Conductivity The reciprocal of resistivity is called the conductivity. It is represented by the symbol 6 (sigma). Thus, conductivity 6 is expressed as ae Ra en(8.11) Its S.1. unit is ‘chmxmetre Q7 m+) or siemen metre“. or ohm”! metre“! (symbol Choice of material of a wire The choice of material of a wire depends on the purpose for which the wire is to be used. The wires which are used for electrical connections and for power transmission, are made of material such as copper or aluminium, for which the resistivity is very small and they are made thick so that their resistance can be considered to be negligible*. © Due to low (or negligible) resistance of connection wires, the current in circuit remains unaffected. Further the loss of electrical energy due to heating is also negligible in them. On the other hand, the resistance wires (or standard resistors) are made of material such as nichrome, manganin, constantan, etc., for which the resistivity is quite large and the effect of change in temperature on their resistance is negligible. A fuse wire is made of an alloy of lead and tin because its resistivity is high and melting point is low. 88 VARIATION OF RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY WITH TEMPERATURE For a metallic conductor, the resistance increases with the increase in temperature. The resistance of filament of a bulb is more when it is glowing than when it is not glowing. The specific resistance or resistivity also increases with the increase in temperature. For alloys (such as constantan and manganin), the resistance and the resistivity remains practically unchanged with the increase in temperature, For semi-conductors (such as carbon, silicon, germanium etc.), the resistance decreases with the increase in temperature. EXAMPLES) 1. Fig. 8.12 shows V-I graphs experimentally obtained in different cases. Select the graphs for ohmic and non-ohmic resistors. t t <> iw tL 0 ™ ? > ° 1 v v ee eee Oe (@) Pure metal (b) Copper sulphate (@) Vacuum diode (@) Filament of a bulb (e) Dilute sulphuric) Sunetion diode solution with acid with platinum copperelectrodes electrodes Fig. 8.12 ‘The V-f graphs shown in Fig. 8.12 (a), (b) and (e) are for the ohmic resistors, while in Fig. 8.12 (c), (d) and (f) are for | the non-ohmic resistors. 2. Calculate the potential difference required across a conductor of resistance 5 © to pass a current of 1-5A through it . | Given: R=5Q,1 = 15A,V=? From Ohm's law, V = JR . Potential difference V = 1:5x5=75V | 3. A torch buib when cold has 1 © resistance. It draws a current 0:3 A, when glowing from a source of 3 V, Calculate the resistance of the bulb when glowing and explain the reason for the difference in the resistance. | 3A, V23V While glowing, = 176v <- Resistance of bulb R = 7 =53 102 ‘The reason for the difference in resistance of bulb when cold (R= 1 ©) and when it glows (R = 10 @), is that the resistivity of filament of bulb increases with the increase in temperature. 4. Calculate the resistance of 1 km long copper wire of radius 1 mm, (Resistivity of copper is 1-72 x 10° m). Given : = 1 km = 1000 m, r= 1 mm = 103 m, GaP 314x (109% = 314x106 m?, Resistivity p =1-72 x 10% Q.m 2 x 10°%) x 1000 314 x10 or R= 55a 5. When a potential difference of 2 volt is applied across the ends of a wire of S m length, a current of 1 Ais found to flow through it. Calculate : (i) the resistance per unit length of the wire, (ii) the resistance of 2 m length of the wire, @ Given V=2volt, I= 1A Resistance of 5 m length of wire v2 <-20 774 Resistance per unit length of the wire R 2 ct 2-09.40. ; my 1 Gii) Resistance of 2 m length of the wire sistance per unit length x length =04x2=089 (i) When the wire is doubled on itself, its area of cross section becomes twice and the length becomes half. Let a bbe the initial area of cross section and p be the resistivity of the material of the wire, Then I= 5m, R=2., 1" = 2.5m, a'=2a, From the relation R Initial resistance 2 .