Hydraulic analogy
Analogy between a hydraulic circuit (left) and an electronic circuit (right).
The electronic–hydraulic analogy (derisively referred to as the drain-pipe theory by Oliver
Lodge) [1] is the most widely used analogy for "electron fluid" in a metal conductor. Since
electric current is invisible and the processes at play in electronics are often difficult to
demonstrate, the various electronic components are represented by hydraulic equivalents.
Electricity (as well as heat) was originally understood to be a kind of fluid, and the names of
certain electric quantities (such as current) are derived from hydraulic equivalents. As with all
analogies, it demands an intuitive and competent understanding of the baseline paradigms
(electronics and hydraulics).
Paradigms[edit]
There is no unique paradigm for establishing this analogy. Two paradigms can be used to
introduce the concept to students using pressure induced by gravity or by pumps.
In the version with pressure induced by gravity, large tanks of water are held up high, or are
filled to differing water levels, and the potential energy of the water head is the pressure
source. This is reminiscent of electrical diagrams with an up arrow pointing to +V, grounded
pins that otherwise are not shown connecting to anything, and so on. This has the advantage
of associating electric potential with gravitational potential.
A second paradigm is a completely enclosed version with pumps providing pressure only and
no gravity. This is reminiscent of a circuit diagram with a voltage source shown and the wires
actually completing a circuit. This paradigm is further discussed below.
Other paradigms highlight the similarities between equations governing the flow of fluid and
the flow of charge. Flow and pressure variables can be calculated in both steady and transient
fluid flow situations with the use of the hydraulic ohm analogy.[2][3] Hydraulic ohms are the
units of hydraulic impedance, which is defined as the ratio of pressure to volume flow rate.
The pressure and volume flow variables are treated as phasors in this definition, so possess a
phase as well as magnitude.[4]
A slightly different paradigm is used in acoustics, where acoustic impedance is defined as a
relationship between acoustic pressure and acoustic particle velocity. In this paradigm, a large
cavity with a hole is analogous to a capacitor that stores compressional energy when the time-
dependent pressure deviates from atmospheric pressure. A hole (or long tube) is analogous to
an inductor that stores kinetic energy associated with the flow of air.[5]
A circuit was used to model feedback stabilization of a hydrodynamic plasma instability in a
magnetic mirror [6] In this application, the effort was to keep the plasma column centered by
applying voltages to the plates, and except for the presence of turbulence and non-linear
effects, the plasma was an actual electric circuit element (not really an analog).
Hydraulic analogy with horizontal water flow[edit]
Voltage, current, and charge[edit]
In general, electric potential is equivalent to hydraulic head. This model assumes that the
water is flowing horizontally, so that the force of gravity can be ignored. In this case, electric
potential is equivalent to pressure. The voltage (or voltage drop or potential difference) is a
difference in pressure between two points. Electric potential and voltage are usually
measured in volts.
Electric current is equivalent to a hydraulic volume flow rate; that is, the volumetric quantity
of flowing water over time. Usually measured in amperes.
Electric charge is equivalent to a quantity of water.
Basic circuit elements[edit]
A relatively wide pipe completely filled with water is equivalent to conducting wire. When
comparing to a piece of wire, the pipe should be thought of as having semi-permanent caps
on the ends. Connecting one end of a wire to a circuit is equivalent to un-capping one end of
the pipe and attaching it to another pipe. With few exceptions (such as a high-voltage power
source), a wire with only one end attached to a circuit will do nothing; the pipe remains
capped on the free end, and thus adds nothing to the circuit.
A resistor is equivalent to a constriction in the bore of the pipe which requires more pressure
to pass the same amount of water. All pipes have some resistance to flow, just as all wires
have some resistance to current.
A node (or junction) in Kirchhoff's junction rule is equivalent to a pipe tee. The net flow of
water into a piping tee (filled with water) must equal the net flow out.
Capacitor: a flexible diaphragm sealed inside a pipe.
Inductor: a heavy paddle wheel or turbine placed in the current.
A capacitor is equivalent to a tank with one connection at each end and a rubber sheet
dividing the tank in two lengthwise[7] (a hydraulic accumulator). When water is forced into
one pipe, equal water is simultaneously forced out of the other pipe, yet no water can
penetrate the rubber diaphragm. Energy is stored by the stretching of the rubber. As more
current flows "through" the capacitor, the back-pressure (voltage) becomes greater, thus
current "leads" voltage in a capacitor. As the back-pressure from the stretched rubber
approaches the applied pressure, the current becomes less and less. Thus capacitors "filter
out" constant pressure differences and slowly varying, low-frequency pressure differences,
while allowing rapid changes in pressure to pass through.
An inductor is equivalent to a heavy paddle wheel placed in the current. The mass of the
wheel and the size of the blades restrict the water's ability to rapidly change its rate of flow
(current) through the wheel due to the effects of inertia, but, given time, a constant flowing
stream will pass mostly unimpeded through the wheel, as it turns at the same speed as the
water flow. The mass and surface area of the wheel and its blades are analogous to
inductance, and friction between its axle and the axle bearings corresponds to the resistance
that accompanies any non-superconducting inductor.
An alternative inductor model is simply a long pipe, perhaps coiled into a spiral for
convenience. This fluid-inertia device is used in real life as an essential component of a
hydraulic ram. The inertia of the water flowing through the pipe produces the inductance
effect; inductors "filter out" rapid changes in flow, while allowing slow variations in current
to be passed through. The drag imposed by the walls of the pipe is somewhat analogous to
parasitic resistance. In either model, the pressure difference (voltage) across the device must
be present before the current will start moving, thus in inductors, voltage "leads" current. As
the current increases, approaching the limits imposed by its own internal friction and of the
current that the rest of the circuit can provide, the pressure drop across the device becomes
lower and lower.
An ideal voltage source (ideal battery) or ideal current source is a dynamic pump with
feedback control. A pressure meter on both sides shows that regardless of the current being
produced, this kind of pump produces constant pressure difference. If one terminal is kept
fixed at ground, another analogy is a large body of water at a high elevation, sufficiently large
that the drawn water does not affect the water level. To create the analog of an ideal current
source, use a positive displacement pump: A current meter (little paddle wheel) shows that
when this kind of pump is driven at a constant speed, it maintains a constant speed of the
little paddle wheel.
