ZOOLOGY LECTURE (Chapter 11- 29)  Heterotrophs that feed on visible

particles are phagotrophs or holozoic

Chapter 11: Protozoa feeders
Characteristics of Unicellular  A single class Euglenoidea (phylum
Eukaryotes Euglenozoa) contains some forms that
1. Unicellular; some colonial, and some with are mainly phototrophs,
multicellular stages
 Originally, the means of locomotion
in their life cycles. Coloniality occurs when cells
divide, but was used to distinguish unicellular
remain together. The cells may specialize on eukaryotes: flagellates, ciliates and
particular functions, but all cells are capable of pseudopodia
reproduction. Multicellularity requires
 Shapes of Pseudopods:
the conditions of coloniality plus the additional
criterion that only some cells are capable of - Lobopodia (blunt-tipped)
reproduction. - Filiopoda (thin and sharply pointed)
2. Mostly microscopic, although some are large - Rhizopodia (Branched filaments)
enough to be seen
-reticulopodia (branched filament
with the unaided eye
3. All symmetries represented in the group; with netlike structure)
shape variable or constant -axopodia (thin pointed pseudopod
(oval, spherical, or other) that contain axoneme - “9 + 2” tube
4. No germ layer present
of microtubules in a flagellum
5. No organs or tissues, but specialized
organelles are found; nucleus single or multiple or cilium)
6. Free-living, mutualism, commensalism,
parasitism all represented in the groups  Amoebas that make shells are called
7. Locomotion by pseudopodia, flagella, cilia, and testate (test or shell of secreted
direct cell
siliceous or chitinoid material that
movements; some sessile
8. Some provided with a simple endoskeleton or may be reinforced with grains of
exoskeleton, but sand.)
most are naked LOCOMOTION
9. Nutrition of all types: autotrophic
 In a base of flagellum, the tube
(manufacturing own nutrients
by photosynthesis), heterotrophic (depending consists of nine triplets of
on other plants microtubules and is called a
or animals for food), saprozoic (using nutrients kinetosome (or basal body).
dissolved in the
surrounding medium)
 Pseudopodia are extensions of the cell
10. Aquatic or terrestrial habitat; free-living or cytoplasm used in locomotion and
symbiotic mode of life feeding
11. Reproduction asexually by fission, budding, and cysts
 The most widely accepted mechanism
and sexually by conjugation or by syngamy
to account for ciliary movement is the
 Zoa – animal-like features (no cell wall sliding microtubule hypothesis.
and motile stage)  ceentral areas of cytoplasm of
 Opisthokonti – a clade that includes pseudopods can be distinguished as
ectoplasm (more granular and
unicellular chchoanoflagellates,
contains the nucleus, gel state - solid)
multicellular animals, and fungi, among
and endoplasm (more transparent
others
with fluidity, sol state- fluid)
 those that ingest soluble food are
 When a typical lobopodium begins to
osmotrophs or saprozoic feeders. form, an extension of ectoplasm called
a hyaline cap appears
 PARTS - are so named because the body
 Nucleoli, mitochondria and golgi body surface is covered with cilia that
 Hydrogenosomes are organelles that beat in a coordinated, rhythmical
perform a respiratory function in the manner.
absence of oxygen and are assumed to - Autogamy is a process of self-
have evolved from mitochondria. fertilization similar to conjugation
 Trichocyst – an extrusomes except that there is no exchange of
containing a protrusible filament, nuclei.
found near the surface of ciliates and - The cilia, kinetosomes, and other
dinoflagellates. fibrils of that ciliary row form what
 The excess water that enters their is called a kinety
bodies is expelled by contractile - Most ciliates are holozoic.
vacuoles (water-expulsion vesicles). - Some ciliates have small bodies in
REPRODUCTION their ectoplasm between the bases of
 Binary fission conjugation and budding the cilia
 Multiple fission, or schizogony, is - A cytostome at the end of the oral
common among the Apicomplexa and groove leads into a tubular
some amebas. cytopharynx, or gullet.
 If the multiple fission is preceded by - Avoiding reaction - movement of
or associated with union of gametes, paramecium
it is called sporogony. - Examples: Balantidum coli
 When gametes all look alike, they are (parasitic), Entamoeba, Suctorians
called isogametes, but most species  Phylum Dinoflagellata
have two dissimilar types, or - half of it are photoautotrophic
anisogametes. with chromoplasts bearing chlorophyll.
