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 Manufacturing Technology-I

Department: Mechanical

Batch/Year: second year

Created by: G.KALIRAJ / BAJLAJI KRISHNA BHARATHI.A

Date: 29.07.2020

4
 Table of Contents

S.NO CONTENTS PAGE NO

1 Course Objectives 6

2 Pre Requisites 7

3 Syllabus 8

4 Course outcomes 10

5 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 11

6 Lecture Plan 12

7 Activity based learning 13

8 Lecture Notes 14

9 Assignments 70

10 Part A Q & A 72

11 Part B Qs 74

12 Supportive online Certification courses 75

13 Real time Applications in day to day life and to Industry 76

14 Contents beyond the Syllabus 77

15 Assessment Schedule 79

16 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 80

17 Mini Project suggestions 81

5
 COURSE OBJECTIVES

To introduce the concepts of basic manufacturing processes and fabrication

techniques, such as metal casting, metal joining, metal forming and manufacture of

plastic components..

6
 PRE – REQUISITE CHART

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY I
(III Sem)

ENGINEERING BASIC
DRAWING ENGINEERING

MODE OF DELIVERY ASSESSMENT COMPONENTS

MD 1. Oral presentation AC 1. Unit/ Internal Assessment/ Model
MD 2. PP /Video Presentation Test
MD 3. Demonstration AC 2. Assignment
AC 3. Seminar
AC 4. Unit Project

7
 ME8351 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY – I

ME8351 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY – I LTPC 3003

UNIT I METAL CASTING PROCESSES 9

Sand Casting : Sand Mould – Type of patterns - Pattern Materials – Pattern

allowances –Moulding sand Properties and testing – Cores –Types and applications –
Moulding machines– Types and applications; Melting furnaces : Blast and Cupola
Furnaces; Principle of special casting processes : Shell - investment – Ceramic mould
– Pressure die casting - Centrifugal Casting - CO2 process – Stir casting; Defects in
Sand casting
UNIT II JOINING PROCESSES 9

Operating principle, basic equipment, merits and applications of: Fusion welding
processes: Gas welding - Types – Flame characteristics; Manual metal arc welding –
Gas Tungsten arc welding - Gas metal arc welding – Submerged arc welding –
Electro slag welding; Operating principle and applications of: Resistance welding -
Plasma arc welding – Thermit welding – Electron beam welding – Friction welding
and Friction Stir Welding; Brazing and soldering; Weld defects: types, causes and
cure.
UNIT III METAL FORMING PROCESSES 9

Hot working and cold working of metals – Forging processes – Open, impression
and closed die forging – forging operations. Rolling of metals– Types of Rolling – Flat
strip rolling – shape rolling operations – Defects in rolled parts. Principle of rod and
wire drawing – Tube drawing – Principles of Extrusion – Types – Hot and Cold
extrusion.

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ME8351 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY – I

UNIT IV SHEET METAL PROCESSES 9

Sheet metal characteristics – shearing, bending and drawing operations – Stretch

forming operations – Formability of sheet metal – Test methods –special forming

processes-Working principle and applications – Hydro forming – Rubber pad forming

– Metal spinning– Introduction of Explosive forming, magnetic pulse forming, peen

forming, Super plastic forming – Micro forming.

UNIT V MANUFACTURE OF PLASTIC COMPONENTS 9

Types and characteristics of plastics – Moulding of thermoplastics – working

principles and typical applications – injection moulding – Plunger and screw

machines – Compression moulding, Transfer Moulding – Typical industrial

applications – introduction to blow moulding –Rotational moulding – Film blowing –

Extrusion – Thermoforming – Bonding of Thermoplastics.

TOTAL : 45 OUTCOMES

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 COURSE OUTCOME

After successful completion of the course, the students should be able to

Knowledge
S.No. Course Outcomes
Level

Explain different metal casting processes, associated

C204.1 K2
defects, merits and demerits
C204.2 Compare different metal joining processes. K2
Summarize various hot working and cold working
C204.3 K2
methods of metals.
C204.4 Explain various sheet metal making processes. K2
Distinguish various methods of manufacturing plastic
C204.5 K2
components
Execute the basic manufacturing processes and use this in
C204.6 K3
industry of component production

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 CO- PO/PSO Mapping

Program Specific
Program Outcomes Outcomes
Course Level
Out Comes of CO
PO- PSO
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-12 PSO-1 PSO-3
11 -2

C204.1 K2 3 2 3 2

C204.2 K2 3 2 3 2

C204.3 K2 3 2 3 2

C204.4 K2 3 2 3 2

C204.5 K2 3 2 3 2

C204.6 K3 3 2 3 2

C204 3 2 3 2

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 LECTURE PLAN

UNIT I METAL CASTING PROCESSES

Propose
Actual Pertaini Highest Delivery
d Mode of
S.No Topic Lecture ng Cognitiv Resourc
Lecture Delivery
Date CO(s) e Level es
Date

Sand Mould ,Type of

patterns Pattern
1 CO1 K2 MD1 T1
allowances and Pattern
Materials
Moulding sand Properties
2 CO1 K2 MD1 T1
and testing
Cores :Types and
3 CO1 K2 MD1 R1
applications
Moulding machines: Types
4 CO1 K2 MD1 R1
and applications; .
Melting furnaces : Blast
5 CO1 K2 MD1 T1
and Cupola Furnaces;
Principle of special casting
6 processes : Shell, CO1 K2 MD1 T1
investment, Ceramic mould
Pressure die casting -,
7 CO1 K2 MD1 R1
Centrifugal Casting
CO2 process and Stir
8 CO1 K2 MD1 T1
casting;
Defects in Sand casting
9 CO1 K2 MD1 T1
( Content Beyond Syllabus)
10 CO1 K3 MD1 R4
Vacuum Molding

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Actvity based learning
Cross Word Puzzle

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 CASTING

Casting is one of the oldest methods and was first used around 4000 B.C. to make
ornaments, arrowheads, and various other objects. Casting is the process of
producing metal parts by pouring molten metal into the mould cavity of the required
shape and allowing the metal to solidify. The solidified metal piece is called as
“casting”. This process is capable of producing intricate shapes in a single piece,
ranging in size from very large to very small, including those with internal cavities.
Typical cast products are engine blocks, cylinder heads, transmission housings,
pistons, turbine disks, railroad and automotive wheels etc. The steps in this process
are :

Place a pattern, having the shape of the desired casting, in sand to create a mold.
1. Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system.
2. Remove the pattern.
3. Fill the mold cavity with molten metal.
4. Allow the metal to cool.
5. Break away the sand mold
6. Remove the casting and finishing it.
7. Inspect and testing
8. Removal of defects if any
9. Heat treatment for stress relief
10. Inspect the casting
11. Ready for use.

Types of Sand Mold Casting Process:

1. Hand Molding:- Bench (small objects), Floor (Medium sized castings), and Pit
molding (heavy)

2. Machine Molding:

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Casting Terms
1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the
mold is formed. Depending upon the position of the flask in the molding
structure, it is referred to by various names such as drag - lower molding
flask, cope - upper molding flask, cheek – intermediate molding flask used in
three piece molding.

2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity is
made with the help of pattern.

3. Parting Line: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks that
makes up the mold.

4. Bottom Board: This is a board normally made of wood which is used at the
start of the mould making. The pattern is first kept on the bottom board,
sand is sprinkled on it and then the ramming is done in the drag.

5. Molding Sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to
air or gases. It is a mixture of silica sand, clay and moisture in appropriate
proportions.

6. Facing Sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the

inner surface of the mold cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.

7. Backing Sand: it is what constitutes most of the refractory material found in

the mould. This is made up of used and burnt sand.

8. Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which
is used to create openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.

9. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into
which the molten metal is poured.

10. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring
basin, reaches the mold cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal
into the mold.

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10. Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the
sprue to the gate.

11. Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.

12. Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to
take care of its own weight and overcome the metallostatic force.

13. Chill: These are metallic objects which are placed in the mould to increase
the cooling rate of castings to provide uniform or desired cooling rate.

14. Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it
shrinks and solidifies. Also known as "feed head".

15. Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases

Sand Molding Methods

Green Sand Molding:
It involves ramming sand around a pattern inside a container called flask. The
various steps are:

1. The bottom half of the flask (drag) is placed upside down on a molding board
and then drag half of the pattern is placed inside the flask.

2. Parting Compound is dusted over the exposed surface. A layer of sand is

riddled over the pattern and rammed. The drag is then filled, rammed and
struck off.

3. Bottom board is placed on the drag and they are turned over. Molding board is
removed and the top (cope) half of the flask is positioned using aligning pins.
The cope half of the pattern is inserted.

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4. Gating system is formed using sprue and riser pins. Risers and sprues are
formed during ramming of the cope. Runners or gates are also formed during
the molding process. The sprue is an opening through which the metal enters,
the runner leads the metal into the mold cavity and the gate controls the floor
of the metal into the cavity. Riser is a reservoir connected to the cavity, which
provides metal during solidification and for offsetting shrinkage, Venting is
often done at this point.

5. The flask is separated and the two pattern halves are removed. Cores needed
for added details are placed in the mold cavities.

6. Mold is closed and metal is poured slowly into the mold and allowed to solidify.

7. The mold is destroyed to recover the casting.

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Dry Sand Molding
 It is similar to green sand molding except that a different sand mixture is used
and all parts of the mold are dried in an oven before being reassembled for
casting. The green sand retains its shape depending upon moisture and the
natural clay binder in the sand. But he sand used in dry sand molds depends
upon added binding materials such as resin, clay, molasses and flour.

