Module PRACTICAL | im / RESEARCH2 ~Introduction As a researcher and a human being we have always asked ourselves questions, as much about the phenomena we observe on a daily basis as the deepest mysteries of nature. When curiosity and intuition are applied in a systematic approach to find the answers to questions like these, when we draw on experience and the knowledge we've already acquired, then we're doing research. All of us in our daily lives explore, investigate, invent, solving problems at work, trying out new recipes in the kitchen, finding the best way to prune a plant, or simply playing with the kids, Dedicating ourAcknowledgment “In everything, The researcher wishes to express profound gratitude and sincere on the following persons who were behind the realization to made this compilation of this module made possible. To their beloved Parents, for undying love they have given them, also for the full support and guidance. They never left them; they were always there to encourage and never stop believing in them.TABLE OF CONTENTS, Page Introduction i Acknowledgment... ii Table of Contents....... iii Module 1: Nature of Inquiry and Research Lesson 1: The characteristics, Strengths, Weaknesses, and kinds of Quantitative Research... 1 Inquiry-Based Learning. 2Research topic to be avoided Writing a Research Title Scope and Delimitation Lesson 4: Hypothesis. Module 3: Learning from other and Reviewing the Literature... Lesson 5: Review of Related Literature (RRL)... Purpose of Review of Related Literature. Styles or approaches of RRL or Review ik Oataue! Taha 16 7 18Module 5: Lesson 12: Lesson 13: ing Ans ers through Data Collection Quantitative Data Analysis... Using Software for statistical ana Sampling. Steps in Quantitative data analysis. -al Methods. ical Methodologies. Types of Statistical Data Analysis lleva Cnentatnae: 66 66 68 68 oo B 4 14Introduction An inquiry and research are two terms are almost the same in meaning. Both of them involved investigative work and any process that has the aim of augmenting knowledge, resolving doubt, or solving a problem, A theory of inquiry is an account of the various types of inquiry and a treatment of the ways that each type of inquiry achieves its aim while research is to discover truths by investigating on your chosen topic scientifically. Intended Learning Outcomes After this lesson, you should be able to:Furthermore, according to Badke cited by Baraceros, solving a problem, especially social issues, does not only involved yourself but other members of the society too. Whatever knowledge you have about world bears the influence of your cultural, sociological, institutional, or ideological understanding of the world. (Badke 2012) THE NATURE OF RESEARCH ‘The research process is, for many of us, just the way we do things. We research the best buys in cars and appliances, we research book reviews before shopping for books, we research the best schools for our children and ourselves, and we probably perform some kind of research in our jobs. Our search for information may lead us to interview friends or other knowledgeable people: read articles in magazines, journals, or newspapers; listen to the radio; search an encyclopedia on CD-ROM; and even explore the Internet and World Wide Web for information. We use our local public libraries and our school libraries.reasoning (i.e. the generation of a variety of ideas about a research problem in a spontaneous, free- flowing manner) Its main characteristics are: wr eR 2 ‘The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments. ‘The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population. ‘The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability. Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected. Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other non-textual forms. Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate causal relationships.© When using inferential statistics, provide the descriptive stati ics, confidence intervals, and sample sizes for each variable as well as the value of the test statistic, its direction, the degrees of freedom, and the significance level [report the actual p value]. * Avoid inferring causali , particularly in nonrandomized designs or without further experimentation, ‘+ Use tables to provide exact values; use figures to convey global effects. Keep figures small in size; include graphic representations of confidence intervals whenever possible. © Always tell the reader what to look for in tables and figures. STRENGTHS AND WE.Looks at relationships between variables and can establish cause and effect in highly controlled circumstances 6. Tests theories or hypotheses 7. Assumes sample is representative of the population 8. Subjectivity of researcher in methodology is recognized less 9. Less detailed than qualitative data and may miss a desired response from the participant —) a LESSON 2 ‘THE NATURE OF VARIABLES All experiments examine some kind of variable(s). A variable is not only something that we measure, but also something that we can manipulate and something we can control for. To Ga a ee neTYPES OF VARIABLE. Dependent and Independent Variables An independent variable, sometimes called an experimental or predictor variable, isa variable that is being manipulated in an experiment in order t observe the effect on a dependent variable, sometimes called an outcome variable. Imagine tha a tutor asks 100 students to complete a math test. The tutor wants to know why some students perform better than others, Whilst the tutor does not know the answer to this, she thinks that it might be because of two reasons: (1) some students spend more time revising for their test; and (2) some students are naturally more intelligent than others. As such, the tutor decides to investigate the effect of revision time and intelligence on the test performance of the 100 students. ‘The dependent and independent variables for the study areThree types of variables defined by the context within which the variabk 1, Independent and dependent (i. discussed Independent and dependent variables Extraneous and confounding variables Continuous and categorical variables se and effect) Independent variables act as the “cause” in that they precede, influence, and predict the dependent variable Dependent variables act as the effect in that they change as a result of being influenced by an independent variable Examples %& The effect of two instructional approaches (independent variable) on student achievement (dependent variable) ‘& The use of SAT scores (independent variable) to predict freshman grade point* Socio-economic status: low middle, and high The term level is used to discuss the groups or categories + Gender has two levels - male and female * Socio-economic status has three levels - low, middle, and high. Continuous variables can be converted to categorical variables, but categorical variables cannot be converted to continuous variables © 1Q is a continuons variable, but the researcher can choose to group students into three levels based on IQ scores - low is below a score of 84, middle is between 85 and 115, and high is above 116 Test scores are continuous, but teachers typically assign letter grades on a ten point scale (i.c., at or below 59 is an F, 60 to 69 is aD, 70 to 79 is a C, 80-89 is a B, and 90 to 100is an A wees a a I i aa3. Ordinal variables are variables that have two or more categories just like nominal variables only the categories can also be ordered or ranked. So if you asked someone if they liked the policies of the Democratic Party and they could answer either "Not very much", "They are OK" or "Yes, a lot” then you have an ordinal variable. Why? Because you have 3 categories namely "Not very much’, "They are OK" and "Yes, a lot" and you can rank them from the most positive (Yes, a lot), to the middle response (They are OK), to the least positive (Not very much). However, whilst we can rank the levels, we cannot place a "value" to them; we cannot say that "They are OK" is twice as positive as "Not very much" for example. Continuous variables are also known as quantitative variables. Continuous variables can be further categorized as either interval or ratio variables © Interval variables are variables for which their central characteristic is that they can be ee ee‘Name: Strand/Section/Grad CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE (Short Answer Question) (2 POINTS EACH) DIRECTIONS: Read the question carefully. Write your answer on the space provided. 1. Isa leaming process that motivates you to obtain knowledge or information about people, things, places, or events?Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Complete the concept map by writing words associated with the middle word. Be guided by the clues in the sentence below each graph.The continuous presence of your name on the Dean’ list guarantee a good future for you, | REFERENCE EDD-904 Understanding & Using Data: Characteristics of Quantitative Research hitp://spalding. libguides.conv/c.php? g=461 1338&p=3 153088 https//coursedev.umuc.edu/WRTG999A /chapter4/ch4-01 aunt What is the nature of research? | Insights AssociationModule IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND 2 STATING THE PROBLEM Introduction This module discusses the topics that will help the learners to develop the ability to formulate a research problem and find answers towards these inquiries or questions. Inquiry or research pushes you to a thorough or a detailed investigation of a certain subject matter. This kind of study involves several stages that require much time and effort. The learners need more time to think in finalizing its decision about a particular topic to research on or in determining the appropriateness of such topic by obtaining the background information of the study, a a~——> o LESSON 3 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROBLEM RESEARCH IN OUR DAILY LIFE Guidelines in making a Research Problems 1, One or more sentences indicating the goal, purpose, or overall direction of the study 2. General characteristics Implies the possibility of empirical investigation Identifies a need for the research+ What are the achievement and social skill differences between children attending an academically or socially oriented pre-school! program? + What is the relationship between teachers’ knowledge of assessment methods and their use of them? 7. Researchable and non-researchable problems © Non-researchable problems include explanations of how to do something, vague propositions, and value-based concerns - Is democracy a good form of government? ~ Should values clarification be taught in public schools? = Can crime be prevented? = Should physical education classes be dropped from the high school curriculum?© Checking important findings using different methodologies © Clarification of contradictory results Quantitative Research Problems Identifies three specific elements ‘The type of research design ‘The variables of interest and the relationships between or among these variables The subjects involved in the study Guidelines in Choosing a Research Topic L Nv ~ woe Interest in the Subject Matter Availability of information Timeliness and relevance of the topic Limitation on the subject Personal resourcesthe Extra Judicial Killings,” are vague enough to decrease the readers” interest and curiosity, WRITING A RESEARCH TITLE When writing a research paper title, authors should realize that despite being repeatedly wamed against it, most people do indeed fall prey to “judging a book by its cover.” This cognitive bias tends to make readers considerably susceptible to allowing the research paper title to function as the sole factor influencing their decision of whether to read or skip a particular paper. Although seeking the professional assistance of a research paper writing service could help the cause, the author of the paper stands as the best judge for setting the right tone of his/her research paper. Readers come across research paper titles in searches through databases and reference sections of research papers. They deduce what a paper is about and its relevance to them based on the title. Considering this, itis clear that the title of your paper is the most important determinant ofUs used in the manuscript and should define the nature of the study. Think about terms people e appropriate descriptive words: A good research paper title should contain key words would use to search for your study and include them in your title Avoid: Effects of drug A on schizophrenia patients: study of a multicenter mixed group Better: Psychosocial effects of drug A on schizophrenia patients: a multicenter randomized controlled trial Avoid abbreviations and jargon: Known abbreviations such as AIDS, NATO, and so on can be used in the title. However, other lesser-known or specific abbreviations and jar a that would not be immediately familiar to the readers should be left out. Avoid: MMP expression profiles cannot distinguish benween normal and early osteoarthritic ‘ppcar miceThe delimitation of the study is delimiting a study by geographic location, age, sex, population traits, population size, or other similar considerations. Delimitation is used to make study better and more feasible and not just for the interest of the researcher. It also identifies the constraints or weaknesses of your study which are not within the control of the researcher. Sample phrases that expressed the delimitations of the study The study does not cover the... The researcher limited this research to. This study is limited to e———— LESSON | 4 Ji HYPOTHESESdifference or change. In this case, you are essentially trying to find support for the null hypothesis and you are opposed to the alternative. If your prediction specifies a direction, and the null therefore is the no difference prediction and the prediction of the opposite direction, we call this a one-tailed hypothesis. For instance, let's imagine that you are investigating the effects of a new employee training program and that you believe one of the outcomes will be that there will be less employee absenteeism. Your two hypotheses might be stated something like this: ‘The null hypothesis for this study is: Ho: As a result of the XYZ company employee training program, there will either be no significant difference in employee absenteeism or there will be a significant increase. which is tested against the alternative hypothesis:Ho: As a result of 300mg./day of the ABC dnig, there will be no significant difference in depression. which is tested against the alternative hypothesis: Ha: As a result of 300mg/day of the ABC drug, there will be a significant difference in depression, The figure on the right illustrates this two-tailed - ([SSes prediction for this case. Again, notice that the termite CUES “two-tailed” refers to the tails of the distribution for ~ your outcome variable. ‘The important thing to remember about stating 0 hypotheses is that you formulate your prediction depression Girectional or not), and then you formulate a second hypothesis that is mutually exclusive of the‘Name: Strand/Section/Grade: CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE (Short Answer Question) (2 POINTS EACH) DIRECTIONS: Read the question carefully. Write your answer on the space provided. L typically a rather general overview of the problem with just enough information about the scope and purpose of the study to provide an initial understanding of the research more specific, focused statements and questions that communicate in greater detail the nature of the study include explanations of how to do something, vague propositions, and value-based concerns.Name: Score: Strand/Section/Grade: Date: GROUP WORK List down at least three major problems and with the statement of the problems. (Discus it within the group) Write down the reason behind why you choose that research topic.[ REFERENCE | http:/universalteacher.com/I/criteria-for-selecting-a esearch-problem/ hups/www socialresearchmethods.neUkb/hypothes.php http://www. éditage comin sights/3-basic-tips-on-writing-a-good-résearch-paper-title" Module LEARNING FROM OTHERS AND 3 REVIEWING THE LITERATURE Introduction A literature review is an evaluative report of information found in the literature related to your selected area of study. The review should describe, summarize, evaluate and clarify this literature. It should give a theoretical base for the research and help you (the author) determine the nature of your research. Works which are irrelevant should be discarded and those which are peripheral should be looked at critically. A literature review is more than the search for information, and goes beyond being a raise i eect tlie: bt eeie ys Soctictiel cy tee tetera Denes tcemed gond’PERFORMANCE STANDARD The learner demonstrates understanding to: 1. Select, cite, and synthesize judiciously related literature and use sources according to ethical standards. nv Formulate clearly conceptual framework, research hypotheses (if appropriate), and define terms used in study. 3. Present objectively written review of related literature and conceptual framework TS LESSON 5 | REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE (RRL) What is Review of Related Literature? While the research problem is still being conceptualized, the researcher must already startStyles or Approaches of RRL or Review of Related Literature 1. Traditional Review of Literature A “traditional” literature review provides an overview of the r arch findings on ed particular topics. A traditional literature is written by examining a body of publ work, then writing a critical summary (an impressionistic overview) of the body of literature. The purpose of a literature review is making clear for a reader what the research collectively indicates with regard to a particular issue or question. s follows: Traditional review is of different types that are 1. Conceptual review — analysis of concepts or ideas to give meaning to some national or world issues. Critical review — focuses on theories or hypotheses and examines meanings and results of their application to situation. 