Tribal Cosmogenies

UNIT 2 DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN TRIBES,

GROUPS AND SUB-GROUPS:
CAUSES OF VARIATIONS

Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Distribution of Indian tribes: groups and sub-groups
2.2.1 Geographical
2.2.2 Linguistic
2.2.3 Racial
2.2.4 Size
2.2.5 Economy or subsistence pattern
2.2.6 Degree of incorporation into the Hindu society
2.3 Causes of variations
2.3.1 Migration
2.3.2 Acculturation and assimilation.
2.3.3 Geography or the physical environment
2.4 Let us sum up
2.5 Activity
2.6 References and further reading
2.7 Glossary
2.8 Answers to questions

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After having read this Unit, you will be able to:
x get a panoramic view of the Indian tribes;
x understand the principles upon which their classification is based; and
x map their distribution on the basis of their geographical location, language,
physical attributes, economy and social structure.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
We have had a general outline about the tribes of India in the preceding Unit
(Course 4-Block 1- Unit 1). In this present Unit we will deal with distribution of
the tribes of India in detail.

Structurally this Unit is divided into two main sections. In this first section of
the Unit we will discuss the distribution pattern of Indian tribes and how they
are classified into different groups and sub-groups based on various criteria.

24
These criteria are based on their geographical location, language, physical Migrant Tribes / Nomads
attributes, economy and the degree of incorporation into the Hindu society.

In the second section of the Unit we will discuss the causes of the variations in
the distribution patterns of the Indian tribes.

As you go through the Unit, it would be helpful if you start mapping the
distribution pattern of the Indian tribes on the imaginary map of India in your
mind.

2.2 DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN TRIBES: GROUPS

AND SUB-GROUPS
India contains an unparalleled variety of ethnic groups, patterns of culture and
modes of living. The People of India Project of the Anthropological Survey of
India has identified about 461 tribal communities of India out of which 174 have
been identified as sub-groups. They number about 67,758,000 according to the
1991 Census comprising about 8.01 per cent of the total population of the country.

You have by now known the characteristic features of tribes in the preceding
Unit. In this Unit we will look into the distribution patterns of the tribes of India.

Even though there is not a single and definite system of classifying the tribes of
India, attempts have been made by different anthropologists from time to time
to distribute the tribes. There are mainly two categories to classify the tribes.
They are:

I) Permanent traits : This includes factors like geography/

territory, language, physical/racial
attributes and size.

II) Non-Permanent or acquired traits: This includes factors like economy or

subsistence pattern and the degree of
incorporation into the Hindu society.

2.2.1 Geographical
The tribes of India are dispersed widely over geographical territory and scholars
have attempted to arrange them along the regions they inhabit. Based on the
geographical location and the tribal demographical set-up, anthropologists have
tried to chalk out a zonal classification or a regional grouping of the tribes of
India.

For instance, B.S. Guha has classified the tribes of India into three zones:
x The north and north-eastern zone in the mountain valleys and eastern frontiers
of India.
x The central or middle zone occupying the older hills and plateaus along the
dividing line between the Peninsular India and the Indo-Gangetic Plains
including the converging line of the Western Ghats.
x The southern zone comprising the whole of the Peninsular India.

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Tribal Cosmogenies D.N. Majumdar and T.N. Madan in their book Introduction to Social
Anthropology (1956) have also offered a similar classification. They are Northern
and North-Eastern Zone, the Central or Middle Zone and the Southern Zone.

S.C. Dube has demarcated four geographical regions including the North and
North-Eastern Zone, Middle Zone, the South Zone and the West Zone.

Taking into consideration the zonal classification given by different

anthropologists from time to time and keeping in mind the geographical,
ecological, socio-economic, administrative, ethnic and racial factors,
L.P.Vidyarthi put forward a five-fold classification system which included the
following: the Himalayan region, Middle India, Western India, South India and
the Islands.

