RING SPINNING

TASKS OF THE RING SPINNING MACHINE

• To draw the roving to its final count in the

drafting system
• To impart tenacity to the bundle of fibers by
twisting it,
• To wind up the resulting yarn in a suitable
form for storage, transport and downstream
processing.
Advantages of the ring spinning machine over the
new spinning processes:
• it can be used universally, i.e. any material and
any yarn count can be spun on it
• it produces yarn with optimum properties
(especially as regards structure and tenacity)
• it is uncomplicated and easy to control
• know-how for handling the machine is old, well
established and accessible to everyone
• it is flexible with regard to volume (blend and
batch sizes).
OPERATING PARTS
roving bobbin (1)
Roving (2)
holder (3) on the creel
guide bars (4)
drafting system (5)
thin ribbon of fibers (6)
yarn guide eyelet (7)
spindle (8)
traveler (9)
ring (10)
 OPERATING PRINCIPLE
• The roving bobbins (1) are inserted in holders (3) on the creel.
• Guide bars (4) guide the rovings (2) into the drafting system (5), where they are
drawn to their final count.
• Drafted ribbon of fibers (6) leaves the delivery roller,
• the twist necessary for imparting strength is provided by spindle (8) rotating at high
speed.
• In the process each rotation of the traveler on the spinning ring (10) produces a twist
in the yarn.
• The traveler (9) - a remnant of the flyer on the roving frame - moves on a guide rail
around the spindle, the so-called ring (10).
• The traveler has no drive of its own, it is dragged with spindle (8) via the yarn
attached to it. The rotation of the traveler lags somewhat behind that of the spindle
due to the relatively high friction of the ring traveler on the ring and the atmospheric
resistance of the traveler and the thread balloon between yarn guide eyelet (7) and
traveler (9). This difference in speed between the spindle and the traveler results in
the thread being wound onto the tube.
• In contrast to the roving frame, the ring spinning machine spindle operates with at
higher speed than the traveller (9).
• The yarn is wound up into a cylindrical cop form by raising and lowering of the
rings, which are mounted on a continuous ring rail. The layer traverse of the ring rail
is also less than the full winding height of the tube. The ring rail therefore has to be
raised slightly (shift traverse) after each layer has been wound.
THE CREEL Although the bobbin creel is simple in design, it
can have an influence on the occurrence of
faults. If take-off from the bobbin is not
trouble-free;
• incorrect drafts, or
• thread breaks occur.

In order to prevent this, bobbin suspension

pivots are used . These are, bolted onto several
support rails (triangular tubing (2)) arranged,
one for each spindle.

The pivots, feature the actual holding device for

the tube in their lower section (6). If ring (5) is
pushed right up with the top end of the tube
inserted in the pivot, retainer (6) for the bobbin
swings out; if ring (5) is pushed upward a
second time, holder (6) is retracted again, and
the tube can be removed again. A light brake
hoop occasionally presses gently against the
bobbin so that the bobbin cannot rotate too fast.
 THE DRAFTING SYSTEM

The drafting system is at an angle of 45-60° and is one of the most important units on
the machine, since it exerts a very considerable influence on the uniformity of the yarn
in particular
3-roller, double-apron drafting systems are used exclusively on modern ring spinning
machines used for short staple spinning. They consist of three fluted, driven, bottom
steel rollers (a) with top rollers (b) positioned above them, supported and pressed
against bottom rollers (a) by a rocking support (c) (pressure arm). Since a fiber bundle
with only few fibers has to be transported in the main drafting zone, the main drafting
zone is provided with a guide unit consisting of rotating bottom and top aprons (e).
The top rollers are usually arranged with an
overlap (a) of 2 - 4 mm for the front rollers and
an underlap (b) of 2 - 4 mm for the middle
rollers.

The overlap and underlap ensure smooth running

of the top rollers, and the overlap of the front
roller also shortens the spinning triangle by
advancing the nip line, which has a
correspondingly positive impact on ends down
frequency.

Another roller configuration has been

offered by the INA company in the so-
called VDraft drafting system. In this
case the rear top roller is shifted to the
rear on the bottom roller. The larger
wrapping arc (a) results in an additional
fiber control zone. However, it can also
result in a wider spread of the fiber
ribbon.
Properties Of Top Rollers
Top Roller Types:

Twin rollers (compensating rollers) are used on ring spinning machines.

