ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE

AND
TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY
College of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering
Department of Electro Mechanical engineering
Thermo fluid laboratory report
Section 2 Group 4
Name id

1 Nurye nigus………………….0914/08

2 Naod molla……………….….0871/08

3 Nardos Getachew…………….0873/08

4 Petros Fanta…………………0922/08

5 Mewal alema……………….. 0783/08

6 Mebrhatom Gereziher……….0739/08

7 Michael Assefa………………....0796/08

8 Yonas Abiy……………………..1218/08 2012 E.c

Table of Contents page no

0
Experiment 1 …………………………………………………………....2

Experiment 2…………………………………………………………….9

Experiment 3……………………………………………………………17

Experiment 4……………………………………………………………22

Experiment 5……………………………………………………………26

Experiment 6……………………………………………………………30

Experiment 7……………………………………………………………38

Experiment 8……………………………………………………………38

Experiment 9…………………………………………………………....43

Experiment 10…………………………………………………………..53

Experiment 11…………………………………………………………..62

EXPERIMENT 1

1
 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER
DEVELOPMENT

OBJECTIVE
To measure the depth of the boundary layer on rough flat plates.

METHOD
Using a flattened Pitot tube mounted on a micrometre to measure the change in velocity
associated with the boundary layer in contact with a flat plat

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
C15-10 Wind Tunnel with IFD7, PC running C15-304 software, C15-25 Boundary Layer Plates
with Pitot Tube (Total Head Tube) C15-11 Inclined Manometer Bank or C15-12 Electronic
Manometer Bank

THEORY
The development of friction drag implies that there is a force exerted by the fluid on the body. In
exerting this force, the fluid itself is slowed. The slower fluid particles at the body surface then
exert a drag force on the faster fluid particles further away from the body. Although in theory the
boundary layer is infinite, in practice the significance of the slowing of fluid particles (the effect
of viscosity) reduces with distance from the body. The region close to the body where viscous
effects are significant is termed the boundary layer. It is usually assumed to be the region in
which the flow velocity is less than 99% of the free stream velocity.

Flow within the boundary layer may be laminar or turbulent, and may change from laminar to
turbulent as it passes around the body. A change from one type to the other is known as
boundary layer transition.

LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER

In a laminar boundary layer, the flow is smooth, and its behavior may be thought of as a series of
layers sliding over one another. Skin friction tends to be low and the thickness of the boundary
layer tends to be small.

TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER

In a turbulent boundary layer, the fluid moves in small eddies of varying size and strength. Skin
friction is higher than in a laminar boundary layer, and the boundary layer tends to be thicker.

ROUGH PLATE
A rough plate surface tends to encourage early development of a turbulent boundary layer.
VELOCITY PROFILES

2
By using a Pitot tube to find the velocity head of the air flow in a series of points approaching the
surface of the plate, it is possible to determine the flow rates and thus to generate a velocity
profile of the air passing the plate. This velocity profile varies according to whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent. The velocity gradient at the surface is higher for turbulent flow, as can be
seen if the gradients for a similar plate under the two conditions are plotted on the same graph.

PROCEDURE
The fan was switched on.
Initially the manometers were all at equal point.
The ‘Plate Type’ was set to ‘Rough Plate’ on the mimic diagram.
The Rough Plate was put in place and locked with nuts.

Gradually, the fan speed was increased by using the up arrows. The fan stabilizes after some
time.

The Pitot tube is adjusted so that it was just touching the plate: Then a distance of 0mm was
inserted

Using the C15-11 inclined manometer, A reading for the water level in columns 12 was taken
and entered on the mimic diagram.

The sensor readings was logged by selecting the “Go” icon.

The Pitot tube was moved by 0.2mm away from the plate. A Distance of 0.2mm was entered.
The Pitot tube was moved another 0.2mm. A Distance of 0.4mm is entered, and record the
corresponding Pitot readings.

The Pitot tube was incremented by 0.2mm and the distance and sensor reading were recorded
each time until identical readings were obtained. Then the plate was moved towards the tunnel

3
inlet until the Pitot tube is approximately central to the plates. Secure the plates in position. In
notes Middle was entered.

The Pitot tube position was adjusted so that it is touching the plate. A second set of readings
were taken, moving the Pitot tube in 0.2mm increments as before. Creating a new results sheet
and taking a third set of results after moving the plate to the far upstream end of its travel. Enter
‘Trailing Edge’ in ‘Notes’. Block the slot with tape before taking results and use ‘Save’ to ensure
the data is kept.

RESULTS
The software records the sensor data and corresponding calculations under the following
headings:

For each position of each plate, plot a graph of Total Pressure against distance from the plate.

4
For the leading edge, the Pitot total head is not dependent on Pitot position. It’s value is also near
zero (0).
Since it is measuring pressure relative to the atmosphere it is reasonable to have zero value for
zero boundary layer condition.
The Total pressure in Pascale (abs) = Pstatic wind tunnel – Ppitot measurement. So a higher pressure head of
pitot means a smaller absolute pressure. In the data, the pressure head decreases as Pitot distance
increases from the plate. This means the total absolute pressure increases as Pitot distance
increases.

For the middle edge, near to the plate, Pitot total head is large indicating a large pressure drop
and low velocity. As Pitot position increases, total Pitot head begins to decrease until it

5
stabilizes. The point it begins to stabilize is the point where the pressure gradient becomes zero
which is approximately 2.7mm.

For the Trailing edge, the same is true like in the middle edge. But one major difference is total
Pitot pressure head is larger now. Which is justifiable since the air is further reduced in speed for
the length of the plate.
The edge of the boundary is approximately 2.7mm like in the middle case.

For each plate position, plot a graph of distance from plate against air velocity.

6
For the leading edge, Air velocity is equal to the free stream velocity. It doesn’t depend on Pitot
position (distance from the plate).

For the middle edge, the boundary layer seems that of a turbulent one. It matches the theoretical
shape of the turbulent boundary layer.

Based on the data we have, For the trailing edge the graph resembles that of the laminar
boundary layer.

7
 CONCLUSION
For the leading edge, the Pitot total head is not dependent on Pitot position. For the middle edge,
near to the plate, Pitot total head is large indicating a large pressure drop and low velocity. For
the Trailing edge, the same is true like in the middle edge. But one major difference is total Pitot
pressure head is larger now.

For the leading edge, Air velocity is equal to the free stream velocity. For the middle edge, the
boundary layer seems that of a turbulent one.
According to the graphs, we have obtained the boundary layer at the middle is turbulent and at
the trailing edge is laminar. This shows that the type of flow changed along the length of the
plate.

EXPERIMENT 2
8
 MEASUREMENT OF LIFT AND DRAG OF AN AERO FOIL AT
DIFFERENT ANGLE OF ATTACK
Objective:
 To determine the lift and drag coefficient
 To investigate the variation of lift and drag with velocity at zero angle of attack
 To investigate the effect of changing angle of attack

Apparatus used:
 C15-10 wind tunnel with IFD7
 PC running C15-304 software
 C15-20 lift and drag aero foil
 C15-11 inclined manometer bank or C15-12 electronic manometer bank

Theory:
Velocity: velocity in the working section can be calculated from the formula:

Lift:

Lift is the component of force on an aero foil that acts ‘upwards’. In a three-dimensional
situation, lift must be defined carefully. It is usually defined as acting perpendicularly to the span
and chord of the aero foil if the chord is taken as a straight line from the nose to the trailing edge,
with a positive value when the force acts in the direction of the upper surface. Lift may have
components in any direction relative to a fixed ground, depending on the orientation of the aero
foil and the direction of the airflow. Negative values of lift may be possible depending on the
angle of attack.

When using the C15-20 the span of the wing is fixed parallel to the floor of the working section,
and the lift is assumed to act perpendicularly to the span with no lateral component towards the
tunnel side walls. The lift therefore acts directly upwards when the aero foil is at a zero angle of
attack, and acts at an angle to the vertical equal to the angle of attack of the aero foil.

Drag:

Drag is the component of the force on an aero foil that acts along the direction of the airflow and
in the same direction (for an aircraft in level flight, drag acts in the opposite direction to the
direction of flight). Drag resists the movement of the aero foil through the airstream.

9
Drag is always a positive value or zero (in non-theoretical situations, drag will only be zero if the
air velocity is also zero).

Drag is a combination of the effects of friction on the surface of the aero foil (form drag) and the
component of lift acting in the drag direction (induced drag). For any given aero foil and
Reynolds number, a drag coefficient may be found which may then be used to predict the drag
for that aero foil at any other Reynolds number.

C D =C DO +C DL

Where, C DO is the form drag coefficient and C DL is the induced drag coefficient. C DL May be
considered as a function of the coefficient of lift, CL.

C DL =k C L2

The drag may be defined as:

1 1 1 2
D= ( V 2 S C D ) = V 2 S C DO + V S(k C L2)
2ρ 2ρ 2ρ

Where D= total drag, ρ= density of air, V= velocity of air flow over aero foil, and S = a
characteristic dimension, usually the wing area = plan area of one surface of the wing= chord x
span for the C15-10.

When the contribution of lift to drag is zero (k=0), the value of CDO may be calculated directly
from the measured value of D using the lift and drag balance.

The combined effect of form drag and induced drag give a characteristic shape to a graph of total
drag against velocity:

Graph 2.1: variation of total drag with the air velocity

10
This curve shows that as velocity increases, drag initially falls, then reaches a minimum, and
then rises again. This minimum drag velocity is an important characteristic in aerodynamics as it
indicates the most efficient velocity for the body (e.g. the aero foil, wing or aircraft). This is
independent of any factors due to propulsion.

Lift and drag characteristics of an aero foil:

The lift and drag produced or experienced by an aero foil varies with the air velocity and with the
angle of attack.

Graph 2.2: lift against angle of attack for symmetrical aero foil

For a given angle of attack, an increase in air speed will tend to increase the magnitude of both
lift and drag until the air speed is sufficiently high that compression effects become noticeable
(i.e. close to supersonic speeds- the C15-10 is designed so that air speed can never reach this
point). For a given air speed, the relationship between lift, and angle of attack is more complex,
as illustrated below:

The lift generated increases until a critical angle or stall angle is reached. The lift then falls
sharply until it begins to stabilize again at an even greater angle of attack; at this point the drag
will be very significant.

Lift:

For a given aero foil and Reynold number, a lift coefficient may be found which may then be
used to predict the lift for that aero foil at any other Reynolds number.

L /1 2
C L= V S
2ρ

Where L=lift, ρ=density of fluid, V= velocity of air flow over aero foil, and S=a characteristic
dimension

11
The characteristic dimension is taken as the chord, where the model under test is an aero foil
occupying the full width of the working section.

The lift and drag balance measure the vertical lift component (the lift acting perpendicular to the
tunnel floor). This may not be the total lift, as illustrated below:

Graph 2.3 Components of lift force

Using geometry, the total lift, L, may be calculated as

L=lcosα

Where l is the vertical lift component measured by the lift and drag balance, and α is the angle
of attack. The lift coefficient, CL, is then calculated as

lcosα /1 2
C L= V S
2ρ

It may be seen that when α=0, l=L, and thus the total lift on a symmetrical aero foil at zero angle
of attack will be the lift measured using the lift and drag balance. (N.B. this differs for an
asymmetric aero foil, which may generate a positive value of lift at zero angle of attack). The
component of drag due to lift may be calculated as l*tanα. Now

1 2
ltanα = V S (k C L 2)
2ρ

It is therefore possible to find k C L 2for any given velocity and angle of attack, and thus to find the
value of k.

