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Biology for Technology Hierarchy of life
Atom
Biomolecules: The chemical
building blocks of life
Dr. Dhanushka Udayanga
Department of Biosystems Technology
Faculty of Technology
Where we can find biomolecules?
Learning outcomes Ex. Yeast cells
Structure & function of biomolecules in biological systems.
Understand the chemical composition of living systems
Recognize the technological applications of biomolecules
Eduard Buchner’s Experiment (1860-1917)
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The nature of the polymer is determined by monomers
used to build the polymer.
Polymer Monomer
Starch Ring Shaped
Sugars
DNA & RNA Nucleotides
Proteins Amino acids
Lipids are macromolecules, but they really don’t follow the
Cell free fermentation
monomer-polymer relationship.
Yeast extract
Biological Macromolecules These long chains are built via chemical reactions termed
dehydration reactions are and broken down by hydrolysis
reactions.
4 Major types
• 1.Carbohydrates (Sugars)
• 2.Proteins
• 3.Lipids (Fats)
• 4.Nucleic Acids (DNA, RNA)
In many cases macromolecules are polymers.
Polymer is a long molecule built by linking together
a large number of small, similar chemical subunits
called monomers.
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Dehydration and hydrolysis are the basis of
making and breaking macromolecules
Biological Macromolecules
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Functional groups accounts for differences in molecules
Carbon is the framework of biomolecules.
Biomolecules predominantly contain C atoms.
C can be bonded to other atoms including O, N, S,P and H.
C can form 4 covalent bonds.
Organic/biomolecules having same molecular formula can exist
in different forms called Isomers
Differ in their Differ in how groups
actual structure attached to the same
skeleton arranged in space
Carbon can form chains, branches, rings, balls, tubes
and coils
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When polarized light is passed through a solution that
Enantiomers contains an achiral compound, there is no net rotation
of the plane of polarization of the light.
A subcategory of stereoisomers, which are actually mirror
images of each other.
http://webmis.highland.cc.il.us/~jsullivan/prin
ciples-of-general-chemistry-v1.0/s28-02-
isomers-of-organic-compounds.html
when polarized light is passed through a solution
that contains one enantiomer of a chiral
compound, the monochromatic light is rotated.
The molecules that has mirror image forms called chiral
molecules
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d and l forms of molecules Carbohydrates are an essential components of foods
In contrast, when polarized light is passed through a Simple Carbohydrates : Sugars are found in a variety of natural food
solution that contains one enantiomer of a chiral sources including fast foods, fruit, vegetables and milk, and give food
compound, the light is rotated either clockwise a sweet taste. But they also raise blood glucose levels quickly.
[dextrorotatory, (+) enantiomer] or counterclockwise Complex Carbohydrates: any starches, including the highly refined
[levorotatory, (−) enan omer]. starches
The angle that depends on the molecular structure and
concentration of the compound, the path length, and the
wavelength of the light.
Carbohydrates Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are energy storage and structural
molecules.
Loosely defines group of molecules that all contain
C, H and O in molar ratio of 1:2:1.
Empirical formula = (CH2O)n, n= number of carbon
atoms
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Isomers of Glucose Glucose is not the only sugar with formula C6H12O6
Trioses Pentoses Hexoses
The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharaides.
Contain few carbon atoms (3-6).
Glucose: play a major role in energy storage, have 6 carbon atoms. Stereoisomer Structural isomer
Glucose have energy storing C-H bonds.
The stereoisomers are mirror images of each other.
empirical formula is C6H12O6.
Structure of Glucose molecule Disaccharides
Glucose is an Aldohexose.
Most organisms transport
sugars within their bodies.
In humans and animals:
Transport glucose to obtain
energy.
In plants, Glucose produce by
photosynthesis transform in to
sucrose before translocation.
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The enzymes typically use Glucose will not work
on Sucrose/present in specific cells.
Disaccharides form monosaccharaides linking with What is the translocation form of Glucose in plants?
glycosidic bonds. And Why?
Sucrose: Sucrose is less readily metabolized/used
during transportation
Ringing/Girdling plants disturb phloem translocation of sucrose.
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Sugar based products in food technology Homopolysaccharides:
Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose
Chitin
Heteropolysaccharides:
Peptidoglycan
Agarose
Animal extracellular matrix
(ECM) proteins
Glycosaminoglycans
Chondroitin sulfate
Dematan sulphate
Keratan sulphate
Agarose is a Polysaccharide extracted form sea
Polysaccharides (glycans) weeds.
Most carbohydrates found in nature occur as polysaccharides,
polymers of medium to high molecular weight.
Polysaccharides differ from each other in the…,
1. identity of their recurring monosaccharide units
2. length of their chains
3. types of bonds linking the units
4. degree of branching
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Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
Major functions of Polysaccharides
a three-dimensional network of extracellular macromolecules,
such as collagen, enzymes, polysaccharides, and glycoproteins,
that provide structural and biochemical support of surrounding • 1. Structural material of living systems
cells. • 2. Storage energy/fuel/ in living systems
• 3. Protection of cells and regulation (provide
viscosity, adhesiveness, tensile strength)
a collection of extracellular molecules secreted by support cells
that provides structural and biochemical support to the
Starch
surrounding cells. Contains 2 types of glucose polymer
Amylose
Amylopectin
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The simplest structure of starch is Amylose High molecular weight compounds.
In Amylose… Highly branched.
many hundreds of α-glucose molecules linking The glycosidic linkages joining successive glucose residues in
together Amylopectin chains are (α1-4)
Long unbranched chains The branch points, occurring every 24 to 30 residues are α1-
6 linkages
α-1-4 linkages present
The long chain amylose tend to coil up in water
Therefore starch is partially insoluble in water
• Eg. Plant starch/In potato starch
20%- Amylose
80% Amylopectin
Starch
Amylose versus Amylopectin gelatinization
Amylose come out
Amylopectins are in
the granules
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Cellulose
Glycogen
Polymer of D-glucose residues
Glycogen is made up of chains of linked with (β1-4) linkage (polymer
glucose. of β-Glucose).
The glucose, within the chains,
Chains of sugars that serve as
are held together by glycosidic structural material in plants.
bonds, specifically a 1 to 4 alpha
acetal connection. These β-linked chains are tough
fibers.
Each of the chains are formed
with about 8-10 glucose Starch hydrolyzing enzymes (eg.
molecules. Amylase)-do not hydrolyze
Celluloses with β linkages.
glucose chains bond to each
other with a 1 to 6 linkage, Amylase
called a branching point. Starch Glucose
Cellulase
Cellulose Glucose
Glycogen cont… Cellulose is a chief component of plant cell walls.
Compatible form of starch in animals.
Like Amylopectin, glycogen also insoluble
polysaccharide containing branched amylose chains.
Glycogen as much longer average chain length than
plant starch.
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Cellulases from various microbes in animal rumen can
Cellulose cont…. break cellulose.
Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on
Earth.
The cellulose content of cotton fiber is 90%, that
of wood is 40–50%, and that of dried hemp
(Cannabis) is approximately 57%.
Stomach of a ruminant
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Chitin
Cellulose in Industry…
1 Structural material of Arthropods
and fungi
It is polymer of N-
acetylglucosamine, a substituted
version of glucose
Few organisms are to digest
3 Chitin, but most posses
Chitinases to prevent from fungi.
Cellophane
• Cuttlebone made up of aragonite/Calcium carbonate and
outer shell with Chitin
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Arthropod Shells are made up of Chitin
and Proteins
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