your
typing. Fix the error and try again.

The Simplest C++ Program: What's Happening?

• #include <iostream.h> tells the preprocessor to include the iostream standard file. This
specific file (iostream) includes the declarations of the basic standard input-output library
in C++, and it is included because its functionality is going to be used later in the
program.
• The line int main() declares the main function. Every C++ program must have a function
named main somewhere in the code. At run time, program execution starts at the first line
of the main function.
• In C++, the { and } symbols mark the beginning and end of a block of code. In this case,
the block of code making up the main function contains two lines.
• cout << "Hello"; This line is a C++ statement. A statement is a simple or compound
expression that can actually produce some effect. In facts, this statement performs the
only action that generates a visible effect in our first program. cout represents the
standard output stream in C++, and the meaning of the entire statement is to insert a
sequence of characters (in this case, the Hello sequence of characters) into the standard
output stream (which usually is the screen).
• The return 0; line causes the function to return an error code of 0 (no error) to the shell
that started execution.

3
• We can little update the previous program to become
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
clrscr();
cout<<"Hello";
getch();
return 0;
}
 #include <conio.h>. This line includes the "console I/O library" into your program.
 clrscr() clears the current text window and places the cursor in the upper left-hand corner
(at position 1,1).
 getch() reads a single character directly from the keyboard, without echoing to the screen.

• To output multiple lines

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
clrscr();
cout << "Hello";
cout<<”nice to meet you";
getch();
return 0;
}
The output becomes:
Hellonice to meet you

You can use \n for newline at the end of the 1st message, so that the 2nd
message appear in the next line, and the program becomes:
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
clrscr();
cout << "Hello\n";
cout<<"nice to meet you";
getch();
return 0;
}
The output becomes:
Hello
nice to meet you

which is the same as to

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
clrscr();
cout << "Hello\nnice to meet you";
getch();
return 0;
}
• You may also use the endl manipulator to add a new line:
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
clrscr();
cout << "Hello"<<endl<<"nice to meet you";
getch();
return 0;
}

4
Comments

Comments may be of the form:

// comment

or

/* comment */

The first form allows a trailing comment on a single line, while the second form allows
comments that span multiple lines.

Comments may appear anywhere.

Function Declarations

Provides the full definition of a function, while

storage_class type identifier (formal_argument_list);

provides a prototype of a function which may be used to provide code which uses the
function with the minimal essential parts of the definition to permit compilation. In the
prototype the formal_argument_list must contain the types, but need not contain names for
the formal arguments.

In older versions of C++, different syntax was used to declare formal arguments, placing
them after the closing parenthesis and before the function body.

Example:

void main(void);

void main(void)

5
Constants and Variables

Constants are data items whose values cannot change while the program is running.

Literals

Literals are used to express particular values within the source code of a program. We have
already used these previously to give concrete values to variables or to express message we
wanted our programs to print out, for example, when we wrote:

A=5;

The 5 in the piece of code was a literal constants.

Literal constants can be divided in integer numerals, floating-point numerals, character,

strings and Boolean values.

Integer Numerals
1776

707

-273

They are numerical constants that identify decimal values. Notice that to express a numerical
constant we do not have to write quotes (") nor any special character. There is no doubt that
it is a constant: whenever we write 1776 in a program, we will be referring to the value
1776.

In addition to decimal numbers (those that all of us are used to use every day) C++ allows
the use as literal constants of octal numbers (base 8) and hexadecimal numbers (base 16). If
we want to express an octal number we have to precede it with a 0 (zero character). And in
order to express a hexadecimal number we have to precede it with the characters 0x (zero,
x). For example, the following literal constants are all equivalent to each other:

75 //decimal

0113 //octal

0x4b //hexadecimal

All of these represent the same number: 75 expressed as a base-10 numeral, octal numeral
and hexadecimal numeral, respectively.

Floating point numbers

They express numbers with decimals and/or exponents. They can include either a decimal
point, an e character (that express "by ten at the xth height", where x is an integer value that
follows the e character), or both a decimal point and an e character:

6
3.14159 // 3.14159

6.02e23 // 6.02 x 1023

1.6e-19 // 1.6 x 10-19

3.0 // 3.0

Character and string literals

There also exist non-numerical constants, like:

'Z'

"Hello"

The 1st expression represent single character constant, and the 2nd expression represent string
literals composed of several character. Notice that to represent a single character we enclose
it between quotes (') and to express a string (which generally consists of more than one
character) we enclose it between double quotes (").

When writing both single character and string literals, it is necessary to put the quotation
marks surrounding them to distinguish them from possible variable identifiers or reserved
keywords. Notice the difference between these two expressions:
x

'x'

x alone would refer to a variable whose identifier is x, whereas 'x' (enclosed within single
quotation marks) would refer to the character constant 'x'.

Characters and string literals have certain peculiarities, like the escape codes. These are
special characters that are difficult or impossible to express otherwise in the source code of
program, like newline (\n) or tab (\t). All of them are preceded by a backslash (\). Here you
have a list of some of such escape codes:
\n Newline
\r Carriage return
\t Tab
\v Vertical tab
\b Backspace
\f Form feed (page feed)
\a Alert (beep)
\' Single quote (')
\" Double quote (")
\? Question mark (?)
\\ Backslash (\)

For example:

'\n'

'\t'

"Left \t righr"

"one\ntwo\nthree"

7
String literals can extend to more than a single line of code by putting a backslash sign (\) at
the end of each unfinished line.

"string expressed in \

two lines"

#define (directive)

Defines a macro

Syntax: #define <id1>[ ( <id2>, ... ) ] <token string>

The #define directive defines a macro.

Macros provide a mechanism for token replacement with or without a set of formal, function-
line parameters.

All subsequent instances of the identifier <id1> in the source text will be replaced by the text
defined by <token string>.

If <id1> is followed IMMEDIATELY by a "(", the identifiers following the "(" (<id2>, etc.)
are treated like parameters to a function instead of as part of <token string>.

All instances of <id2> in <token string> will be replaced with the actual text defined for
<id2> when <id1> is referenced in the source.

To continue the definitions on another line, end the current line with \

Example:
#define MAXINT 32767
#define ctrl(x) ((x) \
- 64) /* continued from preceding line */

It is legal but ill-advised to use Turbo C++ keywords as macro identifiers.