 The materials are mixed thoroughly and tempered with thin clay water. The
amount of binder is determined by the size of the casting. Metal flasks are used to
withstand heat in the oven.

 Before drying, the inside surfaces of a dry sand mold are coated with wet
blacking, a mixture of carbon black and water, with a small addition of gum, to
smoothen the surface of the casting.

General Steps in Making Sand Castings process

There are six basic steps in making sand castings:

1. Patternmaking

2. Core making

3. Molding

4.Melting

5. pouring

6. Testing & Inspection

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 PATTERN

Pattern is a replica of the product needed, with some allowances to compensate for
the solidification and withdrawal of pattern after preparing the mold. The quality of
the casting mainly depends on the material of the pattern, dimensional allowances
given and technology used for pattern making.
Various factors affecting the selection of pattern materials are:

1. Accuracy and surface finish requirements in the casting ( Metal and plastic
patterns used)

2. Type of casting process and molding methods (machine molding- metal

patterns, loam molding- plaster of Paris)

3. Possibility of frequent design changes (economical pattern-wood)

4. Number of casting to be produced (more quantity-repeated usage- metal

pattern)

5. Intricacy of the casting (complicated shapes- metal pattern).

Requirements of a good pattern:

1. Easily available

2. Easy to machine

3. Light weight

4. Strong

5. Hard and durable

6. Dimensionally stable

7. Repairable and reusable

8. Facilitate good surface finish after machining

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 PATTERN MATERIALS

Sl.No Pattern material and properties Advantages Limitations

1 Wood- Widely used when small numbers of Cheaper, easy to work, Cannot be used
castings are made. Teak wood, mahogany and takes good surface finish in machine
impregnated wood laminates are used and light in weight. molding as
easily affected
by moisture and
abrasion of
sand.
Metal: Used when large number of castings are Dimensional stability, Costly, heavier
needed. The metal pattern is itself cast from a accuracy and strength. Not than wooden
wooden pattern called master pattern. affected by moisture. Used pattern and
for machine molding relatively
difficult to
work.
Cast-Iron Strong, takes smooth Heavy, easily
surface, resistance to broken rusted by
abrasion moister
2 Brass Strong, does not rust, takes Costlier, heavier
good surface finish and
withstands wear and tear
Aluminium Light, easy to work, Soft and easily
resistant to corrosion, melts damaged
at low temperature, takes
good surface finish, more
accuracy
White Metal -Used for making complicated and Low melting point, Soft and easily
fine shapes in die-casting process dimensionally stable, can damaged
cast intricate shapes

3 Plastic:- Cast from master wood pattern. Both Does not absorb moisture,
thermosetting plastics and thermoplastic are used. strong and dimensionally
Thermoplastics can be reused but not stable, ability to acquire
thermosetting plastics. glossy surface, light in
weight and resistance to
wear and tear. Can be
withdrawn without
affecting the mold.
4 Rubber:- Dies for forming operations are
normally done used for investment castings.
Silicon rubber is commonly used.

5 Plaster- plaster of paris Has high compressive Can be used for

strength ( 300kg/sqm). small patterns
Need a master pattern only.
6 Wax: Excellent material for investment casting. Takes a high degree of
Additives are used for polymerizing and surface finish. High tensile
stabilizing. strength, hardness and weld
strength.

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 PATTERN ALLOWANCES

To compensate for any dimensional and structural changes which will happen during
the casting or patterning process, allowances are usually made in the pattern. A
pattern is different from the casting in dimensions and shape. The various
allowances given in patterns to obtain the correct size and shape in the finished
casting are:
1. Shrinkage allowance
2. Distortion allowance
3. Finish allowance
4. Shake allowance
5. Draft allowance

Shrinkage allowance
As the molten metal solidifies, it shrinks and contracts in size. To compensate for
this, the pattern is made larger than the required casting by giving contraction /
shrinkage allowances. This is done by using shrinkage/ contraction rule like 10
mm/m length of the casting. Different materials has different/varying shrinkages
hence according to the metal, it will be applied on pattern making.

Draft allowance
When the pattern is to be removed from the sand mold, there is a possibility that
any leading edges may break off, or get damaged in the process. To avoid this, a
taper is provided on the pattern, so as to facilitate easy removal of the pattern from
the mold, and hence reduce damage to edges. The taper angle provided is called
the Draft angle. The value of the draft angle depends upon the complexity of the
pattern, the type of molding (hand molding or machine molding), height of the
surface, etc. Draft provided on the casting 1 to 3 degrees on external surface ( 5 to
8 internal castings).

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Machining/ Finishing allowance
Rough surfaces of casting are to be machined to get exact dimension, surface finish
etc. Extra metal provided on the surfaces is called machine finish allowance. Amount
of machine finish allowance depends on Type of metal used in casting, Size and
shape of pattern and Method of moulding

Shake allowance
Usually during removal of the pattern from the mold cavity, the pattern is rapped all
around the faces, in order to facilitate easy removal. In this process, the final cavity
is enlarged. To compensate for this, the pattern dimensions need to be reduced.
There are no standard values for this allowance, as it is heavily dependent on the
personnel. This allowance is a negative allowance, and a common way of going
around this allowance is to increase the draft allowance.

Distortion or Camber Allowance

Sometimes castings, because of their size, shape and type of metal, tend to warp or
distort during the cooling period depending on the cooling speed. This is due to the
uneven shrinkage of different parts of the casting. Expecting the amount of
warpage, a pattern may be made with allowance of warpage. It is called camber.

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 TYPES OF PATTERNS

There are various types of patterns depending upon the complexity of the job, the
number of castings required and the molding procedure adopted.
Single Piece Pattern
The one piece or single pattern is the most inexpensive of all types of patterns. This
type of pattern is used only in cases where the job is very simple and does not
create any withdrawal problems. It is also used for application in very small-scale
production or in prototype development. This type of pattern is expected to be
entirely in the drag and one of the surfaces is expected to be flat which is used as
the parting plane. A gating system is made in the mold by cutting sand with the help
of sand tools. If no such flat surface exists, the molding becomes complicated.

Split Pattern or Two Piece Pattern

Split or two piece pattern is most widely used type of pattern for intricate castings.
It is split along the parting surface, the position of which is determined by the shape
of the casting. One half of the pattern is molded in drag and the other half in cope.
The two halves of the pattern must be aligned properly by making use of the dowel
pins, which are fitted, to the cope half of the pattern. These dowel pins match with
the precisely made holes in the drag half of the pattern.
Gated Pattern
This is an improvement over the simple pattern where the gating and runner system
are integral with the pattern. This would eliminate the hand cutting of the runners
and gates and help in improving the productivity of a molder.

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Cope and Drag Pattern
These are similar to split patterns. In addition to splitting the pattern, the cope and
drag halves of the pattern along with the gating and risering systems are attached
separately to the metal or wooden plates along with the alignment pins. The cope
and drag moulds may be produced using these patterns separately by two molders
but they can be assembled to form a complete mould. These types of patterns are
used for castings which are heavy and inconvenient for handling as also for
continuous production.

Match Plate Pattern

These are generally used for small castings with higher dimensional accuracy and large
production. Several patterns can be fixed to a single match plate, if they are sufficiently small
in size. These are used for machine molding.

Loose Piece Pattern

This type of pattern is used when the contour of the part is such that withdrawing
the pattern from the mould is not possible. Hence during moulding the obstructing
part of the contour is held as a loose piece by a wire. After molding is over, first the
main pattern is removed and then loose pieces are recovered through the gap
generated by the main pattern. Molding with loose pieces is a highly skilled job and
is generally expensive and therefore, should be avoided wherever possible.

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Sweep Pattern
It is used to sweep the complete casting by means of a plane sweep. These are
used for generating large shapes which are axi-symmetrical or prismatic in nature
such as bell shaped or cylindrical. This greatly reduces the cost of a three
dimensional pattern. It is suitable for very large castings such as the bells for
ornamental purposes used which are generally cast in pit moulds..

Skeleton Pattern
It is made of strips of wood and is used for building the final pattern by packing
sand around the skeleton. After packing the sand, the desired form is made with the
help of a strickle. This type of pattern is useful for large castings, required in small
quantities where large expense on complete wooden pattern is not justified.

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 MOLDING SAND

Molding sand is principle raw material used in sand molding because it possesses
several major characteristics. Sand is formed by the breaking up of rocks due to the
action of natural forces such as frost, wind rain, heat and water currents. The
principle ingredients of molding sand are:
1. Silica sand grains
2. Clay
3. Moisture
4. Miscellaneous materials
Silica sand grains
Silica sand grains are the basic components of the molding sand. Molding sand
contains 80-90% of silica, silica is obtained from quartz rocks or by decomposition of
granite composed of quartz and feldspar. Silicon oxide imparts refractoriness,
chemical receptivity and permeability.

Clay
Clay can be defined as those particles (below 20 µm in dia.) that fail to settle at a
rate of 25 µm per minute, when suspended in water. It holds the sand together
(bonds). The bonding depends on amount and quality of clay- normally 5 -20% of
clay is used.

Moisture:
Clay imparts bonding action and strength to the molding sand in the presence of
moisture, Generally 2-5% of water is added to sand. When water is added to the
mixture, it penetrates and forms a microfilm coating on each particle.

