Difference between Concepts and Variables in Research

Concepts and variables are mental images; concepts are highly subjective and cannot be
measured unless they are operational while variables can be measured on one of the statistical
scales. To understand concepts and variables let’s read about them in detail.
What are concepts?
Concepts are highly subjective in nature and that makes it difficult to use them as they are in a
research study. These subjective thoughts cannot be measured on a statistical scale. Kumar
(2000) says that concepts are mental images and therefore their meanings vary markedly from
individual to individual. Concepts are subjective impressions and their understanding will differ
from person to person, which, if measured, would cause problems in comparing responses.
Concepts should be converted into variables so that they can be measured, although on different
scales same variable will have different precision.
If the researcher is using some concepts in his research he needs to find out some indicators that
are reflective of these concepts. these indicators can be chosen subjectively by the researcher but
they should have a logical link with the concept. The indicators can then be converted into
variables.
Example:
1. Take an example of the effectiveness of a medicine in curing a disease, the researcher can
use the indicators: changes in the mortality rate, changes in morbidity, changes in recurrence
of that disease, or prevention from that disease. These indicators can then be converted into
variable to be able to be measured.
2. We can take another example of another concept that is how rich someone can be? To
measure this concept you need an indicator and you can measure someone’s richness from his
wealth that he possesses. This wealth can be in the form of his income, money in his bank
accounts, owned houses or other property and so on.
3.

4. A psychologist might want to test the effectiveness of his counselling to patients with
anxiety. Effectiveness is a concept and you cannot measure it on any statistical scale. He can
operationalize his concept of effectiveness of his counselling treatment into the following
indicators: percentage reduction in patients’ anxiety, reduction in his day offs from the
workplace, reduction in his visits to the psychologist office etc.
Without converting your concept into an indicator and then a variable you cannot measure it on
any scale. The subjectivity of these indicators make them not suitable to be used directly in a
research project. It should also be noted that the extent of variation can only be reduced by
operationalizing these concepts, it cannot be eliminated completely.
What are variables?
Variables are measurable of course, with varying degree of accuracy. Measurability is the main
difference between concepts and variables. A variable can be measured either using crude or
refined method or either using subjective or objective methods. There are various scales and a
variable can be measured on either one of those scales. The statistical variables can be measured
on either nominal, ordinal, ratio or interval scale. This ability of the variables brings objectivity
in the research findings.
A s variables are capable of measurement they can take different values and every variable can
have different values. Generally speaking variables can be either independent variable or
dependent variable. There can also be extraneous and intervening variables
Independent variable
From the viewpoint of causation an independent variable is a variable that affects the dependent
variable and in itself it is free of any effects from the dependent variable. It is the cause for the
change in any phenomenon, situation, disease etc. For example in testing the cause of juvenile
delinquency in a community, availability of guns can be taken as the cause and hence the
independent variable.
Dependent variable
The dependent variable is the other main variable that is the effect of the independent variable.
For example in a research on the impact of the availability of guns on the youth crime rate in a
certain community, the youth crime rate is the dependent variable. In the above example the
crime rate among youth is dependent on the availability of the guns.
Extraneous variable
In reality the situation is not always perfect with independent and dependent variable. Extraneous
variables are all those variables that can impact the dependent variable other than the
independent variable. In a laboratory setting it is comparatively easier to do the experiments in a
perfect environment where the researcher controls all the extraneous variables. On the other
hand, in a naturals setting it is difficult to control the extraneous variables.
 Intervening variable
In certain situation an intervening variable needs to be there to have the independent variable
affect the dependent variable. this variable is not always present but in the certain situation its
intervention plays an important role between the cause and effect relationship.
References
 Kumar, R., Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners, Sage Pub,
London, 2000
 Kothari, C.R., Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques, New Delhi,Wiley
Eastern Limited, 1985
 

. What is the difference between a variable and a concept?

While concepts are associated with theory, variables are associated with measurement and
observation. Variables are empirical indicators of constructs. This means that they are things
that you can observe or measure, and when you do the measurement, your results tell you about
the extent to which the concept is present.

Note carefully: The variable is not the construct. It is something concrete that you can observe,
and by its appearance you can tell whether the concept is present or absent or to what extent it is
present. In a way, constructs and variables are like diseases and symptoms. When you get the
flu, you have a number of experiences. You feel tired, weak, and achy. You may have nausea or
other uncomfortable experiences. You may have a fever. None of these experiences, by
themselves, are the disease. They are only symptoms of the disease. If you have enough of these
symptoms, though, you will probably say you have the flu.

