Contents

1) Areal Differentiation (AD).....................................................................................................2

2) Regional Synthesis (क्षे तर् ीय संश्ले षण).....................................................................................4
3) Dichotomy(विरोधाभास) and Dualism(द्वै तवाद ) in Geography..............................................7
4) Environmental Determinism:..............................................................................................10
5) Quantitative Revolution and locational analysis...............................................................12
 Quantitative Revolution(मात्रात्मक क् रांति).....................................................................12
 Spatial and Locational analysis in Human Geography.................................................14
6) Radical , behavioral, human and welfare approach.........................................................16
 Radicalism in Geography.................................................................................................16
 Behaviouralism in Geography.........................................................................................17
 Humanism approach in geography.................................................................................20
 Welfare approaches..........................................................................................................23
7) Language, Religions and secularisation.............................................................................26
 Language...........................................................................................................................26
 Religion..............................................................................................................................27
 What is Culture?...............................................................................................................28
8) Human Development Index.................................................................................................30
 1) Areal Differentiation (AD)
As the environment, topography, culture, language, human activities, and human requirements,
etc are not uniform everywhere in the earth, hence, it is not prudent or suitable to make the
standard model/theory to study/development for all geographical areas. In simple words, the
development/study model of the plain area can not be suitable for the development/study model
of the hilly area.
The Main Idea to develop this concept was to give the importance of regional geography, and it
is against the standardization of Model/theory.
Areal differentiation is one of the perspectives of human geography in which importance is given
to the uniqueness of the geographical area rather than the standard model creation. The first
technical word " Areal Differentiation" was mentioned by Hartshorne in his book " Nature of
geography".
As per Hartshorne, each geographical area has its own uniqueness that differentiates from other
geographical areas, the study of the uniqueness and variation of a geographical area (or region)
comes under areal differentiation.
Three principles are used in areal differentiation.
1. Division of the geographical area into a region based on the uniqueness and homogeneity
over the space
2. Finding the generic principle of geographical characteristics
3. Study of the region by using different parameter comparison with near proximate
The following are the main characteristics of AD
 Areal Differencentiation (AD) supports the study of a regional approach in geography.
 Each region has its own developmental model and that will be based on the requirement
and availability of resources in that region.
 In Areal differentiation, emphasized the study of the geographical phenomenon of the
region.
Criticism of Areal Differentiation:
 Areal Differentiation emphasized the study of the region, but the boundaries of the region
are not static. The demarcation of boundaries is one problem.  
 In the age of globalization, boundaries have less meaning, no real region exist. 
 Boundaries of language, beliefs, culture are changing over time. 
  It is difficult to do women's empowerment, as each region has a different belief on the
woman. 
 Schaefer criticized both AD and exceptionalism in geography. He argued that AD has
made geography as a complex subject.  He supported the system approach of geography.
Common Model should be developed so that it can be applied everywhere.
Despite criticism study of areal differentiation is very important in geography. The reasons for
the study are the following:
 Areal differentiation is against the generalization of the model, hence it gives more
importance to the regional approach. 
 It is useful for solving and making regional level model, such as: 
 Hill area development 
 Tribal area development 
 Coastal area development 
 Backward area development 
 In India, nowadays we are planning to develop 100 smart cities, the same model cant be
applied in all smart cities because each city has there own importance. Examples:
 Varanasi smart city: it is a religious city, so importance should be given to:
 Ganga Ghat development 
 Classical Music development 
 Varanasi Sari industries 
 Temple, Streat cleanliness 
 Communication, connectivity Security of foreign tourist, etc 
 Kanpur smart city: In is an industrial center city, importance should be given to: 
 Textile & leather industries 
 Hight transport facilities needed to easy movement of goods 
 Need water conservation for textile & leather industry 
 Water treatment plants needed to avoid water pollution from the textile
and leather industry. 
 Areal differentiation can help to reduce the social disparity by regional planning
 2) Regional Synthesis (क्षे तर् ीय सं श्ले षण)
As in Areal differentiation, importance is given to study of the region. In Region Synthesis,
importance is given to "process to study region", it explains how the region should be studied.
The following diagram shows the summary of regional synthesis:

Regional Synthesis

In one line:
Regional Synthesis =study (spatial, temporal, human)
An American Geographer, J.L Berry, explains the regional synthesis through the geographical
matrix.
In Geographical Matrix, there are three dimensions:
 Ist: Rows represent attributes
 2nd: Columns represent locations
 3rd: Time
In this matrix, each cell has a geographical fact.
The following diagram shows the basic features of Berry geographical matrix of Delhi Region
(in this matrix we considered matura location is part of Delhi region).

