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Lesson 1: History of Engineering • In the early part of the first millennium B.C.,
Persians started constructing elaborate tunnel
Engineering systems called Qanats for extracting groundwater
➢ The word “engineering” itself comes from the latin in the dry mountain basins of present-day Iran.
ingenium, meaning “cleverness”, and ingeniare, • Qanat tunnels were hand-dug, large enough to fit
meaning “to design or devise”. the a person doing the digging. Along the length of
the Qanat, which can be several kilometers,
What is Engineering? vertical shafts were sunk at intervals of 20 to 30
➢ the design and manufacture of complex products meters to remove excavated material and to
➢ the activities or function of an engineer provide ventilation and access for repairs.
➢ the application of science and mathematics by which • This structure allowed Persian farmers to succeed
the properties of matter and the sources of energy in despite long dry periods when there was no
nature are made useful to people surface water to be had.

Branches of Engineering THE APPIAN WAY by Roman engineers (c. 312

➢ Civil BC)
➢ Chemical • It was built in 312 BC by Appius Claudius Caecus.
➢ Mechanical • Large stones made up the bulk of its construction
➢ Electrical and a softer gravel that was compacted between
the rocks cemented it.
Civil engineering • The Appian way were extremely important for it
➢ is arguably the oldest engineering discipline. It deals allowed trade and access to the east, specifically
with the built environment and can be dated to the first Greece.
time someone placed a roof over his or her head or • It might be most famous for its role in the slave
laid a tree trunk across a river to make it easier to get revolt lead by Spartacus in 73 B.C.
across.
➢ It is a professional engineering discipline that deals THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA by General Meng
with the design, construction, and maintenance of the T’ien under orders from Ch’in Emperor Shih
physical and naturally built environment, including Huang Ti (c. 220 BC)
works like roads, bridges, canals, dams, and
• The Great Wall of China was originally conceived
buildings.
by Emperor Qin Shi Huang in the third century
B.C. as a means of preventing incursions from
History of Civil Engineering
barbarian nomads.
➢ It is a professional engineering discipline that deals
• Made mostly of earth and stone, the wall stretched
with the design, construction, and maintenance of the
from the China Sea port of Shanhaiguan over
physical and naturally built environment, including
3,000 miles west into Gansu province.
works like roads, bridges, canals, dams, and
buildings. • From a base of 15 to 50 feet, the Great Wall rose
some 15-30 feet high and was topped by ramparts
Early Structures 12 feet or higher; guard towers were distributed at
intervals along it.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF PYRAMIDS IN EGYPT
(Circa 2700-2500 BC) HOOVER DAM
GIZA PYRAMIDS • Hoover Dam was constructed between 1931 and
• The first, largest, pyramid at Giza was built by 1936 during the Great Depression and was
Pharaoh Khufu (2551 B.C.). His pyramid, which dedicated on September 30, 1935, by President
today stands 455 feet (138 m) tall, is known as the Franklin D. Roosevelt. Herbert Hoover, the 31st
“Great Pyramid” and was considered to be a president of the United States and a committed
wonder of the world by ancient writers. conservationist, played a crucial role in making
Davis’ vision a reality. As secretary of commerce
• Around 2550 BC, Imhotep, the first documented
in 1921, Hoover devoted himself to the erection of
engineer, built a famous stepped pyramid for King
a high dam in Boulder Canyon, Colorado. The
Djoser located at Saqqara Necropolis. Using
dam would provide essential flood control, which
simple tools and mathematics he created a
would prevent damage to downstream farming
monument that stands up to this day.
communities that suffered each year when snow
from the Rocky Mountains melted and joined the
THE QANAT WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Colorado River. The main reason for building
• (The oldest older than 3000 years and longer than
Hoover Dam was to supply the electrical power
71 km)
necessary to transport 4.4 million acre-feet—over