They are supported by the the pressure arm in the center and they can
rock slightly relative to the axis of the bottom roller. Two versions are
available :
• fixed rollers (with the two pressure bodies which can only be rotated
together)
• loose rollers (with the two pressure bodies separately mounted and
able to rotate independently of each other).

A distinction is also made according to whether the roller bodies;

a) can be removed from the shaft (removable shell), or
b) are permanently attached to the shaft (non-removable shell).
Covers:
The pressure roller covers are made of synthetic rubber. There are different ranges of
hardness:
 soft: 60°-70° Shore
 medium hard: 70°-90° Shore
 hard: over 90° Shore

Soft covers have a larger contact surface, so;

• They enclose the fiber bundle more fully, thus providing more effective guidance
(advantage).
• They wear rather more quickly and have a greater tendency to form laps due to the
fulling effect (disadvantage).

Increased control is an advantage at the delivery end, where only few fibers remain in the
bundle and these have a tendency to drift apart. Medium hard covers (approx. 80°-85°
Shore) are therefore usually used on the back rollers and soft covers (63°-67° Shore) on the
front rollers.

Harder covers are also chosen at the front, i.e. at the delivery end, for coarser yarns and
manmade fiber yarns due to wear (also due to the higher tendency to lap formation in the
case of man-made fibers).

Since the covers wear, they have to be ground on special grinding machines from time to
time.
Three types of pressure roller loading are used
on ring spinning machines:

• Spring loading (most manufacturers)

• Pneumatic loading (Rieter on all machines for
some decades, and recently also Texparts)
• magnetic loading (previously by Saco Lowell)
Fibre Guidance Devices

Double Apron Drafting System

In the double apron drafting system the fiber guidance

unit consists of two aprons rotating with the middle
rollers. The top apron must be pressed against the bottom
apron with controlled force in order to provide guidance.
For this purpose there must be a gap between the two
aprons at the apron delivery end (tensor gap) that is
precisely adjusted to the fiber volume. This gap can be
adjusted by using different spacer plates, shoes, etc.
The top aprons, which are often plastic aprons, are
always short. However, the bottom aprons can be as short
as the top aprons or quite a bit longer and guided
accordingly around deflecting elements.
The advantage of long bottom aprons over short aprons is
that they are easy to replace in the event of damage. They
are also less inclined to become clogged with fiber fly.
Short apron arrangement is not used so often.
Influence Of The Drafting System
In terms of quality, the drafting system is the most important part of the machine. It
primarily influences the uniformity and tenacity of the yarns.

The important aspects are:

• the type of drafting system;
• its design;
• precise settings;
• choice of the correct components;
• choice of the correct drafts;
• maintenance and servicing, etc.

The drafting system also has an influence on economy, i.e. directly via ends down
frequency and indirectly via degree of draft.

In order to obtain optimum results, the break draft zone must be set in such a way that
the roving is under tension in this zone, but only sufficiently for no real drafting to
occur. Optimum settings depend on ;
• fiber material,
• roving count,
• roving twist.
 THE SPINDLE

Spindles (and the spindle drive) have a considerable influence on

the machine‘s energy consumption and noise level. However, the
running behavior of the spindle, especially balancing errors and
eccentricity relative to the ring, also have an impact on yarn
quality and on ends down frequency.

Since badly running spindles have an adverse impact on almost

all yarn parameters, spinning mills must always ensure the best
possible centering of rings and spindles.
Spindle Drives:

1. Tape drive
a) individual spindle drive
b) group drive
2. Tangential belt drive
3. Direct drive.
a) mechanical direct drive
b) motorized direct drive.

Only group drive in the form of 4-spindle tape drive or tangential belt drive are usually used in
short staple spinning.

Compared with tangential belt drive, 4-spindle tape drive has the advantage of operating with
rather lower noise levels and energy consumption, although belts are easier to replace.

The advantages of tangential belt drive are:

• elimination of drive elements under the machine,
• less air disturbance under the machine,
• less maintenance effort.
 4-spindle Tape Drive
In the 4-spindle tape drive a tape drives two
spindles on one side of the machine and two
further spindles on the other side of the
machine. When changing from one side to
the other the tape passes around a drive
cylinder or drive pulley (1). 1-2 tension
rollers (2) ensure good, uniform tensioning
of the tape.