3. State-of-the-Art review — makes the researcher deal with the latest research studies ‘On the Sabject:Standards Traditional Review Systematic Review Nature of studies [Quality appraisal Inquiry-based techniques involving several studies Reviewers views | Wide and thorough search for all studies | Assessment checklists /Summary | Namative Graphical and short summary answers TT a 5 LESSON REFERENCING 6 | Referencing is important 1. It shows where you got information from (you are not making up) v It acknowledges the contribution of other peopleTraditional knowledge is tacit (Rahman, ee ae kL) Pree tet had copyright year of publication from culture to culture, as is transi orally (Ellen & Harris, 1996; World Bank, Deere Pr ee ec has copyright year of publication In the work of Ames, et al. (1993) as well as that of Barros, al. mushrooms, espedally 4 Basidiomvcetes were/ found to ate DSU aes SR ee Se eaAmes, B.M.. Shigenaga, M.K.. & Hagen, T.M. (1993). Oxidants, antioxidants and the degenerative diseases of aging. Proceedings of the National Academy Sciences, Tee Tierkreis Bars, L.; Ferreira, M.-J.; Queirés, B.; Ferreira, LC. & Baptista, P. (2007). Total phenols, ascorbic acid, B-carotene and lycopene in Portuguese wild edible mushrooms and their antioxidant activities. Food Chemistry, 103:314—419. Dowie, J. (2008). Western science and traditional knowledge—No gap to bridge. Environmental Knowledge for Change, UNEP/GRID-Arendal, Retrieved 23 March 2009 from, Pos g ieee Ellen, R. & Harris, H. (1996). Concepts of indigenous environmental knowledge in scientific and development studies literature - A critical assessment; draft paper East-West Environmental Linkages Network Workshop 3. Canterbury: Talversity “of Rent ene ued World Intellectual Property Organisation (1999). Intellectual property needs _and‘Sometimes you cannot reference the primary information source (the original) because of an inability to get hold of a copy and check yourself — in this case you can use a secondary source (someone who has seen the original) but you still cite the primary source as well. You also need to give both the primary and secondary sources in the reference list. Ferrets were shown to be exceptionally good pets apart from their propensity to bite (Li in ler & Bandage, considered them to be too smelly for the drawing room (Niffnaff, 1922). However,- Urban green spaces often have a When a document has a title, biodiversity conservation function. a publisher, date of however the amenity and conservation, publication and place of roles may conflict (B publication it can be tempting a to use the publisher as the author — don't! Instead put “Anon.” or “Anonymous” Anon where the need to manage for { biodiversity results in a perceived lower aesthetic value or the training of the land managers is more horticultural than } ecological. 108), €.9. ALSO: notice that the references are ordered ‘in date order, NOT alphabetical order Only use alphabetical if there are a number of papers published byReference Li Basic Rules Your references should begin on @ new page separate from the text of the essay; label this page References (with no quotation marks, underlining, ete.), centered at the top of the page. It should be double-spaced just like the rest of your essay. Basic Rules 1. Alllines after the first line of each entry in your reference list should be indented or make hanging 0.5 inch from the left margin, 2. Authors’ names are inverted (last name first); give the lastname and initials for all authors of a particular work unless the work has more than six authors. If the work has more than six authors, list the first six authors and then use et al. after the sixth author's name to indicate the rest of the authors.Two Authors List by their last names and initials. Use the ampersand instead of “anc Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (1994), Mood management across affective states: The hedonic contingency hypothesis. Journal of Personality & — Social Psychology, 66, 1034-1048. Three to Six Authors List by last names and initials; commas separate author names, while the last author name is preceded again by ampersand. Kemis, M. H., Comell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A., & Harlow, T. (1993). ‘There's more to self-esteem than whether it is high or low: The importance of stability of self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1190-1204. Sa a aathe first word and proper nouns in the title are capitalized. The periodical title is run in title case, and is followed by the volume number which, with the title, is also italicized or underlined. Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number (issue number), pages Article in Journal Paginated by Volume Joumals that are paginated by volume begin with page one in issue one, and continue numbering issue two where issue one ended, ete. Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles. 893-896. Joumal of Comparative and Physiological Psycholog Article in Journal Paginated by Issue Joumals paginated by issue begin with page one every issue; therefore, the issue number gets indicated in parentheses after the volume. The parentheses and issue number are not italicized or sores ceMultivolume Work Wiener, P. (Bd.). (1973). Dictionary of the history of ideas (Vols. |-4). New York: Scribner's. Encyclopedia Americana (2008) Electricity (Vol. 3) New York: Phoenix Pub. An Entry in An Encyclopedia with author Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The New Encyclopedia Britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica Thesis / Dissertation Abstract Yoshida, Y. (2001). Essays in urban transportation (Doctoral dissertation, Boston College, 2001). Dissertation Absiracts Imemational, 62, T741A.Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Online Periodical, volume number(issue number if available). Retrieved month day, year, from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/ Bemstein, M. (2002). 10 tips on writing the living Web. A List Apart: For People Who Make Websites, 149. Retrieved May 2, 2006, from http:/www.alistapart.convarticles/writeliving Online Scholarly Journal Article Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication), Title of article, Title of Journal, volume number. Retvieved month day, year, from hutp://www.someaddress.convfull/uri/ Kenneth, I. A. (2000). A Buddhist response to the nature of human rights. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 8. Retrieved February 20, 2001, from htp://www.cac.psu.edu/jbeAwocont. htmlA Motion Picture or Video Tape with Limited Availability Harris, M. (Producer), & Turley, M. J. (Director). (2002). Writing labs: A history [Motion picture]. (Available from Purdue University Pictures, 500 Oval Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907) Tele on Broadeast or Series Episode Producer, P. P. (Producer). (Date of broadcast or copyright). Title of broadcast (Television broadcast or Television series]. City of origin: Studio or distributor. Single Episode of a Television Series Writer, W. W. (Writer), & Director, D.D. (Director). (Date of publication). Title of episode [Television series episode]. In P. Producer (Producer), Series tle. Cltwol orien: Gtudinor dictator:ew ) » LESSON RESEARCH ETHICS 7 Introduction Research Ethics is the highest ethical standards shall be applied to basic education research. Whether or not human subjects are involved, researchers must ensure that the study will not cause people harm. Research participants should have informed consent, must be cognizant about the general purpose of the study and should not be exposed to unusual risk. Consistent with the principle of excellence, integrity also requires honesty and accuraey in the collection, analysis and reporting of data.Logic: All subjects should be assured that any data collected from or about them will be held in confidence Tips: (a) Whenever possible, remove all names from all data collection forms. How? Assign numbers 1o forms, or answer anonymous (b) Do not use the names of the participants from any publications that describe the research. (©) Allow the participants to withdraw, or information about them not be used. Warning: ‘Sometimes, however, it is important for a study to identify individual subjects.’ Role of DO: ‘Almost all educational research involves activities that are within the customary, usnal procedures of schools or other agencies and as such involve little or no risk”Writing the name of your colleague as one of the writers even though he did not participate in any part of the conduct of the research Discussing with your colleagues data from the paper that you are reviewing for a journal ‘Trimming outlines from a data set without providing sufficient justification Using inappropriate statistical techniques in order to obtain favorable results Making the results of a study publicly known without first giving the peers the opportunity to review the work Failing to acknowledge the contributions of other people in the field (RRL) Making derogatory comments and personal attacks in your review of author’s submissionLOGICAL FRAMEWORK - Assumes that there is a logical linear flow of events or processes that can be anticipated/theorized Inputs: Process: Outputs: eSources. Verification Analyzed data, knowledge, methodolo: verified ideas & sy demands hypothesis, conclusions,2. Do a literature review. Review relevant and updated research on the theme that you decide to work on after scrutiny of the issue at hand. Preferably use peer-reviewed and well-known scientific journals as these are reliable sources of information. Isolate the important variables. Identify the specific variables described in the literature and figure out how these are related. Some abstracts contain the variables and the salient findings thus may serve the purpose. If these are not available, find the research paper's summary. If