Example
#include <iostream.h>
#define x 5

int main()
{
cout << "x:="<<x; //x=5
return 0;
}

In the above program, the value of x is fixed and can't be changed later

8
Variables

As a programmer, you will frequently want your program to "remember" a value. For
example, if your program requests a value from the user, or if it calculates a value, you will
want to remember it somewhere so you can use it later. The way your program remembers
things is by using variables. Variables represent storage locations in the computer's memory.
For example:

int b;

This line says, "I want to create a space called b that is able to hold one integer value." A
variable has a name (in this case, b) and a type (in this case, int, an integer). You can store a
value in b by saying something like:

b = 5;

You can use the value in b by saying something like:

cout << b
The output will be:
5

While writing:
cout << "b"
The output will be:
b

and writing:
cout << "b=" << b
The output will be:
b=5

To display a text line No.= with the value of b use:

cout << "No.=" << b
The output will be:
No.=5

In C++, there are several standard types for variables:

• Integer: int
• Floating point: float
• Character: char

An int is a 2-byte integer value. A float is a 4-byte floating point value. A char is a 1-byte
single character (like "a" or "A") or any other 8-bit quantity, when a character is stored in
memory, it is actually the numeric code is stored. A string is declared as an array of
characters.

There are a number of derivative types:

• double (8-byte floating point value)

• short (2-byte integer)
• unsigned short or unsigned int (positive integers, no sign bit)

9
Data Types
Type Length Range
unsigned char 8 bits 0 to 255
char 8 bits -128 to 127
enum 16 bits -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned int 16 bits 0 to 65,535
short int 16 bits -32,768 to 32,767
int 16 bits -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned long 32 bits 0 to 4,294,967,295
long 32 bits -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
float 32 bits 3.4 * (10**-38) to 3.4 *
(10**+38)
double 64 bits 1.7 * (10**-308) to 1.7 *
(10**+308)
long double 80 bits 3.4 * (10**-4932) to 1.1 *
(10**+4932)
void - valueless

Note: void data type specifies a valueless expression.

Examples:

char a='d';

int b=50;

float c=5.3;

Q) write a program to calculate the area of circle, radius=4.5

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
#define pi 3.1415
int main()
{
float r=4.5,area;
clrscr();
area=r*r*pi;
cout << "Area of circle="<<area;
getch();
}

10
Arithmetic Operators
1- Plus and minus operators (+ and -)
+ cast-expression: Value of the operand after any required integral promotions.
- cast-expression: Negative of the value of the operand after any required integral
promotions.
Example: y = -y;
Example:
z=x+y; c=a-b;

2- Multiplicative operators ( * / % )
There are three multiplicative operators:
* (multiplication), / (division), % (modulus or remainder)

void main()
{
int a=5;
a=a%2;
cout <<"a="<<a; //a=1 remainder of division a/2
}

The / operator performs integer division if both operands are integers, and performs floating
point division otherwise. For example:

void main()
{
float a;
a=10/3;
cout <<"a="<<a;
}

This code prints out a floating point value since a is declared as type float, but a will be 3.0
because the code performed an integer division.

Typecasting
C++ allows you to perform type conversions on the fly. You do this especially often when
using pointers. Typecasting also occurs during the assignment operation for certain types. For
example, in the code above, the integer value was automatically converted to a float.

You do typecasting in C++ by placing the type name in parentheses and putting it in front of
the value you want to change. Thus, in the above code, replacing the line a=10/3; with
a=(float)10/3; produces 3.33333 as the result because 10 is converted to a floating point
value before the division, also you can say a=10.0/3;
Precedence of Operators
Operator precedence in C++ is also similar to that in most other languages. Division and
multiplication occur first, then addition and subtraction. The result of the calculation 5+3*4 is
17, not 32, because the * operator has higher precedence than + in C++. You can use
parentheses to change the normal precedence ordering: (5+3)*4 is 32. The 5+3 is evaluated
first because it is in parentheses. We'll get into precedence later -- it becomes somewhat
complicated in C++ once pointers are introduced.

11
Input/ Output technique

Until now, the example programs of previous sections provide very little interaction with the
user, if any at all. Using the standard input and output library, we will be able to interact with
the user by printing messages on the screen and getting the user's input from the keyboard.

C++ uses a convenient abstraction called streams to perform input and output operations in
sequential media such as the screen or the keyboard. A stream is an object where a program
can either insert or extract characters to/from it. We do not really need to care about many
specifications about the physical media associated with the stream – we only need to know it
will accept or provide characters sequentially.

The standard C++ library include the header file iostream, where the standard input and
output stream object are declared.

Standard output (cout)

By default, the standard output of a program is the screen, and the C++ stream object defined
to access it is cout.

cout is used in conjunction with the insertion operator, which is written as << (two "less than"
signs).

cout << "output sentence"; //prints output sentence on screen

cout << 120; // print number 120 on screen

cout << x; // prints the content of x on screen

The << operator inserts the data that follows it into the stream preceding it. In the example
above it inserted the constant string output sentence, the numerical constant 120 and variable
x into the standard output stream cout. Notice that the sentence in the first instruction is
enclosed between double quotes (") because it is a constant string of characters. Whenever we
want to use constant strings of characters we must enclose them between quotes (") so that
they can be clearly distinguished from variable names. For example, these two sentences
have very different results:

cout << "Hello"; // prints Hello

cout << Hello; // prints the content of Hello variable

The insertion operator (<<) may be used more than once in a single statement:

cout << " Hello," << "I am " << "a C++ statement";

This last statement would print the message Hello, I am a C++ statement on the screen. The
utility of repeating the insertion operator (<<) is demonstrated when we want to print out a
combination of variables and constants or more than one variable:

cout << "Hello, Iam "<< age<< " years old and my zipcode is "<< zipcode;

12
If we assume the age variable to contain the value 24 and the zipcode variable to contain
90064 the output of the previous statement would be:

Hello, I am 24 years old and my zipcode is 90064

It is important to notice that cout does not add a line break after its output unless we explicitly
indicate it, therefore, the following statements:

cout << "This is a sentence."

cout << "This is another sentence.";

Will be shown on the screen one following the other without any line break between them:

This is a sentence. This is another sentence.