Berry's Regional Synthesis

As per Berry geographical matrix, there are ten approaches to do regional analysis and same
are listed below:
Cells within row show the spatial distributions of geographical features. In the above
geographical matrix, the first geographical feature is temperature.
1. Cells within the column show the localized geographical features. In the above
geographical matrix, New Delhi localized regional analysis variables are temperature,
rainfall, and humidity.
2. Spatial variation can be studied by comparing two rows
3. Areal differentiation can be studied by comparing two column
4. Study of sub-matrix
 5. Study of spatial variation by comparing the same row through time which is temporal-
spatial covariation. Example caparison of the present-day temperature of New Delhi with
100 years ago temperature.
6. We can get sequence occupancy of a particular location by comparing the same column
through time.
7. Comparing a row with another row across the time dimension
8. Comparing a column with other columns across the time dimension.
9. The comparison and study of sub-matrix across the time dimension
Importance of Regional Synthesis is the current time:
 Global temperature rise is not a sudden phenomenon and it is not uniform worldwide. By
using regional synthesis analysis one can easily get a trend of temperature rise in
region wise.
 It helps to study of sequence occupance of region
 Regional Synthesis help to analyze the regional disparity within and with another region
by comparing the economic variable across the temporal analysis.
 3) Dichotomy(विरोधाभास) and Dualism(द्वै तवाद ) in
Geography
The literal meaning of dualism is two opposite views/aspects of the same subject. Dichotomy
happened when two views emerged on the same subject.
There are five dichotomies and dualisms in geography:
1. Contemporary vs Historical geography
2. Physical vs Human geography
3. Deterministic approach vs possibilistic approach
4. Regional vs System approach
5. Functional vs formal approach
Contemporary vs Historical geography:
Some geographers emphasized the importance of historical geography, as it deals with past
geographical features. Because of the following reason, the study of the historical aspect of
geography is needed:
 We get the information about the physical and cultural landscape evolution
 Evolution of settlement pattern through time, from unplanned settlements to planned city
planning
 Past hazardous data. example submergence and the emergence of the island, tsunami, and
earthquake destruction, etc.
 Geographical changes through time, for example, peneplain, plateau, the evolution of
mountain, etc
Some geographer emphasized the importance of the study of contemporary geography, as need
of people has evolved, as geographer do not want to waste the energy and time to study historical
data.
Because of the following reasons, the study of contemporary geography is important:
 Due to climate change, there is a need for a sustainable way of planning.
 Solid waste management, plastic, pollutions are contemporary issues
 Due to technological advancement, now humans can create an artificial environment,
artificial minerals, many more.
Physical vs Human geography
Physical geography school of thought emphasized the study of geography as a separate entity
where the influence of man is neglected. 
 Under Physical geography, we study the physical features of the earth. 
 Study of landform, climate, vegetation, mountain building, etc, comes under physical
geography.