Miscellaneous
Oxides of iron, limestone, magnesia, soda and potash, and other substances are
found in the molding sand. Good molding sand contains less than 2 % impurities.

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 TYPES OF MOLDING SAND

Sl.No Type of Sand Details

1 Natural It is obtained from natural resources like riverbeds. It has the required
Molding Sand amount of clay to act as a bond between particles. It can also be obtained
by crushing and milling yellow sand stone and carbiniferrous rocks.
Advantages are – Ease of availability, Low cost and High Flexibility.
2 Synthetic Sand Also called high silica sand, containing little or no binder in natural form and
is also obtained by crushing quartzite sandstone. Binding is obtained by the
addition of bentonite, water and other materials. Advantages of synthetic
sand over natural sand are more flexibility, low maintenance cost and
improved permeability. High cost and needs more control while use.
3 Special Sand Used when special characteristics are needed. Zircon, Olivine, Chamotte,
Chromate and chrome-magnatite.
4 Green Sand Mixture of silica sand with 18-30% clay and 6-8% water. Contains water
and is moist in natural state. Fine, soft, light and porous.Has sufficient
plasticity and retains shape.
Used for small and medium sized castings. Coal defects are mixed in green
sand to prevent defects in castings. Molds prepared using green sand are
called green sand molds.
5 Dry Sand Does not contain water. Green sand is baked to remove all moisture.
Suitable of large castings. Very strong and compact when compared to
green sand molding. Blow holes will not occur. Dry sand molds are
prepared thro this.
6 Loam Sand Mixture of clay and sand, which is milled into plastic state. Loam sand
contains up to 50% of clay. When it is applied to vertical surfaces it
adheres to the surface. Loam sand moulds are prepared by sweeping the
pattern over the sand. When dried, loam sand becomes hard.
7 Facing Sand It contains silica sand and clay-not mixed with used sand. Has high
strength and refractoriness. Different forms of carbon are added to prevent
the metal from burning with sand. The thickness of the layer is 20-30mm
and is usually 10-15% of the whole amount of molding sand.
8 Backing Sand Repeated used old sand. Used to fill behind the facing layer. Also called
or Floor Sand black sand due to presence of coal and burning when sand comes in
contact with hot metal.
9 System Sand Used in mechanized foundries. It is the used sand which is rejuvenated or
reactivated by the addition of water, binder and special additives. No facing
sand is used. Whole flask is filled with this sand.
10 Parting Sand Dry and clean, clay- free silica sand. Used to prevent green sand from
sticking to the pattern and also to prevent clinging of sand on cope and
drag. When oil is used in molding sand, lycopodium is used as parting
compound.
11 Core Sand or Used of making core. It is the mixture of silica sand, linseed oil, light
Oil Sand mineral oil, resin and other binding materials. Pitch or floor and water are
used in making large cores.

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 SAND PROPERTIES

Molding sands, also known as foundry sands, are defined by eight characteristics:
refractoriness, chemical inertness, permeability, surface finish, cohesiveness,
flowability, collapsibility, and availability/cost.

Refractoriness — This refers to the sand's ability to withstand the temperature of

the liquid metal being cast without breaking down. For example some sands only
need to withstand 650 °C (1,202 °F) if casting aluminum alloys, whereas steel needs
sand that will withstand 1,500 °C (2,730 °F). Sand with too low a refractoriness will
melt and fuse to the casting.

Chemical inertness — The sand must not react with the metal being cast. This is
especially important with highly reactive metals, such as magnesium and titanium.

Permeability — This refers to the sand's ability to exhaust gases. This is important
because during the pouring process many gases are produced, such as hydrogen,
nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and steam, which must leave the mold otherwise casting
defects, such as blow holes and gas holes, occur in the casting. Note that for each
cubic centimeter (cc) of water added to the mold 16,000 cc of steam is produced.

Surface finish — The size and shape of the sand particles defines the best surface
finish achievable, with finer particles producing a better finish. However, as the
particles become finer (and surface finish improves) the permeability becomes
worse.

Cohesiveness (or bond) — This is the ability of the sand to retain a given shape
after the pattern is removed.

Adhesiveness — The sand particles must be capable of adhering to another body.

It is due to this property that the sand mass does not fall out of the molding box but
is held firmly in it when the mold is removed or the molding box is lifted.

28
Flowability – The ability for the sand to flow into intricate details and tight corners
without special processes or equipment.

Collapsibility — This is the ability of the sand to be easily stripped off the casting
after it has solidified. Sands with poor collapsibility will adhere strongly to the
casting. When casting metals that contract a lot during cooling or with long freezing
temperature ranges, a sand with poor collapsibility will cause cracking and hot tears
in the casting. Special additives can be used to improve collapsibility.

Availability/cost — The availability and cost of the sand is very important because
for every ton of metal poured, three to six tons of sand is required. Although sand
can be screened and reused, the particles eventually become too fine and require
periodic replacement with fresh sand.

In large castings it is economical to use two different sands, because the majority of
the sand will not be in contact with the casting, so it does not need any special
properties. The sand that is in contact with the casting is called facing sand, and is
designed for the casting on hand. This sand will be built up around the pattern to a
thickness of 30 to 100 mm (1.2 to 3.9 in). The sand that fills in around the facing
sand is called backing sand. This sand is simply silica sand with only a small amount
of binder and no special additives.

CORES AND CORE MAKING

Many cast parts have interior holes (hallow parts), or other cavities in their shape
that are not directly accessible from either piece of the mold. Such interior holes are
generated by inserts called cores.

A core is a device used in casting and molding processes to produce internal

cavities and reentrant angles. The core is normally a disposable item that is
destroyed to get it out of the piece. They are most commonly used in sand casting,
but are also used in injection molding.

29
Cores are useful for features that cannot tolerate draft or to provide detail that
cannot otherwise be integrated into a core-less casting or mold. The main
disadvantage is the additional cost to incorporate cores.

Core are made by baking sand with other binder so that they retain their shape
when handled. Binders added to the sand are linseed oil, phenol, bentonite, urea
and water. To improve the properties of the sand, additives, such as pitch corn flour,
straw, graphite, core dung and sea coal are also added.
Core Print

For supporting the molds in core cavity, an impression in the form of a recess is
made in the mold with the help of a projection suitably placed in the mold. This
projecttion on the pattern is called the core print.

The core print design should consider the following

 The print must balance the body, so that the core stays in place during mold
assembly.

 The Print must withstand the buoyancy force of the metal and not get crushed.

 The print must not shift during mold filling

 The print should minimize the deflection of the core.

 The print should maximize heat transfer from the core to the mold.

 The print should allow the internal gases generated in the core to escape to the
mold.

 Asymmetrical holes should have foolproof prints to prevent incorrect assembly.

 The prints of adjacent cores may be combined into one.

30
Chaplet: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to take care
of its own weight and overcome the metallostatic force. These are small metal
supports that bridge the gap between the mold surface and the core, but because of
this become part of the casting. As such, the chaplets must be of the same or
similar material as the metal being cast. Moreover, their design must be optimized
because if they are too small they will completely melt and allow the core to move,
but if they are too big then their whole surface cannot melt and fuse with the
poured metal. Their use should also be minimized because they can cause casting
defects or create a weak spot in the casting.

CORE MAKING

Core making consists of the following operation:

 Core sand preparation
 Core molding
 Baking
 Core Finishing

Core Sand Preparation:

The core sand mixture must be homogenous so that the core has uniform strength
throughout. Core sands are generally mixed in roller mills and core mixers.

31
Core Molding:
Normally a core box is required for the preparation of cores. Green sand cores are
made by ramming the sand mixtures into boxes, the interior of which have desired
shapes and dimensions. Ramming is done by machines. Core making machines can
be broadly classified as ( I ) core blowing machines and ( 2) core ramming machines
e.g., jolting, squeezing, slinging,. The degree of compactness needed for a core
depends on the type of binder used and the on the size and shape of core.

Fragile and medium sized cores are normally reinforced with steel wires or rods. In
large cores, perforated pipes or arbors are provided for reinforcement and for
venting.
Core Baking:
Cores are placed on metal plates or carriers and are baked in core ovens at a
temperature of 150º C to 400ºC depending on the type of binder to remove the
moisture and to improve strength of the binder used in the core, size of the core
and the length of the baking time. As a rule one or more vents are provided in the
core to assist in discharge of gases.
Core Finishing:

After baking operation, cores are smoothened and rough places and unwanted fins
are removed. A fine refractory coating or core wash is applied to the surface to
prevent the metal from penetration into the core and to provide a smoother surface
to the casting.

32
TYPES OF CORES

Green Sand Core: This core is made by the pattern itself. When a pattern leaves a
core as a part of the mold, that body of sand used to make the core is called the
green sand core. It is made out of the same sand as that of the Mold.

Horizontal Core: This core is positioned horizontally in the mold and is commonly
used in foundries. It is usually cylindrical shape. It may also have other shapes
depending on the cavity needed. It is seated in the mold in the cavities made by the
core prints

Vertical Core: Core is placed vertically in the mold. The upper end of the core is
forced into the cope and the lower end into the drag. On the cope the core needs
more taper (15°) so that it does not damage the mold in the cope while the cope
and drag are assembled.

33
Balanced Core: Core is supported and balanced at one end only. It extends
horizontally in the mold. The core needs only one core print and produces an
opening at only one side of the casting.