Tangential Belt Drive

In the tangential belt drive a belt coming
from the suspended drive motor passes
along the back of all the spindles. A large
number of pressure rollers ensure that the
belt is pressed uniformly against all the
spindles. A fundamental distinction is made
between three basic forms: single-belt,
double-belt and group drive.
 THE THREAD GUIDE DEVICES
The thread guide eyelet
There is a thread guide fitted immediately over the spindle, in order to guide the yarn centrally
over the center axis of the spindle.

The thread guide consists of wire eyelet (o) and thread board (k). The thread guide eyelet is
mounted adjustably in the thread board to enable it to be centered. The latter is itself fitted on a
continuous thread guide rail (r). The rail can be raised and lowered together with the thread
guides. While cops are being wound it performs the same movements as the ring rail, but with a
smaller traverse height (continuous raising and lowering during layering and continuous lift by
small amounts as switching traverse). This prevents the differences in balloon height between the
individual ring rail positions from becoming too large.

Thread guides must be centered from time to time by means of a pointer (s) fitted on the spindle.
Since the thread passes through the inside edge rather than the center of eyelet (o), the tip of the
centering pointer must point to the inside edge of the eyelet .
The balloon checking ring (antiballooning
device)

When relatively high spindles are used, the balloon is

correspondingly large. When dragging the
traveler with it, the yarn in the balloon assumes a
distinctly curved shape and the balloon becomes
unstable. In order to prevent this „necking“
(transition from a single to a multiple balloon), the
balloon is restricted in the middle by the balloon
checking ring in such a way that two smaller
balloons are formed which are in themselves stable.

Balloon checking rings permit operation at higher

speeds (advantage), but can cause (disadvantages):
• napping of the thread,
• severe fiber abrasion (formation of fly) and
• formation of melt points on manmade fibers
as the thread rubs against them.
The separators

When a yarn end down occurs, in the

absence of a protective device, the yarn
would be flung into the neighboring
balloon and that yarn would also be
broken. In order to prevent this,
aluminum or plastic separator plates
are arranged between the individual
spindles
 THE RING
The ring is in most cases responsible
for the limitation of the ring spinning
machine‘s productivity, depending on
the interaction of ring, traveler and
yarn. Optimum running conditions
depend on:
• ring and traveler material
• surface finish of the components
• the shape of both components
• coordination of the shapes
• wear resistance
• smooth running
• running in procedure
• fiber lubrication
The Ring Shape

A distinction is made between:

• unlubricated rings
• T-Flange rings
• Inclined-flange rings

• lubricated rings (in carded yarn and worsted

spinning)

The standard rings used in short staple spinning are

the unlubricated rings.
T-flange rings are either single-sided or two-sided. Single-sided rings have to
be replaced by new ones when they wear out, while two-sided rings can then
be reversed and used on the other side.

Two dimensions are especially important in short staple spinning rings,

namely inside diameter D and flange F.
The ‘anti-wedge’ ring
It features a flange with a flared inside surface and is
flattened off considerably on top. This change in shape
enabled a traveler with a low center of gravity and
precisely adjusted arc (elliptical traveler) to be used and
thus also permitted operation at higher speeds. Anti-
wedge rings and elliptical travelers belong together and
should only be used in combination. Since the space for
the yarn passage is limited, this combination can only be
used for fine and medium count yarns.

The ‘cropped ring’ (standard ring)

The arc is flattened on top. This results in a large space
for yarn passage, so that the arc of the traveler can also
be flattened off (oval traveler/flat traveler) and the center
of gravity lowered. Its advantage over the anti-wedge
ring is that the space for yarn passage is rather larger and
all customary ring travelers with the exception of the
elliptical traveler can be mounted on it. This is the most
widely used ring shape nowadays.
Inclined-flange rings
The advantage of inclined-flange (ORBIT) rings is the much larger contact
area between ring and traveler. This reduces the pressure between ring and
traveler and thus improves heat dissipation from the contact area.
In comparison to T-flange rings, ORBIT rings enable traveler speeds to be
increased by up to 15%.
The Ring Material

The materials used are :

• case hardening steel
• nitride steel
• ball bearing steel

Modern rings usually feature a surface coating, in order to

• reduce friction,
• reduce wear,
• prevent corrosion and
• simplify running-in the ring
A good ring should have;