Environment role

Human geography school of thought emphasized the role of humans, culture, language, society,
etc, in geography. Under this:
 Give more importance to man and environment relations. In physical geography,
humanly considered passive elements, but in human geography, man is active, passive, or
both. The same applied to the environment also, nature can be active, passive, or both.
 Under this, we study, cultural geography, language, demographic, economic growth and
development, model theory related to industry and economy development, social study.
 Human role in Human geography

Deterministic approach vs possibilistic approach

For the deterministic approach of geography, please refer the following page:
 Environmental Determinism
 Determinism in Human Geography
For the Possibilistic approach, please refer the following page:
 Possibilism in Geography
Regional vs System approach
In regional geography of thought emphasized the study of geography as region-wise. 
For more please refer the following page:
 Areal Differentiation
 Regional Synthesis
System geography, we study the earth as a whole rather than a region.
SYSTEM ANALYSIS IN GEOGRAPHY
Functional vs formal approach
 4) Environmental Determinism:
As per Environmental Determinism, Surrounding Environment is the main deciding factor of
human behavior, and differences in human behavior can be noticed by differences in the
environment around the world.
As per an American geographer, Ms. Ellen Churchill Semple in her book " Influences of
Geographical Environment":
 Man is the product of the Earth's surface
 Habitat of human is made by environment
 Activities of human are decided by the environment
 People living in Mediterranean regions are:
 Enthusiasm, happy & Simple
 Those people living in the Mountain are:
 Brave & bold
 Simple & Honest
 but having conservative and orthodox, they do not do innovation.
 Generally, robbers character found in people living in mountainous passes
 Whereas Plain area people:
 Liberal, Innovative, Progressive and adopt new ideas quickly
 Clever and they make fools to others but cowards
As per another Americal Geographer, Huntington, in his book" The Principles of Human
Geography":
 Human Behavior is decided by the climate of a particular region.
 Variation in Civilization supremacy is also bound by climate.
 Variation in climate led to variation in the culture.
 Religion and racial character are the product of climate
 20-degree temperature are an ideal climate condition for high mental and physical
productivity.
 Northeast USA, UK, and northwest Europe are the best climates for innovation
and living
  The industrial revolution started in this region
 Ancient civilizations developed in the fertile river valley of the mild climate. Examples :
 Indus valley civilization in the banks of Indus river
 Mesopotamia Civilization in the banks of Nile river
 Chineses Civilization in the banks of Yellow river
 Mongolian attacker attitude due to the harsh climate in Mangole
 People living in hot, humid, and harsh weather are:
 lazy, inefficient, timid, suspicious
Criticism
 Man is not a passive animal, man can create and change the natural environment. The
following are the examples:
 Dam building
 River linking
 Artificial Raining
 Green Revolution
 Hydroculture, Soilless farming
 Greenhouse Agriculture
 There can be two ethnic/ race groups in the same location and the same climate.
 The same Environment has a different meaning to different people, it is up to people how
they are using it. Examples:
 Locations & Climate of Israel & Jordan is the same, but Israel is more developed
due to innovation and people's attitude wheres Jordan is lacking.
 Natural & mineral resources are lacking in Japan, however, they are developed.
 Rich natural resource in Africa, however, they are poor.
 5) Quantitative Revolution and locational analysis
• Quantitative Revolution(मात्रात्मक क् रां ति)
During the 1960s, there was a crisis in geography because of the following reasons:
Earlier, geography provided a limited scope of leaning. As the definition of geography was:
 Geography=earth + graphy= description of earth surface. The big question was,
now we had studied the earth's surface, what will be the next? what should be
taught in geography?
 In 1948, Harward University closed down its geography department
 The importance of geography was being questioned.
 Geography was merely descriptive in nature, absent of statistics, data, mathematics, etc
 Most of the theories were borrowed from other subjects. Examples:
 The Malthusian theory is borrowed from an essay written by an English cleric,
Thomas Robert Malthus.
 Nebular Hypothesis theory was taken from philosophy subject.
Because of the above reasons, Use of the abstract model using the statistical and mathematical
technique in geography to make the subject more objective is collectively known as
"Quantitative Revolution" in geography.
 Quantitative tool

Basic Assumptions in the Quantitative Revolution Model:

 Man is considered a rational element who always tries to maximize the profit
  Man has infinite knowledge 
 Space as an isotropic surface 
 Exclusion of culture, belief, custom, attitude, traditions, choice, religious values, social
values
Basis of the Quantitative Revolutions
The following geographical approaches are the basis of the quantitative revolution:
 Positivism
 Functionalism
 Schaefer views
Methods used in Quantitative Revolutions
 Spatial and Location analysis
  System analysis
Models developed under QR
 Christaller model
 Weber industrial location theory
 Won Thunen crop intensity model 
 Rank size rule 
 Migration model gravity
 Central place theory
Merits of Quantitative Revolution Methods:
It is based on rational, mathematical, observed data can be verified.
It made easy to choose the industrial location
Limitations of QR
 The decision of man is not always profiting motive
 No place of religion, values, belief
 Capitalist views
 No place of the subjective decision of human

• Spatial and Locational analysis in Human Geography

The spatial and locational analysis is the quantitative tool of the quantitative revolution, it is
based on the Positivism approach of geography.
Spatial vs Locational analysis:
In Spatial analysis, the focus is on the spatial arrangement of phenomena that are the
organizational center (node), network, interaction /flow, distance, relative distance, etc.
In Locational analysis, the following analysis is done in particular locations :
 Population and demographic
 Migration,
 Industries and types of Industries
 Literacy and school, college infrastructure
The major contribution to the spatial and locational analysis is done by Peter Haggett. He
suggested five-component initially and later added the sixth component on locational analysis.
The following logical sequence should be while analysis of the region:
 Identifying the major organization center or nodes
 Study of connection and flow across space
 Study of the network along with the flow
 Make the hierarchical structure of the organization center
 Surface analysis should be done between nodes
 Final, diffusion down the hierarchy, along with the networks, and along the surface.
Importance of spatial and locational analysis:
 For checking the project viability and scope
 Getting comprehensive information regarding the project, example the assessment of
 Industrial corridor
 Bullet train
 Fright corridor
 Administrative structure 
 Backward area development
 GDP analysis
Criticism of Locational analysis:
Same as a quantitative revolution.
 6) Radical , behavioral, human and welfare approach
• Radicalism in Geography
Why radicalism thought developed in geography?
 As positivism, Schaefer's view, and the quantitative approach supported rational based
thinking and made humans as profit-making. At the result, merit-based development
happened in a specific location, at results, inequality, regional disparity, gender, and
racial discrimination increased.
 During 1960, the Vietnam war and discrimination against black people in the USA are
the hot reason for radicalism in geography.
 The socio-economic disparity in capitalist countries resulted in the rise of radicalism
approach in geography.
In 1969, professor Peet in his magazine, written many articles of the support of radicalism in
geography.
The following are the main philosophy in radicalism:
 Supported the Labour values and against the free and merit-based approach.
 It believed only in economic class, the importance of religion, morals, culture, personal
choice is not given.
 Equal opportunity and treatment of women in the home, workplace, religious place, and
political system.
 Support women participation in geography
 Opposed colonialism and the quantitative revolution
 Supported welfare and humanism geography
 Opposed profit motive development
 Women geography
 Discussion about women working conditions, negligence, patriarchal society,
 Against capitalist and supported socialism against nationalism, America for American
against white supremacy disclosure of European loot in a poor country
 Rejected the racial and climatic supremacy theory, such as northeast America and
western Europe are the best climate region for the best brain.
Criticism
  Against the line of geography
 Less flexible and hard to implement
 It supports the Marxism philosophy and the Marxism philosophy was not succeeded in
USSR

• Behaviouralism in Geography
Why Behaviouralism developed?
Because of the following reasons:
 It developed due to the reaction of the quantitative and positivist approach, As the
quantitative revolution considered humans as economic rationality, however the same is
not true as per behaviouralism.
 As per Wolpert's study, optimal farming practice is not done by Swedish farmers
although having very fertile and productive land, they were satisfied with 60 %
productivity.
 Indian farmers also used excess fertilizer that reduces the long-run productivity of
the land.
 From the above two examples, we can say humans are not profit maximizers but
merely satisficers.
 The decision of humans is subjective in nature, can not be quantified as per the
quantitative tool.
 As the quantitative revolution reject the role of human values, belief, culture, etc in
decision making, but the reality is different, the contribution of values, culture, religion in
the human decision can be seen in daily life. Example, temple visit is a totally religious
decision, not an economic decision, and vary person to person and this decision can be
subjective in nature.
Mental Map:
 Each person has their own perception of the environment and the same is depended on
his moral, pre-knowledge, culture, social, and economic background, an environmental
image is created in the human mind in each individual, is also called Mental Map. Each
people have their own Mental Map, for example,
 Each people have route map from home to office and that will vary person to
person
 Work planning and prioritizing for the day is also a mental map.
  There are high bonding on a mental map and actual decision making. People make
decisions based on their mental map, for example, route selection from office to home
vary person to person, the selection is based on his mental map.
Basic Concept in Behaviouralism:
The following diagram shows the basic concept of behaviouralism:

Basic Concept in Behaviouralism

The human decision is subjective in nature:

In reality, as we know human behavior is dynamic in nature, the same thing is liked by today can
be disliked by tomorrow by the same person. The human decision is subjective in nature and
can not quantify. Human behavior or choice is not only influenced by profit as quantitative
approach consider but also by:
Preknowleged
 Morality, ethics
 Culture, religion
 Time or situation
 Economic need
Some people give more importance to time than money, for example:
Some people take a costly flight to save time, and some people travel by passenger train to save
money.
Interdisciplinary Subject
In behavioralism, geography subject is considered as an interdisciplinary subject,
Geography= Psychology + Sociology + Science
Man and environment Relations
As per behaviouralism, man and environment are dynamically interrelated. The following
diagram shows the summed of behavioralism.
 Behaviouralism in Geography

The following main points are:

 Man and environment are dynamically interrelated
 Environment act as a dual role
 In an objective environment, the same perception provided to all human, for example,
 if there is raining outside, rain for everyone will be the same.
 In the behavioral environment, knowledge, values, and culture are different for different
people, each person perceived the environment differently, for example, mineral in the
tribal area,
 Tribal want to conserve the forest as they use it, they do not want to mine
 But industry care the mining, not forest conservation
 here environment perception is different for tribes and industry.
Support of Behavioralism
 On the support of the behavioral approach, Kirk asserted that:
  In a similar geographical environment, the meaning of the same information
would be different for people of a different culture, ethnic, race, and economic
background people.
 Each society perceived differently and act differently to the same piece of
information about the resource, space, and environment.
 Wolpert gives two concepts on the support of behaviouralism
 The satisficers concept, as we already discussed in the first paragraph of this
post.
 Criticism view on gravitation migration principle, he asserted migration largely
depend on personal choice, women rarely want to migrate, and a parent whose
children are in school does not want to migrate, despite economic opportunities.
 Glibber White, in his flood study, he asserted that people mark the boundary of the river
flood, they believed that flood will not cross this boundary. Because of this pre-
knowledge and overconfidence, the flood does more destruction than aspected.
Criticism
 This approach is more theoretical and psychological rather than scientific.
 Model cant not be developed using this approach, not a practical approach
 Some terminology like objective and subjective environment perception is loosely
defined

• Humanism approach in geography

Kirk was first to give humanism view in geography and later Chinese American geographer, Mr.
Y.F.Tuan gave more weight on this approach.
The following are the main points on Humanism geography:
 It is against the quantitative, positivism and locational analysis approach, as they
neglected the role of religion, ethics, values, personal knowledge, etc.
 Human feeling, values, culture, etc can not be codified in the statistical tool such as map,
lines, graph, etc
 Humanism does not consider man as an economic person
 Human is not a machine, they can improve their life by participatory observation,
discussions, thinking & acting.
 It considers geography as the study of the earth as the home of the human being, the main
focus should be the study of peoples' reactions to the environment rather than study to the
earth.
As per Tuan, humanistic geography is based on four main principles :
 Human awareness, humans are aware of his environment, they know the weather,
climate, soil, water availability, and other local phenomena. The perfection of awareness
of the environment may vary from person to person, but more or less they aware of the
environment.
 Human work as agency:
 The human takes a prudent decision base on his knowledge.
 Human consciousness:
 For example, human sentiment towards motherland or family is on types of
consciousness.
 It is very helpful to understand the feeling of people, human consciousness also
varies human to human.
 It drives towards the actual meaning of humanities,
 Human has creativity, they can change the environment through innovation, and it is also
supported by possibilism, for the example,
 Dubai city is developed in the desert.
 Agriculture in a rainfed and deserted area
Humans and environments have a very complex relationship. Tuan tried to explain this
complex relation by using five themes.
Tuan gives five themes and these are shown in the following diagrams.
 Tuan five themes

