State Variable Analysis and Design 1.1 Background ‘The conventional approach used to study the behaviour of linear time invariant control systems, uses the time domain or frequency domain methods. In all these methods, the systems are modelled using transfer function approach, which is the ratio of Laplace transform of output to input, neglecting all the initial conditions. Thus this conventional analysis faces all the limitations associated with the transfer function approach 1.1.1 Limitations of Conventional Approach Some of its limitations can be stated as : 1) Naturally, significant initial conditions in obtaining precise solution of any system, Joose their importance in conventional approach. 2) The method is insufficient and troublesome to give complete time domain solution of higher order systems. 3) It is not very much convenient for the analysis of Multiple Input Multiple Output systems. 4) Il gives analysis of system for same specific types of inputs like Step, Ramp etc. 5) It is only applicable to Lincar Time Invariant Systems. 6) The classical methads like Root locus, Bode plot ete. are basically trial and error procedures which fail to give the optimal solution required. Hence it is absolutely necessary to use a method of analysing systems which overcomes most of the above said difficulties. The modern method discussed in this chapter uses the concept of tolal internal slate of the system considering, all initial conditions. This technique which uses the concept of state is called State Variable Analysis or State Space Analysis. Key Point: State variable analysis is essentially a time domain approach but it has number of advantages compared to conventional methods of analysis. (1-4)Modem Contral Theory Now from equation (3) Substituting i from equation ® Now and as and . State model is, X where 2-33 State Space Representation 3 1 3 ip = Fy UH T ey - Zee ~ UW) = 3i,-2i, +e, a 6 3, = UF Suns 3 ~e ae = 3i,-2up-2e,+5 UM = 3iy- UO Fert enter i, = Zuw- mar So ~- (6) dt. : Gt = ani ‘apacitor current is C [dve/dt] dey _ Y ug -2e,-£e,-2u-Lerte dt 3 Bowe nom de, 8 12 3 1. Syy-2. 43 ae 3g UO~ 3g 81 t 35 oo : 8 py 22 1 Xi = gg UO HBX) +57 Xe (7) dey, eT i Capacitor current is C [dv¢/dt} c.=1 de. 1 2 a ae Oty 5. 3 1 3 Xz= GP UW + Xa GPX vm» (8) Vit) =e = XQ AX # BU and Y = CX + DU 2 8 C=[0,] D= [0]Modern Control Theory 2-34 State Space Representation momb Example 2.11: Consider the mechanical system shown in figure. For shown displacements and velocities obtain the state madel in standard form. Assume velocity of My as output. Fig, 2.24 Solution : Select the state variables as energy storing elements ie. displacements and velocities related to spring and friction. x4) = Yj, X35 = V0 Xp (U = Yo, Xq = Vo) UH = Fi YW = V2(0 Draw the equivalent mechanical system. Due to F,(), M; will displace by Y;. Due to spring Ky and friction By which are between the two masses, the displacement change from Y, to Y; While mass M,, spring K, and friction B, are under the influence of Y, alone as Ky and B, are with reference to fixed support and not between two moving points, Represent each displacement by separate node, Connect the elements in parallel Fig. 2.25Modern Control Theory 2-35 State Space Representation which are under the influence of same displacement, thus K,, B, parallel between Y and Yo, my, Ky and B, parallel between Y; and reference ic. fixed support and so on. The spring force is proportional to net displacement in spring while frictional force is proportional to the velocities. At node Y,, ay, B, d(¥, -Y>) Fy = My Shek, 0) =) + (1) At node Y,, dy, ay, B,d(¥5 -¥,) = 2 2 0 = M, a + KY, + By GE + Ky (Y¥g “y+ Q) Substituting all values in terms of state variables we get, dy, + Y= X, qe = = Y= Xe dY, Y, =X wqe = X2= Vz, =X, +. Substituting in equation (1) and equation (2) Ul) = My X3+K, PX, - XQ]+By [X5 -X4] . G) 0 = M,X4+KXy +B)X, +K, [X,—Xj]+ B, [Xy- Xa] . 4) From equation (3) and equation (4) we can write x Liny X3 = (UC) Ky OG = Xg)= By Xy - X4)] (5) : 1 LK and Xa = cog [- Kz X,-B, X4-K, (XK, -X)- By O&y-X3)] and Xi = Xq, Xe = Xq. YW) = Vel = X40) +. State model can be constructed in the standard form. x Y= CX+DU AX + BUState Space Representation Modern Control Theory 2-36 0 0 1 0 0 K Where as loa Ky My 0 0 Blip Coo 0 a n> Example 2.12 : For the given T.F. of a system obtain the state model by i) Direct decomposition i) Gullemin’s Form iii) Foster's Form Ts) = s(s ee . 20) Solution : i) Direct decomposition s?4+55+6 8? +5846 Tis) = = ®) $(6° + 10s? +2984 20) {Is +10]s+29)5+ 20 }s State diagram is as follows Fig. 2.26 X3 =X, 3° X, = U~20X)~-29X5-10X, , Y = 6X, +5X, +X,Modern Control Theory 2-37 State Space Representation State model is X = AX + BU and Y = CX + DU 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 o 0 where A=|5 9 © 4/8 *lo 0 -20 -29 -10 1 C= 16510) D=[0] ii) Gullemin's Form Te = +2643) _ (8+2) G3) 1 9S Sete HEtS) EFI) E+ CH s State diagram is, Ky ky Fig. 2.27 X= X Xp = 5X) 43X54 X, Xg = 4X5 +2Xy+ Xp, Xy = Ul) -X, Substituting X, back in X5 Ny = -4X5 +.2X4 + UG) -Xy =—AXg HX HUG) Substituting X., back in X, Xq = 5X, +3Xq— Ay +X y+ Uls) = “5X, -X4 +X, + UG) and Y 0 xModern Control Theory 2-38 State Space Representation +. State model becomes X = AX+BU and Y= CX 0 1 0 0 fo he ae lO SAY gle [1000 where = lo 0 -4 ‘| = = i 0 0 O-1 1} iii) For Foster's form : Find out partial fraction expansion of T(s) A B 1) = ata -1/6 , 1/6 3/10 3/W s+] std os+5 s Ut) — Fig. 2.28 X= UW-X, ¥=-2x,+4x,-3x,+3x, X, = U()=4x, X3 = Ul)-5X, X, = UeModem Control Theory 2-39 State Space Representation State model is, x = AX + BU and Y= 10000 1 0-4 00 1 133 where A= lo os of BR fy S & - wl 0 00 0; 1 wm} Example 2.13 Derive the state model in Jordan's canonical form for a systent having TE. Ts) = ——1__ tds? 45542 Solution : 7%, 1 1 - Bo. oc ai + Bo, so4ds?45s42 (s+1)2(s+2) (st)? SFT) (s+2) ie. A(s +2) 4 Bis +1) (6 +2) 4 Cis+1)? =1 As + 2A + Bs? + 3Bs+2B+Cs?42Cs+C = 1 B+C = 0,A+3B+2C=0, 2A+2B+C = 1 W 1 1 1 State diagram is , wy yw) Fig. 2.29Modern Contral Theary 2-40 State Space Representation xX, = =X, +X, X_ = U-Xy X3 = Ul)- 2X5 Y(s) x, «State model is, xe " z x + a G — " ° % -1 10 0) where A=}o -1 0}, Bell, 0 02 1 c=f-i4y im ~Example 2.14 : Obtain the state model of system whose T.F. is 33 435? +28 TG) = Foster's form. sg’ 412s* +475+60 by 34392 : Solution : 1) = 2 tts 3° 412s? + 475 +60 As numerator and denominator are of same order we cannot directly find out partial fractions, For partial fraction, numerator degree must be less than denominator. So directly divide N(s) by D(s) and find partial fractions of the remainder. 