12
Equipment Set Up
The lift and drag aero foil was fitted to the lift and drag balance, also the fitted into the large
circular hatch. The small hatch fitted with the plain hatch cover and the cable from the lift and
drag balance was connected to the socket on the front of the IFD7.

The fitting of the floor was ensured and the surrounding where checked to see that there was no
obstruction at the inlet or outlet of the tunnel and that there were no loose objects nearby which
could cause a hazard.

The single tube from the pressure tapping on working section side wall (near the inlet) was
connected to the 1-way quick-release fitting on the black box fitted to the tunnel frame. the cable
from the lift and drag balance was connected the front of the IFD7.

The IFD7’s connection to a suitable mains electrical supply and to the USB socket of a suitable
PC was checked. The PC was switched on and the appropriate software version run (C15-11
version or C15-12 version depending on the manometer used).

Procedure:
 The fan setting at 0% was checked, then switched out of standby mode by selecting the
‘fan on’ button on the mimic diagram.
 The sameness of all manometer readings at zero velocity was checked.
 The ambient temperature entered to the software.
 The ‘zero’ button beside the ‘lift’ data display box selected in the software. This sets the
datum point for zero lift (no air velocity).
 The fan speed gradually set to 60.
 The proper alignment of the wing done.

Investigation of effect of changing angle of attack

After Setting the attack angle of an aero foil at 0 degree and varying in the interval of 5 - 55
degrees, every data obtained from the experiment recorded and saved in each in appropriate file
extension.

Results
The sensor data and corresponding calculations under the following headings were recorded by
software and tabulated below .

13
 NB: every in the following tables corresponds to sample no. 1-13.

Fan Rotation Lift Drag Static Ambient

Speed Force Force Pressure Temperature
r L D H T
[%] [°] [N] [N] [mm] [°C]

60 0.0 0.00 0.00 17.3 18.0

60 5.0 0.03 0.04 17.6 18.0
60 10.2 0.10 0.11 16.5 18.0
60 15.1 0.21 0.10 17.2 18.0
60 15.1 0.20 0.10 17.2 18.0
60 19.9 0.29 0.12 16.7 18.0
60 25.1 0.39 0.13 15.8 18.0
60 30.0 0.63 0.08 15.4 18.0
60 35.0 0.73 0.08 12.3 18.0
60 40.0 0.80 0.20 13.0 18.0
60 45.0 0.90 0.26 11.0 18.0
60 50.1 0.86 0.34 9.9 18.0
60 55.0 0.71 0.36 9.7 18.0

Density Air Reynolds

of Velocity Number
CL CD CD0 CDL k 1/2 Rhp V² S
Air v Re
[kg/m³] [m/s] [-]

1.211 16.7 72406 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 11.02934923

1.211 16.9 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 31.50 11.25377525
1.211 16.3 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.02 20.02 10.50568851
1.211 16.7 0.02 0.06 0.00 0.06 15.36 10.95454056
1.211 16.7 0.02 0.06 0.00 0.05 16.13 10.95454056
1.211 16.5 0.03 0.10 0.00 0.10 15.26 10.65530586
1.211 16.0 0.04 0.18 -0.01 0.18 14.55 10.05683646
1.211 15.8 0.06 0.33 -0.03 0.36 12.02 9.832410437
1.211 14.1 0.08 0.45 -0.06 0.51 11.21 7.812576224
1.211 14.5 0.07 0.61 -0.06 0.67 14.84 8.261428271
1.211 13.3 0.09 0.81 -0.09 0.90 15.50 6.989680804
1.211 12.7 0.09 0.92 -0.11 1.03 21.28 6.316402733
1.211 12.5 0.07 0.91 -0.11 1.02 37.37 6.166785384
……………… The right side continuation of the above table

Table 2.1 the results of lift and drag force analysis experiment from the software

14
Graph of lift and drag versus angle of attack [at constant velocity]

Graph of lift coefficient against angle of attack [for constant velocity]

15
Graph of K against angle of attack [for one sample velocity]

Conclusion:
While conducting this experiment, the speed of the fan was 60 as mentioned in the above
table. the effect of the angle of attack was noticed by varying the angle of attack at the interval
of 5 degrees. As shown in graphs and the table (table of recorded data from software), each
parameter behaves in accordance to the relations which have been stated in the theory section. It
can be concluded that the lift force increases up to certain value and decreases after attaining that
value. The drag force increases but slowly. But the increment of the drag force is not linear (as
shown on the above graph) it has some fluctuations between 0 and 55 degrees of angle of attack.
The drag force falls in some extent in between 30 – 40 degrees and rise after 40 degrees.

There is no example that describes the characteristics of CDO, CD, CDL graph. So there is no
explanation by comparing the graph on example and the graph that drawn in this report.

As shown in the graph of coefficient of lift against angle of attack, the coefficient of lift increases
in some pattern when the angle of attack increases. But after 50 degrees of angle of attack,
coefficient of lift falls down until the last value of angle of attack (55 degrees) in this experiment.
But when we say the coefficient of lift increases in some pattern when the angle of attack
increases, it doesn’t mean that it increases linearly. There are many ups and downs in between.

16
 EXPERIMENT NO 3
VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
Objective
 To investigate the validity of the Bernoulli equation when applied to the steady flow of water
in a tapered duct.

Equipment’s required
In order to complete the demonstration of the Bernoulli apparatus we need a number of pieces of
equipment.
 The Hydraulics Bench which allows us to measure flow by timed volume collection.
 The Bernoulli’s Apparatus Test Equipment
 A stopwatch for timing the flow measurement

Theory
The Bernoulli equation represents the conservation of mechanical energy for a steady,
incompressible, frictionless flow:

Where: p = static pressure detected at a side hole, v = fluid velocity, and z = vertical elevation of
the fluid.
If the tube is horizontal, the difference in height can be disregarded, Z1 = Z2, hence:

17
The manometer actually measures the static pressure head, hs, in meters which is related to p
using the relationship:

This allows the Bernoulli equation to be written in a revised form, i.e.:

The velocity related portion of the total pressure head is called the dynamic pressure head, hd.

Total Pressure Head: Thus, ht =h1+v2/2g (meters) and, from the Bernoulli equation, it follows
that ht1 = ht2.

Method
 To measure flow rates and both static and total pressure heads in a rigid convergent/divergent
tube of known geometry for a range of steady flow rates.

Equipment Set Up
1. Level the apparatus: Set up the Bernoulli equation apparatus on the hydraulic bench so that
its base is horizontal
2. Set the direction of the test section: Ensure that the test-section has the 14o tapered section

18
converging in the direction of flow. If you need to reverse the test-section, the total pressure head
probe must be withdrawn before releasing the mounting couplings.
3. Connect the water inlet and outlet: Ensure that the rig outflow tube is positioned above the
volumetric tank, in order to facilitate timed volume collections.
4. Bleeding the manometers: In order to bleed air from pressure tapping points and
manometers, close both the bench valve, the rig flow control valve and open the air bleed screw
and remove the cap from the adjacent air valve.
5. Results: Readings should be taken at 3 flow rates. Finally, you may reverse the test section in
order to see the effects of a more rapid converging section.
6. Setting the flow rate: Take the first set of readings at the maximum flow rate possible (with
all manometers reading on the backboard), then reduce the volume flow rate to give the h1 - h5
head difference of about 50mm.
Finally repeat the whole process for one further flow rate, set to give the h1 - h5 difference
approximately half way between that obtained in the above two tests.
7. Reading the static head: Take readings of the h1 - h6 manometers when the levels have
steadied. Ensure that the total pressure probe is retracted from the test-section.
8. Timed volume collection: carry out a timed volume collection, using the volumetric tank, in
order to determine the volume flow rate.
9. Reading the total pressure head distribution: Measure the total pressure head distribution
by traversing the total pressure probe along the length of the test section.
10. Reversing the test section: Ensure that the total pressure probe is fully withdrawn from the
test-section. Unscrew the two couplings, remove the test-section and reverse it then re-assemble
by tightening the coupling.

Technical Data
The following dimensions from the equipment are used in the appropriate calculations. If
required these values may be checked as part of the experimental procedure and replaced with
your own measurements. The dimensions of the tube are detailed below:

19
We can calculate the velocity (v) by using the flow rate (V/t = v A) of the fluid.

* Observation for h8 = 300mm

Volume Time Flow Distanc Area into Static Velocity Dynamic Total
collected(v to rate(Qv e into Duct(A) Head (v) head(m) head(ht)
) collect( ) Duct m2 (h) m/s hd mm
l t) M3/sec M mm
sec
h1 0.00 490.9*10-5 298 0.04237 9.2*10-5 300
2.5 12 h2 0.0603 151.7*10-5 235 0.13711 9.6*10-4 287
0.0002 h3 0.0687 109.4*10-5 175 0.19012 1.8*10-3 286
08
Average h4 0.0732 89.9*10-5 115 0.23137 2.7*103 285
flow rate
2.5 12 h5 0.0811 78.5*10-5 35 0.26497 3.6*10-3 250
h6 0.1415 490.9*10-5 85 0.04237 9.1*10-5 165
* Observation for h8 = h1- h5 = 50mm

Volume Time Flow Distanc Area into Static Velocity Dynamic Total
collected(v to rate(Qv e into Duct(A) Head (v) head(m) head(ht)
) collect( ) Duct m2 (h) m/s hd mm
l t) M3/sec m mm
sec

h1 0.00 490.9*10-5 180 16.9 29 50

20
 1 12 h2 0.0603 151.7*10-5 176 54.713 152.57 185
0.0833 h3 0.0687 109.4*10-5 160 75.868 293.3 184
Average h4 0.0732 89.9*10-5 140 92.324 434.44 181
flow rate
1 12 h5 0.0811 78.5*10-5 130 105.73 569.8 180
h6 0.1415 490.9*10-5 130 16.9 14.57 155
*Observation for h8 = (50+ (h1- h5))/2=40mm

Volum Time Flow Distance Area into Static Velocity Dynamic Tota
e to rate(Qv) into Duct Duct(A) Head (v) head(m) l
collecte collect( M3/sec m m2 (h) m/s hd head
d(v) t) mm (ht)
l sec mm

1.8 12 0.00015 h1 0.00 490.9*10-5 275 0.030 1.5*10-3 40

h2 0.0603 151.7*10-5 240 0.099 4.9*10-4 275

1.8 12 h3 0.0687 109.4*10-5 205 0.1371 9.6*10-4 270

Averag 0.00015 h4 0.0732 89.9*10-5 175 0.1661 1.4*10-4 275

e flow
rate
1.8 12 h5 0.0811 78.5*10-5 130 0.191 1.9*10-4 265
h6 0.1415 490.9*10-5 145 0.031 4.7*10-5 180

Conclusion
The flow of fluid on both convergent and divergent nozzle can be easily described by Bernoulli
equation as well Bernoulli experiment. We can say that it is valid to measure the flow of a fluid
by using this experiment.

Our assumption is that the fluid we are using have a steady frictionless flow and the fluid itself is
incompressible.

The comparison of the total heads obtained by adding the dynamic head measurement obtained
from the velocity from flow rate of the fluid and the static head obtained from the experiment;
and directly measured from the experiment is much the same specially from the first and the last
data but have a difference on the data between the convergent and divergent flow measurement.
It is occurred because of the error we made on taking the measurement on the manometer and
also the result was not holding the measurement in a small time so we were having trouble to
write the exact measurement because the result was increasing continuously.

21
 EXPERIMENT 4:

TESTING OF PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION OVER A

CYLINDRICAL TUBE UNDER CROSS FLOW
Objective
To measure the pressure distribution around a circular cylinder at different velocities (and
Reynolds Number)

Method
By using a tapped cylinder to measure the pressure distribution around it when positioned in a
steady stream of air. By calculating the theoretical pressure distribution around the cylinder and
comparing the result in graph format against the experimentally obtained values.