Even though we had written them in two different insertions into cout. In order to perform a
line break on the output we must explicitly insert a new-line character into cout. In C++ a
new-line character can be specified as \n (backslash ,n):

cout << "First sentence.\n";

cout << "Second sentence.\nThird sentence.";

This produces the following output:

First sentence.

Second sentence.

Third sentence.

Additionally, to add a new-line, you may also use the endl manipulator. For example:

cout << "First sentence."<<endl;

cout << "Second sentence."<<endl;

Would print out:

First sentence.

Second sentence.

The endl manipulator produces a newline character, exactly as the insertion of '\n' does, but it
also has an additional behavior when it is used with buffered streams: the buffer is flushed.
Anyway, cout will be an unbuffered stream in most cases, so you can generally use both the
\n escape character and the endl manipulator in order to specify a new line without any
difference in its behavior.

13
Standard Input (cin)

The standard input device is usually the keyboard. Handing the standard input in C++ is done
by applying the overloaded operator of extraction (>>) on the cin stream. The operator must
be followed by the variable that will store the data that is going to be extracted from the
stream. For example:

int age;

cin >> age;

The first statement declares a variable of type int called age, and the second one waits for an
input from cim (the keyboard) in order to store it in this integer variable.

cin can only process the input from the keyboard once the return key has been pressed.
Therefore, even if you request a single character, the extraction from cin will not process the
input until the user presses return after the character has been introduced.

You must always consider the type of the variable that you are using as container with cin
extractions. If you request an integer you will get an integer, if you request a character you
will get a character and if you request a string of character you will get a string of character.

// I/O example

#include <iostream.h>

int main()

int i;

cout << "Please enter an integer value: ";

cin >> i;

cout << "The value you entered is " << i;

cout << " and its double is " << i*2 << ".\n";

return 0;

This produces the following output:

Please enter an integer value: 702

The value you entered is 702 and its double is 1404.

The user of a program may be one of the factors that generate errors even in the simplest
programs that use cin (like the one we have just seen). Since if you request an integer value
and the user introduce a name (which generally is a string of characters), the result may cause
your program to misoperate since it is not what we were expecting from the user. So when

14
you use the data input provided by cin extractions you will have to trust that the user of your
program will be cooperative and that he/she will not introduce his/her name or something
similar when an integer value is requested. A little ahead, when we see the string stream class
we will see a possible solution for the errors that can be caused by this type of user input.

You can also use cin to request more than one datum input from the user:

cin >> a >> b;

Is equivalent to:

cin >> a;

cin >> b;

Q) write a program to calculate the area of circle

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
#define pi 3.1415
int main()
{
float r,area;
clrscr();
cout << "radius=";
cin >> r;
area=r*r*pi;
cout << "Area of circle="<<area;
getch();
}

Q) exchange two numbers

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int x, y,z;
clrscr();
cout <<"x=";
cin >>x;
cout <<"y=";
cin >>y;
z=x;
x=y;
y=z;
cout <<"New x="<<x;
cout <<"\nNew y="<<y;
getch();
}

15
Relational operators ( < > <= and >= )

The relational operators are used to compare relative values.

E1 < E2 Gives 1 (true) if the value of E1 is less than value of E2; otherwise, the result is 0
(false)

E1 <= E2 Gives 1 (true) if the value of E1 is less than or equal to the value of E2;
otherwise, the result is 0 (false).

E1 > E2 Gives 1 (true) if the value of E1 is greater than the value of E2; otherwise, the
result is 0 (false)

E1 >= E2 Gives 1 (true) if the value of E1is greater than or equal to the value of E2;
otherwise, the result is 0 (false).

Equality operators ( == and != )

The operators == and != are used to test for equality or inequality between arithmetic
or pointer values, following rules similar to those for the relational operators.
The equality operators have lower precedence than the relational operators, however,
and you can also compare certain pointer types not allowed with relational operations.

If E1 == E2 gives 1 (true), then either E1 and E2 point to the same function, or they are both
null.

The expression E1 != E2 follows the same rules, except that the result is 1 (true) if the
operands are unequal, and 0 (false) if the operands are equal.

16
The if statement (keyword)
The first type of branching statement we will look at is the if statement. The if statement
can cause other statements to execute only under certain conditions. An if statement has the
form:

if ( <expression> ) <statement1>;

If <expression> is non-zero when evaluated, <statement1> is executed.

Example:
if (count < 50) count++;

Here is a simple C++ program demonstrating an if statement:

#include <iostream.h>
int main()
{
int b;
cout <<"Enter a value:";
cin >> b;
if (b < 0)
cout <<"The value is negative";
return 0;
}

This program accepts a number from the user. It then tests the number using an if statement
to see if it is less than 0. If it is, the program prints a message "The value is negative".
Otherwise, the program is silent. The (b < 0) portion of the program is the Boolean
expression. C++ evaluates this expression to decide whether or not to print the message. If
the Boolean expression evaluates to True, then C++ executes the single line immediately
following the if statement (or a block of lines within braces immediately following the if
statement). If the Boolean expression is False, then C++ skips the line or block of lines
immediately following the if statement.

If (condition)

Statement1;

Statement2;

Statementn;

17
Example: to update the previous program, if the value of b is negative then add 50 to b then
print the new value of b. The program will be:

#include <iostream.h>

int main()
{
int b;
cout << "Enter a value:";
cin >> b;
if (b < 0)
{
b+=50;
cout <<"b="<<b;
}
return 0;
}

18
Q) Write a program to check if the no. is positive, then print positive number

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int x‫؛‬
clrscr();
cout << "Number:=";
cin >> x‫؛‬
if (x > 0)
cout << " --- Positive Number ---";
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch()‫؛‬
return 0‫؛‬
}

Q) Write a program to check if the student pass in English language

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int x‫؛‬
clrscr();
cout << "Degree:=";
cin >> x‫؛‬
if (x >=50)
cout << " --- Pass ---";
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch()‫؛‬
return 0‫؛‬
}