Hanging and Cover Core: This core hangs from the cope. It is supported from the
top and hangs vertically in the mold. It has no support at the bottom. The cover is
also known as cover core as it covers the mold

Wing Core: It is used to form a hole or recess in the casting, which is not in line
with the parting line. Depending on the usage it is also called drop core.

Kiss Core: When the pattern is not provided with core prints, and no seat is
available for the core to rest, the core is held in position between the cope and drag
simply due to pressure of the cope.

Ram-up Core: This core is set in the mold with the pattern before ramming. It is
used when the cored detail is located in an inaccessible position.

34
 Preparation of Sand
Preparation of sand includes

Mixing of sand
4 to 5 m3 of molding sand is expended to make one tonne of casting. As very few
molding sands have all the properties required for molding, the deficiency is made
up by mixing it with other materials such as clay, lime, magnesia, potash, soda,
horse manure, saw dust, cow dung, coal dust etc., in small quantities. Silica has high
temperature withstanding capability but for bonding, clay is used. Additives are
added to make the casting soft.

Coal dust is most widely used as it helps to cool the mold after it has been poured.
The coal dust, immediately after coming in contact with the molten metal, gives off
CO2 and water in mold gets converted into steam. The CO2 /CO separate the molten
metal from the mold. Mixing of molding materials should ensure uniform
distribution of clay, moisture and other constituents between the sand grains ensure
better qualities in the sand.

Tempering of sand

To prepare foundry sand it should be tempered and cut through. The process by
which sufficient moisture is added to the molding sand is known as sand tempering.
To temper the sand, water is thrown over the heap in a sheet by giving a backward
swing to the pail as the water leaves it. Then the sand is cut through layer by layer
letting the air through the clay in the sand.

Sand conditioning

New sand as well as used sand must be properly conditioned before being used.
Proper sand conditioning accomplishes uniform distribution of the binder around the
sand grains, controls the moisture content, eliminates foreign particles, and aerates
the sand so that it flows readily around and takes up the detail of the pattern. It
renders sand suitable for ramming.

35
 SAND TESTING METHODS

Foundry sand testing is a foundry process used to determine if the foundry sand
has the correct properties for a certain casting process. The sand is used to make
moulds and cores via a pattern. In a sand casting foundry there are broadly two
reasons for rejection of the casting — metal and sand — each of which has a large
number of internal variables. The defects arising from the sand can be prevented by
using sand testing equipment to measure the various properties of the sand.
A basic set of parameters to test are:
1. Moisture content in the mixture (ranges from 2-7% depending on the casting
method)
2. Clay content (dust content)
3. Fineness number (grain size/AFS Number) of the base sand
4. Permeability (ability of compacted mould to pass air through it)
5. Strength
• Green and Dry compression
• Green Tensile
• Green and Dry Sheer
• Bending
6. Hot Strength
7. Refractoriness
8. Mold Hardness

The moulding sand should be tested for its composition and properties.
The essential tests are:
1.Grain fineness test
2.Moisture content test
3.Clay-content test
4.Permeability test
5.Compression strength test
6.Mould and core hardness test

36
Grain Fineness test
Grain fineness is designated by a number called grain fineness number. Grain
fineness number corresponds to the number of meshes in a standard diameter
sieve. The test is conducted with the standard set of sieves, which are numbered
according to their fineness of mesh. These sieves are fixed into a motor-driven
shaker in the order of coarse sieve to fine (Figure).A sample of dry sand, free from
clay is placed on the upper sieve and the sieve is vibrated for 15 min. The amount
retained in the sieve is computed on a percentage basis. This percentage figure is
multiplied with multiplier (which is given to each sieve). The product of this
multiplication is added to obtain the total product. Then the grain fineness number is
calculated as follows:

Total product
Grain fineness number = ----------------------------------------------------------
Total percentage of sand retained on each sieve

37
Moisture Content test
The moisture content is calculated by measuring the difference in weight between
moist and dry sand. The drying of moist sand is carried out at 105º C and 110º C in
a heated oven and then cooled to room temperature. Figure shows the sand
moisture drying device.

As the conventional method is time consuming and cumbersome, direct reading

instruments are often used to quickly assess the moisture content such as:

Moisture Teller

This instrument blows hot air for 3 min through the 5g moist sand, which is placed
in a pan. The bottom of the pan is a 500-mesh metal screen. Moisture is effectively
removed and a precision balance determines the loss of weight of the sample
(Figure).

Moisture Meter

This instrument shows the moist content of the sand instantly. The instrument
contains two arms. These arms are inserted into the moist sand and the electric
current is passed through (via arms) the sand. The current flows easily when the
moist content is more and gives the level of moist content. Another type of direct
reading instrument is shown in figure, which uses a fixed weight for ramming the
sand sample.

38
Permeability Test
Permeability is measured by the quantity of air that passes through a standard
specimen of sand under the given pressure (p) at prescribed time (t).The
arrangement for permeability test is shown in fig. In this test a standard rammed
5.08 x 5.08 cm2 size test-piece is used. The equipment consists of a water tank on
which an inverted bell or air holder is floating. The specimen tube is connected to a
manometer and air holder by tube. Mercury is used at the bottom of the specimen
to provide an airtight seal. When the pressure in the manometer reaches 10
gm/cm2 it is closed. Permeability number is defined as the volume of air (v) in 2000
cc air that will pass under pressure (p) of 10 gm/cm2 through 5.08 cm2 area (a)
specimen.

Clay-content test
In this test, a sample of 50 g sand is agitated in water so as to separate clay from
the sand particles, and then remove the clay which fails to settle down within the
period of 5 min in distilled water at room temperature. The equipment consists of a
drying oven, a balance and weights, and a sand washer. Fifty grams of dry sand is
taken in a wash bottle. Then 47cc of distilled water and 25 cc of a 3% caustic soda
solution are added to this sand. This mixture is stirred for 5 min in a rapid sand
stirrer for 1 h in a sand washer (rotating type). Then it is allowed to rest .after 5
min, the material on top of the water is collected. This process is repeated until the
water is clear after 5 min settling period. Then the bottle is placed in an oven. After
the sand is dried, the difference in weight shows the amount of clay.

39
 MOLDING MACHINES
The use of molding machines are advisable when large number of repetitive castings
are to be produced since hand molding is more time consuming. Molding machines
are classified according to
1. The method of compacting the molding sand

2. The method of removing the pattern

Methods for compacting the molding sand

1. Squeezer machine

1. Top Squeezer 2. Bottom Squeezer

2. Jolt machine

3. Jolt-Squeezer machine

4. Sand –Slinger

Squeezer machine: The molding sand in the flask is squeezed between the
machine table and the overhead squeeze pneumatically or hydraulically until the
mold attains the desired density.

Top Squeezer: The principle of operation of a top squeezer is illustrated in the

figure. The pattern 2 is placed on a mold board which is clamped on the table 1. The
flask 3 is then placed on the mold board and the sand frame 4 on the flask. The
flask and frame are filled with molding sand and leveled off. Next the table is raised
by the table lift mechanism against the platen 5 on the stationary squeezer head 6.
The platen enters the sand frame upto the dotted line and compacts the molding
sand. After the squeeze, the table returns to the initial position.

Bottom Squeezer: The pattern is placed on the mold board which is clamped to
the table. The flask 3 is placed on the frame 7 and is filled with sand. Next the
squeeze head is brought against the top of the flask and the table with the pattern
is raised upon the dotted line. After squeezing, the table returns to the initial
position

40
Limitation: Sand is packed more densely on the top of the mold from which the
pressure is applied, and the density decreased uniformly with the depth. At the
parting plane, density is the lowest.

Jolt Machine: The flask is first filled with the molding sand and then the table
supporting the flask is mechanically raised and dropped in succession. Due to the
sudden change in inertia at the end of each fall, the sands get packed and rammed.
The action of raising and sudden dropping is called jolting.

The principle of jolting machine is illustrated in the figure in which the table 1, with
the platen and flask 3, filled with molding sand, is raised to 30 to 80mm at short
intervals by the plunger 8 when compressed air is admitted through the hose 9 and
the channel 10. The air is next released through the opening 11 and the table drops
down suddenly and strikes the guiding cylinder 12 at the bottom. This sudden action
causes the sand to pack evenly around the pattern. Springs 13 are used to cushion
the table blows and thus reduce noise and prevent destruction of the mechanism
and the foundation.

41
Limitation: The sand is rammed hardest at the parting plane and remains less
dense at the top. Therefore after jolting hand ramming is done near the mold.

Jolt-Squeeze machine: In order to overcome the draw backs of both the squeeze
and jolt principles of ramming the sand, a combination of squeeze and jolt action is
often employed. A jolting action is used to consolidate the sand on the face of the
pattern and it is followed by a squeezing action to impart the desired density
throughout the mass of the sand.

Sand Slinger: In this operation, the consolidation and ramming are obtained by the
impact of sand which falls at a very high velocity.

The principle of sand slinger is shown in the figure. The overhead impeller head
consists of the housing in which the blade rotates at a very high speed. The sand is
delivered to the impeller through the opening by means of conveyor buckets. The
impeller head by the rotation of the blade throws the sand through the outlet down
the flask over the pattern at a range of 500 to 2000kg per minute. The desnisty of
the sand can be controlled by the speed of the blade.

This is used for medium sized castings. Hardness can be controlled by sound
velocity.