Constructs are like diseases; variables are the "symptoms" of constructs. You observe constructs
by watching their "symptoms"— the variables that serve as their indicators. For example, the
behaviors that we would say are examples of prejudice are the symptoms we would look for if we
wanted to see if someone is prejudiced. Although the behaviors themselves are not prejudice, we
would say that a person who performs them is prejudiced
VARIABLE is a measurable characteristic that varies. It may change from group to group,
person to person, or even within one person over time. There are six common variable types:

DEPENDENT VARIABLES

. . . show the effect of manipulating or introducing the independent variables. For

example, if the independent variable is the use or non-use of a new language teaching
procedure, then the dependent variable might be students' scores on a test of the
content taught using that procedure. In other words, the variation in the dependent
variable depends on the variation in the independent variable.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

. . . are those that the researcher has control over. This "control" may involve
manipulating existing variables (e.g., modifying existing methods of instruction) or
introducing new variables (e.g., adopting a totally new method for some sections of a
class) in the research setting. Whatever the case may be, the researcher expects that
the independent variable(s) will have some effect on (or relationship with) the
dependent variables.

INTERVENING VARIABLES

. . . refer to abstract processes that are not directly observable but that link the
independent and dependent variables. In language learning and teaching, they are
usually inside the subjects' heads, including various language learning processes
which the researcher cannot observe. For example, if the use of a particular teaching
technique is the independent variable and mastery of the objectives is the dependent
variable, then the language learning processes used by the subjects are the intervening
variables.

MODERATOR VARIABLES

. . . affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables by

modifying the effect of the intervening variable(s). Unlike extraneous variables,
 moderator variables are measured and taken into consideration. Typical moderator
variables in TESL and language acquisition research (when they are not the major
focus of the study) include the sex, age, culture, or language proficiency of the
subjects.

CONTROL VARIABLES

Language learning and teaching are very complex processes. It is not possible to
consider every variable in a single study. Therefore, the variables that are not
measured in a particular study must be held constant, neutralized/balanced, or
eliminated, so they will not have a biasing effect on the other variables. Variables that
have been controlled in this way are called control variables.

EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES

. . . are those factors in the research environment which may have an effect on the
dependent variable(s) but which are not controlled. Extraneous variables are
dangerous. They may damage a study's validity, making it impossible to know
whether the effects were caused by the independent and moderator variables or some
extraneous factor. If they cannot be controlled, extraneous variables must at least be
taken into consideration when interpreting results.

1.2.2 Types of Variables

Look at the left side of Figure 1.1 below. You can see that one way to look at variables is to
divide them into four different categories ( nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio). These refer to
the levels of measure associated with the variables. In everyday usage the convention is to then
use the level of measure to refer to the kind of variable. So you can then speak of nominal,
ordinal, interval, etc. variables.
One isn't necessarily better than another category. But, it is true you typically have more
information with some than with others, and you're more used to working with some than with
others.

With interval and ratio variables for example, you can do averages and things like that. You
know there are numbers. You can add them up, divide and things like that. Its a little trickier
sometimes with nominal and ordinal variables. But in human experiments there's no way you can
get around it. You often work with nominal or ordinal variables.

Figure 1.1: Types of Variables

Lesson 1: Summary Measures of Data 1.2 - 3 

 Biostatistics for the Clinician

Four Types of Variables

Look again at Figure 1.1. You can see there are four different types of measurement scales
(nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio). Each of the four scales, respectively, typically provides
more information about the variables being measured than those preceding it. That is the reason
why the terms "nominal", "ordinal", "interval", and "ratio" are often referred to as levels of
measure. Now let's look at the differences so that you can tell them apart.

Variables and Measures

 How many different levels of measure for variables exist?

No Response

1
Practice
Exercise 2:
2

Nominal Variables

What does the word "nominal" comes from? It has to do with naming. So nominal comes from
name and that is all you can do with variables measured on nominal scales (nominal variables).
The important thing is there is no measure of distance between the values. You're either married
or not married. The answer is determined, yes or no. So there is no question of how far apart in a
quantitative sense those categories are. They are just names. Nominal scales name and that is all
that they do. Some other examples are sex (male, female), race (black, hispanic, oriental, white,
other), political party (democrat, republican, other), blood type (A, B, AB, O), and pregnancy
status (pregnant, not pregnant.

Variables and Measures

Practice Can the distances between the categories of a nominal variable be

 measured?