Equipment Required
C15-10 Wind Tunnel with IFD7, PC running C15-304 software, C15-23 Pressure Cylinder, C15-
11 Inclined Manometer Bank or C15-12 Electronic Manometer Bank.

Theory
Free stream velocity in the working section is calculated as in earlier exercises:

V = (2ρman gΔh/ ρair)0.5

Flow around a circular cylinder

If a long circular cylinder is positioned perpendicular to a steady stream of air, the theoretical
equation for the velocity at the surface, assuming no losses is:
v = 2Vsinθ (1)
Where, v = local velocity at the surface, and θ= angle between the radius to the tapping and the
free stream flow direction.
Using Bernoulli, the theoretical surface pressure at a point may be found:

P + ½ρV² = p + ½ρv² (2)

Where, P = tunnel static pressure, and p = surface pressure acting on the cylinder at a
point. Rearranging (2) and substituting in from (1):

22
 p = P + ½ρV²(1 - 4sin²θ) (3)
Where p = pabsolute and P = Pabsolute
When using the C15, both the tunnel static pressure and the cylinder tapping pressures are
measured relative to atmosphere:
Absolute static pressure Pabs = Patoms– Pmeasured and
Absolute tapping pressure pabs = Patoms– pmeasured.

The theoretical pressure presented in the software is a differential pressure for direct
comparison with the measured pressure (P = Pmeasured and p = pmeasured)
(Patmos -pmeasured) = (Patmos -Pmeasured) +½ρV²(1
- 4sin²θ)pmeasured
= Pmeasured - ½ρV²(1 - 4sin²θ)
p = P - ½ρV²(1 - 4sin²θ) ****eqn
The tapping points are evenly distributed around half of the cylinder at 20° intervals (i.e. the
tapping points are situated at θ = 0°, θ = 20°, θ = 40°, etc. up to θ = 180°).

Equipment Set Up
The pressure cylinder was fitted through the large circular hatch, at an angle of 0° to the
horizontal (i.e. the first tapping faced directly upstream and the last tapping faced directly
downstream). The single tube from the pressure tapping on working section side wall (near the
inlet) was connected to the 1-way quick-release fitting on the black box fitted to the tunnel
frame.

The 10-way connection from the pressure cylinder was fitted to the manometer.

The C15-11 inclined manometer bank were filled and primed with a convenient water level and
there were no trapped air bubbles.

The IFD7 were connected to a suitable mains electrical supply and to the USB socket of a
suitable PC.

Procedure
1. The fan was started by using the ‘fan on’ button on the mimic diagram.

2. All the manometers read the same value.

3. The fan speed was set to 60% by typing in speed increments of 10%. And the fan stabilizes
after some time.

23
4. Using the C15-11 inclined manometer, Reading for the water level in all the columns was
taken and entered on the mimic diagram.

5. Selecting ‘Cylinder’ in the ‘Model Used’ box and selecting the “Go” icon the sensor reading
was logged.
6. The fan is closed gradually

7. The result was saved in excel format.

Results
The graph of measured pressure and Predicted pressure verses cylinder tapping point. Below is
the tabulated value and the graph.

Measured Predicted
Cylinder
Pressure Pressure
Tapping
Point
[Pa] [Pa]

1 0 0

2 34 46

3 123 163

4 226 295

5 221 381

6 216 381

7 216 295

8 216 163

9 221 46
10 226 0

Using graph we can see that the cylinder tapping point and the pressure have an upper parabola like
structure. The predicted and the measured pressure are graphically seen below.

24
 Conclusion
The theoretical was a good match for the measured for the first 4 tapings but for the other, there
is a big discrepancy. It is because for the theoretical calculation we have assumed many ideal
conditions. We have assumed in our calculations irrotational incompressible flow. Such a flow
can be generated by adding a uniform flow, in the positive x direction to a doublet at the origin
directed in the negative x direction.
Of particular interest is pressure coefficient distribution predicted by the theory, given by the
expression  Cp=1-4sin2, where  is angle measured from the back of the cylinder. This
inviscid pressure distribution is unrealistic in a number of ways, not least that it implies a zero
drag.

25
 EXPERIMENT NO 5
OSBORNE REYNOLDS’ DEMONSTRATION

Objective
To observe laminar, transition and turbulent pipe flow and calculate Reynolds numbers

Method
Visualization of flow behavior by injection of dye into a steady flow in a pipe. This is a classical
experiment and was first performed by Osborne Reynolds in the late 19th century.

Equipment
In order to complete the demonstration, we need a number of pieces of equipment.
 The Hydraulics Bench which allows us to measure flow by timed volume collection.
 The Reynolds’ Apparatus

26
 A stopwatch to allow us to determine the flow rate of water.
 Thermometer

Theory:
The Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces and is used
in determining the type of flow occurring: laminar or turbulent. In most engineering text books, a
Reynolds number of 2300 is usually accepted as the value at transition; that is, the value of the
Reynolds number between laminar and turbulent flow regimes.

The Reynolds number that exists anywhere in the transition region is called the critical Reynolds
number.
The objective of this experiment is to determine the range of Reynolds numbers by Reynolds
apparatus (Figure 1) over which transition occurs. The Reynolds number can be calculated as:
Re = ud/v Where Re = Reynolds number,

u = velocity of fluid (m/s),

ν = kinematic viscosity of fluid (m2/s)

Experimental Procedure:
1. Turn on the water, and partially open the discharge valve at the base of the apparatus.
2. Open and adjust the dye injector valve to obtain a fine filament of dye in the flow down the
glass tube. If the dye is dispersed in the tube reduced to water flow rate by closing the discharge
valve and adjusting the supply as necessary to maintain the constant head. A laminar flow
condition should be achieved in which the filament of dye passes down the complete length of
the tube without disturbance.
3. Record the temperature of the water using the thermometer, find the corresponding kinematic
viscosity from a table.
4. Then measure the flow rate by timing the collection of a known quantity (volume) of water
from discharge pipe.
This will help you to determine the velocity of the water in the pipe.
5. Slowly increase the flow rate by opening the discharge valve until disturbances of the dye
filament are noted (Figure 2). This can be regarded as the starting point of transition to turbulent
flow. Increase the discharge as required to maintain constant head conditions. Do not miss to
sketch the dye condition and measure the flow rate for each of your trials.
6. If necessary, increase the flow rate as described above until the disturbances increase such that
the dye filament becomes rapidly diffused. Small eddies will be noted just above the point where
the dye filament completely breaks down. This can be regarded as the onset of fully turbulent
flow (Figure 2).
7. Now you should close the dye injector valve in order to finalize your experiment.

27
Data and Results
Data and calculated results are presented and under the following heading we use the following
data.
Temperature of water T=21oC
Kinematic viscosity of water for 21 oC is 0.98*10-6 m2/s
Pipe area A= 7.854 x 10-5 m2

We Calculate Reynolds number for the nine experiments and tabulated below. Re = ud/v where

u- the velocity of the fluid on the pipe

d- the diameter of the pipe where d=(4*A/π)1/2 =0.01m

v-kinematic viscosity= 0.98*10-6 m2/s

Table5.1 comparing the visual dye condition to the calculated Re one.

Visual Volume Time to Volume Velocity(m/s) Re Classification

dye collected collect flow of flow by Re
condition (m3) (sec) rate(m3/sec)

laminar 0.00025 50.07 0.000005 0.06366 649.6 laminar

laminar 27 0.0000093 0.11841 1208.26 laminar

laminar 23 0.000011 0.14005 1429.01 laminar

transition 19 0.0000132 0.16806 1714.89 laminar

transition 16 0.0000178 0.22663 2312.55 transition

transition 14 0.0000179 0.22791 2325.61 transition

turbulent 10 0.000025 0.31831 3248.06 transition

turbulent 6 0.000042 0.53476 5456.73 turbulent

turbulent 4 0.0000625 0.79577 8120.10 turbulent

Conclusion
 The apparatus allows us the visualization of flow patterns for laminar, transition and turbulent
flows. It can be seen that when the dye (ink) flows through the tube if the flow is linear with no

28
disturbance we can say that I is laminar flow; if the flow is linear at the beginning and become
disturbed at the middle and the end of the tube then it is transition; However if the flow is very
disturbed and difficult to see the flow then it is turbulent.
 only two results have a bit difference but the others were successfully recognized by
visualizing the flow.
 The velocity profile for turbulent flows is is fuller than for the laminar flow, whereas a
relationship between the average axial velocities depends on the Re number. We can see the
difference on the diagram in detail where a is laminar and b is turbulent.

Fig1 velocity profile

EXPERIMENT NO 6
MAJOR AND MINOR ENERGY LOSSES
Exercise A: Major loss (Fluid friction in a smooth and rough bore pipe)
objective:
• To determine the relationship between head loss due to fluid friction and velocity for flow of
water through smooth bore pipes and to confirm the head loss predicted by a pipe friction
equation.
• To determine the relationship between fluid friction coefficient and Reynolds' number for flow
of water through a pipe having a roughened bore
Apparatus:
1. Fluid friction apparatus.

29
2. Hydraulics bench to supply water to the fluid friction apparatus (the flow of water can be
measured by timed volume collection).
3. Manometer

Theory:
Professor Osborne Reynolds demonstrated that two types of flow may exist in a pipe.
1. Laminar flow at low velocities where h α u
2. Turbulent flow at higher velocities where h α un
Where h is the head loss due to friction and u is the fluid velocity. These two types of flow are
separated by a transition phase where no definite relationship between h and u exists.

Graphs of h versus u and log (h) versus log (u) show these zones.

30
For each pipe segment, we can write the mechanical energy balance equation:
𝑢⃗𝑖𝑛2𝜌/2 + 𝑃𝑖𝑛 + 𝑍𝑖𝑛 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ 𝜌 =𝑢⃗𝑜𝑢𝑡2 𝜌/2 + 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ 𝜌 + 𝑔 ∗ 𝜌∆ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
Here, Zin= elevation height of the inlet

Zout= elevation height of the outlet,

Pin= inlet pressure,

Pout= outlet pressure,

∆ℎloss= energy loss due to friction (per unit mass), and

ρ = fluid density
Furthermore, for a circular pipe flowing full, the head loss due to friction may be calculated from
the formula:
∆ℎ = (P1−P2)/𝜌𝑔 or ∆ℎ = f L𝑢2/2𝑔𝑑
Where Δh is measured directly by a manometer which connects to two pressure tapping’s a
distance L apart; L is the length of the pipe between tapping’s, d is the internal diameter of the
pipe, u is the mean velocity of water through the pipe in m/s, and f is pipe friction coefficient.
The mean velocity is obtained from
𝑢⃗= 4𝑄/𝜋𝑑2
Where, Q is the volumetric flow rate in m3/s , d is the internal diameter of the pipe, 𝑢 is the
mean velocity by water through the pipe in m/s.
The Reynolds' number, Re, can be found using the following equation.
Re = 𝑉⃗𝑑/ʋ or Re = 𝜌 𝑉⃗𝑑/µ
Where Re = Reynolds number, ν is the kinematic viscosity, and d is the internal diameter of the
pipe. Where 𝜇 is the dynamic viscosity (1.15 x 10-3 Ns/m2 at 15°C) and 𝜌 is the density (999
kg/m3 at 15°C).

The theoretical result for laminar flow is when flow at low velocity

For turbulent flow in a smooth pipe, a well-known curve fit to experimental data is given by
when flow at higher velocities.

Reynolds' number for flow in the pipe, the value of f may be determined using a Moody diagram

as shown below.