Q) Write a program to check the no., if it is even then print even number

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int x‫؛‬
clrscr();
cout << "Number:=";
cin >> x‫؛‬
if ((x % 2)==0) // if (!(x % 2))
cout << " --- Even Number ---";
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch()‫؛‬
return 0‫؛‬
}

19
Q) Write a program to check if the no. accept division by 5 without remainder, then
print that

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int x‫؛‬
clrscr();
cout << "Number:=";
cin >> x‫؛‬
if ((x % 5)==0) // if (!(x % 5))
cout << " --- Number accept division by 5 ---";
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch()
return 0‫؛‬
}

Q) Write a program to solve the following equation

y=x+1-y when x>=20

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int x,y;
clrscr();
cout << "x:=";
cin >> x;
cout << "y:=";
cin >> y;

if (x >=20)
{
y=x+1-y;
cout << " y:="<<y;
}
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

20
The If –else statement

 if ( <expression> ) <statement1>;
else <statement2>;

If <expression> is non-zero when evaluated, <statement1> is executed. Otherwise

<statement2> is executed if the expression is 0.

An optional else can follow an if statement, but no statements can come between an if
statement and an else.

Example:
if (x < y)
z = x;
else
z = y;

The #if and #else preprocessor statements (directives) look similar to the if and else
statements, but have very different effects.

They control which source file lines are compiled and which are ignored.

• In an if statement, condition is a value or an expression that is used to determine which

code block is executed, and the curly braces act as "begin" and "end" markers.
if (condition)
{
// code to execute if condition is true
}
else
{
// code to execute if condition is false
}

Here is a full C++ program as an example:

#include <iostream.h> //include this file for cout

int main() {
// define two integers
int x = 3;
int y = 4;

//print out a message telling which is bigger

if (x > y)
cout << "x is bigger than y" << endl;

else
cout << "x is not bigger than y" << endl;

return 0;
}

21
In this case condition is equal to "(x > y)" which is equal to "(3 > 4)" which is a false
statement. So the code within the else clause will be executed. The output of this program
will be:

x is not bigger than y

If instead the value for x was 6 and the value for y was 2, then condition would be "(6 > 2)"
which is a true statement and the output of the program would be:
x is bigger than y

Q) Write a program to check if the no. is positive or not positive

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
}
int x‫؛‬
clrscr();
cout << "Number:=";
cin >> x‫؛‬
if (x > 0)
cout << " --- Positive Number ---";
else
cout << " --- The number is not positive ---";

cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";

getch()‫؛‬
return 0‫؛‬
}

Q) Write a program to check if the student pass in English language or not

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
}
int x‫؛‬
clrscr();
cout << "Degree:=";
cin >> x‫؛‬
if (x >=50)
cout << " --- Pass ---";
else
cout << " --- Fail ---";

cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";

getch()‫؛‬
return 0‫؛‬
}

22
Q) Write a program to check if the NO. is even or odd

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
}
int x‫؛‬
clrscr();
cout << "Number:=";
cin >> x‫؛‬
if ((x % 2)==0) // if (!(x % 2))
cout << " --- Even Number ---";
else
cout << " --- Odd Number ---";

cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";

getch()‫؛‬
return 0‫؛‬
}

Q) Write a program to check if the no. accept division by 5 without remainder, then
print that

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
}
int x‫؛‬
clrscr();
cout << "Number:=";
cin >> x‫؛‬
if ((x % 5)==0) // if (!(x % 5))
cout << " --- Number accept division by 5 without remainder ---";
else
cout << " --- Number don't accept division by 5 without remainder ---";

cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";

getch()
return 0‫؛‬
}

23
Q) Write a program to solve the following equations

Y=x+1-y when x>=20

Y=(x-1)*y when x<20

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int x,y;
clrscr();
cout << "x:=";
cin >> x;
cout << "y:=";
cin >> y;

if (x >=20)
{
y=x+1-y;
cout << " y:="<<y;
}
else
{
y=(x-1)*y;
cout << " y:="<<y;

}
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

Note: It is better to write the following program rather the previous

one

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int x,y;
clrscr();
cout << "x:=";
cin >> x;
cout << "y:=";
cin >> y;

if (x >=20)
y=x+1-y;
else
y=(x-1)*y;

cout << " y:="<<y;//because in both cases, y is the output

cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

24
If/else if/ else statement
The (if/else if) statement is a chain of if statements. They perform
their tests, one after the other, until one of them is found to be
true.
This construction is like a chain of (if/else) statements. The else
part of one statement is linked to the if part of another. When put
together this way, the chain of if/else becomes one long statement.
if (condition1)
{
// code to execute if condition1 is true
}
else if (condition2)
{
//code to execute if condition1=false but condition2=true
}
Else
{
//code to execute if both condition1 and condition2=false
}
• Or it can be written as:

if (condition1)
{
// code to execute if condition1 is true
}
Else
{
if (condition2)
{
//code to execute if condition1=false but condition2=true
}
Else
{
//code to execute if both condition1 and condition2=false
}
}

Here's slightly more complex example:

#include <iostream.h>
int main()
{
int b;
cout << "Enter a value:";
cin >> b;
if (b < 0)
cout << "The value is negative";
else if (b == 0)
cout << "The value is zero";
else
cout << "The value is positive";
return 0;
}

25
Q) Write a program to solve the following equations
y=x+1-y when x>20

y=(x-1)*y when x<20

y=x when x=20

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int x,y;
clrscr();
cout << "x:=";
cin >> x;
cout << "y:=";
cin >> y;
if (x >20)
y=x+1-y;
else if (x<20)
y=(x-1)*y;
else
y=x;
cout << " y:="<<y;
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

Q) Write a program to solve the following equations

a=a/10 when a>b

b=a/3 when a<b

a=a*b when a=b

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
float a,b;
clrscr();
cout << "a:=";
cin >> a;
cout << "b:=";
cin >> b;
if (a >b)
{
a/=10.0;
cout << " a:="<<a;
}
else if (a<b)
{
b=a/3.0;
cout << " b:="<<b;
}
else
{
a=a*b;
cout << " a:="<<a;
}
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

26
Nested if
Nested if used when we need to test condition after another condition happened. It has the form:

if (condition1)

If (condition2)

Else

Else

Q) Write a program to check if the no. is even and accept division by 5 without
remainder