42
Methods of removing the pattern

Straight Draw molding machine: In this machine, the pattern 1 is fixed on the
pattern plate 3 on the table 5 and the flask or molding box 2 is placed over it and
filled with sand. It is then roughly rammed round the edges of the box. The squeeze
head is next swung over in a position and it squeezes the mold. The flask is then
lifted from the pattern by stripping pins 6.

Stripping plate molding machine: In this the stripping plate 4 arranged between
the flask 2 and pattern plate 3. The stripping plate has a recess whose contours
equal those of the pattern 1. When the mold is ready the pattern is withdrawn from
the mold downwards through the stripping plate, which supports the mold when the
pattern is removed.

Turn-over molding machine: This is used for large size, high molds, having parts
which might easily break away. The flask 2 rests on the pattern plate 3 during the
molding operation. Then the flask together with the work table 5 is rotated 180° and
pins 6 lift the table 5 together with the pattern 1 out of the mold.

43
 MELTING FURNACES

Cupola Furnace
A cupola furnace basically consists of a cylindrical
steel shell with both its top and bottom being open.
The inner walls of the shell are lined with heat
resisting materials such as the fire brick. The bottom
opening is closed by a cast iron drop bottom door
supported by a metal prop. This door swings out
after the melting when the metal prop support is
removed.

After closing the bottom door, a sloping sand bed is

prepared for giving the necessary heat resistant
bottom for the molten metal and the fuel. Just above
the sand bed is the metal tapping hole through which
the molten metal is taken out and poured into the
ladle. A spout called the tapping spout is provided for
guiding the molten metal out. Above the tapping hole
and opposite to it is a hole with a spout for removing
the slag generated during the melting. It is called the
slag hole.

Above the slag hole is the wind box which surrounds

the cupola shell and supplies air at a given pressure
and quantity. Air comes to the wind box through the
air blast pipe from the air blower. Air enters into the
cupola furnace through the tuyeres which extend
through the steel shell and the refractory lining. The
number of tuyeres and their spacing along the
circumference of the shell varies with the size of the
cupola furnace.

A cupola furnace is provided with a charging platform

or floor and a charging door for feeding the charges.
The charge consists of pig-iron, scrap iron, coke and
fluxes. At its top, the cupola furnace has a metal
shield or a spark arrester. It arrests the spark or
burning particles from going outside while allowing
the hot gases to escape out.

44
Zones of the Cupola funace:-

A. Well: It extends up to the bottom of the tuyeres from the sand bed. It is a
sort of well of molten iron. Molten iron collects in this zone before tapping.

B. Combustion Zone ‘or’ Oxidizing zone:- (Super heating zone) . This

zone starts from the tuyeres and extends upto 15-30 cms above the top of
the tuyeres. Combustion takes place in this zone with the aid of oxygen from
the air blast. Some exhothermic reactions which occur in this zone are:

C + O2 ----------- CO2 + Heat

Mn + O2 ----------- MnO2 + Heat

Si + O2 ----------- SiO2 + Heat

The temperature of this zone varies from 1550 – 1850° C

C. Reducing Zone:- The reducing zone starts from the top of the
combustion zone and extends upto the bottom of the first metal charge. In
this zone, the endothermic reaction of reducing CO2 to CO takes place.

CO2 + C (coke) ------------ 2 CO – Heat

This reduces the heat in this zone and the temperature of the zone is around
1200°C.

D.Melting Zone:- Melting zone starts with the first layer of the metal charge
and extends upto 90 cms or less. The metal charge melts in this zone and
moves down the well. The temperature of this zone is around 1600 and the
following reaction which adds to up the carbon content of metal takes place.

3Fe + 2CO ------------ Fe3 C + CO2

45
Zones of the Cupola funace:-

E. Pre-heating zone:- Preheating zone starts from the top of the melting zone and
extends upto the charging door. The charge in this zone is preheated by the hot
gases such as CO2, CO and N2. Moving upwards from the combustion and the
reducing zone.

F. Stack Zone:- Stack zone extends from the end of the preheating zone to the
end of the cupola shell and includes the spark arrester. Hot gases from the cupola
pass though the stack zone and escape to the atmosphere through the spark
arrester.

G. At the top conical cap called the spark arrest is provided to prevent the spark
emerging to outside

Advantages of Cupola:-

1. Simple design and easier construction

2. Low initial cost as compared to other furnaces of same capacity

3. Simple to operate and maintain in good condition

4. Economy of operation and maintenance

5. Less floor space requirements as compared to those of other furnaces of same

capacity.

6. Cupola can be continuously operated for many hours.

Limitations of Cupola:-

Since molten metal and coke come in contact with each other, certain elements like
Si and Mn are lost while others like sulphur are picked up. This changes the final
analysis of molten iron.

46
Direct fuel-fired furnaces
A direct fuel fired furnace contains a small open hearth in which the metal charge is
heated by fuel burners located on the side of the furnace. The roof of the furnace
assists the heating action by reflecting the flame down against the charge. The
typical fuel is natural gas and the combustion products either the furnace through
the stack.

At the bottom of the hearth is a tap hole to release the molten metal. Direct fuel-
fired furnaces are generally used in casting for melting non-ferrous metals such as
copper based alloys and aluminium.

Crucible furnace

These furnaces melt the metal without direct contact with the burning fuel mixture.
For this reason, they are sometimes called indirect fuel-fired furnaces. Different
types of crucible furnaces are:

1. Lift-out 2.Stationary 3.Tilting

They all utilize a container ( crucible) like pot made out of a suitable refractory
material ( ex: clay-graphite mixture or high temperature steel alloy) to hold the
charge. In lift out crucible furnace, the crucible is placed in a furnace and heated
sufficiently to melt the charge. Oil, gas and powdered coal are typical fuels for
these furnaces. When the metal is melted, the cruible is lifted out of the furnace and
used as a pouring ladle.

47
The other two-types, sometimes referred to as pot furnaces have the heating
furnace and containers as one integrated unit. In the stationary pot furnace, the
furnace is stationary and the molten metal is ladled out of the container. In the
tilting –pot furnace, the entire assembly can be tilted for pouring. Crucible furnaces
are used for non-ferrous metals such as bronze, brass and alloys of zinc and
aluminium. Furnace capacities are generally limited to several hundred pounds.

Electric Arc Furnace

An electric arc furnace is a system that heats charged material by means of an

electric arc struck between carbon electrodes and the metal bar. Temperatures inside
an electric arc furnace can rise to approximately 2000°C.

Arc furnaces range in size from small units of approximately one ton capacity used in
foundries for producing cast iron products to about 400 tonnes units used for
secondary steel making. Electric arc furnaces may be categorized as direct arc or
indirect arc. Both types of units are suited for melting of high melting point alloys
such as steel. They may be lined with acid or basic refractory depending type of
steel to be melted.

48
Induction Furnace

Induction heating is a heating method. The heating by the induction method occurs when
an electrically conductive material is placed in a varying magnetic field. Induction heating is
a rapid form of heating in which a current is induced directly into the part being heated.
Induction heating is a non-contact form of heating.

The heating system in an induction furnace includes:

1.Induction heating power supply 2.Induction heating coil 3.Water-cooling source,

which cools the coil and several internal components inside the power supply.

The induction heating power supply sends alternating current through the induction coil,
which generates a magnetic field. Induction furnaces work on the principle of a
transformer. An alternative electromagnetic field induces eddy currents in the metal which
converts the electric energy to heat without any physical contact between the induction coil
and the work piece. A schematic diagram of induction furnace is shown. The furnace
contains a crucible surrounded by a water cooled copper coil. The coil is called primary coil
to which a high frequency current is supplied. By induction secondary currents, called eddy
currents are produced in the crucible. High temperature can be obtained by this method.
Induction furnaces are of two types: cored furnace and coreless furnace. Cored furnaces are
used almost exclusively as holding furnaces. In cored furnace the electromagnetic field
heats the metal between two coils. Coreless furnaces heat the metal via an external primary
coil.

Advantages of Induction Furnace

1. Induction heating is a clean form of heating

2. High rate of melting or high melting efficiency

Disadvantages of Induction Furnace

1. High capital cost of the equipment

2. High operating cost

49
 SPECIAL CASTING PROCESSES

SHELL-MOLDING
The mould is formed from a mixture of fine sand (100-150 mesh) and a
thermosetting resin binder that is placed against a heated metal pattern, preferably
made of grey cast iron.

When the mixture is heated in this manner, the resin cures, causing the sand grains
to adhere to each other forming sturdy shell that conforms exactly to the dimensions
and shape of the pattern and constitutes half of a mould.

After the shell has been cured and stripped from the pattern, any cores required
are set, the two halves of the mould are secured together, placed in a flask and
backup material added; then the mould is ready for pouring.

In actual practice, the metal pattern is heated to about 200 to 300º C, the melting
point of resin. Then after a silicon parting agent is sprayed on the surface, the resin
and sand mixture is deposited on the pattern by blowing or dumping.

The resin starts melting and, in a few seconds, forms together with the sand a
uniform and resin-soaked layer of about 4 to 12 mm in thickness, depending on the
heating period.

50
The pattern is then turned over to allow the unbounded sand to be removed, leaving
the shell on the pattern. The shell is then stripped mechanically and once more
heated for 3 to 5 minutes in a special oven to cure the plastic material. The curing
takes place at temperatures of up to about 420º C, depending on the type of resin
used.

In this way, stable shell moulds are obtained which are made in two sections. Both
sections are matched and joined by guides to obtain the casting mould. Finally, they
are placed in a metal case, and surrounded by about 37 mm of steel shot, sand and
other backup material to support them during pouring. The gates, sprues and risers
are usually a part of the mould.