I) The Himalayan region is sub-divided into:

A) North-eastern Himalayan region comprising the states of Assam,
Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura
and the mountaineous region of West Bengal including Darjeeling.
B) Central Himalayan region comprising the Terai areas of Uttar Pradesh
and Bihar.
C) North-Western Himalayan region comprising the states of Himachal
Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir.
The tribes inhabiting this region are the Akas, Daflas, Apatanis, Mishmis,
Khamptis, Singphos, Kukis, Khasis, Garos, Lepchas, Bhotias, Tharus, etc.

II) Middle India Region comprising the states of Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa
and Madhya Pradesh. About 55% of the total tribal population of the country
lives in this region. The tribes inhabiting this region are the Juangs, Kharia,
Khonds, Bhumijs, Baiga, Muria, Marias, Mundas, Gonds, Santhals, Oraons,
etc.

III) Western India Region comprising the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat,

Maharashtra, Goa and the Union Territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The
tribes inhabiting this region are the Barodias, Bharwads, Bhils, Damors,
Dhanwars, Dhodias, Girasias, Gonds, Katkaris, Koknas, Kolis, Minas, Siddi,
Warlis, etc.

IV) South India Region comprising the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka and Kerala. The tribes inhabiting this region are the Chenchus,
Irulas, Paniyans, Kurumbas, Kadars, Todas, Badagas, Kotas, etc.

V) The Island Region comprising the islands of Andaman and Nicobar in the
Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea. The tribes inhabiting
this region are the Jarwas, Onges, the Great Andamanese, North Sentinelese,
etc.

K.S. Singh has offered a similar classification of tribes of India into the North-
eastern India, Middle India, Southern India, North-western Himalayas, and
Andaman and Nicobar Islands Zones.

Within this geographical classification, there is a lot of disparity in regards to

26 the distribution of the tribal population of the country. We can come across a
very high concentration of the tribal population in the eight states of the central Migrant Tribes / Nomads
or middle India comprising of about 85 percent of the total tribal population.
This is followed by the eight north-eastern states comprising of about 11 percent
while the rest is distributed over the states and union territories of the northern
and southern India.

However, if we try to see the ratio of the tribal population to the total population,
we can find that the ratio is high in the north-eastern states except Assam. It
ranges from 64-95 per cent in Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram, Sikkim and
Arunachal Pradesh and between 30-35 percent in Tripura and Manipur. The
ratio is over 90 percent in the Union Territory of Lakshadweep whereas it ranges
from 22-23 percent in Orissa and Madhya Pradesh in central India. In the rest of
the country the ratio ranges from as low as 1-12 percent.

Besides the zonal and geographical distribution, tribes have also been classified
on the basis of their ecological habitat. On this basis they are classified as those
who live in the hills (Hill Karbis, Hill Tiwas of Assam), plains (Bodos, Singphos),
forests (Kadars of Kerala), rural, urban and industrial areas.

2.2.2 Linguistic
Besides classifying the tribes according to territory, they are also classified
according to language or linguistic categories. Four broad language groups have
been identified amongst the tribes of India which are Indo-Aryan, Austro-Asiatic,
Dravidian and Tibeto-Burman.

Tracing the linguistic map of India, we can see that the tribal people of India
speak different languages in different regions and groups. One can find that the
Dravidian language is spoken in southern India and in some pockets in central
India; the Austro-Asiatic language is spoken in some pockets in the north-eastern
Himalayan region of Meghalaya, in Nicobar Islands and most part of central
India; the Tibeto-Burman language is spoken in the entire Himalayan region
whereas the Indo-Aryan language is spoken in the remaining areas of the rest of
the country.

L.P Vidyarthi and Binay Kumar Rai in their book “The Tribal Culture of India”
put forward the following classificatory system of the languages of Indian tribes:

I) Dravidian
All the tribes of southern India as well as the Gonds and Oraons of central India
speak languages belonging to the Dravidian language family. The Gondi language
spoken by the Gonds who spread from Uttar Pradesh to Andhra Pradesh and
from Maharashtra to Orissa belong to this language family. Other languages
belonging to this family is the Kui language which is spoken by the Kandh of
Orissa, Kurukh spoken by the Oraons of central India, Tulu language spoken by
the Malerus of Karnataka. The languages spoken by the Todas, Palliyans and
Irulas of Tamil Nadu, the Chenchus of Andhra Pradesh, and Kadars of Kerala
also belong to the Dravidian language family.