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int a;
clrscr();
cout << "Number:=";
cin >> a;

if ((a % 2)==0)
if ((a % 5)==0)
cout << " even number accept division by 5";

cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";

getch();
return 0;
}

Q) Write a program to check if the no. is odd and negative

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int a;
clrscr();

27
cout << "Number:=";
cin >> a;

if ((a % 2)!=0)
if (a<0)
cout << "--- negative odd number ---";

cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";

getch();
return 0;
}

Q) Write a program to solve the following equations

When a>=5

b=a-1 when b>=20

b=a+1 when b<20

When a<5

b=a*5 when b>=20

b=a/5 when b<20

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
float a,b;
clrscr();
cout << "a:=";
cin >> a;
cout << "b:=";
cin >> b;

if (a >=5)
if (b>=20)
b=a-1;
else
b=a+1;
else
if (b>=20)
b=a*5;
else
b=a/5.0;

cout << " b:="<<b;

cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

28
Logical operator
1- Logical operator (&&,||)
Turbo C++ offers these logical operators:

&& logical AND

|| logical OR

Syntax:
logical-AND-expr && inclusive-OR-expression
logical-OR-expr || logical-AND-expression

In these expressions, both operands must be of scalar type.

E1 && E2 E1 || E2

The usual arithmetical conversions are performed on E1 and E2.

Unlike the bitwise operators, && and || guarantee left-to-right evaluation.

E1 is evaluated first; if E1 is zero, E1 && E2 gives 0 (false), and E2 is not evaluated.

With E1 || E2, if E1 is nonzero, E1 || E2 gives 1 (true), and E2 is not evaluated.

2- Logical negation operator !

In the expression

! cast-expression

the cast-expression operand must be of scalar type.

The result is of type int and is the logical negation of the operand:

 0 if the operand is nonzero

 1 if the operand is 0

The expression !E is equivalent to (0 == E).

If with logical operator

Here is a more complicated Boolean expression:

if ((x==y) && (j>k))

z=1;
else
q=10;

This statement says, "If the value in variable x equals the value in variable y, and if the value
in variable j is greater than the value in variable k, then set the variable z to 1, otherwise set
the variable q to 10." You will use if statements like this throughout your C++ programs to

29
make decisions. In general, most of the decisions you make will be simple ones like the first
example; but on occasion, things get more complicated.

Notice that C++ uses = = to test for equality, while it uses = to assign a value to a variable.
The && in C++ represents a Boolean AND operation.

Boolean expressions evaluate to integers in C++, and integers can be used inside of
Boolean expressions. The integer value 0 in C++ is False, while any other integer value is
True. The following is legal in C++:

#include <iostream.h>

int main()
{
int a;

cout << "Enter a number:";

cin >> a;
if (a)
{
cout << "The value is True";
}
return 0;
}

If a is anything other than 0, the printf statement gets executed.

In C++, a statement like if (a=b) means, "Assign b to a, and then test a for its Boolean
value." So if a becomes 0, the if statement is False; otherwise, it is True. The value of a
changes in the process. This is not the intended behavior if you meant to type = = (although
this feature is useful when used correctly), so be careful with your = and = = usage.

Q) Write a program to check if the no. is even and accept division by 5 without
remainder

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int a;
clrscr();
cout << "Number:=";
cin >> a;

if ((!(a % 2)) && (!(a % 5)))

cout << " even number accept division by 5";

cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";

getch();
return 0;
}

30
Q) Write a program to check if the no. is odd and negative

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int a;
clrscr();
cout << "Number:=";
cin >> a;

if ((a % 2) && (a<0))

cout << "--- negative odd number ---";

cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";

getch();
return 0;
}

Q) Write a program to solve the following equations

When a>=5

b=a-1 when b>=20

b=a+1 when b<20

When a<5

b=a*5 when b>=20

b=a/5 when b<20

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
float a,b;
clrscr();
cout << "a:=";
cin >> a;
cout << "b:=";
cin >> b;

if ((a >=5) && (b>=20))

b=a-1;
else if ((a >=5) && (b<20))
b=a+1;
else if ((a<5) && (b>=20))
b=a*5;
else if ((a<5) && (b<20))
b=a/5.0;

cout << " b:="<<b;

cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

31
Q) Write a program to check the mark of the student

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int a;
clrscr();
cout << "Mark:=";
cin >> a;

if (a >=90)
cout << " Excellent";
else if ((a >=80) && (a<90))
cout << " Very good";
else if ((a >=70) && (a<80))
cout << " Good";
else if ((a >=60) && (a<70))
cout << " Medium";
else if ((a >=50) && (a<60))
cout << " Accepted";
else
cout << " Fail";

cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";

getch();
return 0;
}

32
The switch statement

The next branching statement is called a switch statement. A switch statement is used in
place of many if statements.

If you want to test whether a variable takes one of a series of values, it's easier to use a
switch statement than an if statement.

switch (<variable>) {

case <value 1>:

<one or more statements>

break;
case <value 2>:

<one or more statements>

break;
default:
<one or more statements>

break;
} //end switch

switch, case, and default (keywords)

Branches control

Syntax:
- switch ( <expression> ) <statement>
- case <constant expression> :
- default :

switch

Causes control to branch to one of a list of possible statements in the block defined by
<statement>.

The branched-to statement is determined by evaluating <expression>, which must return an

integral type.

case
The list of possible branch points within <statement> is determined by preceding sub
statements with

case <constant expression> :

where <constant expression> must be an int and must be unique.

33
Once a value is computed for <expression>, the list of possible <constant expression> values
determined from all case statements is searched for a match.

If a match is found, execution continues after the matching case statement and continues until
a break statement is encountered or the end of <statement> is reached.

default

If a match is not found and the "default :" statement prefix is found within <statement>,
execution continues at this point.

The break keyword means "jump out of the switch statement, and do not execute any more
code." To show how this works, examine the following piece of code:

int value = 0;
switch(input){
case 1:
value=value+4;
case 2:
value=value+3;
case 3:
value=value+2;
default:
value=value+1;
}

If input is 1 then 4 will be added to value. Since there is no break statement, the program
will go on to the next line of code which adds 3, then the line of code that adds 2, and
then the line of code that adds 1. So value will be set to 10!

