Investigation of different properties of as synthesized silicon nanowires and its

hybrid: terahertz emitter and photodetector

Shrabani Ghosha, Ankita Chandraa, Sourav Sarkara, K. K. Chattopadhyaya, c*

a
School of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032
c
Thin film and Nano Science Laboratory, Department of Physics, Jadavpur University, Kolkata

700032

* E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:

Terahertz is an important but underutilized frequency range which lies between 0.3 THz to 10

THz in electromagnetic spectrum occupying middle ground and properties of both microwave

and infrared region. As conventional electronic devices have failed to generate and detect the

terahertz wave, there is a high demand to find alternatives. Silicon nanowire is still under

research as a terahertz emitter. Here, grass like silicon nanowires are synthesized by two stage

metal assisted chemical etching (MaCE) process varying different parameters like temperature,

HF treatment and carbon catalyst for p type silicon wafer (100). With varying conditions, the

length and diameter of the nanowires are changed. Without HF treatment, silicon nanowires

(SiNW) contain superficial silicon oxide layer which changes the properties accordingly in

comparison with HF treated SiNW (SiNW-HF). As temperature increases, HF etching rate has

been enhanced resulting in highly dense more fine nanowires in the same area (SiNW-HF-T). By

providing conductive back made of carbon, the etching rate of silicon wafer is enhanced in a

particular orientation (SiNW-HF/C). SiNW, SiNW-HF, SiNW-HF-T, and SiNW-HF/C consist of

nanowires with average length of 1.6 m, 3 m, and 7 m, 14.4 m, respectively. To investigate

1|Page
their surface roughness properties with varying synthesis process, wettability study is performed

in which nature of the nanowires has high impact. As terahertz detector, silicon nanowires have

few shortcomings. To overcome such difficulties, silicon nanowire-reduced graphene oxide

(SiNW-HF-T/RGO(s) & SiNW-HF-T/RGO(h)) hybrid is synthesized in different methods.

Deposition of RGO on silicon nanowires enhances the roughness to an extent that hydrophilic

nature of the film is converted to hydrophobic for SiNW-HF-T/RGO(s). This material can be

utilized as broadband photodetector from visible to terahertz range.

Keywords: Terahertz, Silicon Nanowires, Synthesis, RGO, Wettability

Introduction:

Progress of science and technology has inspired the researchers to utilize the terahertz (THz)

frequency gap in electromagnetic (EM) spectrum properly. It lies in between 0.3 THz to 10 THz

in electromagnetic spectrum occupying middle ground of microwave and infrared region[1, 2]. It

contains some properties of the both wavelengths. Like all other waves, it can also create

pictures and transmit information [2]. As a part of EM wave, the properties of THz are calculated

employing Maxwell Equation [2, 3]. Generally, conventional electronic devices are inappropriate

for generation and coherent detection of terahertz frequency with wavelength from 30 m to 3

mm, though it has vast application in industry for product inspection, investigation of defects in

tablet coating, spectroscopy, screening etc., even detection of cancer can be done by this EM

wave[1, 4, 5]. Researchers are now paying their attention to the investigation of such materials

which can show a path to generation and detection of terahertz wave.

In nanotechnology, one dimensional nanostructures like nanowire, nanobelts etc are essential

building blocks for electronic devices in present and upcoming technology. Nanowire is quasi

1D nanostructure with diameter less than 300 nm and length to diameter aspect ratio should be

2|Page
more than ten[6]. It has several advantages like enhanced strain relaxation [7], cheap with respect

to cost and material consumption, high surface area to volume ratio and efficient light trapping

[8, 9]. Such unique properties are responsible for its applications in solar cells [10], photo

detector [11], single photon source [12], transistor [13] nanoscale lasers [14] etc. Furthermore,

this 1D structure can give new insight towards shape and size effect on different properties [15].

Recently, the several semiconducting nanostructures are considered as impressive terahertz

(THz) radiator. It is primarily due to the combined oscillations of conductive electrons and

confinement at the surface of nanostructures resulting in localized surface plasmon (LSP) effect

[16, 17].

As per previous report of Seletskiy et al., the enhanced emission of THz radiation is observed

from free-standing InAs nanowires (NWs) [16]. The high-efficiency dipole radiation

perpendicular to the NW length is attributed for such efficiency having its surface parallel to the

direction of charge transport. The nanosize ZnSe grains can give impressive THz emission from

the surface of as reported by He et al. due to local field enhancement effect [18]. There is another

report on THz emission from InP membranes [17]. Additionally, Gyeong Bok Jung et al. has

synthesized n type silicon nanowires by metal assisted chemical etching and studied how the

geometry of nanowires can influence the terahertz emission from it [19].