II) Austro-Asiatic
The Khasis and the Jaintias of Meghalaya speak in language belonging to the
Austric language family. Apart from them, the Mundas (Bihar), Santhals (West
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Tribal Cosmogenies Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Tripura), Hos (Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal and Madhya
Pradesh), Saoras (Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar,
Maharashtra and Orissa), Bondos (Orissa) and Korkus (Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra) speak languages belonging to the Austric or Mundarian language
family as it is sometimes called.
This family is again sub-divided into the following sub-groups:
A) Mon-Khmer Branch: Languages of this family are found in certain pockets
of the north-Himalayan region of Meghlaya spoken by the Khasis and the
Jaintias as well as the Nicobarese of the Nicobar Islands.
B) Munda Branch: Santhali spoken by the Santhals, Gutob spoken by the
Gadabas; Kharia of South Munda sub-branch; Korwa spoken by Kodaku;
Korku of North Munda sub-branch, Juang of the central Munda sub-branch
C) Kherwarian group: Ho
III) Tibeto-Chinese
This family is again sub-divided into the following sub-groups:
A) Siamese-Burmese: The Tai group of people including Khamptis and the
Phakials speak languages belonging to this family
B) Tibeto Burman:
i) Tibeto-Himalayan Branch: Bhotia, Khampa, Memba, Ladakhi spoken
by the Mons; Kagati, Sherpa
ii) Western sub-group of Prenominalised Himalayan group: Chamba,
Lahauli spoken by Lahaula; Swangli; Kinnauri spoken by the Kinnaura
iii) Non- Prenominalised Himalayan group: Rongke spoken by the Lepchas;
Toto spoken by the Totos
iv) Arunachal Branch: Hrusso spoken by the Akas; Miri spoken by the
Miris, Mishmi spoken by the Mishmis, Nocte; Sulung, Tagin
v) Assam-Burmese Branch:
a) Bodo group: Kachari, Dimasa, Garo, Mikir spoken by the Karbis,
Koch, Dowyan spoken by the Tiwas, Rabha
b) Naga Group: Angami, Ao, Chakhesang, Sema, Rengma, Lotha,
Konyak, Maram, Phom,
c) Kuki-Chin Group: Hmar, Koireng, Lamgang, Monsang, Moyon,
Paite; Vaiphei; Zou
d) Kachin Group: Singpho
Apart from the Khasis and the Jaintias of Meghalaya, all the other tribes of
north-east India and the Himalayan region speak languages belonging to the
Tibeto-Burman family.

IV) Indo-Aryan

The tribes of Gujarat, Rajasthan and the Indo-Gangetic Plain speak languages
belonging to the Indo-Aryan language family. Some of the languages belonging
to this family include Chattisgarhi, Gujarati; Marathi, Assamese; Oriya; Baigana
28
spoken by the Baigas; Banjari spoken by the Banjaras; Bhili spoken by the Bhils;
Dardic spoken by the Broqpas; Gujjari spoken by the Gujjars; Lamani spoken Migrant Tribes / Nomads
by the Lambadis; Baghelkhandi spoken by the Paos,

The entire group of Austric language speaking people and 80 percent of the
Tibeto-Burman speaking people are identified as tribal communities. On the
other hand a meagre 3 percent of the Dravidian language speaking people and
almost 1 percent of the Indo-Aryan speaking people are identified as tribal people.

There is yet another language family spoken by the tribes of the Andaman Islands
like the Great Andamanese, the Onges, Jarawas and the Sentinelese. They are
loosely called the Andamanese language family.

2.2.3 Racial
On the basis of the physical attributes, anthropologists have tried to categorise
the tribal population from time to time. But due to the lack of available knowledge
and scanty direct evidence, the determination of the racial genesis and affinities
of the tribal communities of India is a very complicated task.

