Sets

Prepared by RMarcelo
June 2020

In this handout, we study the basic concepts about sets, set operations, and set identities, that we may need
in MATH 55.1.

1 Sets
(1.1) A set is an unordered collection of objects, called the elements of the set. If an object a is in the set
A, we write a ∈ A; otherwise, we write a 6∈ A.
We can describe a set by listing its elements, e.g. A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ; or by identifying what property/ies
the elements satisfy, so the same set A can be written
A = {x | x is a positive integer and x < 6} .
Instead of “|”, we also use “:”, so we also have
A = {x : x is a real number that satisfies (x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 3) (x − 4) (x − 5) = 0} .

(1.2) Sets are usually denoted by capital letters, like A, B, C, and elements written in lower-case. There
are some special sets that you should be familiar with:

N = {1, 2, 3, . . .} , the set of natural or counting numbers1

Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .} , the set of all integers
n o
Q = pq : p,q ∈ Z, q 6= 0 , the set of all rational numbers
R, the set of all real numbers
R+ = {r ∈ R : r > 0} , the set of all positive real numbers
Q0 = {r ∈ R : r ∈ / Q} , the set of all irrational numbers
√
C = {a + bi : a, b ∈ R} , the set of all complex numbers (i = −1 )

(1.3) We shall also be using the convenient interval notation for sets of real numbers. Given a, b ∈ R, with
a < b, we have the usual notations:
(a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b} ,
[a, b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b} ,
(a, b] = {x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b} ,
[a, b) = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x < b} ,
(a, ∞) = {x ∈ R : a < x} ,
[a, ∞) = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x} ,
(−∞, b) = {x ∈ R : x < b} ,
(−∞, b] = {x ∈ R : x ≤ b} ,
(−∞, ∞) = R.
1
Note that some books include 0 as a natural number.

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(1.4) Two sets A and B are equal, written A = B, if they have the same elements; otherwise, A 6= B.
Thus,
{−1, 1, 0} = x ∈ R : x5 = x = {−1, 0, 1} = {−1, −1, 0, 0, 1} = x ∈ C : x5 = x .
 
6

(1.5) The empty set, or null set, is the set that has no elements. It is denoted by ∅ or {} . There is only one
such set. For example,
x ∈ R : x2 + 1 = 0 = ∅.


(1.6) Given two sets A and B, we say A is a subset of B if every element of A is also an element of B. In
this case, we write A ⊆ B. Hence, for any set A, it follows that ∅ ⊆ A, and A ⊆ A. Now, if A ⊆ B but
A 6= B, then we say A is a proper subset of B, and we write A ⊂ B or A ( B. We see the following
relation on sets of real numbers:
N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C.

(1.7) For sets A and B,

• if we have to prove that A ⊆ B, then we can start as follows: Let a be an arbitrary element of A. (In
short we can just write: “Let a ∈ A.”). To complete the proof, we just have to show that a is an
element of B.

• to prove that A = B, we can show that A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

Of course, there may be other ways to prove these statements.

(1.8) To practice on the notations: if A = {∅, {1} , {2} , {1, 2}} , and B = {X : X ⊆ {1, 2}} , then
A = B. Notice that ∅ ∈ A and {∅} ⊂ A, but {∅} 6∈ A.
(1.9) Given a finite set A, we define the A, denoted by |A| , n (A) , #A, A, as the number of
 cardinality of
distinct elements in A. Thus, if A = x ∈ Z : 4x2 = 1 , then |A| = 0 since A = ∅, while
|{0, −1, 0, 1}| = 3.

(1.10) Given a set A, the power set of A, denoted by P (A) , is the set of all subsets of A. For example, if
A = {1, 2} , then
P (A) = {∅, {1} , {2} , {1, 2}} ,
and |P (A)| = 4. In general, if |A| = n, then |P (A)| = 2n .
(1.11) Given sets A and B, the cartesian product A × B is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) , where a ∈ A
and b ∈ B, that is
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B} .
So if |A| = m and |B| = n, then |A × B| = m · n. As an example, R × R can be interpreted as the set of
all points in the Cartesian plane; we also write it simply as R2 .
(1.12) We can extend cartesian products to products of more than two sets. For example, R × R × R,
which is also written R3 , can be taken as the set of all points in the 3-dimensional Euclidean plane.

