Dental Materials Assis. Prof. Dr.

Ibrahim Alfahdawi
Lec. 9
Plastic deformation (creep): Amalgam undergoes a certain amount of plastic
deformation or creep when subjected to dynamic intra-oral stresses. After
loading, the change in length of the specimen is monitored for 4 hours and the
creep is calculated as the change in length between 1 hour and 4 hours as a
percentage of the original length. Creep causes the amalgam to flow, such that
unsupported amalgam protrudes from the margin of the cavity. These
unsupported edges are weak and may be further weakened by corrosion.
Fracture causes the formation of a ‘ditch’ around the margins of the amalgam
restoration. The γ2 phase of amalgam is primarily responsible for the relatively
high values of creep exhibited by some materials. The copper-enriched
amalgams, which contain little or no γ2 in the set material, have significantly
lower creep values.
Corrosion: The term corrosion should be distinguished from the often-
misused term tarnish. Amalgam readily tarnishes due to the formation of a
sulphide layer on the surface.
Corrosion is a more serious matter that may significantly affect the structure
and mechanical properties. Corrosion produces a restoration with poor
appearance and may significantly affect mechanical properties. They are
thought to gather at the restoration-tooth interface and to eventually form a
seal which prevents microleakage (percolation). This proposed mechanism is
supported by the fact that, in laboratory tests, microleakage is observed to
decrease with time if amalgam restored teeth are stored in a corrosive
environment. Copper-enriched amalgams contain little or no γ2 phase has
corrosion currents produced, however, are lower than those for conventional
amalgams.
Thermal properties: Amalgam has a relatively high value of thermal
diffusivity, as would be expected for a metallic restorative material. Thus, in
constructing an amalgam restoration, an insulating material, dentine, is
replaced by a good thermal conductor. In large cavities, it is necessary to line
the base of the cavity with an insulating, cavity lining material prior to
condensing the amalgam. This reduces the harmful effects of thermal stimuli
on the pulp.

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Dental Materials Assis. Prof. Dr. Ibrahim Alfahdawi
Biological properties: Certain mercury compounds are known to have a
harmful effect on the central nervous system. A lower, but continuing, dose
results from ingestion of corrosion products. Some studies have shown a
higher concentration of mercury in the blood and urine of patients with
amalgam fillings than those without. Levels of mercury were generally within
acceptable limits however, and some studies have been unable to demonstrate
a difference between patients with amalgam fillings and those without.
Concerns over mercury release from amalgam fillings should have become
less of an issue since the introduction and widespread use of non-γ2 alloys.
Where amalgam use is deprecated, the potential hazardous effects of
alternative materials are often conveniently neglected including the
cytotoxicity of various components. Another potential problem concerns
allergic reactions to mercury in dental amalgam. Mercury vapour may be
released into the atmosphere during trituration, condensation or during the
removal of old amalgam restorations. The levels of atmospheric mercury will
increase if an attempt is made to sterilize instruments contaminated with
mercury or dental amalgam. Mercury-containing material should always be
stored well away from any heat source. Spillages of mercury, which occur
near any source of heat, such as radiator or oven, will cause a marked increase
in the concentration of mercury in the atmosphere. Excess, waste or scrap
amalgam should be stored, under water or chemical fixative solution, in a
sealed container in order to prevent another possible source of contamination.
Mercury or freshly mixed amalgam should never be touched by hand.
Mercury is readily absorbed by the skin, a fact that was obviously not
appreciated in the days when it was normal practice to ‘mull’ the material in
the hand before condensation.
Manipulative variables
The manipulation of amalgam involves the following sequence of events.
(1) Proportioning and dispensing;
(2) Trituration;
(3) Condensation;
(4) Carving;
(5) Polishing.