Now, two dimensional sheets like structure (2D) are enriched by its own unique properties. In

nanotechnology, graphene is one of those rigorously studied material in 2D [20]. Graphene is

well known for its broad-band photo detection property from visible to infrared range [21]. As

obtained from theoretical explanation, bandgap variation of graphene can extend its working

spectrum to far infrared (FIR) region, even at terahertz range (THz) [22, 23]. From the previous

studies it is observed that reduced graphene oxide (RGO) extracted from graphite by chemical
3|Page
exfoliation pursues a natural energy gap [24]. The narrow energy gap property of RGO is

appropriate as photodetector from mid-infrared (MIR) (2.5–30 μm) to even THz (30–3000 μm)

range. As per previous reports of Chitara et al., the NIR (1.55 μm) photodetectors can be

achieved employing extensively reduced RGO [25]. There are few limitations of RGO to behave

as broadband photo detector as limited optical absorbance, energy gap of tens of meV which are

not suitable for VIS and NIR photo detection.

However, apart from emission of THz frequency from Si nanowire (SiNW) arrays, they have few

advantages as photo detector also which can compensate the deficiencies present in RGO. Si has

bandgap of ∼1.12 eV, appropriate for photodetection from the VIS to NIR range. Additionally,

the vertically grown nanowire array can decrease light reflection intensively over a wide spectral

range from VIS to NIR. As a result, light harvesting property of SiNW array is significantly

improved. Thus, the hybrid composed of SiNW arrays and RGO can enhance the light harvesting

property of device as well as an efficient, broadband photo response property should be

witnessed from THz to VIS, even at NIR range [26]. Cao et al. has introduced RGO and SiNW

arrays into a single photodetector heterojunction which has broad photo response from visible to

terahertz region in room temperature [27].

Keeping all these properties in mind, silicon nanowires are synthesized here in MaCE [28]

process varying( with variation of)different synthesis parameters to obtain different lengths

which have high impact on terahertz emission. RGO and silicon nanowire hybrid system is

synthesized in two different mechanisms which can be employed as broadband photodetector.

Important properties are analyzed. Change in wettability with synthesis parameters is an

important factor to discuss.

4|Page
Experimental Section:

Synthesis:

Synthesis of Silicon Nanowires:

Silicon nanowires are synthesized by conventional two step metal assisted chemical etching

(MACE) process employing commercially available p type silicon wafers (100). Few parameters

are optimized to synthesis wire like silicon in nano range. In the first step, silicon wafers are

cleaned by sonication in ethanol and acetone. After that, wafers are immersed in piranha solution

to remove organic residues. A layer of oxygen is produced by piranha solution which is removed

by 5% HF solution. After every step, wafers are rinsed by deionized water (DI). The cleaned

wafers are transferred into HF/AgNO3 solution for one minute to deposit silver nanoparticles on

the surface. After rinsing, the Si wafers are etched by HF/H 2O2 solution for 60 minutes.

Thereafter, the wafers are dipped into HNO3 to dissolve excess Ag nanoparticles. Thus, silicon

nanowires are produced but a thin oxide layer is also generated by HNO 3 which is removed by

HF solution, again. In this paper, different parameters are varied during this synthesis process.

Two different sets of silicon nanowires are produced with and without the last HF treatment

which are termed as SiNW-HF and SiNW, respectively. To investigate the effect of temperature

on synthesis, one set of sample is etched at 60C naming SiNW-HF-T. Additionally, another set

of nanowires is generated utilizing carbon tape as catalyst called as SiNW-HF/C.

Synthesis of silicon nanowires-RGO (reduced grapheme oxide) composite:

Graphene oxide (GO) is synthesized from graphite powder by modified Hummer’s method. Half

part of synthesized GO is reduced hydrothermally (12h).

5|Page
 SiNW-HF-T/RGO(s):

The hydrothermally produced RGO is sonicated in ethanol and spin coated on SiNW-HF-T

forming SiNW-HF-T/RGO(s).