834125? 4475+ 60) st +35? +25 (1 s> +128? +475 + 60 ~ 95? ~ 455-60 ¥(s) 95? + 455+ 60 Ts) = pee = 1 - fe UG) [- +125? + 475+ 60 9s? 4458460 | _ ~|6F 6+ HG6+5)|— 3), m4 30 seo) S+d 545 =1-Modem Gontro! Theory 2-44 State Space Representation: State diagram : 0) Zn 0 U() - 3X, , Ul) = AX, X= Ul) 5x, Y(s) = — 3X1 + 24Xy ~ 30X, + Ul) -. State model is, X= AX4BU and Y=CX 4 DU -3 0 0 1 where A= o-4 0 Bell 0 0-5 1 C =[-3 24 -30), D=[I] When N(s) and D(s) are having same order, or degree of N(s) > D{s) then, there is always direct transmission matrix D present in the model. me Example 2.15 : Obtain a state space model of the system with transfer function 6 ? +118 +6 (WTUJanJFeb.-2007,July/Aug.-2007,Dec./Jan-2008)Modem Control Theory 2-42 State Space Representation Solution : . Ys) The TRis oo = ——— eS GE) 346s? 411546 Using factorisation of denominator, Ys) 6 US) ~ G+) GD +3) Taking partial fractions, 234 ‘This is Foster's form of representation, From above Fig. 2.31 we get, x " UG) - X, X, = Uls)= 2X, U(s) - 3X3, and ¥(s) = 3X, - 6X, + 3X5 Hence the state space model is, X = AX+BUModern Control Theory 2-43 State Space Representation and Y = CX 400 0 where A=|d 2 0 00-3 1 B= |1 q C= [3 -6 3] wwe Example 2.16; Obtain the state model for system represented by By dty dy —_ —= + 11 +10y = 3U sy toy + WG + ly = 3UCy Solution : System is 3rd order, n = 3 (VTU : May-99, Dee.2007/Jan.-2008) 3 integrators and variables are required. Select y =X, and then successive differentiation of y as next variable. x 0 = dy/dt ~ (1) - 2) it Now as 3 variables are defined, XX, but Xj must be obtained by substituting all selected variables in original differential equation. . * By X, +6X,+11X,+10X, = 3U 0 as Xy=5 = ° . ae = 3U-10X, ~11X,- 6X, ~~ @) which is output equation «. State model can be written as, x = AX + BU and y = CX+DU o1 ¢ Where A=! 0 0 1/,B= | Leen 0 0} D= {0} -10 -ll -6 i}State diagram : | Medermn Gontrol Theory 2-44 State Space Representation Ys) 10 Fig. 2.32 imp Example 2.17: Obtain the state model of the differential equation 3c 2 geld, gd ell) del yeary 2 sett dp apr dt (VTU : Aug-95) Solution :The equation can be written as, HC Te Hey 2e() = Srtt) The order of the equation is 3. Selecting state variables as, ) = X4() x00 = X= eo {l) X,() = X40 = ce 02) X40) = c(t) Substituting in the original equation, 4X (9 +X, (+ X,0042X, (0 = St) . 2 1 3 5 X5(t) = =ZX1O- ZX. 0- FX, WFO «-(3) Hence the state model is, Xr 0 1. of [xo 0 Xz} =] 0 0 1] |x,@{+ | 0] we x 20.1.3 5 x: -2 _1 _3) [x,¢ 3 > 5 IF 30 4Modern Control Theory 2-45 State Space Representation While the output equation is, tt) = xX) XxX ie. yt} = [100]/ X,0 X5 (0) ‘mm Example 2.18 : Obtain the state model of the system whose closed loop transfer function is cs 2s +3) Rey FED (VTU : Feb-97, Oct-98) Solution : Let us use the parallel programming i.e. Foster's form. Finding partial fractions of C(s)/Ris). Cs) 4 RS) > S +2 Hence the state diagram is as shown in the Fig. 2.33 Ris) Fig. 2.33 Hence the state equations from the Fig, 2.33 are Xp = RW) =% -) X, = Ris) = 2%) +2) and ls) = 4X, -2X5 Hence the state model is, [S]- (8 SIR bleModem Control Theory 2-46 State Space Representation x, and c(t) = [4 al] mp Example 2.19: Write @ set of state equations for the metwark shown in the Fig. 2.34 Choose i,, i. and ve as state variables. (VTU + April-98,July/Aug.-2007) R, Ll ly WTO TIMID —- ~~~ === =i, i + we wesc Ea a Fig. 2.34 Solution: Let e(t) = Input Voltage across Ry = ey{I)= output 4M = XD i) = Xz) ve) = X30) Let i,(t) and i, (t) are the loop currents. Applying KVL to the loops. di et) = Ri +b) gp tve 4 a =i) Ry -ve +e} x Xi) = () + Q) and SE = iy -i, .--Capacitor current Ly, _; So = by-i)Modem Control Theory 2-47 ‘State Space Representation X; = hO=%) 8) While eg(0) = iy Ry =R, X5 A Hence the state model is, x . zt Xz] 4 + | 0] Ul) where Ui) = et) o and Y@) = e(0=[0 RO a Xy dump Example 2.20: Cousidering ve and J, as state variables and 1, as the output variables in the circuit shown below, obtain the state model. Jy (t) Fig. 2.35 (VTU : Aug. - 97) Solution : Convert the current source to voltage source as shown. R, L $$ aH SSESy Fig. 2.35 (a)Modem Control Theory 2-48 State Space Representation ‘Two inputs, One output, A(t) ie. YU) = L(t) Variables, Yo = XW) and 1, =X) Let [,(t) and I, (t) be the loop currents. Applying KVL to the two loops, Loop 1, -1, Ry - ve + e(t)= 0 AR, = wR = ett) = ve 1 1 Los grag veld iil _R Rp rn en * R, R. Xp = EXO-5EXLW-FE Uy and current through capacitor, IL-l = dve 1 Fe = ella Substituting I, from output equation, : 1 1 XX era CR, CR 1 1 _/ Re Cc iol CR, “at X2(0) 0 x,0- 2x20 ewe " e(ty and 1,.(t) ie. Uy = eft) and Up = I(t) «- Output equation . State equation »» State equationModem Control Theory 2-49 ‘State Space Representation im Example 2.21: Derive two state models for the system described by the differential equation D3y +4D7y 4+5Dy +2y = 2D%u4 6Du+5u where D = d/dt i) One in phase variable form. ii) Other in Jordan-Canonical form. (VTU: March-2001) Solution : Take the Laplace transform of both sides of the equation and neglect the initial conditions to obtain transfer function of the system as, 5 Y{5) +4s?Y(s) +5s¥(s) +2¥(s) = 2s? U(s) + 6s U(s) +5U(s) Ys) _ _ 2s? +6545 US) 93 445? 45842 1) Phase varlable form Use the direct decomposition Ys) 2s? +6845 UG) © [eras F5is+77 The state diagram can be shown as in the Fig. 236 X; = Uls)-2X,-5X, -4X, and Y(s) = 5X, -6X, +2X,Modern Control Theory 2-50 State Space Representation So state model is having matrices, 0 1 0 0 A=|0 01 vf and C = [5 6 2 2-5-4 iy ii) Jordan cangnicat form : Factorise the denominator as, Ys) _ 2s? +6845 A Bo D G6 UG) (wan? (+2) +1) 2 AG+2)+B(Q41) (8+2)+C(s41)? = 2s? +6845 + As+2A4Bs? +3Bs+2B+Cs? +2Cs+C = 237 +6845 B+Cs2, Ar3B+2C=6, 2A+2B+C85 A=1, B=1, C=1 Ye) toy 1 yd Ue) ~ Gin? G+ *G+2) Ys) Fig. 2.37 So Xp = UB)=-X, — X.