No Response
Exercise
3: Yes

No

Ordinal Variables

In the next kind of variable you have a little more sophistication than you can get with just names
alone (see Figure 1.1). What does ordinal imply? Ordinal implies order. And, order means
ranking. So the things being measured are in some order. You can have higher and lower
amounts. Less than and greater than are meaningful terms with ordinal variables where they were
not with nominal variables. For example, you don't rank male and female as higher and lower.
But you do rank stages of cancer, for example, as higher and lower. You can rank pains as higher
or lower. So, ordinal variables give you a more sophisticated level of measure - a finer tuned
level of measurement. But you have now added only this one element having to do with ranking.
You know that something is higher than something else, or lower than something, or more
painful than something, or less painful than something.

So, ordinal scales both name and order. Some other examples of ordinal scales are rankings (e.g.,
football top 20 teams, pop music top 40 songs), order of finish in a race (first, second, third, etc.),
cancer stage (stage I, stage II, stage III), and hypertension categories (mild, moderate, severe).

Variables and Measures

Practice Nominal variables name only. Ordinal variables:

Exercise 4:
 No Response

Name only

Order only

Both name and order

Lesson 1: Summary Measures of Data 1.2 - 4 

 Biostatistics for the Clinician

Interval Variables

What about interval variables (see Figure 1.1)? How are they different? Why are Celsius and
Fahrenheit temperature variables called interval variables? They are called interval variables
because the intervals between the numbers represent something real. This is not the case with
ordinal variables.

Interval variables have the property that differences in the numbers represent real differences in
the variable. Another way to say this is that equal equal differences in the numbers on the scale
represent equal differences in the underlying variables being measured. For example, look at the
difference between 36 degrees and 37 degrees compared to the difference between 40 degrees
and 41 degrees on either Fahrenheit or Celsius temperatures? Is the difference the same? Because
the differences in the numbers are the same, when you have an interval variable you know
temperature intervals are the same.
So, with interval variables you now know not only whether one value is higher than another, but
that the distances between the intervals on the scales are the same. Again, you have a higher
level of information. Interval scales not only name and order, but also have the property that
equal intervals in the numbers measured represent real equal differences in the variables.

Examples of interval scales include the Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures previously
mentioned, SAT, GRE, MAT, and IQ scores. In general, many of the standardized tests of the
psychological, sociological and educational displines use interval scales. Interval measures all
share the property that the value of zero is arbitrary. On the Celsius scale, for example, 0 is the
freezing point of water. On the Fahrenheit scale, 0 is 32 degrees below the freezing point of
water.

Variables and Measures

Interval variables:

No Response

Name, order & have equal intervals

Practice
Exercise 5: Name and order only

Order only

Name only

Lesson 1: Summary Measures of Data 1.2 - 5 

  Biostatistics for the Clinician

Ratio Variables

Ratio variables have all the properties of interval variables plus a real absolute zero. That is,
value of zero represents the total absence of the variable being measured. Some examples of ratio
variables are length measures in the english or metric systems, time measures in seconds,
minutes, hours, etc., blood pressure measured in millmeters of mercury, age, and common
measures of mass, weight, and volume (see Figure 1.1).

They are called ratio variables because ratios are meaningful with this type of variable. It makes
sense to say 100 feet is twice as long as 50 feet, because length measured in feet is a ratio scale.
Likewise it makes sense to say a Kelvin temperature of 100 is twice as hot as a Kelvin
temperture of 50 because it represents twice as much thermal energy (unlike Fahrenheit
temperatures of 100 and 50). With ratio variables, the only difference from interval variables is
that you have a true zero so that you can actually talk about ratios. That is a person's lung
capacity can be twice somebody else's lung capacity. In order to make those kinds of statements
you have to have be able to compute meaningful ratios and you can only do that if you have a
true zero. But really for the purposes of any statistical tests it makes no difference whether you
have interval or ratio variables.

Variables and Measures

Practice Ratio variables have:

Exercise 6:

No Response

A real 0
 Equal intervals

Order

Name

All except "No Response" above

Lesson 1: Summary Measures of Data 1.2 - 6 

 Biostatistics for the Clinician

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Variables

Look at (Figure 1.1) again. On the left hand side you see that there are two larger classifications
for the kinds of variables you have been studying. There are qualitative variables and there
are quantitative variables. You can see that the four levels of measure (nominal, ordinal, interval
and ratio) fall into these two larger supercategories. So, interval and ratio variables are two kinds
of quantitative variables and nominal and ordinal variables are two kinds of qualitative variables.