 Geographical knowledge: 
 Each people and animal have their own mental map of the environment based on
geographical knowledge of the particular location. Examples,
 Mental map of tribal people, they know the location of herbs, trees, water
storage, etc.
 Animals in the forest have a mental map, they returned home after day-
long grazing.
 Animal know where to hide while raining
 Animal or men fear to go some particular place as they know it dangerous
to go.
 Migratory bird such as Siberian cranes has a mental map which helps them
to find the route to migrate.
 Territory and place:
 Some animals like dogs, tiger defend their territory.
 Some animal such as man becomes sentimental to his birthplace( we all do),
people are attached to his/her birthplace not because of economic reason because
of the sentiment.
 Crowding and privacy:
 Some people feel more secure in a crowded area, for example, recently in Hong
Kong, large crowded protesters protested in the airport of Hong Kong as they fear
suppression from the Chinese government, they feel more secure to protest on
CCTV areas in the airport.
 Crowding creates more tension in the geographical region.
 Privacy also affects the thinking process, alone and stress-free people are more
innovative than stress full people
 Livelihood and economics:
 The main purpose of human activities is for livelihood and social prospects.
 Humanism geography differentiates the difference between livelihood and
destroyed, for example, the liquor ban in Bihar
 Religion:
 Religion is the way to bind people strongly by belief, faith, religious activities.
  In India,
 the meat business is done by generally Muslim
 Jains are generally traders
Criticism
 Man is not considered a rational person
 It considered humanism is separate geography and supported to study physical geography
and human geography separately, in reality, the same is not true, man and environment
are interrelated.
 This method is more subjective than objective, it is like social science.
 We do not know the humanistic explanation is true because can not be objectified.

• Welfare approaches
The welfare approach in geography was developed against quantitative and locational analysis.
As quantitative and location analysis is similar to the capitalist policy, it created many social and
economic problems, and welfare approach is developed to make positive changes of common
men, and it deals with social and economic justice such as:
 Inequality
 Poverty
 Gender discrimination 
 Women inferiority 
 Crime
 Education and health care facilities.
 Welfare for all
 Environment control & Sustainable planning
For example, the main victim of inflation would be poor people, development should be focus
to reduce inflation at an optimum level.
Approaches in welfare geography
There are two approaches to welfare geography. 
 Discriptive approach
 Process oriented approach
Descriptive approach:
The descriptive approach is used to identify injustice & inequality in a particular population in a
particular area. For example, identifying the beneficiary of toilet construction, fertilizer subsidy.
The descriptive approach is based on the following principles, it is shown in the diagram.