=Xy=Xz-Xy = Uls)-2K5 and Y@) =X, +X, +X5 So state model is having matrices, -1 0 0 1 A= [1 2 0] Be/0] andC=f111] 0 0 2 LModern Control Theory 2-51 State Space Representation imp Example 2.22: For the system shown in te Fig. 2.38, obtain the stale model choosing vy(t) and vt) as the state variables, (VTU: July/Aug,-2005, Jan./Feb.-2007) 1M2 vt) 1MQ vit) uty t oF T WF Y(t) Fig, 2.38 Solution : Select the two currents as shown in the Fig. 2.38(a}. And write the equations using KVL and KCL. um ima va) Mo M(t) Ty wo ) ewe) ew f 2 Fig. 2.38 (a) Uit)=voit) 1x10° 4) vg) = Zfy-ty at ie. yr = c 830 +. Ya-%1 t) = 0 110° 1 And v(t) = clin dt dv (0) o ig(t) = C x Eliminate i; and i, from above equations and C = 1 x 10° ® F. w- () .- 2) - B) .- (@)Modern Control Theory 2-52 State Space Representation ‘Substituting (1) and (3) in (2) we get, [ee 20) {ue o¥y(t cM. at 1x10° 110° vy at Ho | 1 vytt) 2[224] -% wae dt yaa }*C Tx10® CLaxi08 4 * Se = vi - 29g) + UCD 8) ‘Using (3) in (4), dv, | v)-¥ cf, 21 dt 1¥108 dv TF 7 ¥alt) + volt) ww (6) Select XO = vy(0 and X(t) = vale) Using selected state variables, Xp = +X and Xp = Xy- 2K, + Ul) and YO = Hy) = X10 Hence the state model is, Xe) = AX() + BUY and Yi) = CX(t) + DUL) —1 +1 0 i “I e-[i}e-n oO, D=0 mm Example 2.23 : Derive two state models for the system with transfer function, where A i) For first model, matrix A must be in companion form. ii) For second model, matrix A must be in diagonal form.Modern Control Theory 2-53 State Space Representation Solution : Arrange the transfer function as, 1 50xex(s+5) 1000(s +5) Tis) = = 3[eF DS +50) sx Gx(5+2)x hx (5 +80) i) The companion form means phase variable form for which use direct decomposition of denominator, Tye) = — 10001 +5)___ 1000845000 © fs? #52s4100)s {ls +52)s+100}q ‘The state diagram is as shown in the Fig. 2.39. From state diagram, Ut): Fig. 2.39 X= XM =% and Xq = = 100Xq ~ 52X5 + Ult) While ¥(t) = S000X, + 1000X, o 1 0 0 A =10 0 1 B=/0 Oo -100 -52 1 Cc = [5000 1000 0), D=0 ii) For diagonal form use partial fractions, A,B LC M8) = 5 54o* 5450 A = T()5] 1000%5 _ 55 js=0 ~ “3x50Modern Control Theory B= Ty(s+2)|,_ Cc Tis) = The state diagram is, Fig. 2.39 (a) Thus the state equations are, Xy = UG, hy = - 2X + Utd, Xe = — 50X; + Ul) and Y(t) = 50X, — 31.25X2 - 18.75X3 0 0 0 1 Thus, A= /0 =2 OL, Bell 0 0 -50 1 C = [50 -31.25 -1875),D=0Modern Control Theory 2-55 State Space Representation im} Example 2.24: Derive the stale model for too input ttv0 output system shown in the Fig. 2.40. Fig. 2.40 Select output of simple lags as state variables. Solution * As suggested, the output of is Xy, fi 1, is Xy and 5 is Xy. . 1 sep Xe S505 2 The state diagrams for simple lags are, Fig. 2.40 (a)Modern Control Theory 2-56 State Space Representation Fig. 2.40 (d) * Xy = 1 - 2X From the given block diagram, % = K,(U,-¥,) and r,=K, [U,-¥,] oe) - (2) ++ (3) .. (4)Modern Control Theory 2-57 State Space Representation and Y¥, = X, + 5X) w(6-a) Yq = O.4X; + 4X, +--(6 b) Substituting in (5) we get, n= - Ky X)-5K) + KU a ry = — OAK, X3 - 4K, Xz + Ky U, 8) Using (7) and (8) in the equations (1) to (4), X= G1-K,) X% - 5K; Xp + Ky Uy (9 a) Xq = - SXy — OAK, Xy - AK Xj + Ky Uy 290) Ky = — Ky Xy - 5K, Xp - 05K; + Ky Uy (9 6) Xj = = 04K, X, + © 4K, ~ 2) X; + KU, (94) ‘The equations (9a) ta (9d) and (6a) to (6b) give the required state model as, X = AX+BU and Y = CX + DU where (-1-K) -5K, 0 0 K, 0 awl? $ Ky AK | | o & -K, 3K, 05 o | K, 0 0 0 OAK, (4K, -2) 0K 15 0 0 c= [hb os it D= (0) we Example 2.25 : A series RLC circuit with R = 10, L = 1 Hand C = 1 F is excited by v = 10 V. Write the state equations in the matrix form. [Bangalore Univ., Dec.-95] Solution : The circuit is shown in the Fig. 2.41. R L v= Ut) ~ 1. | ue - Fig. 2.41 Applying KVL to the circuit, alt) vy = QR+ boar + vel) .{1)Modern Control Theory 2-58 State Space Representation ly, and vo = Ji dt dvc() 1, a ei ~~ @) Let i() = X, = Current through inductor ¥¢lt) = Xz = Voltage across capacitor V = U)=10V Substituting all the values, 10 = X +X +X Ry = -Xp- Xp + 10 .. @) and Xy =X Hence state equations in matrix form are, [e]-F Ue eee im Example 2.26 : Oblain the state space representation in phase variable form for the system represented by, D*y + 20D*y + 45D*y+ 18 Dy + 100 y =10D7u+5Du+ 100 u with y as output and uw as input. Solution : Phase varaible form (VTU: JanJ/Feb.-2005) Taking Laplace transform of both sides and neglecting initial conditions, st Y(s)+ 205? Y(s)+ 45s*Y(s) + 18s ¥(s)+ 100 ¥(s) = 10s2U(s) + 5s U(s)+ 100 U(s) Ys) _ 10s? + 5s + 100 Us) 54+ 20s? + 455? + 185+ 100 Using direct decomposition, Ys) _ 108? + 5s +100 ‘U(s) —— {[([s+ 20]s-+ 45) s+ 18]s+ 100} ‘The state diagram is as shown in Fig. 2.42Modern Control Theory 2-59 ‘State Space Representation Fig, 2.42 The state equations are, x, X5.X5 5 =-100X, - 18X, - 4X - 20X, + U and y = 100X,+5X,+10X, o 1 00 0 0 0 1 0 Oo o Aly 9g 1 | Bal} C= L005 10 0] ~100 -18 -4 —20 1 tm Example 2.27 : Obtain the state model of the system responsed by the following differential equation: y + 6y+5y+y=u. (VTU; July/Aug,- 2005) Solution : Take Laplace transform of both sides neglecting initial conditions, s*\(s)+4 657 ¥(s)+ 5sY(s)+ Y(s) = Us) yw Us) 53 +657 +5841 1) 1 Us) ~ [er es+ 5]s+ iy ‘The state diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.43 Ys) Fig. 2.43| Modern Control Theory 2-60 State Space Representation The state equations are, | | X =X X,-5X,-6X, +U | Y=X% 0 1 0 0 A=|0 0 1/|,B=|0),C=[100] -1-5 -6 1 inm> Exampte 2.28: Obtain iwo different state models for a system represented by the {following transfer function. Write suitable state diagram in each case. (VTU: July/Aug.-2005) Ys) 832 + 175+ 8 Us) (s41) (s? +884 15) Solution ; 1) Direct decomposition : Ys) _ B52 417%8+8 8s? 417548 Us) 5349574238415 {[(s+9)s+23]s +15} The state diagram is shown in the Fig.2.44 Fig. 2.44 Xy=Xq, X2=Xy, Xa s15Xy -23K, = 9X5 +U Y = 8X, +17X, +8X, 0 1 0 0 s A=|/0 0 1],B=|0|,c=[817 5} -15 -23 -9 1Modern Control Theory 2-641 State Space Representation 2) Foster's term = MG), _Ssai7ee8 A BC Us)” (s+ 1)(8¥3)(s45) SFT 843° S45 A 0.125, B = -7.25, C = 15.375 ¥(s) _ = 0125 7.25, 15.375 . UG) st 543" 545 The state diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.45 Fig. 2.45 ‘The state equations are, X, =-X, +U, 3 =-3X,+U, -Xy =-5X,+U Y = - 0.125X, -7.25X, +15.375X a 100 1 A={|0 -3 0|,B=|1],C=[-0125 - 7.25 15.375] 0 0 -5 1 . Choosing appropriate physical variables as state variables, oblain the dim Example 2.29 ; (VTU: Jan./Feb.