 Phylum Retortamonada and the - They commonly have two flagella,
Diplomonads: one equatorial and one longitudinal,
- lack mitchondrio and golgi bodies each borne at least partially in
- Giarda is an example of this and can grooves on the body
inhabit digest system in a form of - Dinoflagellates can damage other
Cyst organisms, such as when they
 Phylum Euglenozoa produce a “red tide”
- It has discoid mitochondrial cristae  Phylum Apicomplexa
- it contains longitudinal microtubules - Sporozoite/trophozoites “free
just beneath the plasma membrane living” and become cyst
that help to stiffen the membrane Example: Plasmodium (malaria,
into a pellicle (The pellicle is a clear, Falciparum is the deadliest),
elastic membrane that may be
ornamented by ridges or papilla-like SOME EXAMPLES IN SUMMARY
projections) BOX
- Examples: Euglena (with chlorophyll Phylum Retortamonada (re-torʹta-moʹnad-a)
b and Paramylon granules - masses of (L. retorqueo, to twist
a starch like food-storage material) back, + monas, single, unit). Mitochondria and
and Trypanosoma (causes Chagas’ Golgi bodies lacking;
disease) three anterior and one recurrent (running
 Phylum Ciliophora toward posterior) flagellum
lying in a groove; intestinal parasites or free-  Comb rows (eight spaced bands) comb plates
(for propulsion)
living in anoxic environments.
 They can swim backward by reversing the
Example: Retortamonas. direction of the wave
Phylum Diplomonada (di′plo-mon-a′da) (Gr.  Tentacles: has tentacle sheath with colloblasts
diploos, double, + L.  Collenchyme – fills the interior and it is
between the epidermis and gastrodermis
monas, unit). One or two karyomastigonts
 For Digestion – Gastrovascular system (mouth,
(group of kinetosomes with a pharynx and stomach) w/ small anal canals (for
nucleus); individual mastigonts with one to expulsion)
four flagella; mitotic spindle  For sensory/nervous – It possess subepidermal
plexus (near comb plate)
within nucleus; cysts present; free-living or
 Statocyst – sense organ at the aboral plate
parasitic. Example:  Reproduction – Monoecious
Giardia.  Ctenophore’s larva – Cydippid
Phylum Parabasala (par′a-bas′a-la) (Gr. para,  Biradial

beside, + basis, base).

With very large Golgi bodies associated with Phylum Aceolomorpha:
karymastigont; up to thousands  Flat worms less than 5mm , they live in marine
environment
of flagella. Trichomonas and two other forms
 Has cellular ciliated epidermis
comprise clade  In reproduction, The female reproductive organ
Parabasalids.  produces gametes and nutrition for the young
Phylum Foraminifera (forʹa-min-ifʹer-a) (L. at the same time; the resultant yolk-filled eggs
are called endolecithal eggs
foramin, hole, + fero, to
 Radial arrangement of nerves in the body.
bear). Shelled amebas bearing slender
Phylum Platyhelminthes:
pseudopodia that extend through
 Commonly known as flatworms (contains
many openings in the test, forming a net that planarian, flukes, tapeworms etc) with 1 to 3
ensnares prey; includes xenophyophores. cm.
Examples: Vertebralina,  No unique characteristic (Synapomorphy), some
Globigerina has syncytial tegument or neodermis
 Four classes: Turbellaria (free living flatworm),
Trematoda (flukes), Monogenea (ectoparasite)
Phylum Ctenophora: and Cestoda (tapeworm with scolex, a defining
feature)
Forms and function
 All are marine with eight rows of comblike
plates (Ctene)  Rhabdites – produce mucous sheath for
protection
 They are known as sea walnuts or comb jellies
 Turbellarians has dual-gland adhesive organ
 Most ctenophores are swimmer , they rest
which composed of three cells: Viscid and
vertically with no movement, using comb plates releasing gland cells and anchor cells
for propulsion
 Adults of all members of Trematoda,
 biradial symmetry. There is no head, but an
Monogenea, and Cestoda possess a
oral-aboral axis is present.