31
 Equipment Set Up:
Additional equipment required: Stop watch, Internal Vernier caliper. Arrange the valves on the
equipment to allow flow through only the test pipe under observation.

Procedures:
1. Prime the pipe network with water. Open and close the appropriate valves to obtain flow of
water through the required test pipe.
2. Take readings at several different flow rates, altering the flow using the control valve on the
hydraulics bench (ten readings are sufficient to produce a good head-flow curve).
3. Measure flow rates using the volumetric tank (if using a software, flow rate is measured
directly). For small flow rates use the measuring cylinder. Measure head loss between the
tapping’s using the portable pressure meter or pressurized water manometer as appropriate.
4. Obtain readings on all four smooth test pipes.

Data & Results:

The measured values are enrolled in the table and the calculated ∆h value is calculated by the
formula ∆ℎ = f L𝑢2/2 ; and enrolled in the table for both 10.9 and 17.2 mm(smooth and
artificially rough pipe) diameters.

32
Table 1: Readings tabulated as follows for smooth pipe having 10.9mm:

Assuming Dynamic viscosity of water is 8.9*10-4 pa.s and density of water is1000Kg/m3.

Volu Time(se Flow Pipe Velocity Reynold Frictio Calculat Measure

me (l) c) rate(m3/ diameter( (m/s) s n ed d ∆h
s) m) factor ∆h(mm)
1.5 15 0.0001 0.0109 1.072 13128.9 0.029 52 46

9 15 0.0006 0.0109 6.43 78749.4 0.022 510 450

8.5 0.00057 6.1 74707.9 0.023 600 624
9 0.0006 6.43 78749.4 0.022 702 714
9.5 0.00063 6.752 82693.1 0.021 678 649

Chart Title
800
Graph 1 h-v plot for
714
700 10.9mm diameter
624 649
600 smooth pipe
500 450
400
h

300 Table 2: Readings

200 tabulated as follows
100 46 for smooth pipe
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
having 17.2mm:

Volu Time(se Flow Pipe v Velocity Reynold Frictio Calculat Measure

me (l) c) rate(m3/ diameter( (m/s) s n ed d ∆h
s) m) factor ∆h(mm)
1.5 15 0.0001 0.0172 0.43 8310.1 0.032 201 220
9 0.0006 2.58 49860.6 0.0241 2875 2911
8.5 0.00057 2.453 47406.3 0.024 3900 3851
9 0.0006 2.58 49860.6 0.0241 3450 3776
9.5 0.00063 2.71 52373 0.0242 3790 3802

33
 for 17.2mm D smooth
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Graph 2 h-v plot for 17.2mm diameter smooth pipe

Table 3: Readings tabulated as follows for artificially rough pipe having 17.2mm:

Volu Time(se Flow Pipe Velocity Reynold Frictio Calculae Measure

me (l) c) rate(m3/ diameter( (m/s) s n d d ∆h
s) m) factor ∆h(mm)
1.8 15 0.00012 0.0172 0.51 9856.18 0.0318 235 226
10 0.00066 2.84 54885.4 0.0241 4700 4625
9 0.0006 2.58 49860.6 0.0243 6390 6312
10 0.00066 2.84 54885.4 0.0241 6728 6639
11.5 0.00076 3.27 63195.5 0.0246 6902 6745

moody diagram for arteficially rough pipe

Graph 3 0.04 0.03
Re-f plot 0.03
for 0.03
0.02 0.02 0.02
17.2mm 0.02
diameter
f

0.02
0.01
0.01
0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000
Re

artificially rough pipe

34
Exercise B: Minor loss or Frictional Losses in Fittings

Introduction:
Minor (secondary) head losses occur at any location in a pipe system where streamlines are not
straight, such as at pipe junctions, area enlargement, area contraction, elbow bend, bend, valve
fitting, a 450” Y”, A 900” T”, a venture, an orifice meters, and reservoir inlets and outlets. The
specific hydraulic model that we are concerned with for this experiment is the energy losses in
bends and fittings. A full description of the apparatus is given later in these texts.
Objective:
To determine the loss factors for flow through a range of pipe fittings including bends, a
contraction, an enlargement and valve.

Theory:
The energy loss which occurs in a pipe fitting (so-called secondary loss) is commonly expressed
in terms of a head loss (h,
meters) in the form:

Where K = the loss coefficient and v = mean velocity of flow into the fitting.
Because of the complexity of flow in many fittings, K is usually determined by experiment. For
the pipe fitting experiment, the head loss is calculated from two manometer readings, taken
before and after each fitting, and K is then determined as:

Due to the change in pipe cross-sectional area through the enlargement and contraction, the
system experiences an additional change in static pressure. This change can be calculated as:

To eliminate the effects of this area, change on the measured head losses, this value should be
added to the head loss readings for the enlargement and the contraction.

Note that :-(ℎ1− ℎ2) will be negative for the enlargement and

:- ((𝑣1-𝑣2)/2g) will be negative for the contraction.

35
 Data and results: we determine the loss coefficient K by using the formula and
tabulated it.

Table 3: minor head losses of fittings and for area change

Pipe Volum Time( Flow Pipe Velocity Measured Loss

3
components e(l) sec) rate(m /s) diameter(m) (m/s) ∆h(mm) coefficient(k)

For gate 9.5 15 0.00063 0.0172 2.711 598 1596.4

valve

A 900 bend 9.5 15 0.00063 0.0172 2.711 1389 3708.02

A 450 bend 9.5 15 0.00063 0.0172 1.9169 259 1382.9

A 900 ‘t’ 9.5 15 0.00063 0.0172 2.711 441 1177.27

enlargement 9.5 15 0.00063 0.008-0.017 2.775 -344 -876.45

contraction 9.5 15 0.00063 0.017-0.008 12.533 6798 849.12

Conclusion:

The major loss is caused by the factors like diameter, length, viscosity, density, velocity and
surface roughness. We can see that in the first three tables which deal about the major loss, by
differing the diameter and by adding surface roughness artificially one can simply observe that
there is a change in the major loss. The graph also can tell us the relation between the head loss
and the velocity of the fluid in a particular pipe diameter. More or less we get the same result of
head loss from the manometer and the calculated values.

When we talk about minor loss, we can talk about the area enlargement, area decreasing, bend
elbow, valve etc. by using the experiment we can determine the loss fact

36
 EXPERIMENT 8
FREE AND FORCED VORTICES
A. Investigation of Forced Vortices
Objective
▪ To determine the surface profile of a forced vortex, and compare with the theoretical values.

Method used to conduct experiment

▪ By measuring the speed of rotation and length of needles that represent the forced vortex.
Equipment
▪ The Hydraulics Bench
▪ The free or forced vortex Apparatus Test Equipment
▪ A stopwatch to determine the rotation speed of the paddle

37
Nomenclatures

Theory
A vortex flow is spiral motion of flow with closed streamlines. eg. wake dust devil, / tornado. In
a forced vortex, it can be assumed that all particles have the same angular velocity about the
central axis. for constant speed of rotation, ω

V= ωr where, r = radius of the vortex and, v = is the velocity of flow

The equation for the centripetal force in a vortex is given by:

Substituting the equation for v into centripetal force equation and integrating gives

Boundary conditions r = 0, h = h0, P = Po

38
Experiment set up
1. The vortex apparatus set up was made on the hydraulic bench and kept at suitable level
2. Y-house was connected to 9-mm inlet of cylinder and two 12mm orifice were opened
3. The rotating paddle was attached to the bottom of the cylinder
4. The depth gauges were attached to the cylinder
5. Hydraulic bench was turned on and water inflow was regulated using control valve to
keep the elevation steady
6. Angular velocity of the flow was calculated by the use of stopwatch and rotating paddle
(counted three time and too an average value)
7. Water surface profile of forced vortex was recorded by using depth gauges
8. No.7 was repeated sixth times with changing angular velocity
As illustrated in no. 6 the revolution of the rotating paddle was counted three times (n1 = 30, n2
= 30, n3 = 31) for time t = 13 sec and the average revolution taken was n av = 30. so, the average
angular velocity becomes:

ω = 30/0.21 = 143 rpm or ω = 15 rad/sec

calculated height
Height can be calculated by using formulae that illustrated above

where ho = 90 mm, ω = 15 rad/sec, g(gravity) = 9.81 m/s^2

Height at r = 110mm, h = 0. 23m = 230mm

Height at r = 90mm, h = 0.183m = 183mm

Height at r = 70mm, h = 0.146m = 146mm

39
 Height at r = 50mm, h = 0.119m = 119mm

Height at r = 30mm h = 0.1003m = 100.3mm

Height at r = 0mm, h = 0.090m = 90mm

Measured Height
The height from the datum(hm) level was measured and the total height(h) can be calculated as:

h = ho + hm, the measured value of ho is 88mm

Height at r = 110mm, h = 88+97 = 185mm

Height at r = 90mm, h = 88+65 = 153mm

Height at r = 70mm, h = 88+44 = 132mm

Height at r = 50mm, h = 88+27 = 115mm

Height at r = 30mm h = 88+9 = 97mm

Height at r = 0mm, h = 88+0 = 88mm

Observations
Table 8.1 observation values of forced vortex.

No Average no. of Average Radius Measured Height Calculated

. revolution angular r Needle from Height h
n (rpm) velocity (mm) length datum (mm)
(rad/s) lm (mm) hm (mm)

1 143 15 110 196 97 230

2 143 15 90 164 65 183
3 143 15 70 143 44 146
4 143 15 50 126 27 119
5 143 15 30 108 9 100.3
6 143 15 0 99 0 90

40
 Graph 8.1 calculated and measured height vs radius

Conclusion
When the calculated and measured height compared, the calculated height seems to be higher at
every radius except for r = 0 (where both heights become very close to each other).

The reasons that made the difference between two height values were may be:

 Errors that usually happen during experimenting such as instrument errors, experminator
errors (parallax error) etc. because it is very hard to be perfect while experimenting.
 Inaccurate installation of measuring needles on the surface of water profile
 Rounding’s during calculations may made the difference bigger than that of calculating
without rounding.
NB: two radii values in the above graph have negative (-) sign. This sign is not given to say these
radii are negative since there is no negative distance. The negative (-) sign is assigned just to
indicate that these radii are on the left side of r =0.

There are many examples for forced and free vortex. Some of those examples are mentioned as
follows.

Examples for forced vortex:

41
  Flow of water through the runner of the turbine
 Flow of liquid through the passage of impeller of centrifugal pump
 Rotation of water in a washing machine

Examples for free vortex:

 flow of a liquid through a hole provided at the bottom of the container

 flow through kitchen sink
 draining the bath tub
 flow of liquid around a circular bend in a pipe
 a whir pool in a river
 the flow fields due to a tornado
The main difference between free and forced vortex is matter of application of force. A free
vortex is formed when water flows out of a vessel through central hole in the base without no
force that makes flow. Whereas, forced vortex is caused by an externa force on the fluid. It can
be created by rotating a vessel containing fluid or by paddling in fluid.

A vortexer or vortex mixer is a simple device used commonly in laboratories to mix small vails
of liquid for studying different real life applications like, the effect of air on helicopter wing. It
consists of an electric motor with the drive shaft oriented vertically and attached to a cupped
rubber piece mounted slightly off-center.

EXPERIMENT 9:
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

42
Introduction:

Pumps fall into two main categories: positive displacement pumps and rotodynamic pumps. In a
positive displacement pump, a fixed volume of fluid is forced from one chamber into another.
The centrifugal pump is, by contrast, a rotodynamic machine. Rotodynamic (or simply
dynamic) pumps impart momentum to a fluid, which then causes the fluid to move into the
delivery chamber or outlet. Turbines and centrifugal pumps all fall into this category.