• the best possible raw material as starting material

• good, but not excessive surface smoothness
• flat surface
• precise ring roundness
• good, uniform surface hardness, higher than that of the traveler
• perfectly run-in (optimum running-in conditions)
• long service life
• correct ratio of ring diameter to tube diameter (2:1 to 2.2:1)
• exact horizontal position
• been exactly centered relative to the spindle.
Fiber Lubrication On The Ring
The interaction of ring and traveler involved is not a purely metal/metal friction. In
fact, the traveler moves on a lubricant film it has created itself, consisting primarily
of fiber abrasion waste. If fiber particles are caught between the ring and the traveler
at high speeds and correspondingly high centrifugal forces, they are partially
crushed by the traveler. It compresses them as small, colorlessly translucent lamina
several μm thick into a solid running surface. These lamina adhere very differently
to the ring and within the lubricant film, and are therefore repeatedly stripped off,
but also renewed again.

The position, form and structure of the lubricant film depends on many factors, such
as yarn count, yarn structure, yarn raw material, traveler mass, traveler speed, arc
height, etc.

When worn rings are replaced by new ones, there is a lack a lubricant film. Purely
metal/metal friction therefore prevails for a certain length of time. This is a very
critical phase, since the rings can very quickly be damaged by scoring and pick-up.
Ring manufacturers have therefore specified precise rules for running- in, adapted to
the given type of ring, for the running-in phase during which the surface of the ring
has to be smoothed and passivated (oxidized) and coated with a lubricant film.
Follower Rings

The generation of heat in the traveler limits the productivity of ring spinning machines There are
two possibilities for avoiding this:
• by preventing heat generation,
• by rapid dissipation of the heat generated.

Preventing heat generation is only possible to a large degree if the relative speed of the ring and
the traveler can be reduced to almost zero or even zero, i.e. the ring must also rotate. The result is
the follower ring. Follower rings are mounted on ball bearings or rotate as rotors in an air
bearing. These rings usually follow the traveler. However, at start-up only the traveler rotates
initially until the centrifugal force and thus the contact pressure are sufficient to start the ring
rotating.
Since many problems arised, rotating rings have not become established in practice today.
 THE TRAVELER
The traveler;

• imparts twist to the yarn, and

• is responsible for winding the yarn onto the cop.

However, a second device – the spindle – is required for winding. In this process
the take-up length always corresponds to the difference between the peripheral
speeds of the two units. This must be equal to the delivery length in the long run.
The difference is due to the fact that the traveler speed lags behind the
spindle speed, since the traveler does not have its own drive, but is only carried
along by the spindle.

The yarn tension necessary for a stable balloon is generated by the friction of the
traveler on the ring (and partly by the drag of the thread balloon). The traveler is
pressed against the ring mainly by the centrifugal force acting on it. This results in
friction between the ring and the traveler. However, this friction caused by the high
contact pressure also generates considerable heat. This is the root of the
ring/traveler problem, since the small mass of the traveler means that it is not
possible to dissipate the heat generated in the time available. The result of this is
the limitation in traveler speed.
Travelers have to wind up very different yarns. It is impossible to
spin this diversity of yarns using only one type of traveler; quite a
wide range of travelers is required for this purpose. Differences
arise from:
• Shape
• Mass
• Raw material
• Additional treatment of the material
• Wire profile
• Thread passage size (arc height).
Traveler Shape

The shape of the traveler must coincide exactly with that of the
ring flange, so that only one contact surface – which should be as large
as possible – exists between the two units. The top of the traveler arc
should also be as flat as possible.
Flat arc shape;
• keeps its center of gravity low, and
• enhances smooth running.
Both of these factors have a significant influence on the traveler speed.
However, if the space for thread passage is too small the thread rubs on
the ring, which results in
• napping of the thread,
• high production of fiber fly,
• reduced quality, and
• the formation of melt points in manmade fibers.
The Basic Traveler Shapes Use In Short Staple Spinning:
a) C travelers
b) flat or oval travelers
c) elliptical travelers
d) N travelers
e) the ORBIT travelers

Traveler shapes:
a, C traveler;
b, flat traveler (standard
traveler);
c, elliptical traveler;
d, N traveler
The wire profile also influences running
behavior, i.e. through:

• the contact surface on the ring

• smooth running
• heat dissipation
• thread passage space, and
• certain yarn properties:
o sloughing resistance
o hairiness.
The Traveler Material

The ring traveler should:

• generate as little heat as possible
• quickly distribute the heat that is nevertheless generated from the site where it
occurs (contact surface) to the traveler as a whole
• dissipate the heat quickly to the ring and the air
• be elastic, so that the traveler can be pressed onto the ring without breaking
• display high wear resistance
• have a slightly lower hardness than the ring,

The travelers used in short staple spinning are made of steel. However, pure steel
does not ideally fulfill the first three requirements. So, the running conditions can
be improved through surface finishing.
Traveler Mass

The mass of the traveler determines the degree of friction of the traveler on the ring and thus the
yarn tension.
• If the mass is too low, the balloon becomes too large, the cop too soft and the amount of
material taken up on the cop too small.
• If the mass is too high, high thread tension and frequent ends down take place.

 The mass of the traveler must be adjusted exactly to the yarn (count, tenacity) and the spindle
speed.
 If there is a choice between two traveler weights, the heavier one is usually preferred, since
this results in higher cop weight, smoother running of the traveler and better heat dissipation.

In ISO, the traveler number is given as the mass of 1 000 travelers in grams.

Yarn twist Knitting Lighter travellers

Fibre type Blends, synthetics 1-2 number heavier travellers

Spindle speed Higher RPM Rather lighter travellers

Spinning geometry

Small ring diameter Small balloon Lighter travellers

Large ring diameter Large balloon Heavier travellers

 LONG-STAPLE RING SPINNING
The basic features of short-staple (cotton) and long-staple (wool) ring
spinning are similar, but there are important differences which influence the
economics of both the yarn and the fabric production associated with each.
In particular, the differences of length, fineness and the nature of the fibres
spun merit consideration.

Cotton is much finer and shorter than wool; it has a higher tenacity but lower
extensibility. The scale of the drafting system geometry is therefore related to
these fibre parameters:
• The sizes of the rings and bobbins are much smaller for cotton fibres
because the yarns are, on average, finer.
• The shapes of the rings and travellers are also different for the two fibre
types. This is because the cotton traveller is designed to crush loose fibres,
enabling the wax on the cotton fibre to lubricate the sliding action of the
traveller around the ring. For wool, lubricating oil is wicked onto the ring
and the traveller slides on this lubricating film.
• The smaller rings and traveliers enable short-staple ring-spinning speeds to
be approximately twice those for long-staple
 WOOLLEN RING
Apron drafting systems are suitable for use only where the fiber length distribution
of the material to be processed is not wide (i.e., not a significant amount of very
short and very long fibers).

When the standard distribution is higher, the material is more commonly drafted
with a false-twister, which essentially replaces the drafting apron. This is typical of
the ring spinning system for producing woolen yarns in which the slubbings from
the woolen card are fed through the false-twister to the front rollers of the drafting
system.

If twist is imparted to a fiber strand, it takes effect primarily where it encounters

least resistance, i.e. in the thin places.
If a draft is now applied to the strand, the fibers begin to slide apart at the locations
where the friction between them is least, i.e. where the twist is lowest. This is at the
thick places. They are drawn first until they reach the volume of the thin places.
After that, the twist is distributed and the draft affects all portions uniformly. If
another thin place were to arise, the whole procedure would be repeated.
Compensation occurs continually. This operation is typical of selfactor spinning and
woolen spinning systems.
False-twister drafting
In spinning, a strand's weakness makes necessary special precautions in order to locally
strengthen the yam at the weak points. In drafting, false twist is introduced to bring the drafting
point closer to the nip of the delivery rolls than otherwise would be possible with large rolls.
The false twist runs to the twister surface. Consequently, the effective ratch setting is between
the twist transition point and the nip of the delivery rolls. In a typical system the false twist
spindle runs at anywhere from 20% to 60% of the main spindle speed. Higher percentages
apply mostly to the higher speed spindles. The lower part of the drafting section usually
comprises a series of rolls (A and B) that are fairly conventional. Fiber control is also needed in
drafting. A fiber control device (D) fulfills much the same function as an apron in short-staple
spinning. The distance between D and E is a function ofthe fiber length. The output is twisted
and wound by a ring spinning machine similar to those used for short spinning ones.