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Dental Materials Assis. Prof. Dr. Ibrahim Alfahdawi
The way in which each of these operations is carried out has an effect on the
properties of the final restoration.
Proportioning and dispensing: Alloy/mercury ratios vary between 5:8 and
10:8. Those mixes containing greater quantities of mercury are ‘wetter’ and
are generally used with hand mixing. Those mixes containing smaller
quantities of mercury are ‘drier’ and are generally used with mechanical
mixing. For any given alloy/mercury ratio, the nature of the mix may vary
depending upon the size and shape of the alloy particles. Spherical particle
alloys, for example, require less mercury to produce a workable mix. Those
materials used at alloy/mercury ratios at or approaching 5:8 require the
removal of excess mercury following trituration and during condensation. If
too much mercury is present, in the final set amalgam it is likely that too,
much of the relatively hard γ phase will be converted into relatively weak and
soft γ2 phase and that a considerable amount of mercury will remain
unreacted.
Trituration: The mixing or trituration of amalgam may be carried out by hand,
using a mortar and pestle, or in an electrically powered machine, which
vibrates a capsule containing the mercury and alloy. The trituration time may
have an effect on the properties of the final set amalgam. Some products
require at least 40 seconds trituration in order to achieve full ‘wetting’ of alloy
particles by mercury and optimal properties in the amalgam. Following
trituration it is necessary to reduce the mercury content of the mix before
condensing. This is normally done by placing the amalgam into a strip of
gauze and squeezing to express excess mercury which appears as droplets on
the outside.
Alternatively, mechanical mixing in a semi-automatic machine, which also
proportions mercury and alloy, is possible. The use of encapsulated,
preproportioned materials is probably the most convenient, although also the
most expensive option. For all three options, trituration times of 5–20 seconds
are normal. The trituration time will vary according to the nature of the alloy
and the alloy: mercury ratio. The advantages of mechanical trituration are as
follows.
(1) A uniform and reproducible mix is produced.
(2) A shorter trituration time can be used.

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Dental Materials Assis. Prof. Dr. Ibrahim Alfahdawi
(3) A greater alloy/mercury ration can be used.
The contents remain warm at this stage and the capsule should be opened
away from the face in well-ventilated conditions.
Condensation: Following trituration, the material is packed or condensed into
the prepared cavity. The most widely used method of condensation is with a
hand instrument called an amalgam condenser. These are flat-ended and come
in a variety of styles. The shape and size of the condenser should be chosen
with the size of the cavity in mind. The condenser must be able to fit within
the cavity outline and should be able to get reasonably close to the peripheral
margin of the restoration. The amalgam is packed in increments, each
increment being equivalent to the volume of material that can be carried in an
amalgam ‘gun’. (Carrier) This is the device used to transfer the material from
the mixing vessel to the prepared cavity. During condensation, a fluid,
mercury-rich layer is formed on the surface of each incremental layer. The
cavity is overfilled and the mercury-rich layer carved away from the surface.
This effectively reduces the mercury content of the filling thus improving its
mechanical properties. The technique chosen for condensation must ensure
the following.
(1) Adequate adaptation of the material to all parts of the cavity base and
walls.
(2) Good bonding between the incremental layers of amalgam.
(3) Optimal mechanical properties in the set amalgam by minimizing porosity
and achieving a final mercury content of 44–48%.
There should be a minimal time delay between trituration and condensation.
If condensation is commenced too late, the amalgam will have achieved a
certain degree of set and adaptation, bonding of increments and final
mechanical properties are all adversely affected.
Carving: The objectives of carving an amalgam restoration are to remove the
mercury-rich layer on the amalgam surface and to rebuild the anatomy of the
tooth, re-establishing contact with the opposing dentition. Obviously a
knowledge of normal tooth anatomy is necessary for this purpose. Soon after
condensing the amalgam, the surface layer, which is rich in mercury, is carved
away with a sharp instrument.

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Dental Materials Assis. Prof. Dr. Ibrahim Alfahdawi
Carving should be carried out when the material has reached a certain degree
of set. Spherical amalgams are easier to carve than lathe-cut materials and
fine-grain products easier than coarse-grain.
Polishing: Polishing is carried out in order to achieve a lustrous surface
having a more acceptable appearance and better corrosion resistance. The
fillings should not be polished until the material has achieved a certain level
of mechanical strength; otherwise, there is a danger of fracture, particularly at
the margins. The strength that should be attained before polishing is
commenced is not certain but many products require a delay of 24 hours
between placing and polishing. Gross irregularities in the surface are reduced
using multi-bladed steel burs in a slow hand piece. This stage should result in
a smooth surface contour. Fine polishing to produce a luster is then
undertaken using graded abrasives, either flours of pumice followed by zinc
or ceric oxides with water as a carrier or by using abrasive impregnated rubber
points and wheels. Pastes need to be applied using a rubber cup or brush, but
are less frequently used now that impregnated points are available. One
beneficial effect of using a rubber carrier for the abrasive (either a cup or a
point) is to burnish the surface of the restoration, improving its marginal
adaptation. Care is required when using impregnated rubber points as the
amalgam can be heated significantly as a result of friction between the
material and the rotating point. They should be used with intermittant contact
pressures rather than continuous loads.