Centrifugal pumps are widely used in industrial and domestic situations. Due to the
characteristics of this type of pump, the most suitable applications are those where the process
liquid is free of debris, where a relatively small head change is required, and where a single
operating capacity or a narrow range of capacities is required. The general design is usually
simple with few mechanical parts to fail, however, and it is possible to operate a centrifugal
pump outside ideal parameters while maintaining good reliability.

The centrifugal pump converts energy supplied from a motor or turbine, first into kinetic energy
and then into potential energy.

The motor driving the impeller imparts angular velocity to the impeller. The impeller vanes then
transfer this kinetic energy to the fluid passing into the center of the impeller by spinning the
fluid, which travels outwards along the vanes to the impeller casing at increasing flow rate. This
kinetic energy is then converted into potential energy (in the form of an increase in head) by the
impeller casing (a volute or a circular casing fitted with diffuser vanes) which provides a
resistance to the flow created by the impeller, and hence decelerates the fluid. The fluid
decelerates again in the outlet pipe. As the mass flow rate remains constant, this decrease in
velocity produces a corresponding increase in pressure as described by Bernoulli ’s equation.

Purpose:

43
To create head, power and efficiency characteristic curves for a centrifugal pump.

Apparatus:

 Centrifugal pump demonstration unit (Figure 1).

 Interface device.
 PC with a suitable software installed.

Figure 1: Centrifugal pump demonstration unit

Theory:

44
The operating characteristics of a centrifugal pump may be described or illustrated by using
graphs of pump performance. The three most commonly used graphical
representations of pump performance are:

• Change in total head produced by the pump, Ht

• Power input to the pump, Pm
• Pump efficiency, E
The change in total head produced as a result of the work done by pump can be calculated as:

Ht = Change in pressure head + change in velocity head + change in elevation =

Hs + Hv + He Where:

Where Pin is the fluid pressure at inlet in Pa and Pout is the fluid pressure at outlet in Pa.

Where Vin is the fluid velocity at inlet in m/s and Vout is the fluid velocity at outlet in m/s.

He = Change in elevation= ρgh

The vertical distance between inlet and outlet, which is h= O.075m for the available pump.

The mechanical power input to the pump may be calculated as:

Pm = rotational force x angular distance = 2.π.n.t/60

where n is the rotational speed of pump in revolutions per minute and t is the shaft torque in
N .m. Hydraulic power is given by:

Ph = ρg Ht.Q

The efficiency of the pump may be calculated as:

Where Q is the volume flow rate in m3/s, and Pm is the mechanical power absorbed by pump:

45
Each of these parameters is measured at constant pump speed and is plotted against the volume
flow rate Q through the pump.

An example of this type of graphical representation of pump performance is given in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Characteristic curves for a centrifugal pump

Examining Figure 3, the general performance of the pump can be determined.

 The Ht-Q curve shows the relationship between head and flow rate. The head decreases as
flow rate increases. This type of curve is referred to as a rising characteristic curve. A
stable head-capacity characteristic curve is one in which there is only one possible flow
rate for a given head, as in the example here.
 The Pm-Q curve shows the relationship between the power input to the pump and the
change in flow rate through the pump. Outside the optimum operating range of the pump
this curve flattens, so that a large change in pump power produces only a small change in
flow velocity.
 The E-Q curve shows the pump capacity at which the pump operates most efficiently. In
the example here, the optimum operating capacity is 0.7 dm3/s, which would give a head of
0.95m. When selecting a pump for an application where the typical operating capacity is
known, a pump should be selected so that its optimum efficiency is at or very near that
capacity.

46
Equipment set up:

1. The drain valve was fully closed.

2. The reservoir was filled to 20cm of the top rim.
3. The inlet valve and gate valve were both fully opened.
4. The equipment was connected to the interface device and the interface device was
connected to a suitable PC. The red and green indicator lights on the interface device
should both be illuminated.
5. The interface device was connected to an appropriate mains supply, and switched
on the supply.
6. the software was run. 'IFD: OK' was displayed in the bottom right corner of the screen
and that there were values displayed in all the sensor display boxes on the mimic
diagram.
Procedures:

1. The interface device was switched, then the pump was switched on within the software
using the pump on/standby button.
2. Using the software, the speed seted to 80%. The interface would increased the pump
speed until it reaches the required setting. Allow water to circulate until all air was
been flushed from the system.The inlet valve was closed and opened slightly and gate
valve would help in priming the system and eliminating any bubbles caught within the
valve mechanism. The inlet valve was left fully open.
3. In the results table, the spreadsheet was renamed (Select Format > Rename Sheet) to
80%.
4. gate valve was closed to give a flow rate Q of 0. (Note that the pump will not run well
with the gate valve closed or nearly closed, as the back pressure produced is outside
normal operating parameters. The pump should begin to run more smoothly as the
experiment progresses).
5. We were select the (Go) icon to record the sensor readings and pump settings on the
results table of the software.

47
 6. Gate valve was opened to allow a low flow rate. sufficient time was given for the sensor
readings to stabilize the data and then (Go) icon was selected to record the next set of
data.
7. The flow were increased in small increments, allowing the sensor readings to stabilized
then recorded the sensor and pump data each time.
8. Arrow buttons were used on the software display, the pump speed was reduced to 0%.
We were Select "Save" or "Save as…" from the "file" menu and saved the results with a
suitable file name.
9. Switch off the pump within the software using the power on/standby button, then switch
off the interface device and close the software.
Data and Results:

The following data was taken from the experiment with pump speed 1440 rpm, pump setting at
80%, pump mechanical power had been 472.2W, motor torque of 3.16Nm and density of water
was 996Kg/m3

table 1: tabulated as follows.

Pum Motor
Water Pump 1 Pump 2 Oper
Samp Pump p Inlet 1 Flow
Temperatur Pressure Pressure ating
le Setting Spee Pressure Torqu Rate
e Mode
Numb S d P0 e Q
T P1 P2
er [%] n [kPa] t [l/s]
[°C] [kPa] [kPa]
[rpm] [Nm]

1 80 1440 28.6 -39.4 2.0 0.0 3.16 0.000 Single

2 80 1440 29.0 -35.7 2.9 0.0 3.16 0.170 Single
3 80 1440 29.2 -34.3 4.1 0.0 3.16 0.246 Single
4 80 1440 29.0 -32.8 4.2 0.0 3.16 0.320 Single
5 80 1440 29.0 -28.9 7.2 0.0 3.16 0.434 Single
6 80 1440 28.9 -24.0 10.2 0.0 3.16 0.566 Single
7 80 1440 29.0 -21.3 13.4 0.0 3.16 0.623 Single
8 80 1440 28.9 -15.3 16.5 0.0 3.16 0.697 Single

48
 9 80 1440 28.9 -13.7 16.9 0.0 3.16 0.736 Single
10 80 1440 28.9 -7.2 19.7 0.0 3.16 0.830 Single

Pump Pump 1 Pump 1 Over

Density Pump Combine Pump 1 Total Pump 1
1 all
of 1 d Hydraul Hydraul Mechanic
Inlet Outlet Efficie Effici
water Total Total ic ic al
Velocit Velocit ncy ency
rho Head Head Power Power Power
y y E1 Egr
[kg/m³] [m] [m] [W] [W] [W]
[m/s] [m/s] [%] [%]

996 0.00 0.00 4.307 4.31 0.0 0.0 477.2 0.0 0.0
996 0.39 0.71 4.041 4.04 6.7 6.7 477.2 1.4 1.4
996 0.57 1.02 4.042 4.04 9.7 9.7 477.2 2.0 2.0
996 0.74 1.33 3.925 3.93 12.3 12.3 477.2 2.6 2.6
996 1.00 1.80 3.882 3.88 16.4 16.4 477.2 3.4 3.4
996 1.31 2.35 3.779 3.78 20.9 20.9 477.2 4.4 4.4
996 1.44 2.59 3.859 3.86 23.5 23.5 477.2 4.9 4.9
996 1.61 2.90 3.624 3.62 24.7 24.7 477.2 5.2 5.2
996 1.70 3.06 3.540 3.54 25.5 25.5 477.2 5.3 5.3
996 1.91 3.45 3.242 3.24 26.3 26.3 477.2 5.5 5.5

The result obtained by graphical representation:

49
The total theoretical head can be calculated

Ht= Hs + Hv + He=(pout-pin)/ρ g+(Vout-Vin)2/2g+he.

The mechanical power input to the pump may be calculated as:

Pm = 2.π.n.t/60

Hydraulic power is given by:

Ph = ρg Ht.Q

The efficiency of the pump may be calculated as:

Sample 1 :

Ht=(2+39.4)/996*9.81+(0-0)/2*9.81+0.075=0.079m

Pm=2*3.14*1440*3.16/60=476.2w

Ph=996*9.81*0.079*0=0

E=100*0/476.2=0

Sample 2

Ht=( 2.9+ -35.7)/996*9.81+(0.71-0.39)/2*9.81+0.075=0.0893m

Pm=2*3.14*1440*3.16/60=476.2w

Ph=996*9.81*0.0893*0.17=148.32w

E=100*148.32/476.2=31.14

Sample 3

Ht=(4.1+34.3)/996*9.81+(1.02-0.57)/2*9.81+0.075=0.0892m

50
Pm=2*3.14*1440*3.16/60=476.2w

Ph=996*9.81*0.0892*0.246=214.4

E=100*214.4/476.2=45

Sample 4;

Ht= (4.2+32.8)/996*9.81+(1.33-0.74)/2*9.81+0.075=0.0965m

Pm=2*3.14*1440*3.16/60=476.2w

Ph=996*9.81*0.0965*0.32=301.8

E=100*301.8/476.2=63.37
Sample 5:

Ht=(7.2+28.9)/996*9.81+(1.8-1)/2*9.81+0.075=0.11m

Pm=2*3.14*1440*3.16/60=476.2w

Ph=996*9.81*0.11*0.434=472w

E=100*472/476.2=99.12

Sample 7

Ht=(13.4+21.3)/996*9.81+(2.59-1.44)/2*9.81+0.075=0.137m

Pm=2*3.14*1440*3.16/60=476.2w

Ph=996*9.81*0.137*0.623=834.9

E=100*/476.2=175.3

Sample 9

Ht=(16.9+13.7)/996*9.81+(3.06-1.7)/2*9.81+0.075=1.927m

Pm=2*3.14*1440*3.16/60=476.2w

51
Ph=996*9.81*1.927*0.736=13862.8

E=100*13862.8/476.2=2911.1

The characterstics curve result from the centrifugal pump

4.50 35.0

4.00
30.0
3.50
Total Head Ht[m]

25.0
3.00

2.50 20.0
Total Head[m]
2.00 15.0
pump efficiency
1.50 E[%]
10.0
1.00 Output
Power[w]
5.0
0.50

0.00 0.0
0.000 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500 0.600 0.700 0.800 0.900 1.000

Flow rate Q[L/s]

conclusion:

From the graph the flow rate is increase from 0 to 0.904l/s, the head loss is decrease from 4.14m
to 3.05 m. there for head loss is inversely proportional to flow rate. When the flow rate increases
from 0 to 0.904l/s, the hydraulic power increases from 0 to 26.9W that means input power is
directly proportional to flow rate. The performance (efficiency) also directly proportional to flow
rate.

From the graph indicated, maximum efficiency with maximum flow rate is The point
intersection.