-2006) state model for the electric circuit shown in Fig. 2.46Modern Control Theory 2-62 State Space Representation an 1H ia xt) Fig. 2.46 Solution : The various currents are shown in the Fig. 2.46(a). Fig. 2.46 (a) The volatage actoss resistance and second inductor is y(t). ig = yt) wwa() and x Tas ylt) ww(2) The voltage across capacitor is, ve{t) = u(t) - ylt) dvcit) _ dvc(t) ie) = CHR =e wn) and = ult)-y) = ve onl) di From @), y(t) = ut) = SEL = uty - vett) dt Using in (2), = = ult) - veft) se(5)Moder Control Theory 2-63 State Space Representation Applying KCL at node A, jot ity = hat ip dv ett) +i Getty = at dve Sf Ove (Ofna tie 6) Select X1=i,,, X x from (4) Re 2 = -X3+U wnfrom (5) Xs - from (6) and Y= -X;+U wnfrom (2) 0 0 1 0 “ A=|o 0 -1|,B=|1],C=[00-1],D-1) -1 0-1 1 mmm Example 2.30: For the transfer function xo = ses2E4%) 3) (s+1)%(s+4) (TU: JansFeb.-2006) Obtain the state model in i) Phase variable canonical form ii) Jordan Canonical form Solution : i) Phase variable form Ms) _ M8+2)(6+3) _ 5745s? +6s R(s) (s+1)?(s+4) so +657 +9544 Using direct decomposition, Y(s) 3 45s? +65 Ris)" {{(s+6)s+9]s+4}Modern Control Theory 2-64 State Space Representation ‘The state diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.47. Fig. 2.47 Xp > 4X,-9Xp-6Xg4R = GXq +5X4—4Xy— 9X -6Xg HR Y = -4X,-3X,-Xj4R fo 1 0 0 jo o 1|,B=lo|,¢=[4-3-1),D-—) [ea -9 -6 1 > 8 ii) Jordan Canonical form : As the degree of denominator and numerater is same, first divide and then obtain partial fractions 83465? +9544) sh 4557 46s (1 8946s? 49 wo, 4) fac Rs) (841) (+4) (+1? Stl sta A(S+4)*BS+1)(s+4)+C(s+1)? = s? #3844Modem Control Theory 2-65 State Space Representation . ASt4A4Bs? +5sB+4B+Cs? + 2Cs+C = s? 43544 BHC =1, A45B+2C=3, 4A+4B+C=4 A = 0.666, B= 0.111, C = + 0.888 666 + 0.111 + 0.888 Gen? GN G44) 0.666 _0.111 _ 0.888 (s+)? s+1 s+4 Fig. 2.48 Xp =-X)4R, X,=-X, +X, Xy=-4X,4R Y = -0,111X, -0.686X, - 0.988X, +R -1 9 0 1 n 1-1 0},B=/0|,C =[-0111 -0666 -0.888], D = [1] o 0 -4 1 im Example 2.31: Fig, 2.49 shows the block diagram of a speed contro! system with state variable feedback. The drive motor is an armature controlled d.c. motor with- armature resistance R,, armature inductance Ly, motor torque constant Kz, inertia referred to constant K, and tachometer K, The applied armature voltage is controlled by a three phase full-converter. ¢, is control voltage, e, is armature voltage, e, is the reference voltage corresponding to the desired speed. Taking X= (speed) and Xo = i, (armature curresit) as the state variables, u = e, as the input, and y = @ as the output, derive a state variable mode for the feedback system. (VTU: July/Aug.-2006)Modern Control Theory 2-66 State Space Representation “oe 2 | Fig, 2.49 Solution ; For armature controlled d.c. motor, vat) = nn(1) and ett) = (2) Ta = Kgl (3) The torque produced is used to drive the load against inertia J and friction B. do Ty = 1GP+Bo conf ji deo Kyi, = 1GP+Bo (6) From the equation (1), di va) = Ly Ge+igR, +K,oo) ealModern Central Theory 2-87 State Space Representation But the armature voltage v, is controlled by three phase full converter. Kai Kec = Kto. Key Point: Thus initial conditions i. memory affects the system characterisation and subsequent behaviour. Thus initial conditions describe the status or state of the system at t = t,. The state can be regarded as a compact and concise representation of the past history of the system. So the state of the system in brief separates the future from the past so that the state contains all the information concerning the past history of the system necessarily required to determine the response of the system for any given type of input. The state of the system at any time “t’ is actually the combined effect of the values of all the different elements of the system which are associated with the initial conditions of the system. Thus the complete state of the system can be considered to be a vector having components which are the variables of system which are“losely associated withModem Control Theory 1-4 State Variable Analysis & Design initial conditions. So state can be defined as vector X(t) called state vector. This X(t) ic. state at any time *t' is ‘n’ dimensional vector i.e. column matrix n x 1 as indicated below. x0 x2(D x)= Xa) Now these variables X(t), X(t) , called the state variables of the system. If state at t = t, is to be decided then we must know X(tp) and knowledge of the input applied between ty >t). This new stale will be X(,) which will act as initial state to find out the state at any time t > t,. This is called the updating of the state. The output of the system at t = t, will be the function of X(t,) and the instantaneous value of the input at t = t,, ifany. The number of the state variables for a system is generally equal to the order of the system. The number of independent state variables is normally equal to the number of energy storing elements (e.g; capacitor voltage, current in inductor) contained in the system. X,(t) which constitute the state vector X(t) are 1.2.1 Important Definitions 1) State ; The state of a dynamic system is defined as a minimal set of variables such that the knowledge of these variables at t = ty together with the knowledge of the inputs for t 2 ty, completely determines the behaviour of the system for t >). 2) State Variables : The variables involved in determining the state of a dynamic system X(t), are called the state variables. X,(t), X;(t) ....X,(t) are nothing but the state variables. These are normally the energy storing elements contained in the system, 3) State Vector : The ‘n’ state variables necessary to describe the complete behaviour of the system can be considered as ‘n’ components of a vector X(t) called the state vector at time ‘t. The state vector X(t) is the vector sum of all the state variables. 