 Ctenophore tentacles capture small planktonic syncytial covering that entirely lacks cilia
organisms, typically crustaceans such as and is designated a tegument
copepods.  Turbellaria – Has an intestine with many
 Colloblast – contains adhesive material for lateral branches
capturing prey  In trematoda – the Digenetic flukes has
 2 classes: tentaculate and nuda -> not sporocyst in snail host
monophyletic group
 Monogenetic flukes – has Oncomiracidium
 Pleurobrachia - The oral pole bears the mouth
larval stage
 opening, and the aboral pole has a sensory
organ, the statocyst.  Tapeworm – no more digestive tract and
scolex
  In the body wall below the basement derive their name from the characteristic
membrane of flatworms are layers of ciliated crown, or corona.
muscle fibers that run circularly,  Rotifers are common inhabitants of
longitudinally, and diagonally. freshwater lakes and ponds. They are
 In turbellarian – pharynx has pharyngeal adapted to many ecological conditions
sheath and it can extend  Pseudocoel animal
 Planarian – carnivorous  Their pharynx (mastax) is fitted with a
 Flatworms have a system of muscular portion equipped with hard jaws
protonephridia that could be used for (trophi) for sucking in and grinding food
excretion or osmoregulation with flame particles.
cells (cup-shaped with flagella). It’s called PHYLUM ANNELIDA
flame because they “flicker” the cell if  many others. Annelida are worms
they drive fluid down whose bodies are divided into similar
 Ocelli, or light-sensitive eyespots, are
segments (also called metameres)
common in turbellarians, monogeneans, and
 annuli – circular rings (a marker in
larval trematodes.
 In reproduction – they have an extensible segments)
copulatory organ called a cirrus and  metamerism – division of the body
endolecithal eggs which are released by into a series of segments
vitellaria  Sometimes called bristle worm due
 Digenea – Trematoda subclass with life to presence of setae (for
cycle of definitive host and intermediate locomotion)
host. Its larva is called miracidium.  Polychaete are marine forms while
 -Rediae, in turn, reproduce asexually to
Oligochaete and leeches are
produce more rediae or to produce
freshwater and terrestrial
cercariae (penetrates the mollusc) and
evolved to metacercariae (juvenile flukes)  the annelid body typically has a two-
- They have an oral sucker and a part head, composed of a prostomium
ventral sucker. and a peristomium
- As is common in flukes, about  Pygidium – bears an anus and not a
80% of the body is devoted to segment
reproduction.  Flaps called parapodia may be
present on each segment.
 In Monogenea - Monogeneans are all
 Schizocoel coelom with Peritoneum
parasites, primarily of gills and external
(lines the body wall forming
surfaces of fishes.
 Only unique because it has oncomiracidium mesenteries)
larva  Septa – the peritoneum of adjacent
 In Cestoda – they usually have long, flat segment
bodies composed of scolex with strobila (a  Crawling motions - alternating waves
chain of proglottids) of contraction by longitudinal and
 Phylum Gastrotricha - may appear circular muscles passing down the
somewhat like rotifers but lacking a body (peristaltic contractions).
corona and mastax
 Hydrostatic skeleton
and having a characteristically bristly or
 Oligochaeta – the presence of
scaly body.
- Protonephridia are equipped with clitellum
solenocytes rather than flame  Based on molecular characters:
cells Errantia (free moving) and Sedentaria
PHYLUM ROTIFERA (in tubes or burrows)
  Nephrostome – endings of PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
metanephridia for excretory systems  Arthropods are ecdysozoan
 In nutrition, after eating the food will protostomes belonging to clade
be stored in crops then grinded by
Panarthropoda
gizzard
 The critical stiffening of the
 True leeches have 34 segments,
cuticle to form a jointed
entirely lack setae, and possess
anterior and posterior suckers. exoskeleton is sometimes called
PHYLUM NEMATODA “arthropodization.”
 saprozoic or coprozoic (live in  Uniramous appendages are those
fecal material) with a single branch while
 Distinguishing characteristics of biramous has 2 branches
this large group of animals are Why Have Arthropods Achieved Such
their eutely, shape, nonliving Great Diversity and Abundance?
cuticle and lack of cilia or flagella  A versatile exoskeleton. The
(ex. one species) with no procuticle is divided into an
protonephridia exocuticle, which is secreted
 Their outer body covering is before a molt, and an
relatively thick, noncellular cuticle endocuticle
secreted by the underlying  The cuticle consists of an
epidermis (hypodermis). inner, relatively thick
 The several layers of the cuticle procuticle and an outer,
are primarily of collagen, relatively thin epicuticle
 There are no circular muscles in (composed of chitin).
the body wall.  Most crustaceans possess some
 The fluid-filled pseudocoel, in areas of the procuticle
which the internal organs lie, impregnated with calcium
constitutes a hydrostatic skeleton. salts.