The tensions caused by spinning are reduced by using collapsed balloons or balloon control
rings.
False-twister
 The slubbing S unwinds from the cheese H,
which, with other cheeses, rests on a condenser-
bobbin drum N.
The slubbing passes through the nip of the
back rollers, and, considerable efforts have been
made to ensure that BR makes an effective nip while
rotating and also ease of rethreading the slubbing.
The stationary rod B (or rotating shaft) is
movable. Its function is to tension the thread T so as
to control the effectiveness of the rotating false-
twister device F driven by belt D.
Immediately below F, there is a front
pressure roller FR, forming a double nip with the
other two front rollers.. Considerable effort has also
been nade to ensure an effective nip and ensure ease
of passing through it a thread end either manually or
automatically.
The yarn is trapped by the spindle top ST,
which has indentations or is modified by a
protrusion. Almost immediately after this, it passes
through an eyelet positioned above the spindle axis.
The belt DT derives the spindle wharve W.
 The Spindle Top (for collapsed balloon spinning)

For a given yarn count and spindle speed, there must be a minimum balloon tension below which the
balloon length has the tendency to form a nodal point between the lappet and the traveler, resulting in
balloon collapses. If we therefore wish to increase the balloon height for a given count and spindle speed,
the balloon tension must be increased. However, too high a tension could result in increased end breaks
and low machine efficiency.

Since the traveler is pulled around the ring circumference by the yarn, the drag of the traveler mass,
influences the tension in the yarn. Also, if the balloon height is large, the required traveller mass could
result in a spinning tension greater than the strength of the yarn being spun. To circumvent the use of too
heavy a traveler, balloon control rings are used to prevent a nodal point from forming in the balloon
profile. With medium to coarse count yarns, say 40 to 100 tex, building sizeable packages requires the use
of a balloon control ring.

For very coarse counts, such as in the area of carpet yarns, it becomes necessary to spin with a collapsed
balloon in order to produce a useful size spinning package for rewinding. The yarn balloon length partially
wraps around the spindle, but such coarse yarns have sufficient strength to overcome the frictional drag of
the spindle without breaking. The frictional contact with the spindle will resist the twist propagation
toward the front drafting rollers, this is additional to the effect of the lappet.

A false-twisting device fitted on the end of the spindle is therefore used to prevent
spinning beaks because of low twist reaching the spinning triangle.
The Spindle Top (for collapsed balloon spinning)
The Production Equation for Ring Spinning

𝑛. 60. 𝜂
𝑃=
𝑇. 𝑁. 1000

𝑘𝑔
𝑃 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒
ℎ
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝜂 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (%)
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡 (𝑡/𝑚)
𝑁 = 𝑌𝑎𝑟𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 (𝑁𝑚 )
Improvements can be achieved by:

• further development of rings and travelers

• using automated take-off devices (doffers)
• reducing the ring diameter, which enables the rotation speed of the spindle to be increased
while traveler speed remains unchanged.
• increasing machine length, which reduces the machine price
• reducing ends down frequency, in which the new data collection systems and new drive
systems can be of great assistance
• improving roving quality, since the causes of at least 50% of all ends down on the ring
spinning machine are to be found in the preparatory machines
• combining the ring spinning machine and the automatic winder into a production unit
• Roving stop motions primarily for reducing waste and preventing laps; they could perhaps
enable operations to be maintained with fewer personnel during certain working periods
• automation in the fields of roving bobbin transport and roving bobbin change.
References:
• Lawrence, C. A., Advances in Yarn Spinning Technology, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., 2010,
ISBN 9781845694449
• Lawrence, C. A., Fundamentals of Spun yarn Technology, CRC Press, , 2003, ISBN
1566768217
• Lord, P.R., Handbook of Yarn Production: Technology, Science and Economics, Woodhead
Publishing Ltd., 2003, ISBN 0849317819
• The Rieter Manual of Spinning Series
• McCreight, D.J., Feil, R.W., Booterbaugh, J.H., Backe, E.E., Short Staple Yarn
Manufacturing, Carolina Academic Press,1997, ISBN 0890898537
• Klein, W., Short Staple Spinning Series, 1987, The Textile Institute, ISBN 0900739924