Welfare approaches

 Who? 
 Identifying the subgroup of the population to whom should give preferential
treatment or give overburden, for example, for the welfare of the society, the poor
should get the subsidy and rich should pay tax.
 What? 
 Who gets what, what should be given to the targeted population? it can be:
 Cloth, Food grains, House
 Water, roads, LPG
 Education, health, social justice, etc
 Where?
  Who gets where it deals with identifying the region of the target and welfare
should be based on the region-specific. Livelihood and requirement of the
different region are different, for example,
 city planning model cant be implemented in the village
 Plain area development not suited in the hilly area
 Designing of houses in the city is not fitted for the village.
 How? 
 Who gets how it deals with the process involved in welfare geography, such as
 Top-down approach
 Bottom to Up approach
 what cost they are going to pay to get a particular service
 How much they are working to get basic service.
Process-oriented approach:
 It deals with how social and economic injustice existed in society.
 Why the richer segment of the population is getting richer day by day and poorer are
getting poor day by day.
Contribution of geographer in welfare geography:
The following are:
 Pareto Optimality:
 Poor people can not be sustained or get better without at expense of rich people.
Someone must be compromised for better of for others.
 Pareto supported the special treatment of poor people for welfare, for example,
subsidies scheme for the poor.
 Smith & Knox :
 Smith was the first geographer who coined the welfare geography, and he has
written a book "welfare geography". He stated that:
 A quantitative tool such as GDP & GNP is not necessarily a direct measurement
of quality of life.
 There should be a qualitative tool such as happiness index, HDI (both later
developed) to measure the welfare of society
 The main focus in geography should be the focus on the welfare of people.
 7) Language, Religions and secularisation
• Language
Language is the expression of ideas through speech sound combined into words. The following
are the importance of language:
Languages are the main source of culture consideration
Culture practice, moral values, literature, etc pass on generation to generation through language.
Language is one of the variables in the demarcation of regions, for example, most of the Indian
states are created based on language.
Dialect:
It is a particular form of language that is limited to the geographical or social region.
Language of the world:

• Religion
Communities of the same supernatural belief and moral values that bind people together is
religion.
Why the study of religion is needed in geography?
 Religious festivals, food, and ceremonies are shaped by the physical environment. 
 It helps the study the religion & environment relation
 Religion supports Sustainable development, environment conservation, and improve the
welfare of the population.
Diffusion of religion 
The Major religion of the world was originated in a small area but spread to a large part of the
world by:
 Invasion, for example, Islam
 Conquering
 Missionary, for example, Buddhism, Christianity 
 Politically imperialism
 Expansion of political boundaries
 Migration of population 
Secularization
Secularization is the process to make :
 People logical
 Improve a scientific study
 Remove the dominance of religious institutions and symbols from society.
 To separate religion from state.
 Cultural shifts in society and make the society free from superstition 
 Communal harmony

• What is Culture?
Culture is the way of the life of people. For example, the way of life of Indian people such as
food, cloth, moral values, are different from European people hence culture is different. Based on
the geographical influences, the following two types of culture are:

Culture type

Folk culture :
It changes region to region, for example, Indian culture is different from European or Latin
culture.
Popular culture:
It is spread across the world, for example, as of now wearing jeans is popular culture.
Each culture has some geographical area of influence and this area is called realms of that
culture. The following are the major cultural realms of the world:
 North America
 Latin America
 European Realm
 Soviet Russia
 Arab Realm
 Black Africa
 South Asia or the Indian realm
 Japan
 8) Human Development Index
As in welfare and radical approaches emphasized to focus on the wellbeing of people rather than
a quantitative measure. HDI is one of the indexes that measure the quality of life of the
population. HDI is a comparative measurement tool that measures life expectancy, literacy, and
standard of living worldwide.
The following are included to measure the wellbeing of people:
 Real freedom of people
 Freedom to choose the profession, education, politics, etc
 Economic opportunities
 Free from any type of discrimination such as gender, race, caste, etc.
 The standard of life includes access to basic amenities such as food, clean water, toilet,
basic infrastructure, house, school, hospital, etc.
It was developed by Pakistani economics Mr. Mahbub ul Haq and later Indian economics Mr.
Amartya Sen work on capabilities and functioning of the HDI.
The human development index is the geometric mean of the three normalized indices.
HDI =geometric mean of ( Life expectancy index, education index, income index)
As of now, HDI is being published by the UNDP ( United Nations Development Programme). In
2018, HDI Ranking are:
 1st: Norway
 2nd: Switzerland
 3rd: Australia
 130: India, HDI values: 0.640
India performance in HDI
HDI values in India are not uniformly in all-region. The following characteristics are:
 Kerala rank first in Indian state having 0.784 HDI values which are higher than Mexican
HDI values.
 Bihar rank last in Indian state having 0.566 which is equivalent to Pakistani HDI values.
Limitation of HDI
 It does not include the women empowerment
 Public Security and Crime not included
 Gender discrimination, racial discrimination, etc not included