Now one kind of variable isn't necessarily better than another. You are a little more used to
working with quantitative variables. For example, you can do averages and things like that with
quantitative variables, you know there are numbers, you can add them up and divide and things
like that. With qualitative variables it's not so clear cut. Its a little trickier some times. But when
you are working with humans there's no way you can get around it.

Don't Dilute Your Variables

The important thing is to avoid diluting your measures. If you have interval measures you should
keep them at the finest level of measure you have. Don't reclassify temperature measures into
categories like "High" and "Low", or "Very Cold", "Cold", "Neutral", "Hot", "Very Hot". Don't
cluster or group them and make them into ordinal variables. If you do, you are throwing away
information. So, if you have information at the interval level, record it at the interval level. If its
at the ordinal level, record it at that level. And, of course, if you're at the nominal level you're
stuck with recording it at that level. So never collapse your measurements together when you
begin your experiments in a way that you lose information.

Variables and Measures

Interval or ratio variables should not be regrouped into nominal or

ordinal measures.

Practice No Response
Exercise
7:
True

False

Parametric vs. Nonparametric

When statistical analyses are applied, the statistics must take into account the nature of the
underlying measurement scale, because there are fundamental differences in the types of
information imparted by the different scales (see Figure 1.1). The bottom line is the following.
Nominal and ordinal scales must be analyzed using what are called nonparametric or distribution
free statistical methods. On the other hand, interval and ratio scales are, if at all possible, to be
analyzed using the typically more powerful parametric statistical methods. But, parametric
statistics typically require that the interval or ratio variables have distributions shaped like the
bell (normal) curve as well as having some other assumptions. It turns out that the bell curve
assumption is a reasonable one for many of the kinds of variables frequently encountered in
medical practice.

Variables and Measures

Nominal and ordinal variables require:

No Response
Practice
Exercise 8:
Parametric methods

Nonparametric methods

Lesson 1: Summary Measures of Data 1.2 - 7 

 Biostatistics for the Clinician

Independent vs. Dependent Variables

Look again at (Figure 1.1), this time at the right side, and you see another way of categorizing
variables. Basically you need to discriminate between outcomes like gastric ulcers, on the one
hand, and other variables that may or may not affect that outcome. So, the ones that are the
causal factors, or that you may manipulate are called the independent variables. The outcomes of
the treatments or the responses to changes in the independent variables are called the dependent
variables, because their values presumably depend on what happens to the independent variables.
For example treatments you administer in an experiment constitute levels of the independent
variable(s). In smoking research you might look at number of cigarettes smoked as an
independent variable and incidence of lung cancer as a dependent variable. In research on
atherosclerosis, you might look at dietary saturated fat or amount of vitamin E supplementation
as independent variables and degree of atherosclerosis as a dependent variable. In research on
comparative cancer treatments, the cancer treatments form the independent variable(s) while
various

measures of progression of the disease would make up the dependent variables. If you wanted to
look at how aspirin dosages affect the frequency of second heart attacks, the aspirin dosage
would be the independent variable, while the heart attack frequency would be the dependent
variable.

Variables and Measures

Variables you manipulate are:

No Response
Practice
Exercise 9:
Independent variables

Dependent variables

Lesson 1: Summary Measures of Data 1.2 - 8 

  Biostatistics for the Clinician

1.2.3 C.R.A.P. Detectors

The following summarize some good general rules for the appropriate conduct of medical
research and the evaluation of medical research studies.

C.R.A.P. Detectors

C.R.A.P. Dependent variables should be sensible. Ideally, they should be

Detector #1.1 clinically important, but also related to the independent variable.

In general, the amount of information increases as one goes from

C.R.A.P.
nominal to ratio. Classifying good ratio measures into large
Detector #1.2
categories is akin to throwing away data.

Validity and reliability of research instrument

Reliability and validity are important aspects of selecting a survey instrument. Reliability refers
to the extent that the instrument yields the same results over multiple trials. Validity refers to the
extent that the instrument measures what it was designed to measure.
Instrument  is the general term that researchers use for a measurement device (survey, test,
questionnaire, etc.). To help distinguish between instrument and instrumentation, consider that
the instrument is the device and instrumentation is the course of action (the process of
developing, testing, and using the device).