52
 Experiment – 10:
Series and Parallel Pump Performance
Objectives
To understand how series and parallel pump are operating and measuring their parameters

To determine characteristics behavior for series and parallel pump operation

 To investigate the result on discharge and total head of operating pump in series and
parallel

Introduction

Centrifugal pumps are used to transport fluid by the conversion of rotational kinetic
energy to the hydrodynamic energy of the fluid flow. They are often used together to
enhance either the flow rate or the delivery pressure beyond that available from the single
pump. For some piping system it may be desirable to consider a multiple pump system to
meet the design requirements.
The two typical option included are parallel and series configurations of pumps which
require a specific performance criterion. In series operation the head of the pumps are
added and in parallel operation the flow rate (capacities) of the pumps are added.

The experimental unit provides the determination of the characteristic behavior for single
pump operation and interaction of two pumps. The apparatus consists of the tank and
pipework which delivers water to and from a centrifugal pumps.Signal from these sensors
are sent to a computer via an interface device, and unit is supplied with data logging
software as standard.
Equipment list
 Variable AC source
 Pump demonstration unit
 Console interface
 PC with suitable software installed

53
Figure 1: pump Demonstration unit Figure 2: Interface of one of the suitable softwares

The pump demonstration unit were investigated in the lab. It mainly consists two single phase
pumps having the following technical features:

 Rated power: VA
 Rated frequency: 50Hz
 Rated speed: Rpm
 Rated voltage: 220 – 230V

Setting the flow path

The system may be configured to drive flow using single, series and parallel pumps. The valve
were set and the system were configured as follows. The software were also set to the
corresponding flow path.

Figure 3. Series pumps Figure 4. Parallel pumps

Theory (Series pumps)

A single pump may be insufficient to produce the performance required. Thus combining the two
pumps increases the pumping capacity of the system.

54
 Figure 5.pump curve for two pumps in series

The pumps may be connected in series, so that water passes first through one pump and then
through the second. When two pumps operate in series, the flow rate is the same as for a single
pump but the total head increased. The combined pump head capacity curve is found by adding
the heads of the single pump curves at the same capacity.

Equipment setup (series pump)

Before staring the experiment equipment set up was performed, thus ensured that the drain valve
was fully closed and reservoir was filled with water within 10cm of the top rim and checked that
both pumps was fitted with similar impellers and the inlet valve and gate valve were both fully
open.

The 3-way valve was set and then the equipment was connected to the interface device and the
interface was connected to a suitable PC.

The red and green indicator lights on the interface device was illuminated. The interface device
was connected to an appropriate mains supply, and the supply was switched on and the
appropriate software was running.

The ‘IFD: OK’ was displayed in the bottom right corner of the screen and that there values
displayed in all the sensor display boxes on the mimic diagram.

Procedure (Series Pump)

a) Both pump were used at the same setting in this experiment and identical performance
was ensured as the speed of pump 2 was fixed at its design operational point, pump 1
was set to much, the selected 80% for a 50Hz electric power supply or 100% for 60Hz.
b) Water was allowed to circulate until all air has been flushed from the system.
c) New result sheet was created using the (New) icon and was renamed. In the software,
on the mimic diagram, the ‘Mode’ to ‘series’ was set by selecting the appropriate radio
button.

55
 d) Then pump 2 outlet valve was opened, pump 1 outlet valve was closed and waited for
any air to circulate out of the system.
e) The (Go) icon was selected to record the sensor reading and pump setting on the
results table of the software.
f) The gate valve was closed to reduce the flow by a small increment and (Go) icon was
selected again
g) The gate valve was continued to close to give incremental change in flow rate,
recording the sensor data each time.
h) After taking of the final set of data, the gate valve was fully opened.

Results:

This are the results found on the software after setuping the series pump.

Pump Water Motor 1

Pump Inlet Pump 1 Pump 2 Flow Operati
Sample Settin Tempe
Speed Pressure Pressure Pressure Rate ng
Numbe g rature Torque
n P0 P1 P2 Q Mode
r S T t
[rpm] [kPa] [kPa] [kPa] [l/s]
[%] [°C] [Nm]
12 80 1440 28.8 -87.2 0.0 2.3 3.16 0.000 Series
13 80 1440 29.4 -70.6 0.0 1.3 3.16 0.133 Series
14 80 1440 29.6 -63.2 0.0 3.8 3.16 0.246 Series
15 80 1440 30.1 -67.8 0.0 6.3 3.16 0.357 Series
16 80 1440 30.3 -65.8 0.0 7.0 3.16 0.434 Series
17 80 1440 30.1 -61.1 0.0 10.6 3.16 0.584 Series
18 80 1440 30.0 -56.9 0.0 12.3 3.16 0.680 Series
19 80 1440 30.1 -47.1 0.0 16.3 3.16 0.754 Series
20 80 1440 29.9 -36.5 0.0 21.3 3.16 0.830 Series
21 80 1440 30.1 -20.3 3.0 27.3 3.16 0.943 Series
22 80 1440 30.1 -16.9 4.6 28.3 3.16 1.037 Series
23 80 1440 30.2 0.8 17.6 36.0 3.16 1.170 Series

Pump 1 Pump 2
Operatin Density Pump 1 Pump 2 Pump 1 Pump 2
Inlet Inlet
g of water Outlet Outlet Total Total
Velocity Velocity
Mode rho Velocity Velocity Head Head
[kg/m³] [m/s] [m/s] [m] [m]
[m/s] [m/s]

56
 Series 996 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.999 0.233
Series 996 0.31 0.55 0.55 0.55 7.316 0.129
Series 996 0.57 1.02 1.02 1.02 6.578 0.393
Series 996 0.82 1.49 1.49 1.49 7.095 0.641
Series 996 1.00 1.80 1.80 1.80 6.925 0.713
Series 996 1.35 2.43 2.43 2.43 6.543 1.080
Series 996 1.57 2.83 2.83 2.83 6.182 1.256
Series 996 1.74 3.13 3.13 3.13 5.244 1.670
Series 996 1.91 3.45 3.45 3.45 4.227 2.176
Series 996 2.17 3.92 3.92 3.92 3.009 2.489
Series 996 2.39 4.31 4.31 4.31 2.936 2.427
Series 996 2.70 4.86 4.86 4.86 2.634 1.884

The next table is continued from the previous table

Pump Pump Pump Pump Overal

Combi Total Pump 1
1 2 1 2 l
ned Hydra Mechan
Hydra Hydra Efficie Efficie Efficie
Total ulic ical
ulic ulic ncy ncy ncy
Head Power Power
Power Power E1 E2 Egr
[m] [W] [W]
[W] [W] [%] [%] [%]
9.23 0.0 0.0 0.0 477.2 0.0 0.0 0.0
7.44 9.5 0.2 9.7 477.2 2.0 0.0 1.0
6.97 15.8 0.9 16.8 477.2 3.3 0.2 1.8
7.74 24.8 2.2 27.0 477.2 5.2 0.5 2.8
7.64 29.3 3.0 32.3 477.2 6.1 0.6 3.4
7.62 37.3 6.2 43.5 477.2 7.8 1.3 4.6
7.44 41.0 8.3 49.4 477.2 8.6 1.7 5.2
6.91 38.6 12.3 50.9 477.2 8.1 2.6 5.3
6.40 34.3 17.6 51.9 477.2 7.2 3.7 5.4
5.50 27.7 22.9 50.7 477.2 5.8 4.8 5.3
5.36 29.7 24.6 54.3 477.2 6.2 5.2 5.7
4.52 30.1 21.5 51.6 477.2 6.3 4.5 5.4

57
 10.00

9.00

8.00

7.00

6.00

5.00
series pump
4.00 single pump

3.00

2.00

1.00

0.00
0.000 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500 0.600 0.700 0.800 0.900 1.000

Flow Rate Q [l/s]

We can see it in the graph also the difference of the single and series pump performance

Figure 6. Curve of single and Series Pump

Theory (Parallel Pump)

A single pump may be insufficient to produce the performance required. Combining two pumps
increases the pumping capacity of the system. Two pumps may be connected in parallel, so that
half the flow passes through one of the pumps and the other half through the second pump. When
two pumps operate in parallel, the total head increase remains unchanged but the flow rate is
increased. The head capacity curve is found by adding the capacities of the single pump curves at
the same head.

58
Equipment setup (Parallel pump)
The drain valve is fully closed and the water level of the reservoir was checked if it was within
10cm of the top rim. Both pumps were checked of it was fitted with similar impellers.

The gate valve and the inlet valve were both fully opened and the 3-way valve was set for flow
in parallel. The pump 1 outlet valve and pump 2 outlet was opened and ensured that the pressure
on both pumps were equal. Then the equipment was connected to the interface device and the
interface device was connected to the suitable PC.

The red and green indicator lights on the interface device was illuminated. The interface device
was connected to an appropriate mains supply, and switch was on in the supply switch on the
interface device and the software was running.

The ‘IFD: OK’ was displayed in the bottom right corner of the screen and that there values
displayed in all the sensor display boxes on the mimic diagram. In the software, on the mimic
diagram the mode was set to ‘parallel’ by selecting the appropriate radio button.

59
Procedure (Parallel Pump)
a) Both pump were used at the same setting in this experiment and identical performance
was ensured as the speed of pump 2 was fixed at its design operational point, pump 1 was
set to much the selected 80% for a 50Hz electric power supply.
b) Water was allowed to circulate until all the air has been finished from the system
c) New result sheet was created using the (New) icon and was rename. In the software, on
the mimic diagram, the ‘Mode’ to ‘Parallel’ was set by selecting the appropriate radio
button.
d) Then the pump 2 outlet valve was opened and pump 1 outlet valve was closed and then
waited for any air to circulate out of the system.
e) The (Go) icon was selected to record the sensor readings and pump setting on the results
table of the software.
f) The gate valve was closed to reduce the flow by small increment and the (Go) icon was
selected again.
g) The closing of the gate valve was continued to give incremental changes in the flow rate,
recording the sensor data each time
h) After taking the final set of data, the gate valve was fully opened and Pump 1 was set to
0% and both pump were switched off.

Results:
The result obtained from series and single operation of a pump looks like as follow

Parallel
pump
6.00

5.00
Head Pressure P [

4.00

3.00

2.00

1.00

0.00
0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 1.200 1.400 1.600 1.800
Flow Rate Q [l/s]
Figure 7. curve of Single and Parallel pumpX

60
The data generated from the experiment looks like as follow:

Motor
Pump Water Inlet
Sampl Pump Pump 1 Pump 2 1 Flow Operat
Settin Tempera Pressur
e Speed Pressure Pressure Torque Rate ing
g ture e
Numb n P1 P2 Q Mode
S T P0
er [rpm] [kPa] [kPa] t [l/s]
[%] [°C] [kPa]
[Nm]
24 80 1440 30.4 -47.1 0.6 1.2 3.16 0.000 Parallel
25 80 1440 30.6 -44.2 2.1 3.2 3.16 0.133 Parallel
26 80 1440 30.8 -39.9 2.6 4.5 3.16 0.264 Parallel
27 80 1440 30.5 -39.1 1.7 5.4 3.16 0.320 Parallel
28 80 1440 30.6 -36.1 4.5 7.9 3.16 0.471 Parallel
29 80 1440 30.8 -36.3 3.8 8.0 3.16 0.490 Parallel
30 80 1440 30.9 -33.9 5.6 10.1 3.16 0.604 Parallel
31 80 1440 30.9 -32.9 6.4 10.9 3.16 0.697 Parallel
32 80 1440 31.1 -31.4 8.3 12.0 3.16 0.754 Parallel
33 80 1440 30.9 -29.8 9.4 14.3 3.16 0.830 Parallel
34 80 1440 31.0 -26.1 12.5 16.7 3.16 0.943 Parallel
35 80 1440 31.0 -21.8 15.2 19.6 3.16 1.074 Parallel
36 80 1440 30.9 -19.9 17.6 21.8 3.16 1.131 Parallel
37 80 1440 31.3 -15.4 21.3 24.5 3.16 1.227 Parallel
38 80 1440 31.2 -9.2 25.4 29.3 3.16 1.357 Parallel
39 80 1440 31.4 -5.4 29.0 31.6 3.16 1.434 Parallel
40 80 1440 31.3 -0.4 31.2 32.8 3.16 1.490 Parallel