 Adults of many parasitic  Horseshoe crab
nematodes have an anaerobic - Xiphosurids have an
energy metabolism unsegmented, horseshoe-
 Amphids complex sensory organ open shaped carapace (hard dorsal
on each side of the head (in parasite – shield) and a broad abdomen,
phasmid) which has a long telson, or
 Ascaris lumbricoides – most tailpiece.
common nametode parasite in -book gills (flat, leaflike gills)
humans occur under the gill opercula.
 Ascaris can be killed by diresct There are two lateral,
sunlight and high temperatures rudimentary eyes and two
 Classes of Nematoda are simple eyes on the carapace
Secernentea (with ventral Class Pycnogonida: Sea Spiders
amphids) and Class Adenophorea  Chelicerae are sometimes called
(pocketlike amphids) chelifores in this group.
  Males of many species bear a phylogenetic position of these odd
subsidiary pair of legs (ovigers) animals
 The mouth is at the tip of a long
proboscis, which sucks juices from Subphylum Crustacea “insects of the sea”
cnidarians and soft-bodied animals  crustaceans are the only arthropods with
two pairs of antennae. In addition to two
Class Arachnida
pairs of antennae and a pair of mandibles,
 They are mostly free-living and are
crustaceans have two pairs of maxillae on
most common in warm, dry regions. the head,
 They were among the first arthropods  Rostrom – nonsegmented anterior end of
to move into terrestrial habitats crustacea
 All arachnids have two tagmata: a  Telson – posterior end of the crustacea
cephalothorax (head and thorax)  carapace the dorsal cuticle of the head
and an abdomen, which may or may may extend posteriorly and around the
not be segmented sides of the animal to
 The cephalothorax usually bears a pair cover or be fused with some or all of the
thoracic and abdominal segments
of chelicerae, a pair of pedipalps.
 The spider body is compact: a
Forms and Function
cephalothorax (prosoma) and abdomen
- The harder, heavy plates of larger
(opisthosoma),
crustaceans are particularly high in
 Spiders respire using book lungs or a
calcareous deposits
system of internal tubes called
- Each segment not enclosed by the carapace
tracheae.
is covered by a dorsal cuticular plate, or
 Spiders and insects have also
tergum
independently evolved a unique
- two lateral covering plates called pleurites
excretory system of Malpighian
that form the pleuron.
tubules
- A ventral transverse bar, or sternum, lies
 Since a spider’s vision is often poor,
between the segmental appendages. The
its awareness of its environment
abdomen terminates in a telson that bears
depends largely on cuticular
the anus.
mechanoreceptors, such as sensory
- The major body space in arthropods is not a
setae (sensilla).
coelom, but a persistent blastocoel that
Subphylum Myriapoda
becomes a blood-filled hemocoel
 Myriapods use tracheae to carry
- Crustaceans and other arthropods have an
respiratory gases directly to and from
“open” or lacunar type of circulatory system
all body cells
- The brainconsists of a pair of
 these have evolved independently of
supraesophageal ganglia that supplies nerves
Malpighian tubules found in
to the eyes and two pairs of antennae
Chelicerata.
- Eyes in many crustaceans are compound,
Ex, Centipede, Millipedes etc.
composed of many photoreceptor units called
 Many millipedes also protect
ommatidia
 themselves from predation by
- The ancestral and most widely occurring
secreting toxic or repellent fluids
larva in Crustacea is the nauplius
from special glands (repugnatorial
- Androgenic glands, first discovered in an
glands)
amphipod and occurs in male malacostracans,
 Studies of the heads of pycnogonids
stimulates male sexual characteristics
were used to detect the
- gastric mill, a grinding apparatus consisting  Many parasitic insects are themselves
of several movable calcareous or chitinous parasitized by other insects; a
pieces in the pharynx or stomach of certain condition called hyperparasitism
invertebrates.  Parasitoid -an insect (e.g., the
 Branchiopods have flattened and ichneumon wasp) whose larvae live
leaflike phyllopodia—legs that serve as parasites that eventually kill
as the chief respiratory organs
their hosts (typically other
 Krills are mostly bioluminescent, with
insects).
a light-producing substance in an
In mosquitos. Their mandibles, maxillae,
organ called a photophore.