the variables are not explicit in the summary, get back to the methodology or the results and discussion section and quickly identify the variables of the study and the significant findings. Read the TSPU Technique on how to skim efficiently articles and get to the important points without much fuss. Generate the conceptual framework, Build your conceptual framework using your mix of the variables from the scientific articles you have read. Your problem statement serves as a reference in constructing the conceptual framework. In effect, your study will attempt tonumber of hours slept at night. The former is the independent variable while the latter is the dependent variable. Both of these variables are easy to measure. It is just counting the number of hours spent in front of the computer and the number of hours slept by the subjects of the study. Assuming that other things are constant during the performance of the study, it will be possible to relate these two variables and confirm that indeed, blue light emanated from computer screens can affect one’s sleeping pattems. (Please read the article titled “Do you know that the computer can disturb your sleeping pattems?” To find out more about this phenomenon) A correlation analysis will show whether the relationship is significant or not Again, review the abstracts carefully. Keep careful notes so that you may track you're thought processes during the research process.‘Name: — Strand/Section/Grade: CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE (Short Answer Question) (2 POINTS EACH) DIRECTIONS: Read the question carefully. Write your answer on the space provided, 1. A literature review is more than the search for information, and goes beyond being a descriptive 2. review provides an overview of the research findings on particular topics. analysis of concepts or ideas to /e meaning to some nationalName: Score: Strand/Section/Grade: Date: APA Citation Activity Dircetions : If you are unfamiliar with APA citation styles, you may find it helpful to review the material inside the "Citing sources using APA citation style" folder before beginning this assessment, Question 1 Choose the citation that is in proper APA citation format for a book.Choose the correct APA citation for a newspaper article. a Yonke, D. (2008, September 13). Monks on the road for peace: Tibetan Buddhists bring ‘message that ‘happiness is an internal event. The Blade (Toledo, OH), p. BT. b. Yonke, David. (2008). "Monks on the road for peace: Tibetan Buddhists bring message that happiness is an internal event..” The Blade (Toledo, OH), pp. B7. Yonke, David. Monks on the road for peace: Tibetan Buddhists bring message that ‘happiness is an internal event’. The Blade, September 13, 2008. p. B7. d. Yonke, David. "Monks on the road for peace: Tibetan Buddhists bring message that happiness is an internal event." The Blade 13 Sept. 2008: B7 Question 4Question 5 Create an APA citation for this publication: Article Title: Truly, Madly, Depp-ly Author: Frank DeCaro Publication: Advocate Volume number: 906 Date: January 20, 2004 Pages: 76-77 Source: Gender Studies Database Date of access: October 31, 2008[ REFERENCE | hitp:/flibguides.uwf.edu/c.php?g=215199&p=1420520 hitp://simplyeducate. me/2015/0 1/0S/conceptual-framework-guide/ hutp://universalteacher.com/I/criteria-for-selecting-a-research-probleny’ hhttps://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/hypothes.php http://www. éditage comin sights/3-basic-tips-on-writing-a-good-résearch-paper-title" . Module \. UNDERSTANDING DATA AND WAYS TO 4 SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT DATA Introduction These information's are a compiled, resources gathered from an extensive literature review mutch of the information is verbatim from the various web sites. The objective is to familiarize the readers in terms with the data collection tools, methodology, and sampling. It is important to note that while quantitative and qualitative data collection methods are different (cost, time, sample size, etc.), each has value. Most often uses deductive logic, in which researchers start with hypotheses and then collect data which can be used to determine whether empirical evidence to suppor that hypothesis exists.(@ =) f LESSON QUANTITATIVE DATA RESEARCH DESIGN 9 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH If the researcher views quantitative design as a continuum, one end of the range represents a design where the variables are not controlled at all and only observed. Connections amongst variable are only described. At the other end of the spectrum, however, are designs which include a very close control of variables, and relationships amongst those variables are clearly established. In the middle, with experiment design moving from one type (to the other, is a range which blends those two extremes together.Types of Non-Experimental Research 1. Survey Research Survey research uses interviews, questionnaires, and sampling polls to get a sense of behavior with intense precision. It allows researchers to judge behavior and then present the findings in an accurate way. This is usually expressed in a percentage. Survey research can be conducted around one group specifically or used to compare several groups. When conducting survey research it is important that the people questioned are sampled at random. This allows for more accurate findings across a greater spectrum of respondents. Remember! Y It is very important when conducting survey research that you work withanalyzed mathematically to draw conclusions about the effect that one has on the other. Y Correlation does not always mean causation. For example, just because two data points syne doesn’t mean that there is a direct cause and effect relationship. ‘Typically, you should not make assumptions from correlational research alone. 3. Descriptive As stated by Good and Scates as cited by Sevilla (1998), the descriptive method is oftentimes as a survey or a normative approach to study prevailing conditions. Remember! ah Ns a ae ae a i a a ce5. Ex Post Facto According to Devin Kowalezyk, that Ex post facto design is a quasi-experimental study examining how an independent variable, present prior to the study, affects a dependent variable. Remember! Y A true experiment and ex post facto both are attempting to say: this independent variable is anges in a dependent variable. This is the basis of any experiment - one variable is hypothesized to be influencing another. This is done by having an experimental group and a control group. So if you're testing a new type of medication, the experimental group gets the new medication, while the control group gets the old medication. This allows you to test the efficacy of the new medication. . (Kowalczyk 2015)2. True Experimental Design According to Yolanda Williams (2015) that a true experiment is a type of experimental design and is thought to be the most accurate type of experimental research, This is because a true experiment supports or refutes a hypothesis using statistical analysi A true experiment is also thought to be the only experimental design that can establish cause and effect relationships. So, what makes a true experiment? There are three criteria that must be met in a true experiment 1. Control group and experimental group 2. Researcher-manipulated variable 3. Random assignment | Tr Sa aaquestionnaire. This should not be too difficult as the young researchers can adapt additional schedules or questionnaires from the original When designing the research instruments ensure that: « they start with a statement about. + the focus and aims of the research project + how the person’s data will be used (to feed into a report?) confidentiality + how long the interview or survey will take to complete. + Usage of appropriate language + every question must be brief and concise. + any questionnaires use appropriate scales. For young people ‘smiley face’ scales can workInterview schedules/guides Tally sheets Flowcharts Performance checklists ‘Time-and-motion logs Observation forms Usabi TI a ce ea Self-checklists Attitude scales Personality inventories Achievement/aptitude tests Projective devices Sociometric devices a a a atVali ity Validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure and performs as it is designed to perform, It is rare, if nearly impossible, that an instrument be 100% valid, so validity is generally measured in degrees. As a pracess, validation involves collecting and analyzing data to assess the accuracy of an instrument. There are numerous statistical tests and measures to assess the validity of quantitative instruments, which generally involves pilot testing. The remainder of this discussion focuses on external validity and content validity. External validity is the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized from a sample to a population, Establishing eternal validity for an instrument, then, follows directly fiom samplis Recall that a sample should be an accurate representation of a population, because the total population may not be available. An instrument that is extemally valid helps obtain population generalizability, or the degree to which a sample represents the population.