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2 Set Operations

(2.1) Let A and B be sets. The union and intersection of A and B are, respectively, the sets
A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B} , and A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B} .
For example, (−3, 1) ∪ [0, 4] = (−3, 4] and (−3, 1) ∩ [0, 4] = [0, 1).
(2.2) Given sets A and B, the difference A − B or A \ B is defined to be the set {x : x ∈ A and x 6∈ B} 2 .
Thus, what will (−3, 1) − [0, 4] be? The answer is provided at the end of the handout.
(2.3) Let U be the universal set (that is, all other sets that will be discussed are assumed to be subsets of
U ). The complement of a set A, denoted by Ac or Ā, is defined as the set U − A. That is, its elements are
precisely those in U that are not in A. As an example, if U = R, then determine (−3, 1)c . The answer is
provided at the end of the handout.
(2.4) We extend the definition of union and intersection to any number of sets. Let A be a collection of sets.
Then we define
[
A = {x : x ∈ X, for some X ∈ A} , and
A∈A
\
A = {x : x ∈ X, for each X ∈ A} .
A∈A

If the elements in A can be indexed by some set ∆—that is, A = {Aα : α ∈ ∆} , then we can also write
the above union and intersection as [ \
Aα and Aα ,
α∈∆ α∈∆

respectively. Thus, if A = {(−n, n) : n ∈ N} , then

[ [ ∞
[
A= (−n, n) = (−n, n) = R, while
A∈A n∈N n=1
\ \ \∞
A= (−n, n) = (−n, n) = (−1, 1) .
A∈A n∈N n=1

Aα if Aα = (α2 , α2 + 12 ]. (The answer is provided at the

S T
As a practice exercise, determine Aα and
α∈R α∈R
end of the handout.)

3 Identities on Sets

Let U be the universal set for all the sets we will discuss in this section.

(3.1) If A, B, and C are any sets, then we have the following identities: (You don’t need to memorize the
names of the laws.)

1. A ∩ U = A and A ∪ ∅ = A (Identity laws)

2. A ∪ U = U and A ∩ ∅ = ∅ (Domination laws)

2
If no connective is supplied in the definition of the set (to join the required properties), it is assumed to be “and”. Hence,
A − B = {x : x ∈ A, x 6∈ B} is also valid.

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 3. A ∪ A = A and A ∩ A = A (Idempotent laws)

4. (Ac )c = A (Complementation law)

5. A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∩ B = B ∩ A (Commutative laws)

6. A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C and A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C (Associative laws)

7. A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) and A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) (Distributive laws)

8. (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c and (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c (De Morgan’s laws)

9. A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A and A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A (Absorption laws)

10. A ∪ Ac = U and A ∩ Ac = ∅ (Complement laws)

11. A − B = A ∩ B c

One helpful aid in checking identities is the Venn diagram. However, if we want a proof of equality of two
sets, the Venn diagram is usually not enough. One method that we mentioned to prove that two sets A and
B are equal is by showing both A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A. But when applicable, something like the next example
will provide a shorter proof.
(3.2) Example: Show that (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c .
Proof: For an arbitrary element x, we notice that x ∈ (A ∪ B)c iff x 6∈ A ∪ B. But x ∈
/ A ∪ B iff x 6∈ A
and x 6∈ B. Now, x 6∈ A iff x ∈ A ; x 6∈ B iff x ∈ B . Therefore, x 6∈ A ∪ B iff x ∈ Ac ∩ B c . And so,
c c

x ∈ (A ∪ B)c iff x ∈ Ac ∩ B c , proving that (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c .

4 Exercises
1. True or False: Assume A, B, C are sets.

(a) {x} ⊆ {x}

(b) ∅ ∈ {∅, {∅}}
(c) {x} ∈ {x}
(d) {{∅}} ∈ P ({∅, {∅}})
(e) There exist sets A, B, and C that satisfy all of A ⊆ B, B 6⊆ C, and A 6⊆ C.
(f) There exist sets A and B that satisfy A ⊆ B and A ∈ B.

2. Let A = [0, 3) and B = (2, 5) . Find A − B, B − A, A ∪ B, A ∩ B, and Ac ∪ B.

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3. For n ∈ N, let Bn = N− {1, 2, . . . , n} . Find Bn and Bn .
n∈N n∈N
 c  c
c
(Bα )c for
S T T S
4. Prove the extended De Morgan’s laws: Bα = (Bα ) and Bα =
α∈∆ α∈∆ α∈∆ α∈∆
any collection of sets {Bα : α ∈ ∆} .

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Answers
S to exercises (2.2)-(2.4):
T (−3, 1) − [0, 4] = (−3, 0); (−3, 1)c = (−∞, −3] ∪ [1, ∞);
Aα = (0, ∞) and Aα = ∅
α∈R α∈R

Answers to Exercises 4:

1. (a) True
(b) True
(c) False
(d) True
(e) True
(f) True (Let A = ∅ and B any set that contains ∅.)

2. A − B = [0, 2], B − A = [3, 5), A ∪ B = [0, 5), A ∩ B = (2, 3) , Ac ∪ B = (−∞, 0) ∪ (2, ∞)

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3. Bn = N− {1} and Bn = ∅
n∈N n∈N