@ . Gi) 25 New resistance’ = p >* On dividing eqn. Gi) by eqn. (i), £ 20/1 i) the resistance across the ends of the wire if it is 2 24 a 4 oubled on itself . v-22050 . Define the term current and state its $.1. unit. Define the term electric potential. State its $1. unit. . How is the electric potential difference between the two points defined ? State its unit. 4. Explain the statement ‘the potential difference between two points is 1 volt’ 5. Explain the analogy between the flow of charge (or current) in a conductor under a potential difference with the free fall of a body under gravity. 6. Define the term resistance. State its $.1. unit. 7. Name the particles which are responsible for the flow of current in a metal. Explain the flow of current in a ‘metal on the basis of movement of the particles named by you. 8. How does the resistance of a wire depend on its radius ? Explain your answer. 9. How does the resistance of a wire depend on its length ? Give a reason for your answer. 18, How does the resistance of a metallic wire depend on its temperature ? Explain with reason. 11. Two wires, one of copper and other of iron, are of the same length and same radius. Which will have more resistance ? Give reason. Ans, Iron wire. Reason : Resistivity of iron is more than that of copper. 12. State Ohm's law and draw a neat labelled circuit diagram containing a battery, a key, a voltmeter, an ammeter, a rheostat and an unknown resistance to verify it 13, What is the necessary condition for a conductor to obey Ohm’s law ? 14, Draw a V-I graph for a conductor obeying Ohm’s law. What does the slope of V-I graph for a conductor represent ? Ans, Resistance 15, Describe an experiment with a neat labelled circuit diagram to verify Ohm’s law. Draw a graph showing the change in potential difference across the ends of a conductor and the current flowing in it. What does the slope of the graph represent ? 16. What does the slope of /— V graph for a linear resistor represent ? 17. What is an ohmic resistor ? Give one example of an ohmic resistor. Draw a graph to show its current- voltage relationship. How is the resistance of the resistor determined from this graph ? 718, What are non-ohmic resistors ? Give one example and draw a graph to show its current-voltage relationship, Give two differences between an ohmic and non-ohmic resistor. Fig. 8.13 below shows the LV characteristic curves for four resistors. Identify the ohmic and non-ohmic resistors. Give a reason for your answer. 1. 20. vv vv @ o ! | / v— v— © @ Fig. 8.13 ‘Ans. Ohmic (d); non-ohmic (a), (b) and (¢) Reason : Only for (@), /~ V graph is a straight line, while for (a), (b) and (c), the graph is a curve. Name the factors on which the resistance of a wire depends. How does the resistance of a wire depend on the factors stated by you ? 21. Ans () Onn =D, Gi on aea = 2, (ii) on temperature and (iv) on material. How does the resistance of a wire depend on ‘temperature ? Draw a V-I graph to show the variation of resistance with temperature at two different temperatures. Define the term resistivity and state its S.1. unit. |. Write an expression connecting the resistance and resistivity. State the meaning of symbols used. State the order of resistivity of a metal, a semiconductor and an insulator. (On what factors does the resistivity of a wire depend ? Does it depend on the size and shape of the wire ? . Give nwo differences between resistance and resistivity of a wire, 22. almost unchanged by the increase in temperature. ‘Ans, Manganin Name the material used for making the connection wires. Give a reason for your answer, Name a substance of which the resistance remains | 30. Name a material which is used for making the standard resistor. Give a reason for your answer. Name the material used for making a fuse wire. Give a reason, ‘What is a superconductor ? Give one example of it. A substance has zero resistance below 1 K. What is such a substance called? Ans, Superconductor MULTIPLE CHOICE TYPE 1. Which of the following statements does not represent Ohm's law ? (2) current/potential difference = constant (b) potential difference/current = constant (©) potential difference = current x resistance (@) current = resistance x potential difference. Ans, (d) current = resistance x potential difference, 31. 32. 33. 