Advantages :
1. More productivity
2. Saving of material
3. Thin sections can be cast
4. Machining of castings is reduced
5. Tooling costs are reduced
6. Close dimensional tolerance and better surface finish can be obtained.
7. Floor space and sand quantity are reduced.
8. Shells can be stored and transported easily.
9. Unskilled labour can be employed.
10. Process can be used for all cast metals.
Limitations :
1. High pattern cost.
2. High resin cost.
3. High equipment cost.
4. Uneconomical for small runs.
5. Maximum casting size and weight are limited.

51
 INVESTMENT MOULD CASTING
It consists mainly of two stages which are illustrated in fig. First, a master pattern is
made of wood or metal around which a mould is formed. It does not consist of
mould sand but of gelatine or an alloy of low melting point which is poured over the
master pattern. This master mould consists of the usual two sections and thus can
be opened. It is used for making the “lost pattern”.

The master mould is then filled with liquid wax, with a thermoplastic material
liquefied by heating or with mercury. The heated materials become solid when they
are cooled to normal room temperature. If mercury is used, the master mould must
be cooled down to about-60º C (freezing up) to become solid.

The second pattern produced in this way is used for preparing the casting mould
properly. The expandable wax pattern is coated with slurry consisting of silica flour
and small amounts of kaolin and graphite mixed with water. This process is referred
to as the “investment” of the pattern.

However, the pattern is then used to make up moulds similar to those used in the
conventional moulding process, but the pattern within the mould is not taken out of
the mould which is not opened after this moulding process. This is the reason why a
high precision is achieved in casting.

52
The finished mould is dried in air for 2 to 3 hours and then baked in an oven for
about 2 hours to melt out the wax. At a temperature of 100º to 120º C, the wax
melts and runs through a hole in the bottom plate in to a tray, thus providing a
cavity of high dimensional accuracy for the casting process. After this the mould is
sintered at about 1000ºC to improve its resistivity. Finally, it is cooled down to a
temperature between 900º and 700ºC for casting.

It is possible to combine several hundred lost patterns of small workpieces into what
is called a “bunch of patterns” by one common gate, make one combined mould,
and cast them in one common process.

Investment castings produced by this process have a good surface finish and are
exact reproduction of the master pattern. This is used for casting turbine plates,
parts of motor-cars, sewing machines, typewriters, and calculating machines, as well
as for various instruments.

Advantages:

1. Smooth surface can be produced with close tolerances

2. High dimensional accuracy
3. Complicated shape can be produced

4. Machining operation can be eliminated.

Disadvantages
1. Process is relatively slow
2. Use of cores makes the process more difficult
3. The process is relatively expensive than other process
4. Pattern is expendable
5. Size limitation of the components part to be cast- majority of cast products is
below 05kg.

53
 Plaster Mould Casting
In plaster mold casting, a plaster, usually gypsum or calcium sulfate, is mixed
with talc, sand, asbestos, and sodium silicate and water to form a slurry. This slurry
is sprayed on the polished surfaces of the pattern halves (usually brass). The slurry
sets in less than 15 minutes to form the mold. The mold halves are extracted
carefully from the pattern, and then dried in an oven.

The mold halves are carefully assembled, along with the cores. The molten metal is
poured in the molds. After the metals cools down, the plaster is broken and the
cores washed out.

Parts cast are usually small to medium size, ranging in weight from 30 g (1 oz) to 7
kg (15 lb). The section thickness can be as small as 0.6 mm (0.025 in) and
tolerances are 0.2 % linear. The draft allowance is 0.5-1.0 degree. The surface finish
is 1.25 µm to 3 µm (50 µin to 125 µin) rms.

Low temperature melting materials such as aluminum, copper, magnesium and zinc
can be cast using this process. This process is used to make quick prototype parts as
well as limited production parts.
Advantages:

1. Warping and distortion of thin sections can be avoided since plaster has no
chilling tendency due to low rate of heat conductivity.

2. A high degree of dimensional accuracy and surface finish is obtained and

machining cost is therefore eliminated.

3. Highly suitable for reproduction of fine form and detail as are necessary for
ornamental casting, statues, jewellery, etc.
Disadvantages:
1. Low permeability of plaster of paris.
2. Suitable only for nonferrous castings as plaster of paris destroys at 1200ºC.

54
 CERAMIC MOULDING
Similar to plaster mold casting, the pattern used in ceramic mold casting is made
of plaster, plastic, wood, metal or rubber. A slurry of ceramic is poured over the
pattern. It hardens rapidly to the consistency of rubber. This can be peeled of the
pattern, reassembled as a mold. The volatiles are removed using a flame torch or in
a low temperature oven. It is then baked in a furnace at about 1000 °C (1832 °F)
yielding a ceramic mold, capable of high temperature pours. Additionally, the pour
can take place while the mold is until hot.

Tolerances can be held to 0.4 %, surface finishes can be better than 2 - 4 µm (.075
- .15 µin). Add 0.3 mm (.012 in) for parting line tolerances. Wall thickness can be as
small as 1.25 mm (.050 in), and the weights can range from 60 g (2oz) to a ton.
Draft allowance of 1° is recommended.

This process is expensive, but can eliminate secondary machining operations. Typical
parts made from this process include impellers made from stainless steel, bronze,
complex cutting tools, plastic mold tooling.
Advantages:
1. Highest precision and accuracy obtained
2. Suitable of all types of cast metals including titanium and uranium.
3. Castings do not normally need risers, venting or chilling a cooling is very slow.
Disadvantages:
Impractical to control dimensional accuracy
Process is expensive.

55
 CARBON-DI – OXIDE (CO2) MOULDING
Basically, CO2 molding is the hardening process for molds and cores. If CO2 is
passed through a sand mix containing sodium silicate, the sand becomes strongly
bonded by silica gel immediately. The chemical reaction is as follows:

Na2+(x) SiO2+xH2O+CO2 ------------- Na2CO3+SiO2+(x)H2O

Where x is 2,3,4, or 5.

Strength of the sand rises with the grain fineness measured upto 80mesh size. After
that it decreases and reaches zero with 120 mesh size.

However that strength of the fine sand can be increased by CO2 method by
hardening. The sand is thoroughly mixed with 3-5% of sodium silicate liquid base
binder for 3-4 minutes. Other additives such as coal powder, wood flour, sea coal,
and dextrin may be added to obtain certain specific properties. The suitable sand
mixture can be packed around the pattern in the flask or in the core box.

After the packing is complete, CO2 gas is forced into the mould at a pressure of
1.45kgf/cm2 (142KN/m2) for a specified time. The reaction takes place and the
compressive strength of sand mixture reaches maximum value when a critical
amount of gas is passed.

56
CO2 requirement can be calculated by the amount of sodium silicate. For every 1 kg
of sodium silicate, 0.5-0.75 kg of gas is required. Over-gassing is wasteful and may
deteriorate the sand. It will be effective only when the gases present in the poured
holes is completely evacuated by CO2 The flow rate of CO2 gas determines the
depth of penetration.

After this the hardness is further increased by placing the mould in free atmosphere
for a short while. Sometimes it is heated to around 200°C to creased hardness. The
patterns commonly used are made of wood, metal or plastic.
Advantages

1. Eliminates baking ovens and core driers

2. Moulds and cores can be used immediately and therefore productivity is more.

3. Floor requirement is less.

4. Greater dimensional accuracy

5. Suitable for heavy and rush orders

6. Semi-skilled labour can be used.

Limitation

1. Sand cannot be resused

2. More expensive

3. Life is short

4. Poor collapsibility

5. Shake out properties are poor.

57
 DIE CASTING
Die-casting is similar to permanent mold casting except that the metal is injected
into the mold under high pressure of 10-210Mpa (1,450-30,500) psi . This results in
a more uniform part, generally good surface finish and good dimensional accuracy,
as good as 0.2 % of casting dimension. For many parts, post-machining can be
totally eliminated, or very light machining may be required to bring dimensions to
size.

Die-casting can be done using a cold chamber or hot chamber process.

In a cold chamber process, the molten metal is ladled into the cold chamber for
each shot. There is less time exposure of the melt to the plunger walls or the
plunger. This is particularly useful for metals such as Aluminum, and Copper (and its
alloys) that alloy easily with Iron at the higher temperatures.

In a hot chamber process the pressure chamber is connected to the die cavity is
immersed permanently in the molten metal. The inlet port of the pressurizing
cylinder is uncovered as the plunger moves to the open (unpressurized) position.
This allows a new charge of molten metal to fill the cavity and thus can fill the cavity
faster than the cold chamber process. The hot chamber process is used for metals of
low melting point and high fluidity such as tin, zinc, and lead that tend not to alloy
easily with steel at their melt temperatures.

Die-casting processes may be divided into the following types:

1. Gravity die-casting

2. Low pressure die-casting

3. High pressure die-casting

1. Hot chamber die casting

2. Cold chamber die casting

58
 Gravity Die Casting

Metal is poured directly into the mold by hand. The casting is removed as soon as

the metal has solidified. The hot, relatively soft castings that could easily distort are

stacked on racks to cool. The mold is then blown clean.

In gravity die-casting, the two parts of the die are split along a joint line passing

through the die cavity. The running, feeding and venting systems are provided in the

same plane. Dies are provided with various arrangements such as pin locators,

clamping devices and ejection systems for casting removal. To prevent the casting

from sticking to the mold, graphite is coated to reduce the casting’s tendency to

stick to the mold. The mold is held at a temperature of 260° C.