Operatin Density Pump 1 Pump 1 Pump 2 Pump 2 Pump 1 Pump 2

g of water Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet Total Total
Mode rho Velocity Velocity Velocity Velocity Head Head
[kg/m³] [m/s] [m/s] [m/s] [m/s] [m] [m]
Parallel 996 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.950 5.012
Parallel 996 0.15 0.28 0.15 0.28 4.824 4.937
Parallel 995 0.30 0.55 0.30 0.55 4.434 4.630
Parallel 996 0.37 0.67 0.37 0.67 4.276 4.650
Parallel 996 0.54 0.98 0.54 0.98 4.268 4.617
Parallel 995 0.57 1.02 0.57 1.02 4.212 4.641
Parallel 995 0.70 1.25 0.70 1.25 4.174 4.639
Parallel 995 0.80 1.45 0.80 1.45 4.174 4.637
Parallel 995 0.87 1.57 0.87 1.57 4.231 4.603
Parallel 995 0.96 1.73 0.96 1.73 4.197 4.694
Parallel 995 1.09 1.96 1.09 1.96 4.169 4.590
Parallel 995 1.24 2.23 1.24 2.23 4.038 4.491
Parallel 995 1.30 2.35 1.30 2.35 4.112 4.541
Parallel 995 1.41 2.55 1.41 2.55 4.064 4.389

61
 Parallel 995 1.56 2.82 1.56 2.82 3.906 4.301
Parallel 995 1.65 2.98 1.65 2.98 3.907 4.174
Parallel 995 1.72 3.10 1.72 3.10 3.648 3.811

Pump Pump Pump Pump Overal

Combi Total Pump 1
1 2 1 2 l Operat
ned Hydra Mechan
Hydra Hydra Efficie Efficie Efficie ing
Total ulic ical
ulic ulic ncy ncy ncy Mode
Head Power Power
Power Power E1 E2 Egr
[m] [W] [W]
[W] [W] [%] [%] [%]
4.98 0.0 0.0 0.0 477.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 Parallel
4.88 3.1 3.2 6.3 477.2 0.7 0.7 0.7 Parallel
4.53 5.7 6.0 11.7 477.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 Parallel
4.46 6.7 7.3 14.0 477.2 1.4 1.5 1.5 Parallel
4.44 9.8 10.6 20.4 477.2 2.1 2.2 2.1 Parallel
4.43 10.1 11.1 21.2 477.2 2.1 2.3 2.2 Parallel
4.41 12.3 13.7 26.0 477.2 2.6 2.9 2.7 Parallel
4.41 14.2 15.8 30.0 477.2 3.0 3.3 3.1 Parallel
4.42 15.6 16.9 32.5 477.2 3.3 3.6 3.4 Parallel
4.45 17.0 19.0 36.0 477.2 3.6 4.0 3.8 Parallel
4.38 19.2 21.1 40.3 477.2 4.0 4.4 4.2 Parallel
4.26 21.2 23.6 44.7 477.2 4.4 4.9 4.7 Parallel
4.33 22.7 25.1 47.8 477.2 4.8 5.3 5.0 Parallel
4.23 24.3 26.3 50.6 477.2 5.1 5.5 5.3 Parallel
4.10 25.9 28.5 54.4 477.2 5.4 6.0 5.7 Parallel
4.04 27.3 29.2 56.6 477.2 5.7 6.1 5.9 Parallel
3.73 26.5 27.7 54.3 477.2 5.6 5.8 5.7 Parallel

Conclusion
It can be concluded that the performance of the single pump operation is very small as can be
noticed from the table. The total head of the single pump is very small as compared to the
total head of series pump as well the capacity of this single pump is very less as relative to
the capacity of parallel pump.

62
 EXIPERIMENT 11:
PERFORMANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL FAN
A. Fan Constant Speed Characteristics
Objective
 To obtain the fan characteristics for centrifugal fan at operating at constant speed.

Introduction
Fluid mechanics are usually characterized by two distinct classes: Rotodynamic and Positive
displacement machine.

Rotodynamic Machine: relative motion is required between the rotating element of the machine
(rotor or impeller) and the fluid steam. Centrifugal fans and axial fans are examples of
rotodynamic machine.

Positive Displacement Machine: the machine components mechanically displace a set of volume
of fluid. Bicycle pump is an example of positive displacement machine.

In centrifugal fan the fluid is drawn in to the center of the rotating impeller. The impeller imparts
velocity to the air stream and the air travels outwards from the center of the impeller
perpendicular to the direction of the inlet stream, and around the casing into the outlet duct. The
general relationship between the various forms of energy, based on the 1st law of
thermodynamics applied to a unit mass of fluid flowing through a control volume for constant
density expressed as:

Where: Wa is the useful work, For FM40, change in potential energy may be considered as
negligible.

Method
63
By taking sensor reading over a range of flow rates at constant fan speed.

Equipment
 Centrifugal Fan Demonstration Unit
 Armfield IFD7 Interface device
 Compatible PC running software

Theory
Pump manufacturers and fan system designers require a method for indicating fan performance,
to allow the correct fan to be selected for any given system and performance requirement.
Designers will wish to select a fan that will be able to produce the required flow rate and
pressure differential under typical system conditions, and also to select a fan that will operate
efficiently under normal use. A chart or graph of characteristic performance parameters plotted
against fan discharge is a common method of presenting the sort of information required.

Figure 1:Pump Characterstics Curves

Where: N = fan rotational speed

When lines of constant efficiency are superimposed on such a graph for a range of fan speeds, a
comprehensive illustration of pump performance is obtained. An example is presented below.

64
 Figure 2: Typical characteristic curves for a centrifugal fan

Equipment Setup
 Check that the forward curved impeller is fitted as the impeller rotates.
 Check that the sensor and power leads from the FM40 are connected to the sockets on the
front of the IFD7.
 Check that the IFD7 is connected to a suitable mains supply, and that the USB socket on
the front is connected using the lead provided to a suitable PC.
 Check that the red and green indicator lights on the front of the IFD7 are illuminated.
 Run the Armfield FM40-304 software on the PC, and check that the software indicates
‘IFD: OK’ in the bottom right-hand corner of the window.
 Switch on the mains supply to the IFD7, and switch on the IFD7 using the power switch
on the front. Check that the power switch on the IFD7 is illuminated.
 On the software mimic diagram screen, select the ‘Fan On’ button to switch on the
FM40. Check that the green watchdog indicator on the mimic screen is illuminated.
 Check that the sensor readings on the software screen give sensible values. The air
velocity and the pressure readings should be zero when the fan is not moving. Zero the
pressure sensors if necessary, using the zero buttons on the mimic screen. The
temperature should be sensible given the ambient conditions in the room (typically
between 15 and 30 °C).

Procedure
 Read through the experiment before starting, to familiarize yourself with the procedure.
Set the fan speed to maximum (100%). Set the rotational speed of the fan to 2018rpm.
 Take readings for air temperature, orifice differential pressure, fan differential pressure,
and motor power by selecting the “Go” icon on the software toolbar.

65
  Using the maximum air velocity as a guide, select incremental values for air velocity that
will give 10-15 individual steps between minimum and maximum velocity. Close the
aperture to increase the air velocity by approximately one step. Continue to adjust the
aperture to give the required flow rate and fan speed. Select the “Go” icon.
 Repeat for the next flow velocity increment, adjusting the aperture and fan setting to give
the required values and selecting the “Go” icon to record the data once the settings are
correct.
 Continue in steps until the aperture is fully closed for the final set of data then fully open
the aperture. Note: The discharge will never reach zero. There will always be a small air
flow measured due to the action of the fan on air within the inlet and outlet ducts.
Visually monitor the outlet aperture and do not twist it past the point where the aperture
closes as this will damage the aperture.
 Fully open the aperture after recording the final set of data at the current fan setting.
 Create a new results table using the icon on the software toolbar.

 Select a new fan rotational speed, for example half the value for the first set of data.
Adjust the fan speed to 3009rpm, and note the maximum flow velocity. Select the “Go”
icon.
 Open the aperture in steps as before, making minor adjustments to the aperture at each
step until the required values are obtained before recording each set of data with the
“Go” icon. Fully open the aperture after recording the last set of data.
If time permits, additional rotational speed settings may be investigated to give a full series of
performance data. Remember to create a new results sheet for each set of data. Alternatively,
each student or set of students may take data for different rotational speeds, and the results can
then be combined.

Results
The software logs the variables such as:

 Inlet temperature (T) ℃

 Orifice differential pressure (P1) Pa
 Fan differential pressure (P2) Pa
 Fan setting %
 Fan speed (n) rpm
 Input mechanical power (Pm) w
From the above the software calculates:

o Air density (ῤ air) kg/m3

o Inlet velocity (V1) m/s
o Outlet velocity (V2) m/s
o Discharge (Qv) m3/s

66
 o Fan total pressure (PtF) Pa
o Output fan power (Pu) w
o Fan efficiency (Egr) %

Remember the software assumes acceleration due to gravity (g) is constant.

Table 1: Data obtained from the software with a motor speed of 2018rpm

Densi
Fan Moto
Atmosphe Fan Inlet ty Zero Orifice
Spee r Orifice
ric Settin Temperat of Air Differenti
d Torq Different
Pressure g ure Valu al
n ue ial
T e Pressure
[rp t Pressure
[kPa] [%] [°C] [kg/m [kPa]
m] [Nm]
³]
0.00
101 85 3009 0.37 21.1 1.183 0.523 0 0.523
0.00
101 85 3009 0.37 21.1 1.183 0.507 0 0.507
0.00
101 85 3009 0.34 21.1 1.183 0.446 0 0.446
0.00
101 85 3009 0.32 21.0 1.184 0.378 0 0.378
0.00
101 85 3009 0.30 20.9 1.184 0.298 0 0.298
0.00
101 85 3009 0.27 21.0 1.184 0.232 0 0.232
0.00
101 85 3009 0.24 20.9 1.184 0.176 0 0.176
0.00
101 85 3009 0.21 20.9 1.184 0.106 0 0.106
0.00
101 85 3009 0.18 20.9 1.184 0.062 0 0.062
0.00
101 85 3009 0.17 20.9 1.184 0.046 0 0.046
0.00
101 85 3009 0.14 20.9 1.184 0.023 0 0.023
0.00
101 85 3009 0.13 20.9 1.184 0.013 0 0.013
0.00
101 85 3009 0.13 20.9 1.184 0.008 0 0.008
0.00
101 85 3009 0.12 20.9 1.184 0.006 0 0.006
0.00
101 85 3009 0.13 21.0 1.184 0.006 0 0.006