SiNW-HF-T/RGO(h):

Here, the remaining half of synthesized GO is sonicated in DI water for quick dispersion and the

solution is transferred into a stainless steel Teflon line autoclave. The SiNW-HF-T is tied in a

glass slide keeping etched side bare and front faced and the glass slide is placed inside the

autoclave in an inclined manner keeping upside downward. The whole system is kept at 180C

for 12h. Thus, RGO is deposited on SiNW-HF-T successfully forming SiNW-HF-T/RGO(h).

Characterizations:

Morphological study as synthesized samples are conducted by field emission scanning electron

microscopy (FESEM, Hitachi, S-4800). RAMAN analysis is conducted with the excitation of a

532 nm laser source (WITECH) which can assure the RGO layer formation. To investigate the

surface property of nanowires and composites wettability study is performed using Dataphysics

OCA 15EC.

Results and Discussions:

Morphological Analysis:

To examine the morphologies of as synthesized silicon nanowires, FESEM is conducted. Figure

1(a) represents the FESEM image of SiNW confirming the formation of nanowires which are

little agglomerated. As the HF treatment is not performed, SiO2 is not removed from the surface

6|Page
of SiNW. Besides, the distinct nanowires are observed in SiNW-HF as shown in figure 1(b).

Here, the oxide layer originated from nitric acid is washed out by HF acid.

Figure 1: FESEM image (top view) of (a) SiNW, (b) SiNW-HF (c) SiNW-HF-T (d)
SiNW-HF/C

To investigate the effect of temperature in etching process, SiNW-HF-T is synthesized. Figure

1(c) is the top view FESEM of SiNW-HF-T assuring the perfect formation of nanowires even at

high temperature. Carbon catalyst has been used in SiNW-HF/C where carbon tape is fixed at the

back side of silicon wafer to examine the activity of carbon as etching catalyst. The perfect

formation of silicon nanowires is observed in SiNW-HF/C as shown in figure 1(d).

Figure 2 is the cross-sectional FESEM image of silicon nanowires varying different synthesis

parameters. SiNW has the length of 500 nm to 2 m as shown in figure 2(a) whereas SiNW-HF

7|Page
consists of distinct nanowires with length of 2 to 3m with more sharpness. Here, HF treatment

plays an important role to consider the change in morphology. Figure2(c) is the cross sectional

view of SiNW-HF-T containing longer nanowires than previous two methods with the length of

7 to 10 m. Such enlargement of nanowire is the outcome of high temperature etching process.

Temperature eases the oxidation below the silver nanoparticles during synthesis which results in

higher rate of etching by HF at 60C. As the HF/H2O2 etching rate rises, wafer can be etched

deeper inside than room temperature synthesis.

Figure 2: FESEM image (cross section) of (a) SiNW, (b) SiNW-HF (c) SiNW-HF-T (d),
(e) SiNW-HF/C

8|Page
Additionally, SiNW-HF/C is displayed in figure 2(d) and (e) in different magnifications which

depict the most perfect and homogeneous formation of nanowires with the length of almost 14 to

14.5 m. Another synthesis parameter, carbon catalyst is important here to speed up the HF/H 2O2

etching in a more directional way in room temperature without changing itself. It results in most

directionally vertical and systematic formation of nanowires with highest length among all the

as-synthesized nanowires. Now, another parameter which can be analyzed from FESEM is

diameter of the nanowires in different conditions. For high temperature etching process, SiNW-

HF-T has narrower diameter than other samples. The diameter of nanowire for

Figure 3: FESEM image of (a) hydrothermally synthesized RGO (12h), (b) SiNW-HF-

T/RGO(s), (c) RGO on hydrothermally (6h) synthesized SiNW-HF-T/RGO(h), (d)

SiNW-HF-T/RGO(h) hybrid

SiNW-HF/C is quite wider and similar (constant)as we progress from tip to base which is not the

property of other nanowires. SiNW, SiNW-HF and SiNW-HF-T have narrow tip and wide base

9|Page
of nanowires. Carbon tape catalyzes the etching reaction in a most directive way which causes

the straight formation of homogenous nanowires like physical method in SiNW-HF/C. In the

second step, RGO is deposited on HF treated silicon nanowires etched at room temperature.