The code that was intended was probably:

int value = 0;
switch(input){
case 1:
value=value+4;
break;
case 2:
value=value+3;
break;
case 3:
value=value+2;
break;
default:
value=value+1;
}

34
Q) Write a program to calculate the area or circumference of rectangle using menu
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int a;
int l,w,r;
clrscr();
cout << "*********************************\n";
cout << "* 1: Area of rectangle *\n";
cout << "* 2: Circumference of rectangle *\n";
cout << "*********************************\n\n";

cout << "Length:=";

cin >> l;
cout << "Width:=";
cin >> w;

cout << "\nChoice:=";

cin >> a;
switch (a)
{
case 1:
r=l*w;
cout << "\n Area of rectangle:="<<r;
break;
case 2:
r=(l+w)*2;
cout << "\n Circumference of rectangle:="<<r;
break;
}

cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";

getch();
return 0;
}

35
* You can write the same previous program depending on character

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main()
{
char a;
int l,w,r;
clrscr();
cout << "*********************************\n";
cout << "* A: Area of rectangle *\n";
cout << "* C: Circumference of rectangle *\n";
cout << "*********************************\n\n";

cout << "Length:=";

cin >> l;
cout << "Width:=";
cin >> w;

cout << "\nChoice:=";

cin >> a;
switch (toupper(a)) // to convert the character to upper case
{
case 'A':
r=l*w;
cout << "\n Area of rectangle:="<<r;
break;
case 'C':
r=(l+w)*2;
cout << "\n Circumference of rectangle:="<<r;
break;
default:
cout << "\n Error Choice";
}

cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";

getch();
return 0;
}

36
The iteration (looping) statement : (if with counter)
Looping is the repetition of a statement or block of statements in a program.
goto (keyword)
Transfers control
Syntax: goto <identifier> ;
Control is unconditionally transferred to the location of a local label specified by identifier.

Example:
Again:
;
.
goto Again;
NOTE: Labels must be followed by a statement (;).

Q) Write a program to print number from 1..5 in ascending order

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int i;
clrscr();
i=1;
lab:
cout <<i<<" ";
i=i+1;
if (i<=5) goto lab;
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue"; //i=6
getch();
return 0;
}

Q) Write a program to print number from 5..1 in descending order

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int i;
clrscr();
i=5;
lab:
cout <<i<<" ";
i=i-1
if (i>=1) goto lab;
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue"; //i=0
getch();
return 0;
}

37
For (keyword)
For loop

Syntax: for ( [<expr1>] ; [<expr2>] ; [<expr3>] ) <statement>

<statement> is executed repeatedly UNTIL the value of <expr2> is 0.

BEFORE the first iteration, <expr1> is evaluated. This is usually used to initialize variables
for the loop.

AFTER each iteration of the loop, <expr3> is evaluated. This is usually used to increment a
loop counter.

In C++, <expr1> can be an expression or a declaration.

The scope of any declared identifier extends to the end of the control statement only.

All the expressions are optional. If <expr2> is left out, it is assumed to be 1.

The following statement is used for infinite loop: for ( ;;)

Q) Write a program to print number from 1..5 in ascending order

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
clrscr();
for (int i=1;i<=5;i=i+1)
cout <<i<<" ";

//out the loop i=6

cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

Q) Write a program to print number from 5..1 in descending order

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
clrscr();
for (int i=5;i>=1;i=i-1)
cout <<i<<" ";
//out the loop i=0
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

38
Q) Write a program to find the factorial of any number
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int n;
long int f;
clrscr();
cout << "Number:=";
cin >> n;
if (n>=1)
{
for (int i=1,f=1;i<=n;i=i+1)
f=f*i;
cout <<"Factorial number:="<<f;
}

cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";

getch();
return 0;
}

Q) Write a program to find the factorial of 3 different numbers

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int n;
long int f;
clrscr();
for (int j=1;j<=3;j=j+1)
{
cout << "Number:=";
cin >> n;
if (n>=1)
{
for (int i=1,f=1;i<=n;i=i+1)
f=f*i;
cout <<"Factorial number:="<<f<<"\n\n";
}
}
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

Q) Write a program to solve the following equation:

𝟕 𝟓 𝟑
𝒔𝒖𝒎 = 𝟒 + 𝟐 + 𝟑 + 𝟒
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
float sum=4.0;
clrscr();
for (int i=2,j=7;i<=4;i=i+1,j=j-2)
{
cout <<"i="<<i<<" j="<<j<<"\n"; // for test

39
 sum=sum+(float )j/i;
}
cout<<"sum="<<sum;
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

Q) Write a program to solve the following equation:

𝟕 𝟓 𝟑
𝒔𝒖𝒎 = 𝟒 − 𝟐 + 𝟑 − 𝟒
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
float sum=4.0;
clrscr();
for (int i=2,j=7,s=-1;i<=4;i=i+1,j=j-2,s=-s)
{
cout <<"i="<<i<<" j="<<j<<" s="<<s<<"\n"; // for test
sum=sum+s*(float )j/i;
}
cout<<"sum="<<sum;
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

Q) Write a program to solve the following equation:

𝟐! 𝟓! 𝟖!
𝒔𝒖𝒎 = 𝟑 + 𝟑
+𝟗 + 𝟐𝟕

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
float sum=3.0;
long int f;
clrscr();
for (int n=2,j=3;n<=8;n=n+3,j=j*3)
{
f=1;
cout <<"n="<<n<<" j="<<j<<"\n";
for (int i=1;i<=n;i=i+1)
f=f*i;
cout<<"Number="<<n<<" Factorial number="<<f<<"\n\n"; // for test
sum=sum+(float )f/j;
}
cout<<"sum="<<sum;
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

40
Q) Write a program to find even numbers among group of numbers
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int n,n1;
clrscr();
cout << "Number of numbers:=";
cin >> n;

for (int j=1;j<=n;j=j+1)

{
cout << "Number:=";
cin >> n1;
if (!(n1%2))
cout <<" --- Even number --- \n\n";
}
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

Q) Write a program to find the number and summation of even numbers which accept
division by 4 without remainder among group of numbers