The first attempt to categorise the Indian tribal communities in a scientific manner
based on the racial characteristics was done by Sir Herbert Risley. He classified
the entire population of the country into seven racial types which are Turko-
Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Scytho-Dravidian, Aryo-Dravidian, Mongolo-Dravidian,
Mongoloid and the Dravidian. No separate classificatory scheme for the tribal
population was given.

A more recent attempt of classification was given by J.H. Hutton, S.C. Guha and
D.N. Majumdar out of which the most accepted classification is that offered by
S.C. Guha who listed six main races with nine sub-types. They are as follows:
I) Negrito
II) Proto- Australoid
III) Mongoloid
A) Paleo-Mongoloids- Long-headed and Broad-headed
B) Tibeto-Mogoloids
IV) Mediterranean
A) Palaeo- Mediterranean
B) Mediterranean
C) Oriental type
V) Western Brachycephals
A) Alpinoid
B) Dinaric
C) Armenoid
VI) Nordic
Guha has also drawn conclusions as regards to the racial composition of the
tribes of India. They are:
I) Negrito:
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Tribal Cosmogenies II) Proto-Australoid
III) Mongoloid
At present the racial composition of the tribes of India include the following:
I) Proto-Australoid: The tribes of middle India like the Mundas, the Oraons,
the Hos, the Gonds, the Khonds, etc. belong to the Proto-Australoid stock.
This group is characterized by dark skin colour, short to medium stature,
low forehead, sunken nose, dark complexion and curly hair.
II) Mongoloid: The tribes of north-eastern India and the Himalayan region
belong to this group. They have the typical features of straight hair, flat
nose, prominent cheek bones and almond shaped eyes with the epicanthic
fold present and yellowish skin colour. They have medium stature, high
head and medium nose.
III) Dravidian: The tribes of South India like the Kadars, the Irulas and the
Paniyans.
IV) Negrito: The Great Andamanese, Onges, Sentinelese having frizzy hair have
Negrito strains. The Siddis who migrated from the African shores of course
belong to the Negrito group.

2.2.4 Size
Anthropologists have also attempted to classify the tribal groups according to
their demographic size. It is interesting to note that tribal populations of India
vary immensely with regards to their respective sizes. On one hand we find
tribal communities like the Gonds, Bhils, (both designated with their generic
names) with a population of about forty lakhs each followed by the Santhals
with a population of more than thirty lakhs. They are followed by the Oraons,
Minas and the Mundas who number about more than ten lakhs each. They are
followed by the Hos, Khonds and the Kols with population strength of more
than five lakhs.

Yet another more than forty tribes, comprising about ten percent of the total
tribal population of India have a population ranging from one to five lakhs.
These are the Adis, Baigas, Bhumijs, Bodos-Kacharis, Dhodias, Garos, Kacharis,
Kharias, Kharwars, Khasis, Kolhas, Korkus, Lodhas, Mizos, Rabhas, Saoras,
Tripuris, Warlis, Yenadis and Yerukulas,to name a few.

On the contrary there are communities like some Andamanese groups who number
even less than hundred each. There is a lot of variation in size even within the
tribal groups who lie in between these two categories- somewhere from between
less than 1000 to less than a million.
Check your progress 1
Note: 1) Your answers should be about thirty words each.
2) You may check your answers with the possible answers given at
the end of the Unit.
1) What are the permanent and acquired categories of distributing the tribes
of India based on their traits?
.............................................................................................................
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 ............................................................................................................. Migrant Tribes / Nomads