Here, two different synthesis processes have been followed. Figure 3(a) is the FESEM image of

hydrothermally synthesized RGO which is thin and very fine in nature. This RGO is spin coated

on SiNW-HF –T which is shown in figure 3(b). A successful deposition of fine RGO sheet just

above the distinct SiNW-HF-T is observed. In another synthesis process, GO is reduced

hydrothermally (6h) in presence of silicon nanowires so that GO can be reduced and deposited

on nanowires, simultaneously. Figure 3(c) depicts the FESEM image of RGO deposited on

SiNW-HF-T in high magnification. Here, RGO sheet is thicker than previous process. The top

view FESEM of SiNW-HF-T/RGO(h) is represented in figure 3(d). It shows that RGO sheet is

deposited on silicon nanowires lengthwise. The nanowires are fully covered by thick layer of

RGO sheet, thus distinct nature of nanowires are modified by joining each other through the

dense 2D sheet.

Figure 4 : RAMAN spectra of (a) SiNW-HF-T/RGO(s) (b) SiNW-HF-T/RGO(h)

RAMAN Analysis:

10 | P a g e
Primarily, RAMAN spectroscopy is conducted to confirm the formation of RGO in the hybrid

system. The RAMAN spectra of SiNW-HF-T/RGO(s) and SiNW-HF-T/RGO(h) are presented in

figure 4(a) and (b), respectively. There are Raman active peak at 526 and 528 cm -1 for both the

hybrid system and they are mainly first order transverse optical (TO) phonon mode of the silicon

nanowires [29]. Thus, presence of silicon nanowires can be reassured from the RAMAN

spectroscopy. Besides, the RAMAN peak situated at 1361 and 1353 cm -1 for both the hybrid

correspond to D band (ID) of graphene which arises due to the presence of defects like

corrugation, twisting and edges. Another intense peak at 1602 and 1603 cm -1 of both figures in

figure 4 are associated to G band (IG) of graphene which are the contribution of doubly

degenerate E2g phonon modes at the Brillouin zone of the sp2 hybridized carbon network of

graphite. The ratio of the intensity of ID and IG (ID/IG) denotes the average size of sp2 domain. For

smaller size of sp2 domain, higher ratio is achieved [30]. This property is observed in RGO for

its enhanced aromaticity and delocalization of network. During chemical reduction sp 3 gets

diminished while the conjugated graphene network of sp2 carbon atoms is re-established.

Generally, the size of the re-established network is smaller than the graphite layer which causes

the increment of ratio ID/IG. For SiNW-HF-T/RGO(s), the ratio is 1.1 whereas for SiNW-HF-

T/RGO(h) it is 1.2. This indicates more number of defects in the hydrothermally synthesized

hybrid system. Two small and broad peaks are observed within 2680 to 2940 cm -1 which are

assigned to the D peak and defect activated D+D peak, respectively. The number and coupling

between the layers of graphene are correlated with the position and the shape of 2D band [31].

Here, intensity of 2D peak is weak for both types of chemical synthesis processes though the

peak position is consistent with the mechanically exfoliated graphene.

11 | P a g e
 Figure 5: DI
Wettability contact angle on (a) Si wafer; (b),(c) SiNW; (d),(e) SiNW-HF; (f),(g) SiNW-
study:
HF-T; (h),(i) SiNW-HF/C; (j) SiNW-HF-T/RGO(s); (k) SiNW-HF-T/RGO(h)

Wettability Study:

To study the surface properties, wettability study of DI on sample surface is performed. As

observed from figure 5(a), Si wafer pursues DI contact angle (CA) of 76.1 which depicts that

the wafer is hydrophilic in nature. Figure 5(b) is DI CA on SiNW when the drop touches the

surface and it is 40 denoting hydrophilic surface property. Though, the droplet starts to spread

out after that and the CA becomes 12 after ten minutes (after stability). It can be assumed that

as the surface is not treated by HF, the presence

of oxide layer is prominent here which increases the surface energy of the subsptrate resulting in

highly hydrophilic nature. Surface roughness is also an important property to discuss in

wettability study. Wenzel model can be applied for SiNW which transforms the surface more

12 | P a g e
hydrophilic than smooth wafer. It correlates with the high surface roughness property of SiNW

[32].

After that, wettability is conducted for SiNW-HF which is presented in figure 5(d) and (e). It

describes the opposite surface property of SiNW. The initial CA is 130.5 denoting the

hydrophobicity and even after stability, it maintains the angle to be 123.3 which is quite stable.

After removal of oxide layer by HF treatment, there is a drastic change in surface property. The

surface energy is reduced here. Additionally, air trapping which prohibit the water spreading has

been occurred within nanowires. However, the surface roughness can be described by Cassie-

Baxter model which is associated with the enhancement of roughness by HF treated

nanowires[33].