Mechanical properties are improved by chilling effect of the metal mold. This

ensures even flow of metal within the mold cavity. The gravity type is limited to

basically non-ferrous alloys namely, aluminium, copper or magnesium. Iron and steel

can also be cast using graphite molds.

Advantages:

1. Higher production rate

2. Closer dimensional tolerances

3. Good surface finish

4. Tensile strength and ductility are considerably higher than sand castings

59
Disadvantages

1. Non economical in small runs

2. Initial cost is high

3. Suitable only for fluid alloys owing to high freezing rates obtained in metal
molds

Low Pressure Die-Casting

In this process, first, a metal die is positioned above a sealed furnace containing
molten metal. A refractory-lined riser extends from the bottom of the die into the
molten metal. Low pressure air (15-100kPa, 2-15 psi) is then introduced into the
furnace. This makes the molten metal rise up to the tube and enter the die cavity
with low turbulence. After the metal has solidified, the air pressure is released so
that the molten metal in the riser tube to fall back into the furnace. After
subsequent cooling, the die is opened and the casting extracted.

High quality castings of aluminium alloys, along with magnesium and other low
melting point alloys are usually produced through the process. Castings of
aluminium in the weight range of 2-150 kg are commonly done.

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 High Pressure Die Casting
Here, the liquid metal is injected with high speed and high pressure into the metal
mold. The basic equipment consists of two vertical platens. The bolsters are placed
on these platens and this holds the die halves. Out of the two platens, one is fixed
and the other movable.This helps the die to open and close. A specific amount of
metal is poured into the shot sleeve and afterwards introduced into the mold cavity.
This is done using a hydraulically-driven piston. After the metal has solidified, the die
is opened and the casting eventually removed.

Types of High Pressure Die Casting:

1. Hot Chamber Process
2. Cold Chamber Process

Both the processes are described below. The only difference between the two
processes is the method being used to inject molten metal into the die.

Hot Chamber Process

The hot-chamber process is applicable only for zinc and other low melting point
alloys that does not affect and erode metal pots cylinders and plungers. The basic
components of a hot-chamber die-casting machine and die are illustrated below:

61
The molten metal for casting is placed in the holding furnace at the required
temperature adjacent to(sometimes as part of the machine itself) the machine. The
injection mechanism is placed within the holding furnace and most of its part is in
constant touch with the molten metal. When pressure is transmitted by the injection
piston, the metal is forced through the gooseneck into the die. On the return stroke,
the metal is drawn towards the gooseneck for the next shot.

This process ensures minimum contact between air and the metal to be injected.
The tendency for entrainment of air in the metal during injection is also minimized.
This process is limited to metals, which melt below 800° F (427° C). The hot
chamber machine is used for zinc die-casting, but may also cast tin and lead. The
hot chamber machine operates at high speeds. It is possible for a machine to make
500 shots per hour on small castings.

Cold Chamber Die-Casting

The difference of this process with the hot-chamber process is that the injection
system is not submerged in molten metal. On the contrary, metal gets transferred by
ladle, manually or automatically, to the shot sleeve. The metal is pushed into the die
by a hydraulically operated plunger. This process minimises the contact time
between the injector components and the molten metal, which extends the life of
the components.

However the entrainment of air into the metal generally associated with high-speed
injection can cause gas porosity in the castings. In the cold chamber machine,
injection pressures over 10,000 psi or 70,000 KPa is obtainable. Generally steel
castings along with aluminium and copper based alloys are produced by this method
Advantages:
1. Higher production rate
2. Closer dimensional tolerance

62
Limitations:
1. Not economical in small runs
2. High initial cost
3. Restricted size of casting.

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
Centrifugal casting as a category includes Centrifugal Casting, Semi-Centrifugal
Casting and Centrifuging.

Centrifugal Casting: In centrifugal casting, a permanent mold is rotated about its

axis at high speeds (300 to 3000 rpm) as the molten metal is poured. The molten
metal is centrifugally thrown towards the inside mold wall, where it solidifies after
cooling. The casting is usually a fine grain casting with a very fine-grained outer
diameter, which is resistant to atmospheric corrosion, a typical situation with pipes.
The inside diameter has more impurities and inclusions, which can be machined
away. The mold can be rotated about a vertical, horizontal or an inclined axis or
about its horizontal and vertical axes simultaneously. The length and outside
diameter are fixed by the mold cavity dimensions while the inside diameter is
determined by the amount of molten metal poured into the mold.

63
Only cylindrical shapes can be produced with this process. Size limits are upto 3 m
(10 feet) diameter and 15 m (50 feet) length. Wall thickness can be 2.5 mm to 125
mm (0.1 - 5.0 in). The tolerances that can be held on the OD can be as good as 2.5
mm (0.1 in) and on the ID can be 3.8 mm (0.15 in). The surface finish ranges from
2.5 mm to 12.5 mm (0.1 - 0.5 in) rms.Typical materials that can be cast with this
process are iron, steel, stainless steels, and alloys of aluminum, copper and nickel.
Two materials can be cast by introducing a second material during the process.
Typical parts made by this process are pipes, boilers, pressure vessels, flywheels,
cylinder liners and other parts that are axi-symmetric.

64
Semi-Centrifugal Casting: The molds used can be permanent or expendable, can
be stacked as necessary. The rotational speeds are lower than those used in
centrifugal casting. The center axis of the part has inclusion defects as well as
porosity and thus is suitable only for parts where this can be machined away. This
process is used for making wheels, nozzles and similar parts where the axis of the
part is removed by subsequent machining.

Centrifuging: Centrifuging is used for forcing metal from a central axis of the
equipment into individual mold cavities that are placed on the circumference. This
provides a means of increasing the filling pressure within each mold and allows for
reproduction of intricate details. This method is often used for the pouring of
investment casting pattern.
Advantages:

Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores.

Less material required for gate.

Fine grained structure at the outer surface of the casting free of gas and
shrinkage cavities and porosity.

Disadvantages:

More segregation of alloy components during pouring under the forces of rotation

Contamination of internal surfaces with non-metallic inclusions.

Inaccurate internal diameter.

65
 Continuous Casting
Continuous casting, also called strand casting, is the process whereby molten metal
is solidified into a "semifinished" billet, bloom, or slab for subsequent rolling in the
finishing mills. Prior to the introduction of continuous casting in the 1950s, steel was
poured into stationary molds to form ingots. Since then, "continuous casting" has
evolved to achieve improved yield, quality, productivity and cost efficiency. It allows
lower-cost production of metal sections with better quality, due to the inherently
lower costs of continuous, standardised production of a product, as well as providing
increased control over the process through automation. This process is used most
frequently to cast steel (in terms of tonnage cast). Aluminium and copper are also
continuously cast.

66
Molten metal is poured steadily from the top of the tower into a long mold and cooled by
water. The passage of steel through the mold is so controlled that the metal engages from
the other end in the shape of products of a primary rolling mill. The main task is to devise a
mold that will withstand the heat and fasten the solidifying steel into desired shape without
obstructing its steady flow. Copper is normally used with efficient cooling system.
Advantages
1. High rate of production
2. Closer dimensional accuracy
3. Good surface finish
4. Less cost of production
Limitations
1. Not economical in small runs
2. High initial cost

SAND CASTING DEFECTS

A properly designed casting, a properly prepared mould and correctly melted metal should
result in a defect free casting. However, if proper control is not exercised in the foundry, a
variety of defects may result in the casting. Defective castings, even at advanced foundries,
account for 2 to 5% and sometimes from 10 to 25% of the number of produced castings.

Classification of Defects:

Classification may be made by grouping the defects under certain broad types of
origins, such as those caused due to improper

 Patterns and molding box equipment (mismatch or mold shift, improper wall
thickness, etc)

 materials used for molding and core making

 I sand mixing and distribution

 Molding, core making and gating

67
 Drying and core baking

 Closing of molds

 Molten metal

 Heat treatment , And other reasons being Warpage, during fettling etc.

Some of the common defects discussed below are:

1.Blow Holes: Blow holes are smooth, round holes appearing in the form of a
cluster of a large number of small holes below the surface of a casting. These are
entrapped bubbles of gases with smooth walls. Blow holes are caused by excessive
moisture in the sand, or when permeability of sand is low, sand grains are too fine,
sand is reamed too hard, or when venting is insufficient. Blowhole is a kind of
cavities defect, which is also divided into pinhole and subsurface blowhole. Pinhole is
very tiny hole. Subsurface blowhole only can be seen after machining. To prevent
blow holes, the moisture content in sand must be well adjusted, and of proper grain
size should be used, ramming should not be too hard and venting should be
adequate.

2.Misrun or short run: These defects occur due to incomplete cavity filling. The
reasons could be inadequate metal supply, too low mold or melt temperature,
improperly designed gates or length to thickness ration of the casting is too large.

68
3. Cold Shut: It is an interface within the casting that is formed when two metal
streams meet without complete fusion. The causes are same as for misrun.

4. Mismatch: Mismatch is a shift of the individual parts of a casting with respect to

each other. This may occur due to mold shift or core shift. The causes can be an
improper assembly of the two halves of the mold, wearing of pin bushes and pins
and dimensional discrepancy between the core prints of the pattern and core prints
of the core.