.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
2) What are the classificatory systems of the tribes of India based on territory
or geographical criteria?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Fill in the Blanks
a) Tulu language belongs to the ............................. language family.
b) Racially, the Mundas and Oraons belong to the ................group.
c) .................. percent of the Tibeto-Burman speaking people are tribal.
d) Kadars are ................................. dwellers.
e ...................... percent of the total population of Central India is tribal.
4) Match the Following:
1) Kui A) Negrito
2) Rongke B) Andaman
3) Sentinelese C) Dravidian
4) Siddis D) Oraon
5) Kurukh E) Lepcha
Note for question 4: The above mentioned classificatory systems are
based on permanent traits including those based on geographical location,
linguistics, size, racial characteristics. But there are certain acquired
characteristics on the basis of which tribal groups have been classified.
These are:
x mode of livelihood or the subsistence pattern;
x degree of incorporation into the Hindu society; and
x degree of incorporation into the Hindu society as well the development
of the tribal group.
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Tribal Cosmogenies 2.2.5 Economy or subsistence pattern
On the basis of the mode of livelihood or the subsistence pattern, Indian tribes
can be divided into:
x Food gatherers and hunters
x Horticulturists
x Pastoralists
x Hill cultivation type
x Agriculturists
x Simple Artisan
x Folk Artist
x Labourers and
x Industrial workers
I) Food gatherers and hunters

Hunting and gathering is the oldest of human subsistence patterns. Hunting and
gathering methods and tools may not be highly advanced but they are efficient
for forest dwelling people to obtain a regular supply of food. Hunters and gatherers
interfere with the environment to a limited extent and their social structure is
comparatively flexible and egalitarian. Examples of hunter and gatherer tribes
of India include the Chenchus, Challa Yanadi, Malaya Pandaram/ Hill Pandaram,
Cholanaickan and the Great Andamanese

II) Horticulturists

In comparison with the hunters and the gatherers, the horticulturists extract more
resources from a given area of land and they have greater effect on the
environment. Their societies are organised around groups based on kinship and
descent. Inter-group exchange and trade is common among them.

III) Pastoralists

Pastoralism usually involves a complex interaction between groups specializing

in herding and those specializing in farming on a regional basis. Pastoralism is
not completely independent of farming. Pastoralists are able to adapt to marginal
environment where farming would be extremely risky or totally impossible.
Bakarwals, Bharwads, Broqpas, Gujjars, Todas are pastoralist tribes.

IV) Hill cultivation type

The people inhabiting the hilly areas have adopted shifting cultivation methods.
Hill cultivation is a seasonally regulated procedure designed to open up and
bring a patch of land under cultivation. After one or two seasons of cropping, the
land is left fallow for several years with the aim of restoring the fertility of the
soil. Following this, the land is again cleared and burnt and likewise another
cycle of cultivation begins. Simple implements like the digging stick with a
metallic end, spade, sickle and axe are used.

32
Hill cultivators apply three techniques which include: i) Slash-and-burn Migrant Tribes / Nomads
cultivation with the help of digging sticks; ii) Hoe-and-burn cultivation; and iii)
Terrace cultivation in the Terai areas equipped with natural irrigation sources.

Hill cultivation is known by various names like Jhum in Assam, Kurwa or Khallu
in Santhal Parganas; Podu, Rema, Dahi, Gudia, Bringa in Orissa; Penda, Dahiya,
Bewar in Madhya Pradesh; Kondapady in Andhra Pradesh.

The practice of hill cultivation is widespread in our country. Tribal communities

inhabiting the hills of Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura, Bihar, Orissa,
Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh including the Adis, Akas, Birjhias, Bondos,
Chakmas, Chirus, Gangtes, Hmars, Jamatias, Juangs, Dimasas, Karbis, Mijis,
Mishmis, Aos, Konyaks, Phoms, Paites, Riangs, Tangsas, Wanchos practice the
Hill cultivation methods.

V) Agriculturists

Agriculture is the most popular economic activity of the tribal population of

India. A large percentage of the tribes are supported by agriculture who practice
it as their primary source of livelihood. It is a simple form of settled type of
cultivation which requires ploughing the land with two animals. An important
feature of tribal agriculture is cooperation among relatives and among the villagers
on a reciprocal basis during the different stages of agricultural activities. Tribal
communities practicing agriculture are the Apatanis, Cheros, Deoris, Miris, Hos,
Jaintias, Khambas, Kharias, Khasis, Kolams, Tiwas, Rabhas, Kinnauras, Bhumijs,
Santhals, Mundas, Oraons, Kharwas, Baigas, Gonds, Bhils, Minas, Warlis, Koyas;
the list is endless.