The DI CAs on SiNW-HF-T are presented in figure 5(f) and (g). The initial CA is 92.17and

after stability test, it becomes 5. The water droplet diminishes after certain time describing

superhydrophilic property. However, initial CA is hydrophobic in nature but due to the high

length and lowest diameter of nanowires, pining effect on DI droplet becomes prominent easing

the spread of water. Thus, morphology is an important factor for fluctuating surface property.

Here, surface roughness can be illustrated using Wenzel model [34].

The CAs on SiNW-HF/C are represented in figure 5(h) and (i) which describe that the surface is

hydrophobic in nature with CA of 110 but after certain time (ten minutes), the angle transforms

to 71.73 which denotes hydrophilicity. Thus, a typical surface roughness property is observed

where a transformation from Cassie-Baxter model to Wenzel model is observed. Generally, HF

treated nanowires pursue high CA with hydrophobic property as observed from SiNW-HF. Here,

the extremely high length becomes the obstacle to hold the water droplet. Again, the CA is

13 | P a g e
higher for SiNW-HF/C than SiNW-HF-T due to its wide diameter, the surface pinning of

nanowire is lower than previous case [32-34].

Figure 5(j) and (k) describes the wettability property of SiNW-HF-T/RGO(s) and SiNW-HF-

T/RGO(h), respectively. Highest water CA of 140.5 is observed for SiNW-HF-T/RGO(s)

symbolizing highly hydrophobic surface with high stability. Thus, the pinning effect of SiNW-

HF-T is overcome using spin coated RGO sheet. The surface roughness property can be

explained by Cassie-Baxter model. For SiNW-HF-T/RGO(h), the CA is 92 which is just

hydrophobic. Here, due to hydrothermal reduction of RGO, the surface becomes so uneven that

CA can’t be improved though the stability is achieved.

Application in Terahertz frequency range:

Silicon nanowires can be employed as THz emitter. As obtained from previous literature, n type

silicon nanowires can behave as efficient THz emitter which is length dependent. Considering

the length and diameter of nanowire as important factors, several synthesis parameters are varied

to obtain different lengths of nanowires. They can be utilized in THz radiation system according

to its suitable applications. Additionally, silicon nanowire MOSFET (SNFET) has a great future

in THz integrated circuit application [13, 35]. SiNW-HF-T/RGO hybrid can be employed as

broadband photodetector from visible to even THz frequency by varying the bandgap of RGO

deposited on nanowire.

Conclusion:

It can be concluded that silicon nanowires are successfully synthesized by MACE process in

different condition. Long nanowires are obtained at high temperature etching process with

sharpest tip. Using carbon tape as catalyst high nanowires are achieved with wider diameter than

14 | P a g e
(with respect to) other nanowires. Furthermore, HF treatment on nanowires is also an important

parameter to discuss. It influences the surface energy and roughness properties which have high

impact on wettability. However, long nanowires have adverse effect in holding water droplet on

tip which transforms the surface to superhyrophilic in nature. Though, longest nanowires with

wide diameter as observed in SiNW-HF/C have both wetting properties with time. Using two

different synthesis methods, RGO is deposited on silicon nanowires successfully. Important

properties have been analyzed. SiNW-HF-T/RGO(s) has highly hydrophobic surface whereas

SiNW-HF-T/RGO (h) is just hydrophobic in nature with high stability with time. Silicon

nanowires and its hybrid with RGO can be accomplished as efficient terahertz emitter and broad

band photo detector, respectively. It has huge application in imaging, remote sensing, photometer

and analytical measurement etc.

Acknowledgements:

One of us (SG) wishes to thank the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), the

Government of India, for providing her a senior research fellowship through ‘CSIR-SRF’ (File

no: 09/096(0926)/2018-EMR-I) while other (AC) wants to thank TEQIP phase II scheme,

Jadavpur University for providing fellowship during the work. The authors wish to acknowledge

the University Grants Commission (UGC), the Govt. of India for the support under the

“University with Potential for Excellence (UPE-II)” scheme. The authors want to thank

Nirmalya Sankar Das for helping with the artwork.

References:

[1] A. Y. Pawar, D. D. Sonawane, K. B. Erande, and D. V. Derle, "Terahertz technology and

its applications," Drug invention today, vol. 5, pp. 157-163, 2013.