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a quarter of the Colorado River's average annual PREHISTORIC CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
flow—to California.Soon, the dam also would FOLDED CORNERS
supply water to Las Vegas, whose revenue would ➢ Technique used where blocks cut with an internal
be used to finance more water projects. Hoover angle, so as the ‘fold’ the stone around corners. It is
Dam also allowed waterworks along the lower suggested that this was incorporated as an
Colorado to be safely constructed and maintained earthquake ‘preventative’.
as they operated upstream on a (now) tamely
flowing river. Provided for flood control and
irrigation

ROMAN AQUEDUCT
• The Roman aqueduct was a channel used to
transport fresh water to highly populated areas.
Aqueducts were amazing feats of engineering
given the time period. Though earlier civilizations MULTI- FACETTED CORNERS
in Egypt and India also built aqueducts, the ➢ Often suggested that this design feature was
Romans improved on the structure and built an incorporated into constructions as an earthquake
extensive and complex network across their preventative.
territories. Evidence of aqueducts remain in
parts of modern-day France, Spain, Greece, North
Africa, and Turkey.
• As water flowed into the cities, it was used for
drinking, irrigation, and to supply hundreds of
public fountains and baths.

EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE METAL BLOCK TIES

• Eddystone Lighthouse, lighthouse, celebrated in ➢ Commonly suggested as an earthquake preventative
folk ballads and seamen’s lore, standing on the is the means used to join huge block together.
Eddystone Rocks, 14 miles off Plymouth, England, Believed that copper or silver was used.
in the English Channel. The first lighthouse (1696–
99), built of timber, was swept away with its
designer, Henry Winstanley, by the great storm of
1703. The second, of oak and iron, designed by
John Rudyerd (1708), was destroyed by fire in
1755. John Smeaton built (1756–59) the third
Eddystone Lighthouse entirely of interlocking
QUARRY MARKS (for splitting stone)
stone, on a plan that revolutionized the
By far the easiest way of splitting Quartz stone is to chip
construction of such towers. It stood until it was
a series of holes into the stone, which are then packed
replaced in 1882 by the present structure, which
with ‘wedges and shims. Following the addition of water,
rises 133 feet (40 metres) above the water and
the wedges expanded and the stone splits along the line.
was designed by Sir James N. Douglass.

GOLDEN GATE BRIDGE

• With a lack of quick, reliable transportation, the city
stagnated and stopped growing. Although the ferry
service was popular at the time, many locals called
for a bridge to be constructed so that people could
travel more easily and quickly. STONEHENGE SARSEN STONES
• Many engineers and architects believed it
impossible to build a bridge over such a long ➢ The top of these uprights
channel, with its strong tides, deep water and were linked by a continuous
heavy outbursts of wind and fog. I wasn’t until ring of horizontal sarsen
1916 that James Wilkins, a former engineering lintels, only a small parts of
students, created one of the first feasible which is now still in position.
proposals for a complicated bridge costing around
$100 million. Although many shrugged off the
idea, engineer and poet Joseph Strauss believed
he cold pull off the impossible feat.