2. Which of the following is an ohmic resistance ? (a) diode valve (b) junction diode (c) filament of a bulb (d) nichrome. ‘Ans. (d) nichrome 3. For which of the following substances, resistance | decreases with increase in temperature ? | (a) copper (b) mercury | (c) carbon (@) platinum. Ans. (c) Carbon 4. A wire of resistance R is doubled on itself. Its new resistance will be : @R 28 o 4 (@) FR Ans. @ 48 NUMERICALS 1 1. A current of 1-6 mA flows through a conductor. If charge on an electton is — 1-6 x 10" coulomb, find the number of electrons that will pass each second through the cross section of that conductor. | Ans, 10° | Find the potential difference required to passa current | of 0.2 A in a wire of resistance 20. Ans. 4V 3. Anelectric bulb draws 1-2.A current at 6:0 V. Find the | resistance of filament of bulb while glowing, | ‘Ans. 5 Q | A car bulb connected to a 12 volt battery draws 2A | current when glowing . What is the resistance of the | filament of the bulb ? Will the resistance be more, same or less when the bulb is not glowing ? | Ans, 6 ©, Resistance will be Tess when | the bulb is not glowing | Calculate the current flowing through a wire of resistance 5 Q connected to a battery of potential difference 3 V. Ans.06A | 1786. In an experiment of verification of Ohm’s law, following observations are obtained. 20125 to find : (@) potential difference V when the current Fis 0-5 A, (b) current / when the potential difference Vis 0.75 V, (c) resistance in circuit. Ans, (a) 1-25 V (6)03A (6) 259 7. Two wires of the same material and same length have radii r, and r, respectively. Compare : (i) their resistances, (ii) their resistivities. Ans. (i) 7:2: 772 Gi) 1:1 8. A given wire is stretched to double its length. How will its resistance change ? Ans. Resistance will become four times 9. A wire of 3 ohm resistance and 10 cm length is stretched to 30 cm length. Assuming that it has a Uniform cross section, what will be its new resistance ? Ans. 27 10. A wire of 9 ohm resistance having 30 cm length is tripled on itself. What is its new resistance ? Ans, 1.9 11, What length of copper wire of resistivity 1-7 x 10%. mand radius 1 mm is required so that its resistance is, 19? ‘Ans. 184-7 m (B) ELECTRO-MOTIVE FORCE, TERMINAL VOLTAGE AND INTERNAL. RESISTANCE OF A CELL; COMBINATION OF RESISTORS 8.9ELECTRO-MOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F.), TERMINAL VOLTAGE AND INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL An electric cell is a device in which a constant difference in potential is maintained between the two conductors (called electrodes or terminals) by a chemical reaction. Thus a cell can be used as a source of current (electrons). In a cell, chemical energy changes into the electrical energy when it is in use. Electro-motive force (e.m.f.) of a cell When no current is drawn from a cell ie., when the cell:is in open circuit (Fig. 8.14), the potential difference between the terminals of the cell is called | its electro-motive force (or e.m.). © ‘uphure acid) —{ -— (2) Symba (@) Cou Fig. 8.14 Cell in open circuit The e.m4. of a cell is generally denoted by the symbol € (epsilon). Its unit is volt (symbol V). Factors affecting the em-f. of a cell ‘The e.m4. of a cell is the characteristic of the cell. It is different for different kinds of cells. For example, the emf. of a voltaic cell is 1.08 volt, that of Leclanche cell is 1-5 volt and of Daniel cell is 1-08 volt. The emf. of a cell depends on the following two factors (i) the material of the electrodes, and i) the electrolyte used in the cell. Note : The emf. of a cell does not depend on the shape of electrodes, the distance between the electrodes and the amount of electrolyte in it. Obviously the e.m.f. of a cell does not depend on the amount of current drawn from the cell. ‘When a cell is connected in a circuit containing various electrical components, the e.m.f. between the terminals causes the charge to flow through the components joined in the circuit. The emg. of a cell is defined as the energy spent (or the work done) per unit charge in taking a positive charge around the complete circuit of the cell (ie., in the circuit outside the cell and in the electrolyte inside the cell). If W work is done in taking a test charge q, around the complete circuit of the cell, then e.m.f, of cell is a = % (8.12) 179