15 | P a g e
[2] X.-C. Zhang and J. Xu, Introduction to THz wave photonics vol. 29: Springer, 2010.

[3] Y.-S. Lee, Principles of terahertz science and technology vol. 170: Springer Science &

Business Media, 2009.

[4] T. Shibuya and K. Kawase, "Terahertz applications in tomographic imaging and material

spectroscopy: A review," in Handbook of Terahertz Technology for Imaging, Sensing

and Communications, ed: Elsevier, 2013, pp. 493-509.

[5] K. Peng, P. Parkinson, L. Fu, Q. Gao, N. Jiang, Y.-N. Guo, et al., "Single nanowire

photoconductive terahertz detectors," Nano letters, vol. 15, pp. 206-210, 2015.

[6] H. J. Joyce, J. L. Boland, C. L. Davies, S. A. Baig, and M. B. Johnston, "A review of the

electrical properties of semiconductor nanowires: insights gained from terahertz

conductivity spectroscopy," Semiconductor Science and Technology, vol. 31, p. 103003,

2016.

[7] S. A. Dayeh, W. Tang, F. Boioli, K. L. Kavanagh, H. Zheng, J. Wang, et al., "Direct

measurement of coherency limits for strain relaxation in heteroepitaxial core/shell

nanowires," Nano letters, vol. 13, pp. 1869-1876, 2013.

[8] M. D. Kelzenberg, S. W. Boettcher, J. A. Petykiewicz, D. B. Turner-Evans, M. C.

Putnam, E. L. Warren, et al., "Enhanced absorption and carrier collection in Si wire

arrays for photovoltaic applications," Nature materials, vol. 9, pp. 239-244, 2010.

[9] P. Krogstrup, H. I. Jørgensen, M. Heiss, O. Demichel, J. V. Holm, M. Aagesen, et al.,

"Single-nanowire solar cells beyond the Shockley–Queisser limit," Nature Photonics,

vol. 7, pp. 306-310, 2013.

16 | P a g e
[10] M. Yao, S. Cong, S. Arab, N. Huang, M. L. Povinelli, S. B. Cronin, et al., "Tandem solar

cells using GaAs nanowires on Si: design, fabrication, and observation of voltage

addition," Nano letters, vol. 15, pp. 7217-7224, 2015.

[11] M. S. Vitiello, D. Coquillat, L. Viti, D. Ercolani, F. Teppe, A. Pitanti, et al., "Room-

temperature terahertz detectors based on semiconductor nanowire field-effect transistors,"

Nano letters, vol. 12, pp. 96-101, 2012.

[12] M. J. Holmes, K. Choi, S. Kako, M. Arita, and Y. Arakawa, "Room-temperature

triggered single photon emission from a III-nitride site-controlled nanowire quantum

dot," Nano letters, vol. 14, pp. 982-986, 2014.

[13] Y. Chen, J. He, Y. Wang, X. Lin, L. Zhang, and M. Chan, "Terahertz Wave Generation

and Detection Analysis of Silicon Nanowire MOS Field-Effect Transistor," IETE

Technical Review, vol. 26, pp. 430-439, 2009.

[14] T. P. H. Sidiropoulos, R. Röder, S. Geburt, O. Hess, S. A. Maier, C. Ronning, et al.,

"Ultrafast plasmonic nanowire lasers near the surface plasmon frequency," Nature

Physics, vol. 10, pp. 870-876, 2014.

[15] M. S. Gudiksen, L. J. Lauhon, J. Wang, D. C. Smith, and C. M. Lieber, "Growth of

nanowire superlattice structures for nanoscale photonics and electronics," Nature, vol.

415, pp. 617-620, 2002.

[16] D. Seletskiy, M. P. Hasselbeck, M. Sheik-Bahae, J. G. Cederberg, L. C. Chuang, M.

Moewe, et al., "Observation of THz emission from InAs nanowires," pp. 1-2.

[17] M. Reid, I. V. Cravetchi, R. Fedosejevs, I. M. Tiginyanu, and L. Sîrbu, "Enhanced

terahertz emission from porous InP (111) membranes," Applied Physics Letters, vol. 86,

p. 021904, 2005.

17 | P a g e
[18] S. He, X. Chen, X. Wu, G. Wang, and F. Zhao, "Enhanced terahertz emission from ZnSe

nano-grain surface," Journal of lightwave technology, vol. 26, pp. 1519-1523, 2008.