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int n,n1;
clrscr();
cout << "Number of numbers:=";
cin >> n;

for (int j=1,n2=0,sum=0;j<=n;j=j+1)

{
cout << "Number:=";
cin >> n1;
if ((!(n1%2)) && (!(n1%4)))
{
sum=sum+n1;
n2=n2+1;
}
}
cout <<"\nSum. of even numbers which accept division by 4:="<<sum;
cout<<"\nNo. of even numbers which accept division by 4:="<<n2;
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

41
Q) Write a program to find largest number between 5 different numbers

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int n,large;
clrscr();
cout << "Number1:=";
cin >> n;
large=n;

for (int i=2;i<=5;i=i+1)

{
cout << "Number"<<i<<":=";
cin >> n;
if (n>large)
large=n;
}
cout <<"\nLargest No.:="<<large;
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

Q) Write a program to find smallest number between 5 different numbers

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int n,small;
clrscr();
cout << "Number1:=";
cin >> n;
small =n;

for (int i=2;i<=5;i=i+1)

{
cout << "Number"<<i<<":=";
cin >> n;
if (n < small)
small =n;
}
cout <<"\n smallest No.:="<< small;
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

42
While(keyword)
Repeats execution
Syntax: while ( <expression> ) <statement>
<statement> is executed repeatedly as long as the value of <expression> remains non-zero.
The test takes place before each execution of the <statement>.

You'll find that while statements are just as easy to use as if statements. For example:

while (a < b)
{
cout << a;
a = a + 1;
}

This causes the two lines within the braces to be executed repeatedly until a is greater than or
equal to b. The while statement in general works as illustrated to the right.

The for loop in C++ is simply a shorthand way of expressing a while statement. For example,
suppose you have the following code in C++:

x=1;
while (x<10)
{

X=x+1;
}
You can convert this into a for loop as follows:
for(x=1; x<10; x=x+1)
{

}
Note that the while loop contains an initialization step (x=1), a test step (x<10), and an
increment step (x++). The for loop lets you put all three parts onto one line, but you can put
anything into those three parts. For example, suppose you have the following loop:
a=1;
b=6;
while (a < b)
{
a=a+1;
cout << a;
}

You can place this into a for statement as well:

for (a=1,b=6; a < b; a=a+1,cout <<a);

It is slightly confusing, but it is possible. The comma operator lets you separate several
different statements in the initialization and increment sections of the for loop (but not in the
test section). Many C++ programmers like to pack a lot of information into a single line of
C++ code; but a lot of people think it makes the code harder to understand, so they break it
up.

43
Q) Write a program to print number from 1..5 in ascending order

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int i;
clrscr();
i=1;
while (i<=5)
{
cout <<i<<" ";
i=i+1;
}
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}
Q) Write a program to print number from 5..1 in descending order
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int i;
clrscr();
i=5;
while (i>=1)
{
cout <<i<<" ";
i=i-1;
}
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}
Q) Write a program to search for first number 6 between 5 different numbers
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int n,i;
clrscr();

cout <<"Number:=";
cin>> n;
i=1;
while ((n!=6) && (i<=4))
{
i=i+1;
cout <<"Number:=";
cin>> n;
}

if (n==6)
cout <<" --- Number 6 is found ---";
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

44
Q) Write a program to find the summation of numbers of group of numbers and stop
when the result exceed 50 :

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int sum=0,n;
clrscr();

while (sum<=50)
{
cout <<"Number:=";
cin>> n;
sum=sum+n;
}
cout <<"Sum.:="<<sum;
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

Q) Write a program to find the summation of the following series and stop when the result
exceed 7 : 𝒔𝒖𝒎 = 𝟒 + 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟑𝟑 + 𝟓𝟒 ….
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
float sum=4;
int i=1,j=2;
clrscr();
while (sum<=7)
{
sum=sum+(float )i/j;
cout <<"j:="<<j<<" i="<<i<<"\n"; // for test
i=i+2;
j=j+1;
}
cout <<"Sum.:="<<sum;
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

45
Notes:
While (condition)

While (condition)

// or

While (condition)

for ( expression_1; expression_2; expression_3 )

// or

for ( expression_1; expression_2; expression_3 )

While (condition)

46
Do…while loop

Syntax: do <statement> while ( <expression> );

<statement> is executed repeatedly as long as the value of <expression> remains non-zero.

The test takes place AFTER each execution of the <statement>.

Example1:
i = 1; n = 1;
do {
n =n* i;
i=i+1;
} while (i <= factorial);

Example2:

do
{
cout << a;
a = a + 1;
}
while (a < b);

Q) Write a program to print number from 1..5 in ascending order

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int i;
clrscr();

i=1;
do
{
cout <<i<<" ";
i=i+1;
} while (i<=5);

cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";

getch();
return 0;
}

47
Q) Write a program to print number from 5..1 in descending order

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int i;
clrscr();

i=5;
do
{
cout <<i<<" ";
i=i-1;
} while (i>=1);

cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";

getch();
return 0;
}

Q) Write a program to calculate the area or circumference of rectangle using menu, add
choice 3 for exit
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int a;
int l,w,r;
clrscr();
cout << "Length:=";
cin >> l;
cout << "Width:=";
cin >> w;
do
{
clrscr();
cout << "*********************************\n";
cout << "* 1: Area of rectangle *\n";
cout << "* 2: Circumference of rectangle *\n";
cout << "* 3: Exit *\n";
cout << "*********************************\n\n";
cout << "\nChoice:=";
cin >> a;
switch (a)
{
case 1:
r=l*w;
cout << "\n Area of rectangle:="<<r;
break;
case 2:
r=(l+w)*2;
cout << "\n Circumference of rectangle:="<<r;
break;
case 3:
cout << "\n\nGood bye at exit";
break;
}
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
} while (a!=3);
return 0;
}

48
Exit

exit terminates the program

Remarks:
exit terminates the calling process. Before termination, exit does the following:
- closes all files
- writes buffered output (waiting to be output)
- calls any registered "exit functions" (posted with at exit)

Q) Write a program to calculate the area or circumference of rectangle using menu, add
choice 3 for exit
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main()
{
int a;
int l,w,r;
clrscr();
cout << "Length:=";
cin >> l;
cout << "Width:=";
cin >> w;
for (;;)
{
clrscr();
cout << "*********************************\n";
cout << "* 1: Area of rectangle *\n";
cout << "* 2: Circumference of rectangle *\n";
cout << "* 3: Exit *\n";
cout << "*********************************\n\n";
cout << "\nChoice:=";
cin >> a;
switch (a)
{
case 1:
r=l*w;
cout << "\n Area of rectangle:="<<r;
break;
case 2:
r=(l+w)*2;
cout << "\n Circumference of rectangle:="<<r;
break;
case 3:
cout << "\n\nGood bye at exit, hit any key to continue";
getch();
exit (0);
break;
}
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
}
}

49
Break (keyword)

Passes control

Syntax: break ;

The break statement causes control to pass to the statement following the innermost enclosing
while, do, for, or switch statement. It causes a loop to terminate early. When it is
encountered, the loop stops and the program jump to the statement immediately following the
loop.