(a. ? LESSON GUIDELINES IN WRITING RESEARCH uw METHODOLOGY Methodology is the systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study. It comprises the theoretical analysis of the body of methods and principles associated with a branch of knowledge. Methodology section is one of the parts of a research paper. This part is the core of your paper as it is a proof that you use the scientific method. Through this section, your study’s validity is judged. So, itis very important. Your methodology answers two main questions: Guided Question to start writing a research methodology:Specifically; Y Present the basic demographic profile of the sample population like age, gender, and the racial composition of the sample. When animals are the subjects of a study, you list their species, weight, strain, sex, and age Y Explain how you gathered the samples/ subjects by answering these questions: = Did you use any randomization techniques? - How did you prepare the samples? Explain how you made the measurements by answering this question. What calculations did you make? Describe the materials and equipment that you used in the research. 446 Describe the statistical techniques that you used upon the data. The order of the methods section;‘Name: Strand/Section/Grade: CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE (Short Answer Question) (2 POINTS EACH) DIRECTIONS: Read the question carefully. Write your answer on the space provided. 1. there is a predictor variable or group of subjects that cannot be manipulated by the experimenter 2. the research focuses on verifiable observation as opposed to theory or logic. 3. uses interviews, questionnaires, and sampling polls to get a sense of behavior with intense precision 4. tests for the relationships between two variables. Performing cdteelational péseatth is done to establich what the effect ofDIRECTIONS: Make a reflection Relating Reliability and Validity at least 250 words. (25 poits) Relating Reliability and Validity Reliability is directly related to the validity of the measure. There are several important principles. First, @ test can be considered reliable, but not valid. Consider the SAT, used as a predictor of success in college. It is a reliable test (high scores relate to high GPA). though only aRUBRIC ‘criteria Superior (54-60 Sufficient (48-53 points) | Minimal (1-47 Unacceptable (0 points) points) points) Depth of | Response demonstmies | Response demonsiratssa | Response Response Reflection | st indepth reflection | general reflection on, and | demonstrates a demonstrates a lack of ‘on, and personalization | personalization of, the | minimal reflection | reflection on, or of. the theories, theories, concepts, and/or | on, and personalization of, the concepts, and/or strategies presented in| personalization of, | theories, concepts tasscormn | stateges presented in the course materials othe theories, andlor sirategies the course materials © | date. Viewpoints and | concepts, and/or | presented in the Points) date. Viewpoints and | interpretations are strategies presented! | course materials to immorpretations are supported. Appropriate | in the course date, Viewpoints and insightful and well | examples are provided, | materials todate. | intepretations are supported Clear, a3 applicable. Viewpoints and | missing, is detailed examples are intpretations are | inappropriate, and/or provided, as applicable unsupported or supported with flawed arguments. Examples, when applicable, are not unsupported. Examples, when applicable, are not provided,Evidence and Practice (25% of M Points) ee Response shows sirong evidence of synthesis of ideas presented and ghis gained toughout the entire course. The implications of these ghts for the respondent's overall teaching practice are thoroughly detailed, as applicable, Response shows evidence of synthesis of ideas presented and insights gained throughout the entire course. The implications of these insights for the respondent's overall twaching practice are presented, as applicable. Response shows litle evidence of synthesis of ideas pre and insights throughout the entire course. Few implications of ese insights for the respondents overall teaching practice awe presented, as applicable. Response shows no evidence of synthesis of ideas presented and insights gained throughout the entire course. No implications for the respondent's overall teaching practice are presented, as applicable.Yadipe University Writing Center School of Foreign Languages htps://yuwritingcenter.wikispaces.com/How-+to+Write+the+ Methodology +of+a+Researeh+ Paper http://people.uwec.edu/piercech/researchmethods/data% 20collection%20methods/data%20collectio 1n%20methods.him hup:/Avww.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/sampprob.php\ FINDING ANSWERS THROUGH DATA | 3 COLLECTION Introduction Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. The data collection component of research is common to all fields of study including physical and social sciences, humanities, business, ete. While methods vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same Craddick etal (2003)situation or event; answering the ‘what’ and ‘how many’ questions you may have about something. This is research which involves measuring or counting attributes (i.e. quantities) ‘A quantitative approach is often concerned with finding evidence to either support or contradict an idea or hypothesis you might have. A hypothesis is where a predicted answer to a research question is proposed, for example, you might propose that if you give a student training in how to use a search engine it will improve their success in finding information on the Internet. You could then go on to explain why a particular answer is expected - you put forward a theory. We can gather quantitative data in a variety of ways and from a number of different sources. Many of these are similar to sources of qualitative data, for example: ¥ Questionnaires - a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering+ tables + graphical displays © summary statistics We can also use quantitative data analysis to see + where responses are similar , for example, we might find that the majority of students all go to the university library twice a week + if there are differences between the things we have studied, for example, Ist year students might go once a week to the library, 2 nd year students twice a week and 3 rd year students three times a week + if there is a relationship between the things we have studied. So, is there a relationship between the number of times a student goes to the library and their year of study?a random sample, You can still undertake some inferential statistical analysis but you should report these as results of your sample, not as applicable to the population at large. ‘Common sampling approaches include: + Random sampling + Stratified sampling + Cluster sampling + Convenience sampling + Accidental sampling Steps in Quantitative Data Analysis According to Baraceros (2016), she identified the different steps in Quantitative data analysi 's and she quoted that no “data organization means no sound data analysis”.Total Sample size: 24 Gender Male: 11 (46%) Female: 13 (54%) Program Fine Arts: 9 37%) Architecture: 625%) Journalism: 4 (17%) Com. Arts: 5 (20%) School FEU: 3 (12%) MLQU: 4 (17%) UCU: 3 (12%) PUNP: 5 (20%) LNL: 4 (17%) PSU: (5%)deviation. However, this does not give information about population from where the sample came. The second one, on the other hand, fits graduate-level studies because thi involves complex statistical analysis requiring a good foundation and thorough knowledge the data- gathering instrument used. The results of the analysis reveal the following aspects of an item in aset of data (Mogan 2014; Punch 2014; Walsh 2010) cited by Baraceros (2016): Y Frequency distribution — gives you the frequency of distribution and percentage of the occurrence of an item in asset of data. In other wards, it gives you the number of responses given repeatedly for one question, : By and large, do you find the Senators’ attendance in 2015 legislative session awful Measurement Frequency | Percent Code Seale istribution | Distribut a — er a 1¥ Standard Deviation — shows the extent of the difference of the data from the mean. An examination of this gap between the mean and the data gives you an idea about the extent of the similarities and differences between the respondents. There are mathematical operations that you have to determine the standard deviation. Step 1: Compute the Mean. Step 2: Compute the deviation (difference) hetween each respondent's answer (data item) and the mean. The positive sign (+) appears before the number if the difference is higher; negative sign (-), ifthe difference is lower. Step 3: Compute the square of each deviation. Step 4: Compute the sum of squares by adding the squared figures. Step 5: Divide the sum of squares by the number of data items to get the variance. Step 6: Compute the square root of variance figure to get standard deviation,Some of the advanced method of quantitative data analysis are the following (Argyous 2011 Levin & Fox 2014; Godwin 2014; as cited by Baraceros 2016) a) b) °) Correlation — uses statistical analysis to yield results that describes the relationship of two variables. The results, however are incapable of establishing casual relationships. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) - is a statistical method used to test differences between two or more means. It may seem odd that the technique is called "Analysis of Variance" rather than "Analysis of Means.” As you will see, the name is appropriate because inferences about means are made by analyzing variance. Regression - In statistical modeling, regression analysis is «statistical process for estimating the relationships among variables. It includes many techniques for modeling and analyzing several variables, when the focus isStatistical Methodologies Descriptive Statist Descriptive statistics are brief descriptive coefficients that summarize a given data set, which can be either a representation of the entire population or ‘a sample of it. Descriptive statistics are broken down into measures of central tendency and measures of variability, or spread. Measures of central tendency include the mean, median and mode, while measures of variability include the standard deviation or variance, and the minimum and maximum variables. Inferential Statistics - Now, suppose you need to collect data on a very large population For example, suppose you want to know the average height of all the men in a city with a population of so many million residents. It isn't very practical to try and get the height of cach man, This is where inferential statistics comes into play. Inferential statistics makes inferences ahont conulations using data drawn from the nonulatinn Instead of neine the:v Covariance is the statistical term to measure the extent of the change in the relationship of two random variables. Random variables are data with varied values like those ones in the interval level or scale (Strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree) whose values depend on the arbitrariness of the respondents Cross Tabulation ~ is also called “erosstab or students-contingeney table” that follows the format of a matrix that is made up of lines of numbers, symbols, and other expressions. Similar to one type of graph called table, matrix arranges data in rows and columns. If the table compares data on only two variables, such table is called Bivariate Table. Example: Secondary School Participants who attend the 1 UCNHS Research ConferenceMeasure of Correlations Correlation is a bivariate analysis that measures the strengths of association between two variables and the direction of the relationship. In terms of the strength of relationship, the value of the correlation coefficient varies between +1 and -1. When the value of the correlation coefficient lies around + 1, then it is said to be a perfect degree of association between the two variables. As the correlation coefficient value goes towards 0, the relationship between the two variables will be weaker, The direction of the relationship is simply the + (indicating a positive relationship between the variables) or - (indicaling a negative relationship between the variables) sign of the correlation, Usually, in statistics, we measure four types of correlations: a Kendall rank correlation, earman correlation, and the Point-Biserial > PEARSON R CORRELATIONIs there a relationship between temperature, measure in degree Fahrenheit, and ice cream sales, measured by income? Is there a relationship among job satisfaction, as measured by the JSS, and income, measured in dollars? Assumptions For the Pearson r correlation, both variables should be normally distributed (normally distributed variables have bell-shaped curve). Other assumptions include linearity and homoscedasticity. Linearity assumes a straight line relationship between each of the variables in the analysis and homoscedasticity assumes that data is normally distributed about the regression line. CONDUCT AND INTERPRET A PEARSON CORRELATION KEY TERMSCONDUCT AND INTERPRET A KENDALL CORRELATION KEY TERMS Concordant: Ordered in the same way. ‘ordant: Ordered differently Spearman rank correlation: Spearman rank correlation is a non-parametric test that is used to measure the degree of association between two variables. It was developed by Spearman, thus it is called the Spearman rank correlation. Spearman rank conelation test does not assume any assumptions about the distribution of the data and is the appropriate correlation analysis when the variables are measured on a scale that is at least ordinal. ‘The following formula is used to calculate the Spearman rank correlation: P= Spearman rank correlationOrdinal data: Ordinal scales rank onder the items that are being measured to indicate if they possess more, less, or the same amount of the variable being measured. An ordinal scale allows us to determine if X > Y, Y > X, or if X = Y. An example would be rank ordering the participants in a dance contest. The dancer who was ranked one was a better dancer than the dancer who was ranked two. The dancer ranked two was a better dancer than the dancer who was ranked three, and so on. Although this scale allows us to determine greater than, less than, or equal to, it still does not define the magnitude of the relationship between uni square is the statistical test for bivariate analysis of nominal variables, specifically, to test the null hypothesis. It tests whether or not a relationship exists between or among variables and tells the probability that the relationship is caused by chance. This cannot in any way show extent of the association between two variables..The Chi Square statistic compares the tallies or counts of categorical responses between two (or more) independent groups. (Note: Chi square tests can only be used on actual numbers and not on percentages, proportions, means, etc.) 2x 2 Contingency Table ‘There are several types of chi square tests depending on the way the data was collected and the hypothesis being tested. We'll begin with the simplest case: a 2 x 2 contingency table. If we set the 2 X 2 table to the general notation shown below in Table 1, using the letters a, b, c, and d to denote the contents of the cells, then we would have the following table: Table 1. General notation for a2 x 2 contingency table Variable |Table 2. Hypothetical drug trial results. Heart Rate No Heart al) Increased Increase Treated 36 4 | Not treated 30 Applying the formula above we get: Chi square = 105 [ (36) (25) - (14) (30) P/ (50) (55) (39) (66) = 3.418 Before we can proceed we need to know how many degrees of freedom we have. When a comparison is made between one sample and another, a simple rule is that the degrees of freedom equal (number of columns minus one) x (number of rows minus one) not counting the totals forTable 3. Chi Square distribution table. Probability level (alpha 0.455 | 2.706 |3.841 |5.412 |6.635 | 10.827 1.386 | 4.605 | 5.991 | 7.824 |9.210 | 13.815 3 2366 6.251|7.815 | 9.837 | 11.345 | 16.268 3.357 | 7.779 | 9.488 | 11.668 | 13.277 | 18.465 4.351 | 9.236 | 11.070 | 13.388 | 15.086 | 20.517 To make the chi square calculations a bit easier, plug you're observed and expected values into the following applet. Click on the cell and then enter the value. Click the compute button on the lowerThe phenotypic ratio 85 of the “A” type and 15 of the a-type (homozygous recessive). Ina monohybrid cross between two heterozygotes, however, we would have predicted a 3:1 ratio of, phenotypes. In other words, we would have expected to get 75 A-type and 25 a-type. Are or results different? pi adeysed exp art - Det Calculate the chi square statistic x? by completing the following steps: 1. Foreach observed number in the table subtract the corresponding expected number (O — E). 2. Square the difference [ (O—E) ]. 3. Divide the squares obtained for each cell in the table by the expected number for that cell [(3.841) we can reject the null hypothesis that the observed values of our cross are the same as the theoretical distribution of a 3:1 ratio. Table 3. Chi Square distribution table Probability level (alpha) 0.455 | 2.706 |3.841 |5.412 |6.635 | 10.827 1.386 | 4.605 |5.991 | 7.824 | 9.210 | 13.815 2.366 |6.251|7.815 | 9.837 | 11.345 16.268 3.357 | 7.779 | 9.488 | 11.668 | 13.277 | 18.465Here fo denotes the frequency of the observed data and fe is the frequency of the expected values. The general table would look something like the one below: Now we need to calculate the expected values for each cell in the table and we can do that using the sha innka-eetnad deviate Chas Ciadainsik AEG Maia lew Glue weeerd Saka CNY. Bec weak: Bere te:We could now set up the following table Observed | Expected 31 14 45 53 53 45 30.96 10-BI 0.04 9.04 9.00 18.64 10.36 29.00 18.60 19.40 38.00 (O—E2 0.0016 81.72 81.00 347.45, 107.33 841.00 345.96 376.36 1444.00 (O— B/E 0,0000516The T-Test The t-test assesses whether the means of two groups are statistically different from each other. This analysis is appropriate whenever you want to compare the means of two groups, and especially appropriate as the analysis for the posttest-only two-group randomized experimental design Figure | shows the distributions for the treated (blue) and control (green) groups in a study Actually, the figure shows the idealized distribution —- the actual distribution would usually be depicted with a histogram or bar graph. The figure indicates where the control and treatment group means are located. The question the t-test addresses is whether the means are statistically different, What does it mean to say that the averages for two groups are statistically different? Consider the three