[19] G. B. Jung, Y. J. Cho, Y. Myung, H. S. Kim, Y. S. Seo, J. Park, et al., "Geometry-

dependent terahertz emission of silicon nanowires," Optics Express, vol. 18, pp. 16353-

16359, 2010.

[20] R. Cheng, Y. Zhou, H. Liu, J. Liu, G. Sun, X. Zhou, et al., "Tunable graphene-based

terahertz absorber via an external magnetic field," Optical Materials Express, vol. 10, pp.

501-512, 2020.

[21] R. R. Nair, P. Blake, A. N. Grigorenko, K. S. Novoselov, T. J. Booth, T. Stauber , et al.,

"Fine structure constant defines visual transparency of graphene," Science, vol. 320, pp.

1308-1308, 2008.

[22] V. Ryzhii, M. Ryzhii, N. Ryabova, V. Mitin, and T. Otsuji, "Graphene nanoribbon

phototransistor: Proposal and analysis," Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 48, p.

04C144, 2009.

[23] V. Ryzhii, V. Mitin, M. Ryzhii, N. Ryabova, and T. Otsuji, "Device model for graphene

nanoribbon phototransistor," Applied physics express, vol. 1, p. 063002, 2008.

[24] G. Eda, C. Mattevi, H. Yamaguchi, H. Kim, and M. Chhowalla, "Insulator to semimetal

transition in graphene oxide," The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, vol. 113, pp. 15768-

15771, 2009.

[25] B. Chitara, L. S. Panchakarla, S. B. Krupanidhi, and C. N. R. Rao, "Infrared

photodetectors based on reduced graphene oxide and graphene nanoribbons," Advanced

Materials, vol. 23, pp. 5419-5424, 2011.

18 | P a g e
[26] K. Peng, Y. Xu, Y. Wu, Y. Yan, S. T. Lee, and J. Zhu, "Aligned single‐crystalline Si

nanowire arrays for photovoltaic applications," small, vol. 1, pp. 1062-1067, 2005.

[27] Y. Cao, J. Zhu, J. Xu, J. He, J. L. Sun, Y. Wang, et al., "Ultra‐broadband photodetector

for the visible to terahertz range by self‐assembling reduced graphene oxide‐silicon

nanowire array heterojunctions," Small, vol. 10, pp. 2345-2351, 2014.

[28] S. Ghosh, S. Dey, B. Das, N. S. Das, S. Sarkar, and K. K. Chattopadhyay, "Wettability of

Metal Assisted Chemically Etched (MaCE) Grass Like Silicon Nanowires," pp. 213-217.

[29] R.-p. Wang, G.-w. Zhou, Y.-l. Liu, S.-h. Pan, H.-z. Zhang, D.-p. Yu, et al., "Raman

spectral study of silicon nanowires: high-order scattering and phonon confinement

effects," Physical Review B, vol. 61, p. 16827, 2000.

[30] U. N. Maiti, S. Maiti, T. P. Majumder, and K. K. Chattopadhyay, "Ultra-thin graphene

edges at the nanowire tips: a cascade cold cathode with two-stage field amplification,"

Nanotechnology, vol. 22, p. 505703, 2011.

[31] A. Jha, R. Roy, D. Sen, and K. K. Chattopadhyay, "Curvature aided efficient axial field

emission from carbon nanofiber–reduced graphene oxide superstructures on tungsten

wire substrate," Applied Surface Science, vol. 366, pp. 448-454, 2016.

[32] W.-F. Kuan and L.-J. Chen, "The preparation of superhydrophobic surfaces of

hierarchical silicon nanowire structures," Nanotechnology, vol. 20, p. 035605, 2008.

[33] Y. Coffinier, G. Piret, M. R. Das, and R. Boukherroub, "Effect of surface roughness and

chemical composition on the wetting properties of silicon-based substrates," Comptes

Rendus Chimie, vol. 16, pp. 65-72, 2013.

19 | P a g e
[34] A. Egatz-Gomez, R. Majithia, C. Levert, and K. E. Meissner, "Super-wetting, wafer-sized

silicon nanowire surfaces with hierarchical roughness and low defects," Rsc Advances,

vol. 2, pp. 11472-11480, 2012.

[35] P. H. Siegel, "Terahertz technology," IEEE Transactions on microwave theory and

techniques, vol. 50, pp. 910-928, 2002.

20 | P a g e