4) State Space : The space whose co-ordinate axcs are nothing but the “n’ state variables time as the implicit variable is called the state space. 5) State Trajectory : It is the locus of the tips of the state vectors, with time as the implicit variable.Modern Control Theory 1-5 State Variable Analysis & Design Definitions can be explained by considering second order system = Order is 2 so number of state variables required is 2 say X,(t) and X,(t). State vector will be the matrix of order 2 1. xl x) = [x i) = > 3 ie, X() = X,()+Xz4) (vector addition) The state space will be a plane in this case as the number of variables are two. Thus state space can be shown as in the Fig. 1.3. x (0) 0 X(t) X(t) : Xa) QW (0.0) 2 (ty) Fig. 1.3 Fig. 1.4 Now consider t = t, > > 3 * Xl) = Xylty) + Xyty) x, (0) x % (ha) % tte), ——— wo X2ita) % Fig. 1.5 Fig. 1.6 Now consider t = ty => = > X(tg) = Xj (ty) +X (ty) The state trajectory can be shown by joining the tips of the two state vectors ie. X{t,) and X(t),Modern Control Theory 1-6 State Variable Analysis & Design 1.3 State Model of Linear Systems Consider Multiple Input Multiple Output, nth order system as shown in the Fig. 1.7. Number of inputs = m Number of outputs = p uy ¥, . U2 MIMO Te Inputs. SYSTEM Outputs: Un Ly, My XX, Xs State variables Fig. 4.7 uU,(0) X,(0) Y(t) UA) Xp (t) ¥,(t) um =}: }x@=] : |, ¥@= Untt) Xq(0 ¥p All are column vectors having orders mx1, nx 1 and p « 1 respectively, For such a system, the state variable representation can be arranged in the form of ‘n’ first order differential equations. ax, (0) ge XU A OG Xp roe Ny Uy Ug one aX, Gt = X20 = fy OK, XQ psoee My Uy Up os dX, (t) Xn(t) = fy & -X. dtModern Control Theory 4-7 State Variable Analysis & Design f, f Where f =| : } is the functional operator. f, Integrating the above equation, t Xi) = Xiltod+ J XK sXQ 'o where i = 1, 2, ......m Thus ‘n' state variables and hence state vector at any time “t’ can be determined uniquely. Any “n' dimensional time invariant system has state equations in the functional form as, X= £ 0% U) While outputs of such system are dependent on the state of system and instantancous inputs. «. Functional output equation can be written as, Y(t) = g(X, U} where “g' is the functional operator. For time variant system, the same equations can be written as, X(t) =X, U, #) ... State equation Y(t) = g(%, U, f .... Output equation Diagramatically this can be represented as in the Fig. 1.8. UQ) Instantaneous Input X(y) Initial state Fig. 1.8 Input-output state description of a systemModern Control Theory 1-8 State Variable Analysis & Design ‘The functional equations can be expressed interms of linear combination of system ‘states and the input as, X= ayy Xp + aygXq + ov + agyXy + By Uy + byyUy +... + Bygy Um Xz = agy Xp + aygXy -o. + aggXpy + by Uy + bygUy +... + bay Up Xin = ayy Xy + aggXp + ose + AggXe + BqgUy + begUy + oss + Bag Una For the linear time invariant systems, the coefficients ay and by are constants. Thus all the equations can be written in vector matrix form as, XKt) AX(t) + BU(t) where X(t) = State vector matrix of order n x 1 U(t) = Input vector matrix of order m x 1 A. = System matrix or Evolution matrix of order nx 0 B_ = Input matrix or control matrix of order n x m Similarly the output variables at time t can be expressed as the linear combinations of the input variables and state variables at time t as, Y y(t) = cyy X(t) + = # Cay X y(t) + dyy Uy (t) +... + day Un(t Yplt) = cpa Xi) + + pa Xa) + dy Uylt) + os + doen Upntt) For the linear time invariant systems, the coefficients cy and dj are constants. Thus all the output equations can be written in vector matrix form as, Yi) = C X(t) + D UW where Y(t) = Output vector matrix of order p x 1 C = Output matrix or observation matrix of order p x n D = Direct transmission matrix of order p x m The two vector equations together is called the state model of the linear system. oe X() = A Xt) + BOW + State equation Y(t) = C X(t) + D Uit) ..-Output equation This is state model of a system.Modern Control Theory 1-9 State Variable Analysis & Design For linear time-variant systems, the matrices A, B, C and D are also time dependent. Thus, ey =a xe0 +000 ve For linear time variant system Y(b) =Cqt) Xt) +O UH) 1.3.1 State Model of Single Input Single Output System Consider a single input single output system i.e. m = 1 and p = 1. But its order is ‘n’ hence n state variables are required to define state of the system. In such a case, the state model is X= AX) +B UW Y(t) = C X(t) +d Ut) where A = nx nimatrix, B= nx 1 matrix C = 1 n matrix, d = constant and Ut) = single scalar input variable In general remember the orders of the various matrices. & A = Evolution matrix. nen B= Control matrix = =n xm C = Observation matrix = p xn D = Transmission matrix = p x m 1.4 State Diagram Representation It is the pictorial representation of the state model derived for the given system. It forms a close relationship amongst the state model, differential equations of the system and its solution. It is basically a block diagram type approach which is designed from the view of programming of a computer. The basic advantage of state diagram is when it is impossible to select the state variables as physical variables. When transfer function of system is given then state diagram may be obtained first. And then by assigning mathematical state variables there in, standard state model can be obtained. State diagram of a linear time invariant continuous system is discussed here for the sake of simplicity. It is a proper interconnection of three basic units. 4) Scalars ii) Adders ili) IntegratorsModern Control Theory 4-10 State Variable Analysis & Design Scalars are nothing but like amplifiers having required gain, [= }}—- XWM=aXxy0 — Xl ~“e— X4(0.