situations shown in Figure 2. The first thing to notice about the three situations isThis leads us to a very important conclusion: when we are looking at the differences between scores for two groups, we have to judge the difference between their means relative to the spread or variability of their scores. The t-test does just this. Statistical Analysis of the t-test ‘The formula for the t-test is a ratio. The top part of the ratio is just the difference between the two means or averages. The bottom part is a measure of the variability or dispersion of the scores. This formula is essentially another example of the signal-to-noise metaphor in research: the difference between the means is the signal that, in this case, we think our program or treatment introduced into the data; the bottom part of the formula is a measure of variability that is essentially noise that may make it harder to see the group difference. Figure 3 shows the formula for the t-test and how the numerator and denominator are related to the distributions.Figure 4. Formula for the Standard error of the difference between the means. Remember, that the variance is simply the square of the standard deviation ‘The final formula for the (test is shown in Figure 5:> ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA) Anal: of Variance ¥ One Way (one factor, fixed effects) Two Way (two factors, randomized blocks) ¥ Two Way with Repeated Observations (two factors, randomized block) ¥ Fully Nested (hierarchical factors) ¥ Latin Square (one primary and two secondary factors) ¥ Crossover (two factors, fixed effects, treatment crossover) ¥ Kruskal-Wallis (nonparametric one way) ¥ — Friedman (nonparametric two way) Related: ¥ Homogeneity of Variance (examine the ANOVA assumption of equal variance)Fixed vs. random effects A fixed factor has only the levels used in the analysis (¢.g. sex, age, blood group). A random factor has many possible levels and some are used in the analysis (e.g. time periods, subjects, observers). Some factors that are usually treated as fixed may also be treated as random if the study is looking at them as part of a larger group (e.g. treatments, locations, tests). Most general statistical texts arrange data for ANOVA into tables where columns represent fixed factors and the one and two way analyses described are fixed factor methods. Mul le comparisons ANOVA gives an overall test for the difference between the means of k groups. StatsDirect enables you to compare all k(k-1)/2 possible pai of means using methods that are designed to avoid the type I error that would he seen if you used two sample methods such as t test for these comparisons. The multiple comparison/contrast methods offered by StatsDirect are Tukey(-Complex ANOVA should not be attempted without expert statistical guidance. Beware situations where over complex analysis is used in order to compensate for poor experimental design. There is no substitute for good experimental design. > Regres Regression is a statistical measure used in finance, investing and other disciplines that attempts to determine the strength of the relationship between one dependent variable (usually denoted by Y) and a series of other changing variables (known as independent variables). Regression helps investment and financial managers to value assets and understand the relationships between variables, such as commodity prices and the stocks of businesses dealing in those commodities. ‘The two basic types of regression are linear regression and muhtiple linear regression, althoughRegression in Investing Regression is often used to determine how many specific factors such as the price of a commodity, interest rates, particular industries or sectors influence the price movement of an asset ‘The aforementioned CAPM is based on regression, and it is utilized to project the expected returns for stocks and to generate costs of capital. A stock's returns are regressed against the returns of a broader index, such as the S&P 500, to generate a beta Jor the particular stock. Beta is the stock's risk relation to the market or index and is reflected as the slope in the CAPM model. The expected retum for the stock in question would be the dependent variable Y, while the independent variable X would be the market risk premium. Additional variables such as the market capitalization of a stock, valuation ratios and recent returns can be added to the CAPM model to get better estimates for returns. These additional factors i rcSimple Random Sampling Procedure Simple random sampling provides the base from which the other more complex sampling methodologies are derived. To conduct a simple random sample, the researcher must first prepare an exhaustive list (sampling frame) of all members of the population of interest. From this list, the sample is drawn so that each person or item has an equal chance of being drawn during each selection round (Kanupriya, 2012) To draw a simple random sample without introducing researcher bias, computerized sampling programs and random number tables are used to impartially select the members of the population to be sampled. Subjects in the population are sampled by a random process, using either a random number generator or a random number table, so that each person remaining in the population has the same probability of being selected for the sample (Friedrichs, 2008).Stratified Sampling Procedure Stratified sampling procedure is the most effective method of sampling when a researcher wants to get a representative sample of a population. It involves categorizing the members of the population into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive groups. An independent simple random sample is then drawn from each group. Stratified sampling techniques can provide more precise estimates if the population is surveyed is more heterogeneous than the categorized groups This technique can enable the researcher to determine desired levels of sampling precision for each group, and can provide administrative efficiency. The main advantage of the approach is that it’s able to give the most representative sample of a population (Hunt & Tyrrell, 2001) Cluster Sampling ProcedurePurposive/Judgmental Sam g Procedure In purposive sampling procedure, the researcher chooses the sample based on who he/she thinks would be appropriate for the study. The main objective of purposive sampling is to arrive as at a sample that can adequately answer the research objectives. The selection of a purposive sample is often accomplished by applying expert knowledge of the target population to select in a non- random manner a sample that represents a cross-section of the population (Henry, 1990). A major disadvamage of this method is subjectivity since another researcher is likely to come up with a different sample when identifying important characteristics and picking typical elements to be in the sample. Given the subjectivity of the selection mechanism, purposive sampling is generally considered most appropriate for the selection of small samples often from a limited geographic area or from a restricted population definition. The knowledge and experience ofSampling Techniques When sampling, you need to decide what units (i.c., what people, organizations, data, etc.) t \clude in your sample and which ones to exelude. As you'll know by now, sampling techniques act as a guide to help you select these units, and you will have chosen a specific probability or non-probability sampling technique: + If you are following a probability sampling technique, you'll know that you require a list of the population from which you select units for your sample. This raises potential data protection and confidentiality issues because units in the list (i.e., when people are your units) will not necessarily have given you permission to access the list with their details. Therefore, you need to check that you have the right to access the list in the first place. + I using a non-probability umpling technique, you need to ask yourself whether you are including or excluding units for theoretic or practical reasons. In the case of purposiveA sample is over-sized when there are more units (e.g., people, organizations) in the sample than are needed to achieve you goals (i.e., to answer your research questions robustly). An over-sized sample is considered to be an ethical issue because it potentially exposes an excessive number of people (or other units) to your research. Let’s look at where this may or may not be a problem: > Not an ethical issue Imagine that you were interested in the career choices of students at your university, and you were only asking students to complete a questionnaire taking no more than 10 minutes, all an over-sized sample would have done was waste little of the students’ time. Whilst you don't want to be wasting peoples’ time, and should try and avoid doing so, this is not a major ethical issue. > A potential ethical issueUnder-sized samples A sample is under-sized when you are unable to achieve your goals (ie., to answer your research questions robustly) because you insufficient units in your sample. The important point is that you fail to answer your research questions not because a potential answer did not exist, but because your sample size was too small for such an answer to be discovered (or interpreted). Let’s look where this may or may not be a problem: > Not an ethical issue let’s take the example of the career choices of students at your university. If you did not collect sufficient data; that is, you did not ask enough students to complete your questionnaire, the answers you get back from your sample may not be representative of the population of all students at your university. This is bad from two perspectives, but onlythe sample size was too small, the effort, and potential distress and harm that these volunteers put themselves through was all in vein (i.