hypopharynx, and labrum-epipharynx are
 Decapods have three pairs of
elongated into needlelike stylets together
maxillipeds and five pairs of walking
forming a fascicle
legs. In crabs the first pair of walking
 House flies, blow flies, and fruit flies
legs is modified to form pincers
have sponging Lapping mouthparts
(chelae),
a stage that occurs between molts on
Subphylum Hexapoda is named for the presence of the way to pupation or adulthood is
six legs in members of the group. All legs are called an instar
uniramous. Hexapods have three tagmata—head, PHYLUM CHORDATA
thorax, and abdomen—with appendages on the  Derived from the name of notochord
head and thorax. Abdominal appendages are  Major characteristic: bilateral
greatly reduced or absent. There are two classes symmetry, anteroposterior
within Hexapoda: Entognatha axis, coelom (enterocoelus), tube-
and Insecta
within-a-tube arrangement,
 Insects differ from other arthropods
metamerism, and cephalization.
in having entognathous mouthparts
5 CHORDATE HALLMARK
and usually two pairs of wings on the
1. Notochord - rodlike, semirigid
thoracic region of the body, although
body of fluid-filled
some have one pair of wings or none.
(hydrostatic) cells enclosed by
 Insects show a remarkable variety of
a fibrous sheath. it permits
morphological characteristics, but, as
undulatory movements of the
in other arthropods, the exoskeleton
body. Notochord -> vertebrae
is formed of a complex system of
2. Dorsal Tubular Nerve cord –
plates called sclerites,
ventral to the digestive tract
 Insects are the only invertebrates
and it form as a brain with
that can fly, and they share the power
bony cartilaginous cranium
of flight with birds and flying
3. Pharyngeal pouches and slit –
mammals
opening that lead from
 the hindwings being represented pharyngeal cavity. The
by a pair of tiny halters perforated pharynx evolved as
 dragonflies and butterflies have wings a filter-feeding apparatus and
with synchronous muscles, Wings with is used as such in
asynchronous muscles (complex and protochordates. Pharyngeal
depends on potential energy of slit -> internal gills
thoracic cuticle. occur in 4. Endostyle/ Thyroid gland –
Hymenoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, secret mucus for tapping food
 particle. Worked together  segmented trunk musculature
with the pharynx for filter (characteristic of lancelets)
feeding Subphylum Vertebrata
5. Post -anal tail – for motility  Its another name is Craniata
(propulsion)and added at the (refers to the braincase or
end of digestive tract cranium)
(Coccyx)
 neural spines are present,
Subphylum Urochordata
providing more area for
 “tail-chordate”, commonly known as
attachment of segmented muscles
tunicates
 Sessile and live in all seas  unique to vertebrates are fin rays
 Tunic – contains cellulose of dermal origin, supporting fins
 Larval form – resembles chordata and used in swimming
adult form – tail disappears and dorsal  Cartilage is ideal for constructing
nerve cord becomes a single ganglion the first skeletal framework of all
Ascidiacea – most common tunicates, also vertebrate embryos
known as sea squirts (discharge water  The anterior end of the nerve
from siphon when irritated)
cord became enlarged as a
 It has 2 ventral heart and two large
tripartite brain (forebrain,
vessels
midbrain, and hindbrain) and
 An odd feature, found in no other
chordate, is that the heart drives the protected by a cartilaginous or
blood first in one direction for a few bony cranium.
beats, then pauses, reverses its  Neural crest - ectodermal cells lying
action, and drives the blood in the along the length of the embryonic
opposite direction for a few beats. -> neural tube contributes to the
it is composed of vanadium and formation of many different
niobium. structures,
Subphylum Cephalochordata  Ectodermal placodes (Gr. placo, plate)
 Lancelets, originated from amphioxus are platelike ectodermal thickenings
 hepatic cecum - the food particles are that appear on either side of the
phagocytized and digested neural tube. These give rise to the
intracellularly from this part of olfactory epithelium, lens of the eye,
digestive system inner ear epithelium, some ganglia and
 Food is moved through the gut by cranial nerves,
means of cilia, which are concentrated  The earliest known vertebrate fossils,
in a darkly staining area called the until recently, were armored jawless
ileocolic ring fishes called ostracoderms
 It has spinal nerve roots (emerge  All jawed vertebrates, whether
from muscle segments) and ocellus extinct or living, are collectively
(photoreceptor) called gnathostomes (“jaw mouth”) in
 Sexes are separate (gametes are contrast to the jawless vertebrates,
released by atrium then pass to the the agnathans (“without jaw”).
atriopore (equivalent to the excurrent  The origin of jaws was one of the
siphon of tunicates). most important events in vertebrate
evolution.