Instruments fall into two broad categories, researcher-completed and subject-completed,

distinguished by those instruments that researchers administer versus those that are completed by
participants. Researchers chose which type of instrument, or instruments, to use based on the
research question. Examples are listed below:

Researcher-completed Instruments Subject-completed Instruments

Rating scales Questionnaires

Interview schedules/guides Self-checklists

Tally sheets Attitude scales

Flowcharts Personality inventories

Performance checklists Achievement/aptitude tests

Time-and-motion logs Projective devices

Observation forms Sociometric devices

Usability

Usability  refers to the ease with which an instrument can be administered, interpreted by the
participant, and scored/interpreted by the researcher. Example usability problems include:

1. Students are asked to rate a lesson immediately after class, but there are only a few
minutes before the next class begins (problem with administration).

2. Students are asked to keep self-checklists of their after school activities, but the directions
are complicated and the item descriptions confusing (problem with interpretation).

3. Teachers are asked about their attitudes regarding school policy, but some questions are
worded poorly which results in low completion rates (problem with scoring/interpretation).
Validity and reliability concerns (discussed below) will help alleviate usability issues. For now,
we can identify five usability considerations:

1. How long will it take to administer?

2. Are the directions clear?

3. How easy is it to score?

4. Do equivalent forms exist?

5. Have any problems been reported by others who used it?

It is best to use an existing instrument, one that has been developed and tested numerous times,
such as can be found in the Mental Measurements Yearbook. We will turn to why next.

Part II: Validity

Validity  is the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure and
performs as it is designed to perform. It is rare, if nearly impossible, that an instrument be 100%
valid, so validity is generally measured in degrees. As a process, validation involves collecting
and analyzing data to assess the accuracy of an instrument. There are numerous statistical tests
and measures to assess the validity of quantitative instruments, which generally involves pilot
testing. The remainder of this discussion focuses on external validity and content validity.

External validity is the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized from a sample to
a population. Establishing eternal validity for an instrument, then, follows directly from
sampling. Recall that a sample should be an accurate representation of a population, because the
total population may not be available. An instrument that is externally valid helps obtain
population generalizability, or the degree to which a sample represents the population.

Content validity  refers to the appropriateness of the content of an instrument. In other words, do
the measures (questions, observation logs, etc.) accurately assess what you want to know? This is
particularly important with achievement tests. Consider that a test developer wants to maximize
the validity of a unit test for 7th grade mathematics. This would involve taking representative
questions from each of the sections of the unit and evaluating them against the desired outcomes.

Part III: Reliability

Reliability  can be thought of as consistency. Does the instrument consistently measure what it is
intended to measure? It is not possible to calculate reliability; however, there are four general
estimators that you may encounter in reading research:

1. Inter-Rater/Observer Reliability: The degree to which different raters/observers give

consistent answers or estimates.

2. Test-Retest Reliability: The consistency of a measure evaluated over time.

3. Parallel-Forms Reliability: The reliability of two tests constructed the same way, from
the same content.

4. Internal Consistency Reliability: The consistency of results across items, often measured

with Cronbach’s Alpha.
 
Relating Reliability and Validity

Reliability is directly related to the validity of the measure. There are several important
principles. First, a test can be considered reliable, but not valid. Consider the SAT, used as a
predictor of success in college. It is a reliable test (high scores relate to high GPA), though only a
moderately valid indicator of success (due to the lack of structured environment – class
attendance, parent-regulated study, and sleeping habits – each holistically related to success).

Second, validity is more important than reliability. Using the above example, college admissions
may consider the SAT a reliable test, but not necessarily a valid measure of other quantities
colleges seek, such as leadership capability, altruism, and civic involvement. The combination of
these aspects, alongside the SAT, is a more valid measure of the applicant’s potential for
graduation, later social involvement, and generosity (alumni giving) toward the alma mater.

Finally, the most useful instrument is both valid and reliable. Proponents of the SAT argue that it
is both. It is a moderately reliable predictor of future success and a moderately valid measure of a
student’s knowledge in Mathematics, Critical Reading, and Writing.

Part IV: Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research

Thus far, we have discussed Instrumentation as related to mostly quantitative measurement.

Establishing validity and reliability in qualitative research can be less precise, though
participant/member checks, peer evaluation (another researcher checks the researcher’s
inferences based on the instrument (Denzin& Lincoln, 2005), and multiple methods
(keyword: triangulation), are convincingly used. Some qualitative researchers reject the concept
of validity due to the constructivist viewpoint that reality is unique to the individual, and cannot
be generalized. These researchers argue for a different standard for judging research quality. For
a more complete discussion of trustworthiness, see Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) chapter.