¢., completely wasted). This is where an under-sized sample can become an ethical issue. ‘As a researcher, even when you're an undergraduate or master's level student, you have a duty not to expose an excessive number of people to unnecessary distress or harm. This is one of the basic principles of research ethics. At the same time, you have a duty not to fail to achieve what you set out to achieve. This is not just a duty to yourself or the sponsors of your dissertation (if you have any), but more importantly, to the people that take part in your research (ie., your sample). To try and minimize the potential ethical issues that come with over-sized and under-sized samples, there are instances where you can make sample size calculations to estimate the required sample size to achieve your goals. Gatekeepers‘Nam Score: Strand/Section/Grade: Date: CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE (Short Answer Question) (2 POINTS EACH) DIRECTIONS: Read the question carefully. Write your answer on the space provided, It is a systematic approach to investigations during which numerical data is collected and/or the researcher transforms what is, collected or observed into numerical data 2. a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. a conversation between two or more people (the interviewer and the interviewee) where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information from the ~a moreName: Score: StrandSection/Grade: Date: ACTIVIITY 1: SPECULATIVE THINKING (GROUP WORK) Directions: Question does not only indicate your curiosity about your world but also signal your desire for clearer explanation about things. Hence, ask one another thought-provoking questions about quantitative data analysis. For proper question formulation, you may draft your question on the space below| REFERENCE || David M. Lane, Online Statistics Education: An Interactive Multimedia Course of Study, Developed by Rice University (Lead Developer), University of Houston Clear Lake, and Tufts University http://onlinestatbook.comv/2/analy sis_of_variancefintro.htm! hutp://www-health.herts.ac.uk/immunologyAW eh%20programme%20- %20Researchhealthprofessionals/quantitative_data_analysis.htm hitp:/Avww.investopedia.com/terms/s/statistics.asp Algina, J., & Keselman, H. J. (1999). Comparing squared multiple correlation coefficients:Module \ 6 REPORT AND SHARING FINDINGS ? Research adheres (0 a certain manner of making public its findings. It is incapable of convincing and readers of the genuineness of the research report, unless it follows the academically and professionally accepted standards of writing the report in terms of its knowledge responsible for making the entire research study reputable, genuine, and credible basis for effecting positive changes in this world. (Baraceros 2016) Intended Learning Outcomes After this lesson, you should be able to 1. Draws a conclusion from the research findings;experiment is summarized by a weak conclusion, the results will not be taken seriously. Success or failure is not a measure of whether a hypothesis is accepted or refuted, because both results still advance scientific knowledge. ( Shuttleworth 2014) Failure is poor experimental design, or flaws in the reasoning processes, which invalidate the results. As long as the research process is robust and well designed, then the findings are sound, and the process of drawing conclusions begins. Generally, a researcher will summarize what they believe has been learned from the research, and will try to assess the strength of the hypothesis, Even if the null hypothesis is accepted, a strong conclusion will analyze why the results were not as predicted. In observational research, with no hypothesis, the researcher will analyze the findings, and establish if any valuable new information has been uncovered. Generating Leads for Future Researchcontributing, so propose that methane may also be a factor in global warming. A new study would incorporate methane into the model What are the Clear-Cut Benefits of the Research ‘The next stage is to evaluate the advantages and benefits of the research. In medicine and psychology, for example, the results may throw out a new way of eating a medical problem, so the advantages are obvious. However, all well-constructed research is useful, even if it is just adding to the fount of human knowledge. An accepted null hypothesis has an important meaning to science Suggestions Based Upon the Conclusions ‘The final stage is the researcher's recommendations based upon the results, depending upon the field of study. This area of the research process can be based around the researcher's personal opinion, and will integrate previous studies.Recommendations Other recommendations may also be appropriate. When preparing this section, remember that in making your recommendations, you must show how your results support them. A recommendation for a preferred alternative should include: n Specifically stating what should be done, the steps required to implement the policy, and the resources needed; discussion of the benefits to the organization and what problems would be corrected or avoided, discussion of the feasibility of the proposed policy; and general statement about the nature and timing of an evaluation plan that would be used to then effortivences of the nmosed nalicy.Also, every time a fact gets recorded on a note card, its source should be noted in the top right comer. When you are finished writing your paper, you can use the information on your note cards to double-check your bibliography When assembling a final bibliography, list your sources (texts, articles, interviews, and so on) in alphabetical order by authors’ last names. Sources that don't have authors (encyclopedias, movies) should be put into alphabetical order by title. There are different formats for bibliographies, so be sure to use the one your teacher prefers. General Guide to Formatting a Bibliography Fora book: Author (last name first). Title of the book. City: Publisher, Date of publication.EXAMPLE; Powers, Ann, "New Tune for the Material Girl.” The New York Times, New York, NY. (3/1/98). Atlantic Region, Section 2, p. 34 Fora person: Full name (last name first). Occupation. Date of interview EXAMPLE: Smeckleburg, Sweets. Bus driver. April 1, 1996. Fora film:15-19. SIRS, Mac version, Winter 1997 Newspaper artide: Author (last name first). "Article title." Name of newspaper (Type of medium), city and state of publication, (Date): If available: Edition, section and page number(s). If available: publisher of medium, version, date of issue. EXAMPLE: /s (CD-ROM), Nassau, NY. (Feb 1996): pp. Ad- Stevenson, Rhoda. "Nerve Sell: 5. SIRS, Mac. version, Spring 1996. Online Resources Internet:discipline, to undertake new research, and to blend theoretical and empirical aspects of archival studies into scholarly investigations. Finalizes and present best design ‘As a researcher finalizing your research paper is important in order to: free your paper from any flaws (grammatical, punctuation, spelling); ensure that all of the parts contains the information needed; assure that all the part necessary for the research are included; and references are properly cited in the text and in the bibliography General Y the paper follows the order prescribed by the teacher Y the paper had been proofread and all corrections are made. Y The title page contains all necessary information and follows the format specified by theSenior High School Research Presenta Undergraduate research is becoming more important in higher education as evidence is accumulating that clear, inquiry-based leaming, scholarship, and creative accomplishments can and do foster effective, high levels of student learning, This curricular innovation includes identifying a concrete investigative problem, carrying out the project, and sharing findings with peers. The following standards describe effective presentations. Score | Weight | Total Score Standards 5-4 3-2 10 Exemplary Satisfactory Unacceptablebody language effectively too quick or too slow; demonstrates one or more distracting ‘mannerisms Use of media Uses slides effortlessly t0 Looks at slides to keep on track; uses Relies heavily on slides and not enhance presentation; | an appropriate makes little eye x15 has an effective numberof slides | contact; uses slides presentation without with too much text medi: Response to | Demonstrates full | Shows ease in Demonstrates Tite Questions knowledge of topic; | answering questions | grasp of x1 explains and claborates on all questions but does not elaborate information; has undeveloped or unclear answers 10 ‘questionshttps://www 2.archivists.org/gpas/curriculum/research-design-execution hhttps://www teachervision.com/writing-research-papers/research-paper- how-write-bibliography