VI) Simple artisan type

There are a number of tribes in India who subsist on traditional crafts and cottage
industries like basketry, wood craft, weaving, iron smelting, rope making, etc.
Except in few cases, these are usually practiced as subsidiary occupations. The
Asurs of Bihar, Goduliya Lohars of Rajasthan, Agarias of Madhya Pradesh are
engaged in iron smelting; the Birhors are engaged in rope making; the Garas of
Jammu and Kashmir and the Kammarus are blacksmiths. The Katkaris are
engaged in catechu making; the Kotas and the Tharuas are potters; the Sauntas
and the Mahalis are basket makers. In fact a majority of the tribes of India are
engaged in basketry which caters to their individual needs and requirements.

VII) Folk artist

There are certain tribes in India who are traditional singers, dancers, bards,
acrobats and snake-charmers. Tribes belonging to this category depend on their
art for their economic survival and subsistence. Some of the tribes belonging to
this category are the Nats and Saperas of Uttar Pradesh; the Mundupttas and
Kelas of Orissa who are acrobats; the Pardhans and the Ojhas who are bards; the
Pamulas and the Kalbelias of Rajasthan who are snake charmers; the Dommaras
who are acrobats; the Gorait who are drum beaters; the Mons and the Paradhis
who are musicians.

These communities have ceremonial relations with their neighbouring

communities. For instance, the Pardhans are considered the bards of the Gonds.
33
Tribal Cosmogenies Their presence is mandatory in the social functions of the Gonds. The Pardhans
play on the Kikri- a stringed musical instrument and live on ritual begging and
the customary alms received from the neighbouring Gonds. Similarly the Ojhas
are the bards and minstrels of the Gonds.

Similarly the Kotas of the Nilgiris apart from catering to the needs of the Todas
and the Badagas for pots and knives also offer music essential in the ceremonies
of the Todas and the Badagas. They are offered grain in return of the same. The
Kotas also have a reciprocal relationship with the Kurumbas who compensate
the Todas with honey and fruits.

VIII) Labourers/industrial workers

Some of the tribes traditionally belonging to the agricultural or artisan type have
adopted the work of wage labourers. They work as daily wage labourer in the
agricultural fields or non-agricultural sector like the industries on a casual basis.
The agricultural work is available in the locality itself whereas the non-agricultural
work opportunities are available in the locality as well as distant places including
neighbouring states.

The emergence of the non-agricultural labour sector is a result of the rapid growth
of population and the opening of mines and different industries in tribal areas.
As a result tribal peoples from the agricultural and artisan type move out to
distant places as seasonal migrants to work in the mines, industries, tea gardens,
road and railway construction, forestry and other civil work like construction of
dams, bridges, etc.

The most renowned non-agricultural labour belt is the Chotanagpur of Bihar.

Tribals of this area are found working in the tea gardens of North-East India,
forestry and other sectors in the Andaman and Nicober Islands, etc. The Santhals
and the Hos dominate the labourer sector of the iron mines and industries of
Bihar, almost half the labour force of the manganese industry of Madhya Pradesh
is constituted of tribal people.

The tribal people are found to be taking industrial labour work either as the
primary occupation or subsidiary work. Such occupational changes have led to
changes not only in the income and expenditure pattern but also in the traditional
occupational structure, importance of the traditional crafts, dress and food habits
as well as in the family and social structure of the traditional tribal societies.

IX) Skilled workers and white collar jobs

In the post Independence era, the Constitution of India has helped in creating job
opportunities for tribal people by reserving seats in different services. As a result
we find tribal people engaged in offices, hospitals, administrative jobs, etc. It is
difficult to identify any particular tribal group that is extensively engaged in
skilled jobs but educated tribal people are engaged in such jobs in different
capacities all over the country.

2.2.6 Degree of incorporation into the Hindu society

Tribal and non-tribal communities in India have co-existed for centuries,
influencing each other in different ways in varying degrees. This was also another
way of classifying the tribal population of India based on the degree of
34
incorporation into the non-tribal caste-based Hindu society. This could be studied Migrant Tribes / Nomads
from the perspective of either the tribal society or the Hindu society.