67
 Fan
Fan Mechanical Inlet Outlet Total
Different Discharge
Discharge Power Velocity Velocity Pressure
ial Coefficient
Qv Pm V1 V2 ptF
Pressure Cd
[l/s] [W] [m/s] [m/s] [kPa]
[kPa]
0.502 0.596 78.30 116.4 11.05 20.35 0.67
0.507 0.596 77.09 115.9 10.88 20.03 0.67
0.527 0.596 72.28 107.7 10.20 18.78 0.67
0.544 0.596 66.54 101.8 9.39 17.29 0.67
0.559 0.596 59.03 93.5 8.33 15.34 0.66
0.560 0.596 52.12 84.3 7.35 13.54 0.64
0.566 0.596 45.45 77.0 6.41 11.81 0.62
0.558 0.596 35.17 64.8 4.96 9.14 0.59
0.552 0.596 26.90 55.5 3.80 6.99 0.57
0.550 0.596 23.14 53.6 3.27 6.01 0.57
0.548 0.596 16.45 44.8 2.32 4.28 0.56
0.517 0.596 12.29 41.4 1.73 3.19 0.52
0.525 0.596 9.55 39.9 1.35 2.48 0.53
0.532 0.596 8.61 39.0 1.21 2.24 0.53
0.532 0.596 8.10 39.9 1.14 2.10 0.53
Power Fan Predicted Predicted Predicted
Output Efficiency Fan Total Power
Pu Egr Discharge Pressure Output
[W] [%] [l/s] [kPa] [W]

52.83 45.377 52.199 0.300 15.653

52.00 44.850 51.391 0.300 15.406
48.71 45.250 48.184 0.300 14.433
44.52 43.730 44.359 0.297 13.191
38.79 41.479 39.354 0.292 11.495
33.16 39.348 34.746 0.283 9.825
28.35 36.838 30.303 0.277 8.401
20.86 32.194 23.446 0.264 6.180
15.39 27.715 17.936 0.254 4.560
13.08 24.416 15.430 0.251 3.876

68
9.14 20.398 10.968 0.247 2.708
6.40 15.458 8.192 0.231 1.896
5.04 12.620 6.366 0.235 1.494
4.60 11.794 5.738 0.237 1.362
4.32 10.821 5.398 0.237 1.281

69
Ptf (kPa)

Ptf Vs Qv for 2018rpm

50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Qv (l/s)

Efficiency (%)

η Vs Qv for 2018rpm
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Qv (l/s)

70
Power output (W)

Pu Vs Qv for 2018rpm
16

14

12

10

0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Qv(l/s)

Power output (W)

Chart Title
0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Ptf (kPa)

71
 Table 2: Data obtained from the software with a motor speed of 3009rpm

Fan
Motor
Atmospheric Fan Spee Inlet Density Orifice
Torque
Pressure Setting d Temperature of Air Differenti
n T al
t
[kPa] [%] [rpm [°C] [kg/m³] Pressure
[Nm]
]

101 57 2018 0.16 21.0 1.184 0.204

101 57 2018 0.16 21.0 1.184 0.208
101 57 2018 0.15 21.0 1.184 0.187
101 57 2018 0.14 21.0 1.184 0.144
101 57 2018 0.12 21.0 1.184 0.112
101 57 2018 0.12 21.0 1.184 0.109
101 57 2018 0.12 21.0 1.184 0.097
101 57 2018 0.10 21.0 1.184 0.052
101 57 2018 0.09 20.9 1.184 0.033
101 57 2018 0.08 20.8 1.184 0.017
101 57 2018 0.07 20.8 1.184 0.011
101 57 2018 0.06 20.8 1.184 0.009
101 57 2018 0.06 20.8 1.184 0.007
101 57 2018 0.06 20.8 1.184 0.006
101 57 2018 0.06 21.1 1.183 0.006
Power
Discharge Fan Mechanical Inlet Outlet Total Fan
Discharge Velocity Velocit Pressure Efficiency
Outp
Coefficien Power y
ut
t Qv Pm V1 V2 ptF Egr
Pu
Cd [l/s] [W] [m/s] [m/s] [kPa] [%]
[W]
0.596 22.02 18.0 3.11 5.72 0.27 5.99 33.316
0.596 17.47 16.3 2.46 4.54 0.26 4.53 27.749
0.596 13.61 15.4 1.92 3.54 0.26 3.48 22.645
0.596 48.90 33.3 6.90 12.71 0.30 14.60 43.821
0.596 49.34 33.6 6.96 12.82 0.30 14.86 44.172

72
0.596 46.85 32.7 6.61 12.17 0.30 14.10 43.176
0.596 41.01 29.1 5.79 10.66 0.30 12.14 41.765
0.596 36.25 26.1 5.11 9.42 0.29 10.41 39.836
0.596 35.77 26.1 5.05 9.30 0.29 10.29 39.382
0.596 33.68 25.2 4.75 8.75 0.28 9.58 38.072
0.596 24.76 20.9 3.49 6.43 0.27 6.76 32.357
0.596 19.54 18.0 2.76 5.08 0.26 5.11 28.456
0.596 14.22 16.3 2.01 3.70 0.26 3.64 22.278
0.596 11.57 14.0 1.63 3.01 0.25 2.85 20.316
0.596 10.40 13.4 1.47 2.70 0.24 2.49 18.592
0.596 9.09 12.7 1.28 2.36 0.24 2.19 17.179

Predicted
Predicted Predicted
Fan Total Power
Discharge Pressure Output
[kPa] [W]
[l/s]
14.679 0.121 1.773
11.645 0.115 1.343
9.076 0.113 1.030
32.602 0.133 4.326
32.892 0.134 4.404
31.232 0.134 4.179
27.339 0.132 3.598
24.166 0.128 3.084
23.850 0.128 3.049
22.454 0.126 2.837
16.503 0.121 2.004
13.026 0.116 1.515
9.481 0.114 1.078
7.714 0.110 0.846
6.936 0.106 0.738
6.059 0.107 0.648
5.737 0.108 0.621
5.399 0.111 0.598

Ptf( kPa)

73
 Ptf Vs Qv for 3009rpm
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Qv(l/s)

Efficiency (%)

η Vs Qv for 3009rpm
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Qv(l/s)

Power output (W)

Pu Vs Qv for 3009rpm
60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Qv (l/s)

Power output (W)

74
 Psmotor Vs Ptf
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Ptf(kPa)

75
 B. Dimensional Analysis – Introduction to Scaling
Objective
To predict the performance of a fan at a given speed from data obtained at a different speed.

Method
By using equations obtained from dimensional analysis (the affinity laws) to calculate the
performance characteristics for the fan at the required speed, using data obtained at a different
speed.

Equipment Required

 Centrifugal Fan Demonstration Unit

 Armfield IFD7 Interface Device &
 Compatible Pc Running Software

Theory
It is not practicable to test the performance of every size of fan in a manufacturer’s range at all
speeds at which it may be designed to run. Hence a mathematical solution is required whereby
assumptions can be made as to the operating characteristics of a fan running at one speed,
impeller size, etc. from experimental results taken at another. The use of dimensional analysis
reduces the large number of variables involved in describing the performance characteristics of
rotodynamic machines to a number of manageable dimensionless groups. The methods used for
forming these dimensionless groups will not be entered into here, but the groups themselves are
known by the following names:

Use of these affinity laws allows performance of geometrically similar fans of different sizes or
speeds to be predicted accurately enough for practical purposes. Exact accuracy would require
that effects of surface roughness of the fan, the viscosity of the gas, etc. to be taken into account.

76
Any two fans may be considered geometrically similar when; They have the same number of
blades or vanes; their angular dimensions are the same and their linear dimensions are
proportional.

For this exercise the same fan will be used throughout, which ensures geometric similarity. The
affinity laws are most often used to calculate changes in flow rate, pressure and power of a fan
when the size, rotational speed or gas density is changed. Therefore, in the following affinity
laws the suffix ‘1’ has been used for initial known values and the suffix ‘2’ for the changed
values and the resulting calculated table:

Where Qv is the volume flow rate, PtF is the fan total pressure, ρ is the density, n is the fan
rotational speed, D is the impeller diameter, and Pu is the fan power (output). These laws can be
simplified when variables remain unchanged, e.g. when only the fan speed is varied:

More generally, the relationship between two geometrically similar machines with characteristic
diameters D1 and D2 operating at rotational speeds N1 and N2 is shown in the following

77
 diagram. For any points at which values of are the same (these are termed
corresponding points),
it follows that:

It also follows that the power coefficient and the efficiency η must also have the
same values at corresponding points.

Equipment Setup

 Check that the forward curved impeller is fitted as the impeller rotates. Check that the
outlet aperture is fully open.
 Check that the sensor and power leads from the FM40 are connected to the sockets on the
front of the IFD7.
 Check that the IFD7 is connected to a suitable mains supply, and that the USB socket on
the front is connected using the lead provided to a suitable PC. Check that the red and
green indicator lights on the front of the IFD7 are illuminated.
 Run the Armfield FM40-304 software on the PC, and check that the software indicates
‘IFD: OK’ in the bottom right-hand corner of the window.
 Switch on the mains supply to the IFD7, and switch on the IFD7 using the power switch
on the front. Check that the power switch on the IFD7 is illuminated.
 On the software mimic diagram screen, select the ‘Fan On’ button to switch on the
FM40. Check that the green watchdog indicator on the mimic screen is illuminated.
 Check that the sensor readings on the software screen give sensible values. The air
velocity and the pressure readings should be zero when the fan is not moving. Zero the
pressure sensors if necessary, using the zero buttons on the mimic screen. The
temperature should be sensible given the ambient conditions in the room (typically
between 15 and 30 °C).

Procedure

78
 Read through the experiment before starting, to familiarize yourself with the procedure.
To allow the software to perform the required calculations correctly, it is important to
follow the procedure exactly and, in the order, given.
 Two constant fan rotational speeds will be investigated, n = 3009rpm and n = 2018rpm.
In the first part of the exercise, data will be taken at n = 3009rpm and the software will
use this data to predict the fan performance at n = 2018rpm. In the second part of the
experiment, real data will be taken at 2018rpm so that this can then be compared to the
predicted performance data.
 Check that the outlet aperture is fully open then set the fan to 100%. Check that the fan
operates and that the sensor readings indicated on the mimic diagram change
accordingly. Check that the fan speed indicates the required value of 3009rpm (allow a
few moments for the fan speed to stabilize after making adjustments).
 Take readings for air temperature, orifice differential pressure, fan differential pressure,
and motor power by selecting the “Go” icon on the software toolbar.
 The aperture will be closed to give increments in the air velocity until the aperture is
fully closed. Select a flow velocity increment that will give 10-15 separate readings.
Close the outlet aperture to give a flow decrease approximately equal to the increment
chosen, and select the “Go” icon again.
 Continue to close the aperture to give step changes in the flow velocity, recording the
sensor data at each increment, until the aperture is fully closed. NOTE: There will still
be a small flow velocity indicated even when the aperture is closed, as a result of the
increased static pressure within the outlet duct. When the indicated discharge is low
(below 10 l/s), visually check the aperture while closing it and avoid twisting it beyond
what is needed to close it, as this will eventually damage the aperture.

 Create a new results table using the icon on the software toolbar.
 Decrease the fan setting until the indicated rotational speed is 2018rpm (allow a few
moments for the fan speed to stabilize after making adjustments).
 Take readings for air temperature, orifice differential pressure, fan differential pressure,
and motor power by selecting the “Go” icon on the software toolbar.

79
  The aperture will be closed to give increments in the air velocity until the aperture is
fully closed. Select a flow velocity increment that will give 10-15 separate readings.
Close the outlet aperture to give a flow decrease approximately equal to the increment
chosen, and select the “Go” icon again.
 Continue to close the aperture to give step changes in the flow velocity, recording the
sensor data at each increment, with a final set of readings taken with the aperture fully
closed (recall that the flow rate will never actually reach zero).
 Set the fan back to 0% and switch it off using the ‘Fan On’ switch on the mimic
diagram. Save the results sheets using ‘Save As…’ from the ‘File’ menu, using a
suitable filename for later retrieval such as the equipment code, exercise letter and date.

Results and conclusion

If data has been recorded and saved for the required fan rotational speeds (3009rpm and
2018rpm) it is also possible to load these saved results into the software without taking further
measurements.

80