Q) Write a program to search for first number 6 between 5 different numbers

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
for (int i=1;i<=5;i=i+1)
{
cout <<"Number:=";
cin>> n;
if (n==6)
{
cout <<" --- Number 6 is found ---";
break;
}
}
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}

Continue (keyword)

Syntax: continue ;
Causes control to pass to the end of the innermost enclosing while, do, or for statement, at
which point the loop continuation condition is re-evaluated. It causes a loop to stops its
current iteration and begin the next one. When continue is encountered, all the statements in
the body of the loop that appear after it are ignored, and the loop prepares for the next
iteration.

Q) Write a program to find the summation of 4 different numbers except

number 3 or 5

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
for (int i=1,sum=0;i<=4;i=i+1)
{
cout <<"Number:="; cin>> n;
if ((n==3) || (n==5))
continue;
sum=sum+n;
}
cout<<"\n\nSum.:="<<sum;
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue"; getch();
return 0;
}

50
Math. Functions

pow (real) <math.h>

Power function, x to the y

Declaration:
double pow(double x, double y);

Q) Write a program to calculate the cubic number for 4 different numbers

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main()
{
double n,c;
clrscr();

for (int i=1;i<=4;i=i+1)

{
cout <<"Number:=";
cin>> n;
c=pow(n,3);
cout <<"Cubic Number:="<<c;
}
cout << "\n\nHit any key to continue";
getch();
return 0;
}
cos, sin, tan (real) <math.h>
Cosine, sine, and tangent functions

Declaration:
double cos(double x);
double sin(double x);
double tan(double x);
Remarks:
 cos compute the cosine of the input value
 sin compute the sine of the input value
 tan calculate the tangent of the input value

Angles are specified in radians.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>

int main(void)
{
double result, x;

x = 90;
result = sin(x*3.14/180);
cout <<"The sin of “<<x<<” is "<< result;
//the oputput is: The sin of 90.00 is 1.00
return 0;
}

51
acos, asin, atan, atan2 (real) <math.h>
Arc cosine, arc sine, and arc tangent functions
Declaration:
double acos(double x);
double asin(double x);
double atan(double x);
double atan2(double y, double x);

Remarks:
 acos of a real value compute the arc cosine of that value
 asin of a real value compute the arc sine of that value
 atan calculate the arc tangent of the input value
 atan2 also calculate the arc tangent of the input value
Real arguments to acos, and asin must be in the range -1 to 1.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>

int main(void)
{
double result;
double x = 1.00;

result = asin(x)/(3.14/180);
cout <<"The arc sin of “<<x<<” is "<< result;
//the oputput is: The arc sin of 1.00 is 90.00

return(0);
}

exp (real) <math.h>

 Real exp calculates e to the xth power

Declaration:
double exp(double x);
Remarks:
exp calculates the exponential function e**x.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>

int main(void)
{
double result;
double x = 4.0;

result = exp(x);
cout <<" 'e' raised to the power of "<<x<<" (e ^ "<<x<<") = "<< result;
return 0;
}
The output is: 'e' raised to the power of 4.000000e^4.000000)=54.598150

52
sqrt (real) < math.h >

Calculates square root

Declaration:
 Real: double sqrt(double x);
long double sqrtl(long double @E(x));
Remarks:
sqrt calculates the positive square root of the input value.

#include <math.h>
#include <iostream.h>

int main(void)
{
double x = 4.0, result;

result = sqrt(x);
cout <<"The square root of "<<x<<" is "<< result;
//the oputput is: The square root of 4.000000 is 2.000000
return 0;
}

abs <math.h, stdlib.h, complex.h>

fabs < math.h >
labs < math.h, stdlib.h >
 abs (a macro) gets the absolute value of an integer
 fabs calculate the absolute value of a floating-point number
 labs calculates the absolute value of a long number

Declaration:
 abs
int abs(int x);
 double fabs(double x);
 long int labs(long int x);

#include <iostream.h>
#include <math.h>

int main(void)
{
int number = -1234;

cout <<"number: "<<number<<" absolute value: " << abs(number);

//the oputput is: number: -1234 absolute value: 1234
return 0;
}

53
randomize <stdlib.h>
Initializes random number generator. time.h must included

random < stdlib.h >

Returns a random number: random(num);
random returns a random number between 0 and (num-1).

#include <stdlib.h>
#include <iostream.h>
#include <time.h>
/* prints a random number in the range 0 to 99 */
int main(void)
{
randomize();
cout <<"Random number in the 0-99 range: "<< random (100);
return 0;
}

Q) Write a program to solve the following equations, where Q in degree

|tan 𝑄 − 𝑒 𝑄 | 𝑥 < 0
𝑦 = �−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥≥0
2𝑎
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main()
{
double y,x,a,b,c,Q;
clrscr();
cout <<"x="; cin >>x;
if (x<0)
{
cout <<"Q="; cin >>Q;
y=fabs(tan(Q*3.14/180)-exp(Q));
}
else
{
cout <<"a="; cin >>a;
cout <<"b="; cin >>b;
cout <<"c="; cin >>c;
double bs=b*b-4*a*c;
if ((a) && (bs>0))
y=(-b+sqrt(bs))/2*a;
else
{
cout <<"Error illegal values";
getch();
return 1;
}
}
cout <<"y="<<y;
getch();
return 0;
}

54