The Tribal Welfare Committee constituted by the Indian Conference of Social

Work in 1952 classified the tribes of India into four main divisions which are the
following:

I) Tribal communities

This category includes those tribal communities who confine themselves to their
original habitats and still maintain their distinct traditional pattern of life. For
example, the hunting and gathering tribes and hill cultivating tribes.

II) Semi-tribal communities

This category includes those tribal communities who have, more or less, settled
down in the rural areas taking to agriculture and other allied occupations. For
example, the agriculturist tribes.

III) Acculturated tribal communities

This category includes those tribal communities who have migrated to the urban
or semi-urban areas and are engaged in the industrial sector and have adopted
the cultural traits of the rest of the population, for example industrial labourers
like the Santhals and the Hos.

IV) Totally assimilated tribal communities

This category includes those tribal communities who have been totally assimilated
into the new social order such as the Bhumjis, the Majhis, the Raj Gonds, etc.

B.K.Roy Burman in 1971 divided the tribal population into those who are;
I) Fully incorporated into the Hindu social order such as, the Bhils who have
adopted the Hindu way of life including the ethos of the caste system and
can hardly be differentiated from the neighbouring Hindu peasantry.
II) Positively oriented towards the Hindu social order
This category includes tribes like the Santhals, Oraons, Mundas and the
Gonds who have not been incorporated totally into the caste structure but
have to a large extent adopted the symbols and world views of their Hindu
neighbours.
III) Negatively oriented towards the Hindu social order
This category includes tribes like the Mizos and the Nagas who are negatively
oriented towards the Hindu social order and reject the caste structure.
IV) Indifferent towards the Hindu social order
This category includes tribes like those of Arunachal Pradesh who are totally
indifferent to the Hindu order.
G.S. Ghurye in “The Scheduled Tribes” proposed a similar classification which
includes;
x Tribes who attain a high status within the Hindu society
35
Tribal Cosmogenies x Partially Hinduised tribes
x Tribes inhabiting remote hill areas and who exhibited great resistance to
Hinduism as an alien culture
While combining the criteria of the level of incorporation and the level of
development, Verrier Elwin proposed a fourfold classification:
x Those who are primitive live in a joint communal life and cultivate with
axes. They are the purest as they live in the remotest areas and are least
influenced by Hinduism.
x Those who, though equally attached to their solitude and ancient traditions,
are more individualistic, face a decline of shared sense, are less occupied
with axe cultivation and are more used to outside life.
x Those who are under external influence and are on the way to lose their
tribal culture, religion and social organization. They are in a peculiar state
of transition. This group constitutes the largest section of the tribal population
which is about four-fifth of the same.
x Those who retain much of their original tribal life and tree of culture intact.
Check your progress 2
Note: 1) Your answers should be about thirty words each.
2) You may check your answers with the possible answers given at
the end of the Unit.
1) What are the acquired traits on the basis on which the tribes of India are
classified?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) What are the main divisions devised by the Tribal Welfare Committee
to classify the tribal population of India?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

3) Match the Following:

1) Chenchu A) Madhya Pradesh
2) Bakarwal B) Potter
3) Jhum C) Food Gatherer
4) Agaria D) Pastoral Nomad
5) Tharua E) Hill Cultivation
36
 Migrant Tribes / Nomads
2.3. CAUSES OF VARIATIONS
In the preceding section, we have come across the wide variation of the different
groups and sub-groups of Indian tribes based on permanent traits like
geographical, linguistic, racial, size, and acquired traits like the economy or
subsistence pattern and degree of incorporation into the Hindu society.

There are many factors which lead to this great degree of variations which are
enumerated below:

2.3.1 Migration
India had experienced different waves of movement of populations dating back
to thousands of years.

The earliest known population movement is that of the Aryans who were a group
of pastoralists who are said to have migrated from Iran through Afghanistan in
around 1500 B.C. from the north-western side of the Indian subcontinent. They
eventually displaced the Indus Valley culture and made this region their home.
In much later periods of history the invasion of Greeks under Alexander the
Great was followed by other invasions from the West and Central Asia like those
of the Scythians known as the Sakas in India; the Yue-Chi from Central Asia, the
Arabs from Baghdad in the eighth century; the Turks of Afghanistan in the
thirteenth century and finally the Central Asian invaders under Babur in the
sixteenth century which laid the foundations of the Mughal rule in India.