= p(t) * Xalt) x(t) (a)Scatar (b)Adder Fig. 1.9 + Xetth Adders are nothing but summing points. Integrators arc the elements which actually integrate the differentiation of state variable to obtain required state variable. Now integrators are denoted as “1/s' in Laplace transform. So transfer function of any X0=/K (0d integrator is always 1s. With these three basic units we can draw the state diagrams of any order system. Fig. 4.9 (e) Key Point : The output of each integrator is the state variabl 1.4.1 State Diagram of Standard State Model Consider standard state model Xo = AX() + BU) and YH = CX) + DUH, So its state diagram will be as in the Fig. 1.10. Fig. 1.10 State diagram of MIMO system The thick arrows indicate that there are mulliple number of input, output and state variables. There must be n parallel integrators for n state variables. The output of each integrator is a seperate state variable. If such a state diagram for the system is obtained then the state model from the diagram can be easily obtained.Modem Control Theory 1-11 Remarks 1. To obtain the state mode! from state diagram, always choose output of each integrator as a state variable. Number of integrators always| equals the order of the system ic. “n’ 2. Differentiators are not used in the state diagram as they amplify the| inevitable noise. hsb Example 1.1: Obtain the state diagram of SISO system represented by equations, Xi) = ay Xy(t) + by Ul), Ret) = ag Xylt) tag Xo(t4 by UU) and Yi) = eX +e, X21) Solution : As there are 2 state variables X,(t) and X,(t), the two integrators are required. Xt [=] uy —a}A X00 4 1.5 Non Uniqueness of State Model Consider a standard state model for a system X) = AXD+BUO ) yl) = CXH+ DUH) «- (2) Let X = M Z where M is a nion singular constant matrix. Key Point: A matrix whose determinant is nonzero is called nonsingular matrix. This means Z is new set of state variables which is obtained by linear combinations of the original state variables.Modern Control Theory 4-12 State Variable Analysis & Design X = MZ hence x =MZ Substituting in a state model M Zt) = AM Zit) + BUC) ~ @) Y() = CM Z(t) + DUH @) ~. Premultiplying equation (3) by M7! * 2) = MIAMZ()+M7B UW where MM = I ice. Identity matrix ay = Azy+ BUY a) where A = M1AM & = mB and yo = €2+DUO ~ 6) Where c= cM Equations (5) and (6) forms a new state model of the system. ‘This shows that state model is not a unique property. Key Point: Any linear combinations of the original set of state variables results into a valid new set of state variables. 41.6 Linearization of State Equation Any gencral time invariant system is said to be in equilibrium, at a point (Xp, Uy) when, X = £ (Xp Uy) = The derivatives of all the state variables are zero at a point of equilibrium. The system has a tendency to lic at the equilibrium point unless and untill it is forcefully disturbed. The state equation X(t) = f (X, U) can be linearized for small deviations about an equilibrium point (Xp, U,). This is possible by expanding the state equation using Taylor series and considering only first order terms, neglecting sceond and higher order terms.Modern Control Theory 1-13 State Variable Analysis & Design So expanding k"* state equation, 2 vy = fy Xo, Ua) + > 1 7X0) * 4 ist Now f(g Up) = Oat the equilibrium point. And let the variation about the operating point is, Ky, = X,—Xq_ hence X = X = U-Up a and j Hence the k state equation can be linearized as, 5 BARU) | BAK OC UY mi . u=uo v «In this equation X,, X; and U, are the vector matrices and the remaining terms are the matrices of order n x n and n x m respectively. Hence the linearized equation can be expressed in the vector matrix form as, K = ak+Bu af, af at, By Be Tey af, af, at where A= [1 % On | is n x m matrix af, af, Tx kp at ah, WU; dW, fy af Uy wu, in isn * m matrix af, Bly hy oU, WwW, OU,Modern Control Theory 1-14 State Variable Analysis & Design All the partial deriva of the matrices A and B are to be obtained at an equilibrium state (Xp, Up). Such matrices A and B defined above interms of partial derivatives are called the Jacobian matrices. Review Questions 1. Explain the concept of state. 2. Define and e plain dhe following terms, 4 Slate variables b, State vector State trajectory State State space 3. Caplan adoantages of state variable method over conventional one. 4. Write a shor! note on advantages and limitations of state variable approach. 5. Write @ note on linearization of state equations. 6. Prove the nonuniqueness of the state model. aQo00State Space Representation 2.1 State Variable Representation using Physical Variables The state variables are minimum number of variables which arc associated with all the initial conditions of the system. As their sequence is not important, the state model of the system is not unique. But for all the state models it is necessary that the number of state variables is equal and minimal. This number ‘n’ indicates the order of the system. For second order system minimum two state variables are necessary and so on. To obtain the state model for a given system, it is necessary to select the state variables. Many a times, the various physical quantities of system itself are selected as the state variables. For the electrical systems, the currents through various inductors and the voltage across the various capacitors are selected to be the state variables. Then by any method of network analysis, the equations must be written ihterms of the sclected state variables, their derivatives and the inputs. The equations must be rearranged in the standard form so as to objain the required state model. Key Point: It is important that the equation for differentiation of one state variable should not involue the differentiation of any other state variable. In the mechanical systems the displacements and velocities of energy storing elements such as spring and friction are selected as the state variables. In gencral, the physical variables associated with energy storing elements, which are responsible for initial conditions, are selected as the state variables of the given system. mum> Example 2.1: Obtain the state model of the given electrical system. R L v0) “ I, vest) it} . Fig. 2.4 (VTU : July/Aug.