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ANCIENT CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS ADOBE
➢ a natural building material made from sand, clay,
ANCIENT BUILDING MATERIALS water and some kind of fibrous or organic material
Straw (sticks, straw and or manure)
➢ is a very light weight material. It is used as ➢ In hot climates, compared with wooden buildings offer
construction materials in middle ages. Straw building significant advantage due to their greater thermal
construction system is adopted for providing natural mass, but they are known to be particularly
appearance to the building. Though it provides susceptible to earthquake damage.
sufficient insulation but it is not durable. It is unable to
resist natural and seismic forces. The buildings made MODERN BULDING MATERIALS
up of straw possess poor fire resistant properties. Due
to this, it is not considered as a suitable material for Composites
construction process. ➢ Composites are materials which are prepared by
combining two or more constituent materials. The
Wattle & Daub materials remain separate and
➢ In ancient times, a composite material commonly ➢ different while forming a single compound. Usually, in
known as wattle and daub is used for making walls. composites one material forms a continuous matrix
In this, wattle (woven lattice of wooden strips) is whereas the other
coated (daubed) with a sticky material generally ➢ material provides the reinforcement.
prepared by mixing wet soil, clay, sand, animal dung
and straw. It is used in ancient times due to its High Strength Concrete
economy. It does not require special skills; also it ➢ High strength concrete is a type of concrete having
does not require the use of expensive materials. compressive strength more than 40 MPa at 28 days.
Despite of having several advantages, it has some It is prepared by reducing the water cement ratio to
drawbacks also. Wattle and daub walls require 0.35. In this, silica fumes are added which helps in
regular patching up. In order to keep the walls made preventing the formation of calcium hydroxides
of wattle and daub in good condition, it should be ➢ crystals in concrete. Due to the addition of silica
protected from damp and rain. This building material fumes and lower water cement ratio the concrete mix
is not suitable for the areas having wet climate. So, it becomes less workable. In order to minimize this
is also not widely used as a building material. difficulty, super plasticizers are added to the mixture.
To resist high compressive loads, High strength
Stones ➢ concrete is used in high rise buildings, in bridges,
➢ In ancient times, stone is used as a building material. foundations.
It possesses good resistance against abrasion. It is
quite strong and durable building material. Buildings Fiber Reinforced Concrete
made up of stones do not require painting. Also, the ➢ Fiber reinforced concrete is a type of concrete which
process of cleaning the house made up of stone is contains fibrous material which enhances the
very easy. Despite of having several merits, it has structural integrity. The reinforcement for this type of
some demerits also. The buildings constructed with concrete is internal and it does not require additional
stones are not economical. reinforcement.
➢ Also, the stones are not available in all the places
easily. Special skills are required for the construction Self-Compacting Concrete
of stone buildings. Stone structures cannot be ➢ Self-compacting concrete is a type of special concrete
repaired easily. Since, stones are available in which does not require vibration for placing and
irregular pattern; it requires special tools and compaction. It has ability to flow under its own weight.
techniques for its carving into a desired shape and The hardened concrete is dense, homogeneous and
size. Therefore, stone is not generally used as a possesses the same engineering properties and
building material. durability similar to traditional vibrated concrete.