5.Fin: A thin projection of a metal, not intended as a part of the casting is called the
fin. Fins usually occur at the parting of the mold or core sections. Molds and cores
incorrectly assembled will cause fins. Insufficient weighting of the molds or improper
clamping of flasks may also produce fins.

6.Metal Penetration and Rough Surface: This defect appears as an uneven and
rough external surface of the casting. The metal penetration between the sand
grains occurs due to low strength, large grain size, high permeability and soft
ramming of the sand.

7.Hot Tear: They are internal and external cracks having ragged edges occuring
immediately after the metal has solidified. Hot rears may be produced if the casting
is poorly designed and abrupt sectional changes takes place, no proper fillets and
corner radii are provided, and chills ar wrongly placed, incorrect pouring
temperatures and improper placing of gates and risers.

69
 ASSIGNMENT
1. A 200 mm long down sprue has an area of cross—section of 650 where the pouring
basin meets the down sprue (i.e. at the beginning of the down sprue). A constant head
of molten metal is maintained by the pouring basin. The molten metal flow rate is 6.5 .
Considering the end of the down sprue to be open to atmosphere and an acceleration
due to gravity of , the area of the down sprue in at its end (avoiding aspiration effect)
should be (K3)

2. While cooling, a cubical casting of side 40 mm undergoes 3%, 4% and 5% volume

shrinkage during the liquid state, phase transition and solid state, respectively. The
volume of the metal compensated from the riser is (K3)

(A) 2 %

(B) 7 %

(C) 8 %

(D) 9%

3. A cubic casting of 50 mm side undergoes volumetric solidification shrinkage and

volumetric solid contraction of 4% and 6% respectively. No riser is used. Assumed uniform
cooling in all directions. The side of the cube after solidification and contraction is (K3)

(A) 48.32 m

(B) 49.90 mm

(C) 49.94 mm

(D) 49.96 mm

70
4.While cooling, a cubical casting of side 40 mm undergoes 4%, 5% and 6% volume
shrinkage during the liquid state, phase transition and solid state, respectively. The
volume of the metal compensated from the riser is (K3)

(A) 7 %
(B) 9 %
(C) 15 %
(D) 10%

5.Volume of a cube of side ‘l’ and volume of a sphere of radius ‘r’ are equal. Both the
cube and the sphere are solid and of same material. They are big cast. The ratio of

the solidification time of the cube to the same of the sphere is (K3)

(A) (B) (C) (D)

6.A cube shaped casting solidifies in 5 min. The solidification time in min for a cube
of the same material, which is 8 times heavier than the original casting, will be

(K3)
(A) 10
(B) 20
(C) 24
(D) 40

7.The height of the down-sprue is 175 mm and its cross-sectional area at the base is
. The cross sectional area of the horizontal runner is . Assuming no losses, indicate
the correct choice for the time (in seconds) required to fill a mould cavity of volume
. (K3)

(A) 2.67

(B) 8.45

(C) 26.72

(D) 84.50

71
 Part A with K level and CO’s

S.No PART A Question with Answer Blooms CO’

Level S
1 Define pattern. (May/June-2014) K1 CO1
The model of the required casting made in wood, metal
or plastics.

2 Define Casting (May/June-2014) K1 CO1

Casting is process of producing metal parts by pouring
molten metal into the mould cavity of the required
shape and allowing the metal to solidify.

3 State any four types of patterns. (Nov/Dec-2010) & K1 CO1

(April/May -2015), (May/June-2012) & (May/June-
2016)

1. Solid pattern or single-piece pattern.

2. Split pattern
3. Loose piece pattern.
4. Match plate pattern.
4 Name four different casting defects. (Nov/Dec-2013) K1 CO1
1. Design of casting and pattern
2. Moulding and design of mould and core
3. Metal composition
4. Melting and pouring
5. Gating and risering
5 List any four products manufactured by using K1 CO1
centrifugal casting process. (Nov/Dec-2014)
i. Water pipes
ii. Bush bearings
iii. Brake drums
iv. Gun Barrels
6 List the composition of good moulding sand K1 CO1
Green Sand: It contains 5 to 8% of water and 15 to
20% clay.
Loam Sand: Loam sand is a mixture of fine sands, fine
refractories, clay,
graphite powder and water. It contains more than 50%
clay.

72
S.No PART A Question with Answer Blooms CO’S
Level
7 List the factors to be considered in the choice of metal melting K1 CO1
furnaces. (Nov/Dec-2012)
1. Cupola Furnace: For cast iron.
2. Open hearth furnace - For steel.
3. Crucible furnace - For non-ferrous metal.
4. Electrical furnace - For steel, alloy steel, brasses.
8 Define are Chaplets? (May/June-2016) K1 CO1
Sometimes it is not possible to provide sufficient support for a
core in the moulding being poured, if the cores are bigger in
size. In such case the core is supported with rigid metal pieces
called chaplets
9 List the causes for the formation of blow holes in the sand K1 CO1
casting?
(May/June-2012) & (May/June-2016)

 Not adequately vented mould

 Excess moisture in the molding sand
 Low permeability and excessive fine grain sand
 Rusted damp chills, chaplets and inserts
 Presence of gas producing ingredients in the mold or core
sands
 Extra hard ramming sand

73
 Part B with K level and CO’s

Blooms
S.No Questions CO’S
Level
1 Explain the different types of pattern with neat K2 CO1
sketch and state the application of each of them.

2 Explain with a neat sketch the working and K2 CO1

different zones of a cupola furnace

3 Explain the different types of moulding machines K2 CO1

with neat sketch.

4 Explain the steps involved in green sand moulding K1 CO1

with a neat sketch.

5 Explain the various pattern allowances with a neat K2 CO1

sketch.
6 Explain any four sand testing method with a neat K2 CO1
sketch.
7 Explain the different types of moulding machine. K2 CO1
Explain the working of blast furnace with a neat
sketch.
8 Explain the shell moulding process with a neat K2 CO1
sketch.
9 Explain the working principle of centrifugal casting. K2 CO1

10 Explain in detail about the pressure die casting K2 CO1

74
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75
REAL TIME APPLICATIONS

76
 Content Beyond Syllabus

Vacuum Molding
Vacuum molding, also called the V-process, was developed in Japan around 1970. It
uses a sand mold held together by vacuum pressure ratherthan by a chemical
binder. Accordingly, the term vacuum in this process refers to the making of the
mold rather than the casting operation itself. The steps of the process are explained
in Figure.

77
Steps in vacuum molding:
1. A thin sheet of preheated plastic is drawn over a match-plate or cope-and-drag
pattern by vacuum - the pattern has small vent holes to facilitate vacuum
forming;

2. A specially designed flask is placed over the pattern plate and filled with sand,
and a sprue and pouring cup are formed in the sand;

3. Another thin plastic sheet is placed over the flask, and a vacuum is drawn that
causes the sand grains to be held together, forming a rigid mold;

4. The vacuum on the mold pattern is released to permit the pattern to be stripped
from the mold;

5. This mold is assembled with its matching half to form the cope and drag, and
with vacuum maintained on both halves, pouring is accomplished. The plastic
sheet quickly burns away on contacting the molten metal. After solidification,
nearly all of the sand can be recovered for reuse.
Advantages:

 No binders are used and hence sand is readily recovered in vacuum molding

 Sand recovery and reconditioning, a common problem in metal casting

industry, is very easy due to the lack of binders and other agents in the sand.

 Mechanical ramming is not required

 When manufacturing parts by vacuum mold casting the sand mold contains
no water so moisture related metal casting defects are eliminated.

 The size of risers can be significantly reduced for this metal casting process,
making it more efficient in the use of material.

Disadvantages:

 relatively slow and not readily adaptable to mechanization

78
 ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE

Unit Test I :
Internal Assessment Test I : 04/08/2020
Unit Test II :
Internal Assessment Test II :
Model Examination :

90
79
 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Hajra Chouldhary S.K and Hajra Choudhury. AK., "Elements of workshop
Technology", volume I and II, Media promoters and Publishers Private Limited,
Mumbai, 2008

2. Kalpakjian. S, “Manufacturing Engineering and Technology”, Pearson Education

India Edition, 2013

REFERENCES:

1. Gowri P. Hariharan, A.Suresh Babu, "Manufacturing Technology I", Pearson

Education, 2008

2. Paul Degarma E, Black J.T and Ronald A. Kosher, "Materials and Processes, in
Manufacturing" Eight Edition, Prentice – Hall of India, 1997.

3. Rao, P.N. "Manufacturing Technology Foundry, Forming and Welding", 4th Edition,
TMH-2013

4. Roy. A. Lindberg, "Processes and Materials of Manufacture", PHI / Pearson

education, 2006

5. Sharma, P.C., "A Text book of production Technology", S.Chand and Co. Ltd.,
2014.

OTHER RESOURCES:

OL. Online Resource – www.nptel.co.in

80
 Mini Project Idea

Pattern Making Procedure

• Moudling
• Melting
• Casting
• Felting/grinding/Shot blasting
• Heat treatment
• Machine
• Testing
• Dispatch with final inspection
By following the above process flow prepare a report for Sand casting
Process in recent automotive application.
BASIS & PRESUMPTIONS :-
i) single shift of 8 hours/day.
ii) 300 working days in year.
iii) 80% capacity utilization.
iv) Labour wages based on local market conditions and Wages Act.
v) Interest rate for fixed and working capital 13% on an average.
vi) Time period for achieving full capacity utilization 3 years.

81
 Thank you

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82