-2006) (2-1)Modern Control Theory 2-2 State Space Representation Solution : There are two cnergy storing clements 1. and C. So the two state variables are current through inductor i(t) and voltage across capacitor i.e. v¢(t). Xi) = i) and — XQCt) = volt) And Ut) = v(t) = Input variable Applying KVL to the loop, vQ) = i) R+L a) + v0 Arrange it for di(t)/dt, au = ty o-Big-ty,w but HO) S09 ie. Xo = - Pxo-bx,@ +E Uo While vol) = Voltage across capacitor = 4 i at OO Lic but oral 8 io. Xo = Exo ‘The equations (1) and (2) give required state equation. Kut Bt) xen : x | eft OE Ix ‘ol une X24) e of Po ie. XW = AX) + BUG) While the output variable Y(t) = vg(t) = X,(0 Y(t) " (01 [x] 101 UW) ie, Y() = CX(t) and D = [0] This is the required state model. As n = 2, it is second order system. . (I) -- (2) Note : The order of the state variables is not important. X(t) can be v,(t) and X(t) can be it) due to which state model matrices get changed. Hence state model is not the unique property of the system.Modem Control Theory 2-3 State Space Representation imap Example 2.2: Obtain the state model of the given electrical network in the standard form Fig. 2.2 Sokstion : U(t) = input = ¢,(t) Y(t) = output = e,() Stale variables : X4() =i), Xj(t) = ig, X30 = vel Writing the equations : eo) = by SE + ect gi) dt xi) (1) Then, volt) di.) R.. a veld ~ 72 int : R * Kau) = EX0- TE X20 = Q) and 0 cavelt “= iy(t)~ip(t) = Current through eapacitor dv elt) dt = zi0- zt in) Kay = EX W- 2X20 -@)Modem Control Theory 2-4 State Space Representation x oo - 1 x LC c : a, rt Pal |e Xef=s]o --2 = | Ix, I+] 0 | Uy : te Ta |e ° x AL 3. 3 z 0 ie. X(t) = AX(t) + BUC and eg(t) = iz(t) Ry Y() = X,(0 Ry x Y() = [0 R, 0] |x, X3 ie. Y(t) = CX(t) + DUC) where D = 0. This is the required state model. 2.1.1 Advantages ‘The advantages of using available physical variables as the state variables are, 1. The physical variables which are selected as the state variables are the physical quantities and can be measured. 2. As state variables can be physically measured, the feedback may consists the information about state variables in addition to the output variables. Thus design with state feedback is possible. 3. Once the state equations are solved and solution is obtained, directly the behaviour of various physical variables with time is available. But the important limitation of this method is that obtaining solution of such state equation with state variables as physical variables is very difficult and time consuming. 2.2 State Space Representation using Phase Variables Let us study how to obtain state space model using phase variables. The phase variables are those state variables which are obtained by assuming one of the system variable as a state variable and other state variables are the derivatives of the selected system variable. Most of the time, the system variable used is the output variable which is used to select the state variable. Such set of phase variables is easily obtained if the differential equation of the system is known or the system transfer function is available.Modern Control Theory 2-5 State Space Representation 2.2.1 State Model from Differential Equation Consider a linear continuous time system represented by n'* order differential equation as, Yea "tea YP eat o * U m1 Sm ” a, Yeagyt) boU+b, Ut..4b,, U™! +b,,U' In the equation, ¥%(t) = = = n"" derivative of Y(t). For time invariant system, the coefficients a,_y Ayig -- ay by by .-. Dy are constants. For the system, Y(t) = Output variable Ut) = Input variable ¥(0), ¥(0), ... ¥(0)""! represent the initial conditions of the system. Consider the simple case of the system in which derivatives of the control force U(t) are absent. Thus tw = Uwe... transfer function can be simulated as shown. Fo | in the Fig. 2.8. with a minor feedback loop. {a | Now if such a loop is added in the 7 forward path of another such loop then we get the block diagram as shown in the Fig. 28 Fig. 2.9. ‘The transfer function now becomes, 1 s(s+a)Modern Control Theory 2-15 State Space Representation ‘where X = (s+a) If now the entire block shown in the Fig. 29 is added in the forward path of another minor loop with an integrator and feedback gain ‘ec’, we get the transfer function as, = =) where Y= sx +b s¥+c ‘Thus the denominator of transfer function becomes 8 (8X +b) = [545 (s +a) +b] =8 3° + as? bs Thus denominator of any order can be rectly programmed as discussed above. st+as+b = (5(s+a) +b} st+as?+bs+c = (+a) s+ bl sec 4 st 4 as* + bs® + os + das (([ (s + a) s +b] s + ¢) 8 +d) and so on. Now if numerator is bys + bg and denominator. Simulation is obtained directly then the block diagram is as shown in the Fig. 2.10, But s = 4, which is differentiator and is not used to obtain state model. In such a case, take off point ‘t' is shifted before the last integrator block. Fig. 2.10 (b)Modern Control Theory 2-16 State Space Representation Fig. 2.10 (c) . According to block diagram reduetion rule, while shifting take off point before the block, the take off signal must be multiplied by transfer function of block before which it is to be shifted. Thus we get block of b, with take off from input of last integrator. Similarly if there is a term b,s* in the numerator then shift take off point before one more integrator as shown in the Fig. 2.10 (d). us) Simuaton ol rumaair Og bys * bas? Fig, 2.40 (d) ‘Thus for any order of nvmerator, complete simulation of the transfer function can be achieved. Then assigning output of each integrator as the state variable, state model in the phase variable form can be obtained.Modern Control Theory 2-47 State Space Representation me} Example 2.5: Obtain state model by direct decomposition method of a system whose transfer function is Y(s) _ 5s? +6s+8 UG) 334.362 475849 Solution : Decompose denominator as below, s+ 3s? 47549 = {([s+ 31547) 549} ts simulation starts from (s + 3) in denominator Fig, 2.14 To simulate numerator, shift take-off point once for 6s and shift twice for 5s”. ‘Therefore complete state diagram can be obtained as follows. uu ~ Y(t) Fig. 2.12 Assign output of each integrator as the state variable,Modern Control Theory 2-18 State Space Representation X4 = Ul) 9X4) = 7X4() - 3X4) While output, Y(t) = 8X, (0) + 6X,(t) + 5X, (0) -» State model is, Xt) = AX() + BU®) and Yi) = CX() + DUI) 010 0 where A= 0 0 1), B=}0 -9 -7 3 l C= [8 6 5], D=0 The matrix ‘A’ obtained is in the Bush form or Phase Variable form. 2.2.3 Advantages The various advantages of phase variables ic, direct programming method are, 1. Easy to implement. 