 Phylum Ave  Syncrasum - fused vertebrae and the
pelvic girdle form a stiff but light
 10,500 species, with bee hummingbird, one of framework to support the legs and to
the smallest vertebrate endotherms
provide rigidity for flight.
 Feathers – one distinguishing feature ex. some
dinosaurs  Fused clavicles form an elastic furcula
 Zoologists had long recognized the similarity of that apparently stores energy as it
birds and nonavian reptiles. (single occipital flexes during wing beats.
condyle, stape, jaw has five/six bone, excrete
 Locomotor muscles of wings are
uric acd)
 Thomas Henry Huxley - “glorified reptiles” and relatively massive to meet demands of
classified them with a group of dinosaurs called flight. The largest of these is the
theropods pectoralis,
 Bird and theropod dinosaur – both have
 A bird’s blood contains nucleated,
elongated s-shaped neck
 Living birds (Neornithes) are divided into two biconvex erythrocytes.
groups: (1) Paleognathae (ancient jaw) also  The stomach proper consists of two
known as ratite bird with flat sternum and poor compartments, a proventriculus, which
pectoral muscle (ex. Ostrich, Kiwiw and
secretes gastric juice, and a muscular
tinamous and (2) Neognathae (new jaw) with
keeled sternum to which powerful flight gizzard
muscles attach. Penguins are also part of  jeopardized. The beaks, or bills, of
neognate. birds are strongly adapted to their
 Flightlessness almost always evolved on islands
food habits (shape of beak changes
lacking large terrestrial predators.
 Most typical of bird feathers are contour due to food habit)
feathers, vaned feathers that cover and  In birds the finest branches of the
streamline a bird’s body. bronchi, rather than ending in saclike
- consist of quill or calamus – emerged from
alveoli as in mammals, are developed
skin follicle; shaft or rachis – continuation of
the quill with numerous barbs; vane – formation as tubelike parabronchi through
of all barbs with flat, expansive, webbed which air flows continuously. It forms
surface characteristics. Each barb has the lungs of bird
barbules.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
 Contour feathers that extend beyond
the body and are used in flight are called flight  Many unicellular eukaryotes have only
feathers. plasma membrane but some like
 Filoplume feathers are hairlike, degenerate paramecium has pellicle
feathers; each is a weak shaft with a tuft of
 Platyhelminthes – Syncytial tegument
short barbs at the tip. They are the “hairs of a
plucked fowl for immune resistances and digestion
 Down feathers (Figure 27.5H) are  Mollusca – contains mucous gland that
soft tufts without a prominent rachis, secretes calcium carbonate of the
hidden beneath contour feathers. No shell
barbules  Arthoropod – integument for skeletal
 the powder-down feather is releasing support and protection
a talclike powder that helps to - consist of hypodermis that secretes
waterproof the feathers and to give two zones, the procuticle with protein
them metallic luster. and chitin and epicuticle with
 Feathers are discarded gradually. nonchitinous complex of protein
 bones of modern birds are crabs and lobsters,
phenomenally light, delicate, and laced  In crustacean, the cuticle is stiffened
with air cavities. Such pneumatized by calcification.
bones are nevertheless strong
 sclerotization, is formation of a highly than pigment. They produce a silvery
resistant and insoluble protein, or metallic effect by reflecting light.
sclerotin (protein chains are cross-
linked by quinone groups).
 Due to tough cuticle, arthropod must
molt.
 Epidermis – gives rise to the hair,
feather, claws and hooves (stratified
squamous epithelium)
 fibrous protein called keratin
accumulates in the interior of the
cells—a process called keratinization.
The keratin. Keratin makes cells die
and become cornified
 Cornified cells, highly resistant to
abrasion and water diffusion, form
the outermost stratum corneum.
 The dermis is a dense connective-
tissue layer containing blood vessels,
collagenous fibers, nerves, pigment
cells, fat cells, and connective-tissue
cells called fibroblasts.
 The dermis may also contain true
bony structures of dermal origin like
scales.
 Structures such as claws, beaks, nails,
and horns contain combinations of
epidermal (keratinized) and dermal
components.
 Bony (teleost) fishes have bony scales
from dermis
 In crustaceans and ectothermic
vertebrates, they have
chromatophores these pigments are
contained in large cells with branching
processes
 Melanophores – brown and black
polymer and contained in melanocytes
 Yellow and red colors are often
caused by carotenoid pigments, which
are frequently contained within
special pigment cells called
Xanthophores
 Iridophores, a third type of
chromatophore, contain crystals of
guanine or some other purine, rather