Apart from these invasions, migrant communities had come to India as merchants,
traders religious practitioners and even as slaves.

This is the main cause behind the wide variety of racial and linguistic strains
evident in the racial and cultural mosaic of India.

2.3.2 Acculturation and assimilation

The migrants and the original inhabitants have been living in close contact with
each other for centuries. The interaction between the two led to much acculturation
as well as assimilation over the years. As a result, many new traits find their way
into the cultural mosaic of the immigrant communities and many traits also die
out leading to the variations in the culture of the two sides.

2.3.3 Geography or the physical environment

The geographical or the physical environment of an area plays an important role
in shaping the socio-economic conditions and cultural elements in the life of the
people. For instance, the Bhotia of the eastern Himalayas follow Buddhism while
those of the central Himalayas are Hindus due to the influence of the neighbouring
communities. There is an obvious difference in the dress between the Gujjars
settled in the cold region in the Jammu and Kashmir and those inhabiting
the arid region of Rajasthan. The people living in the hilly region practice the
shifting and terrace method of cultivation whereas those of the plains practice
agriculture.

37
Tribal Cosmogenies
Check your progress 3
Note: 1) Your answers should be about thirty words each.
2) you may check your answers with the possible answers given at
the end of this Unit.
1) What are the causes of variations of the Tribes of India?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

2.4 LET US SUM UP

As you come to the end of this Unit, you have an idea about the distribution
pattern of the Indian tribes and how they are classified into different groups and
sub-groups based on some permanent traits including geography/territory,
language, physical attributes as well as some acquired characteristics like
economy and the degree of incorporation of the tribes into the Hindu society.
You are also familiar to some extent with the causes of variations in the
distribution patterns of the Indian tribes.

2.5 ACTIVITY
Try to discuss the various points mentioned in this Unit with your friends, co-
students or interested people. Try to list the various causes of variations in the
distribution pattern of the tribes of India.

2.6 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

x Virginius,2003. Tribes in India in The Oxford India Companion to Sociology
and Social Anthropology Edited by Veena Das; Oxford University Press:
New Delhi.
x Vidyarthi, L.P. and B.K. Rai. 1977. The Tribal Culture of India. Delhi:
Concept Publishing Company.

2.7 GLOSSARY
Acculturated : The process by which culture is transmitted
through continuous firsthand contact of groups
with different cultures, one often more developed
than the other.
Assimilation : The process through which groups living in a
common territory but of a heterogeneous
backgrounds reach a broad-based cultural solidarity.
38
Bards : Singing poets who recite verses about the legends Migrant Tribes / Nomads
and history of their people.
Brachycephalic : Referring to a person with a comparatively broad
head.
Demography : The statistical analysis and description of
populations considering vital aspects like age, sex,
birth rate, death rate and mobility over a period or
at one time.
Generic : Relating to or descriptive of an entire group or
class.
People of India Project : The People of India Project launched by the
Anthropological Survey of India in 1985 to present
a brief but descriptive anthropological profile of
all the communities of India, study the impact of
change and development processes on these
communities.

2.8 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS

Check your progress 1
1) Read Section 1.2
2) Read Section 1.2.1
3) Fill in the Blanks
a) Tulu language belongs to the Dravidian language family.
b) Racially, the Mundas and Oraons belong to the Proto-Australoid group
c) Eighty percent of the Tibeto-Burman speaking people are tribals.
d) Kadars are forest dwellers.
e) Eighty-five percent of the total population of Central India is tribals.
4) 1-C; 2-E; 3-B; 4-A; 5-D
Check your progress 2
1) Read Section 1.5.5 & 1.5.6
2) Read Section 1.5.6
3) 1-C; 2-D; 3-E; 4-A; 5-B
Check your progress 3
1) Read Section 1.3

39