2. The phase variables need not be physical variables hence mathematically powerful to obtain state model. 3. It is easy to establish the link between the transfer function design and time domain design using phase variables. 4, In many simple cases, just by inspection, the matrices A, B, C and D can be obtained. 2.2.4 Limitations ‘The various limitations of phase variables are, 1. The phase variables are not the physical variables hence they loose the practical significance, They have mathematical importance. 2. The phase variables are mathematical variables hence not available for the measurement point of view. » Also these variables are not available from control point of view. = The phase variables are the output and its derivatives, if derivatives of input arc absent. But it is difficult to obtain second and higher derivatives of output. wo . The phase variable form, though special, does not offer any advantage from the mathematical analysis point of view. Due to all these disadvantages, canonical variables are very popularly uscd to obtain the state model.Modern Control Theory 2-19 State Space Representation 2.3 State Space Representation using Canonical Variables This method of obtaining the state model using the canonical variables is also called parallel programming method and matrix A obtained using this method is said to have canonical form, normal form or Foster's form. The matrix A in such a case is a diagonal ‘matrix and plays an important role in the state space analysis. ‘The method is basically based on Partial Fraction Expansion of the given transfer function T(s). Consider the transfer function T(s) as, Case 1: If the degree 'm' ‘partial fraction expansion as, 1 ‘T(s) = aa stay G 1 Now each group 1 can be simulated using the minor loop in state diagram as 1 shown in the Fig. 2.13. The outputs of all such groups are to be added to obtain the resultant output. : To add the outputs, all the groups must be connected in parallel with each other. The input U(s) to all of them is same. Hence the method is called parallel programming. The overall state Fig, 2.13 diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.14 Then assign output of cach integrator as a state variable and write the state equations as, X= -ax,+u % = -a,X,+U =a, X,+U x x a While = 6p Xp ty Mg te + Oy Xp xe " AX +BU and Y= CX + DUModern Control Theory 2-20 State Space Representation ‘Y(s) a 0 O- 0 1 where a afore 0] gt 0 0 OF -a, 1 C= [q oq] and D=0 Case 2: If the degroe m = n i.e. numerator and the denominator have same degree then first divide the numerator by denominator and then obtain partial fractions of remaining factor. Ni Ts) = = =q+ where cq = Constant obtained by dividing N(s) by D(s). In such a case, the state diagram for partial fraction.terms remains same as before and in addition to all the outputs, cg U(t) gets added to obtain the resultant output as shown in the Fig. 2.15.Modem Controf Theory 2-24 State Space Representation Us) Additional element Fig. 2.15 State diagram for T(s) with m =n Thus the state model consists of the matrices as, ~a, 0 0 1 Oo -a 0 1 A=!|, 2 B=|, a rn 1 C= [eye cab Key Point: Thus for m = n, direct transmission matrix D exists in the state model. When the denominator ‘D(s) of the transfer function T{s) has non-repeated roots then the matrix A obtained by parallel programming has following features, 1. Matrix A is diagonal i.e. in canonical form or normal form. 2. The diagonal consists of the elements which are the gains of all the feedback paths associated with the integrators. 3. The diagonal elements are the poles of the transfer function T(s). ye Example 2.6 : Obtain the state model by Foster's form of a system whose TF. is, +4 CHEATSModern Contral Theory 2-22 Solution ; Find out partial fraction expansion of it 8 65 Fig. 2.16 X= UW~ XU. Xp = UY 2X p(t), X5 = UM) 3x, (0 YW) = 25X4(1) -8Xp(t)+ 65X40 . State model is,X = AX + BU and Y = CX+DU -1 0 0 where A=|020 Belt 0 0-3 1 C = (25-8 65] D=0Modern Control Theory 2-23 State Space Representation 2.3.1 Jordan's Canonical Form In the Foster's form it is assumed that the roots of denominator of Tis) are non-repeated, simple and distinct. But if the roots are repeated then the parallel programming results matrix A in a form called Jordan's Canonical form. Let T(s) has pole at s = — a, which is repeated for r times as, N(s) Ts) = ——— (s¥a,)' +03)... Fay) ‘The method of obtaining partial fraction for such a case is, fs) = cea men ee th ‘ 1 fn _ T= ot gS rte gta tesa hee) man ‘This can be mathematically expressed as, Gage 2 Gap =men ag and Tis) =ey + ad smn ome x Gran feta) Key Point: Note that in partial fraction expansion, a seperate coefficient is assumed for each power of repeated factor. In simulating such an equation by parallel programming, s simulated by (+a, connecting By groups, r times in series first. While all other distinct factors are simulated by parallel programming as before. The components of each power of —1— wm 510 be added to get output is to be taken from output of each integrator which are connected in series. This is shown in the Fig, 2.17. Now assign state variables at the output of each integrator. For series integrators, assign the state variables from right to left, as shown in the Fig. 2.17.State Space Representation 2-24 Modern Control Theory > Wr In Woy S.uePIOr 40) weBEIP aIS £17 “Ota % Example 2.10: Obtain the state madel of the given network int the standard form. Assume R,=1Q Cy=IF C)=1FModern Control Theory 2-32 State Space Representation Ry to I + Ry Input U(t) I Re ¢, rt + ae Y(t) Gutput {SE ot “ Fig. 2.23 Solution : Selecting state variables as voltages across capacitors Cy and Cz ie. e, and e3, ey = Xy(t) 2 2 = X() Applying Kirchhoff's laws, UF, Rpm ey Rady y= 0 Fig, 2.23 (a) Ut) = i, Ry +e, +R, (i) - ig) » (I) for second leap, ir ip Ry-e, -G,-4)) Ry = 0 ey = igRy Fey + lig -i)Ry ww 2) Solving simultancously equations (1) and (2) Ul) = F(R, +Ra)-in Rate, ey = 7, Ry +i, (R,+R,) +0, Substituting the values, UM) = i;0+2 iy +e @) ie. Ut) = 3, ey = 21, +51, te, a) Multiply equation (3) by 2 and equation (4) by 3 2Ul) = Gi -4ig + 2c, 3e, = -6i, +151, +3e, and adding 3 Ul) + Be, = Tig + Bey + 2c,