Other Materials: EIGHT FAMOUS ENGINEERS AND THEIR

CONTRIBUTIONS
MUD Squire Whipple
➢ a mixture of earth and water, is economical, practical, ➢ Born 1804 in Hardwick,
functional and Massachusetts, Squire Whipple
➢ attractive. A natural building material that is found in quickly distinguished himself as a
abundance, especially where other building materials student. He graduated from the
such as bricks, stone or wood are scarce due to private Union College in
affordability and or availability. Schenectady, New York after just
one year of study.
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➢ In his professional life, he quickly became known as Gustave Eiffel
an expert bridge-builder, and was even called “the ➢ Frenchman Alexander Gustave
father of iron bridge building” in his native United Eiffel, born 1832 in Dijon, is now
States. He is particularly well known for the bowstring best known for the 986-foot tower
arch truss design he patented in 1841. Several that bears his name. The tower,
examples of his work persist to the present and some which was intended to be
are even still in use, including a sleek example in temporary, is just one of Eiffel’s
Albany. achievements. During his career,
he was better known for
Isambard Kingdom Brunel innovative ironwork bridges,
➢ Born 1806 in Portsmouth, railway stations, and cast iron, which
England, Isambard Kingdom he researched in great depth. His
Brunel was one of the leading career included projects in locales
civil and mechanical engineers as distant as Egypt and Chile, where he designed an
of the Industrial Revolution. all-metal prefabricated church for on-site assembly.
Today, he is best known for His biggest project before “le tour” was the
working on the Great Western observatory at Nice, completed 1886.
Railway, which connected
London with the Midlands and Arthur Casagrande
much of Wales. Launched in ➢ Austrian-born, American-
1833, it was completed by 1838 raised Arthur Casagrande
in no small part due to Brunel’s innovative designs. received his early training in
Brunel’s bridges and tunnels dotted Great Britain, and what is now Slovenia, earning
he was also responsible for numerous steamships. his civil engineering degree
He also contributed to the Thames Tunnel, though in from the Technische
a less active role. Hochschule (“Institute of
Technology”) in Vienna. In
1924, at age 22, Casagrande
left the war-ravaged region to
seek financial opportunities and bigger projects in the
United States. Securing a job at MIT, he became one
of the minds behind a leading soil mechanics lab his
supervisor set up in Vienna.
➢ Casagrande used his time in Europe to tour all the
John Smeaton active soil mechanics laboratories on the continent,
➢ Born 1724 in Leeds, bringing back cutting edge insight to MIT. Later, he
John Smeaton was a prolific became the first-ever Chair of Soil Mechanics and
figure of towering intellect Foundation Engineering at Harvard University. He
who became known as “The trained hundreds of personnel in the U.S. Army Corps
Father of Civil Engineering.” of Engineers and elsewhere.
As a youth, he joined the
family law firm before Karl Von Terzaghi
deciding his talents lie ➢ Karl Terzaghi, an Austrian born
elsewhere and becoming a in 1883, was the “father of soil
maker of mathematical tools. mechanics” and, for much of his
He did pioneering work on the career, the patron of Arthur
mechanics of windmills and Casagrande. It was Terzaghi
watermills, being lauded by whose research agenda was
the day’s learned societies. supported by Casagrande at
➢ Both his theoretical and MIT, and the two collaborated
applied knowledge contributed much over the years. Though
to a major increase in the efficiency of watermills, Casagrande brought soil mechanics to the U.S. and
which greatly accelerated the early Industrial its military, von Terzaghi is also credited with
Revolution. He was also responsible for over a dozen advancing other fields, such as railway and highway
major civil engineering projects, including harbors, engineering. His energetic desire to push the
canals, mills, and bridges. Civil engineering students boundaries of geology left him well-placed to work on
across Europe studied his contributions for decades the first hydroelectric plants in Vienna.
following his death. ➢ Von Terzaghi spent much of 1912 and 1913 in the
United States, touring major dams under
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construction. During World War I, he managed up to ➢ Through Telford’s work on various castles, churches,
1,000 engineers. Later in the war, he established a and prisons, he became established as an architect.
pioneering soil engineering lab while working for His first of 40 major bridge projects around Shropshire
Istanbul Technical University. Following the war, in was designed in 1790. By 1793, he was developing
1924, he published his revolutionary work Soil the Ellesmere Canal, an ambitious project to link the
Mechanics and soon brought his knowledge of the ironworks of Wrexham with Chester via Shropshire.
burgeoning field to the U.S as an MIT professor. He invented multiple new techniques for the project,
and was soon developing the road networks that
John A. Roebling cemented his legacy. In later years, he served as first
➢ John August Roebling, born 1806 president of the Institution of Civil Engineers.
in Prussia, learned French and
drafting at an early age before
attending the Royal Building
Academy in Berlin. As a student
in architecture and engineering,
he was drawn to the challenges
of the suspension bridge.
During three years of public
service, his requests to build
them were continuously
declined, contributing to a
decision to immigrate with his
brother. John relocated,
becoming an American citizen
in 1837 (his birth name was “Johann.”) He was among
the founders of the small village of Saxonburg,
Pennsylvania.
➢ He began his new career with the Pennsylvania Canal
System, and was placed in charge of surveying a
railroad route over the Allegheny Mountains. On this
job, he installed a wire rope that served as the basis
of his new, successful business. In 1844, he built a
suspension bridge in Pittsburgh, launching an
illustrious career as America’s foremost expert on
suspension designs. His newfound success lasted
until his death in 1869, and his various business
interests passed to his seven children and his second
wife.

Thomas Telford
➢ Scotsman Thomas Telford,
born 1757 in the
borderland with England,
was known in his day as
the “Colossus of Roads.”
So prolific was he in
developing the civil
infrastructure of his native
Scotland and, ultimately,
Britain as a whole, that his
labors helped lay the
foundations for the
Industrial Revolution.
Apprenticed to a
stonemason at 14, he
worked throughout
Edinburgh and London
before becoming Surveyor of Public Works in _lav kau ni sean

Shropshire.
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