Laboratory work №2

VHF Omni Directional Radio Range (VOR)

Aim of the work: is to get familiar with theoretical materials, to study the
characteristics and main principles of work VHF (VOR) of the system; to obtain
practical skills of working on simulator ―Luizmonteiro‖.

Short theoretical information

VHF Omni Directional Radio Range (VOR) - is a type of short-range
radio navigation system for aircraft, enabling aircraft with a receiving unit to
determine their position and stay on course by receiving radio signals
transmitted by a network of fixed ground radio beacons. It uses frequencies
in the very high frequency (VHF) band from 108 to 117.95 MHz Developed
in the US beginning in 1937 and deployed by 1946, VOR is the standard air
navigational system in the world, used by both commercial and general
aviation. By 2000 there were about 3000 VOR stations around the world
including 1033 in the US, reduced to 967 by 2013with more stations being
decommissioned with the widespread adoption of GPS.

VOR (Doppler VOR) ground station, co-located with DME

A VOR ground station sends out an omnidirectional master signal, and a
highly directional second signal is propagated by a phased antenna array and
rotates clockwise in space 30 times a second. This signal is timed so that its
phase (compared to the master) varies as the secondary signal rotates, and
this phase difference is the same as the angular direction of the 'spinning'
signal, (so that when the signal is being sent 90 degrees clockwise from
north, the signal is 90 degrees out of phase with the master). By comparing
the phase of the secondary signal with the master, the angle (bearing) to the
aircraft from the station can be determined. This bearing is then displayed in
the cockpit of the aircraft, and can be used to take a fix as in earlier radio
direction finding (RDF) systems. This line of position is called the "radial"
from the VOR. The intersection of two radials from different VOR stations
on a chart gives the position of the aircraft. VOR stations are fairly short
range: the signals are useful for up to 200 miles.

On-board VOR display with CDI

VOR stations broadcast a VHF radio composite signal including the
navigation signal, station's identifier and voice, if so equipped. The
navigation signal allows the airborne receiving equipment to determine a
bearing from the station to the aircraft (direction from the VOR station in
relation to Magnetic North). The station's identifier is typically a two- or
three-letter string in Morse code. The voice signal, if used, is usually the
station name, in-flight recorded advisories, or live flight service broadcasts.
At some locations, this voice signal is a continuous recorded broadcast of
Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service or HIWAS.
Features
VORs signals provide considerably greater accuracy and reliability than
NDBs due to a combination of factors. VHF radio is less vulnerable to
diffraction (course bending) around terrain features and coastlines. Phase
encoding suffers less interference from thunderstorms.
 The first VOR, the second VOR/DME
VOR signals offer a predictable accuracy of 90 m (300 ft), 2 sigma at 2 nm
from a pair of VOR beacons; as compared to the accuracy of unaugmented
Global Positioning System (GPS) which is less than 13 meters,
95%.Repeatable VOR accuracy is 23 meters, 2 sigma. VOR signals originate
from fixed ground stations, usually below the aircraft, often at landing
facilities. Low incidence angle reflection from ground and clouds above
enhances signal strength. Low frequency (30 Hz) suffers less timing
distortion by reflection. VOR stations fixed relative to landing facilities are
usable for approaches without the trigonometric precalculations Area
Navigation database required for GPS.
VOR stations rely on "line of sight" because they operate in the VHF band—
if the transmitting antenna cannot be seen on a perfectly clear day from the
receiving antenna, a useful signal cannot be received. This limits VOR (and
DME) range to the horizon—or closer if mountains intervene. Although the
modern solid state transmitting equipment requires much less maintenance
than the older units, an extensive network of stations, needed to provide
reasonable coverage along main air routes, is a significant cost in operating
current airway systems.
Operation
VORs are assigned radio channels between 108.0 MHz and 117.95 MHz
(with 50 kHz spacing); this is in the Very High Frequency (VHF) range. The
first 4 MHz is shared with the Instrument landing system (ILS) band. To
leave channels for ILS, in the range 108.0 to 111.95 MHz, the 100 kHz digit
is always even, so 108.00, 108.05, 108.20, 108.25, and so on are VOR
frequencies but 108.10, 108.15, 108.30, 108.35 and so on, are reserved for
ILS.
The VOR encodes azimuth (direction from the station) as the phase
relationship of a reference and a variable signal. The omni-directional signal
contains a modulated continuous wave (MCW) 7 wpm Morse code station
identifier, and usually contains an amplitude modulated (AM) voice channel.
The conventional 30 Hz reference signal is on a 9960 Hz frequency
modulated (FM) subcarrier. The variable amplitude modulated (AM) signal
is conventionally derived from the lighthouse-like rotation of a directional
antenna array 30 times per second. Although older antennas were
mechanically rotated, current installations scan electronically to achieve an
equivalent result with no moving parts. When the signal is received in the
aircraft, the two 30 Hz signals are detected and then compared to determine
the phase angle between them. The phase angle by which the AM signal lags
the FM subcarrier signal is equal to the direction from the station to the
aircraft, in degrees from local magnetic north at the time of installation, and
is called the radial. The Magnetic Variation changes over time so the radial
may be a few degrees off from the present magnetic variation. VOR stations
have to be flight inspected and the azimuth is adjusted to account for
magnetic variation*(магнітне схилення).
This information is then fed to one of four common types of indicators:
An Omni-Bearing Indicator (OBI) is the typical light-airplane VOR
indicator and is shown in the accompanying illustration. It consists of a knob
to rotate an "Omni Bearing Selector" (OBS), and the OBS scale around the
outside of the instrument, used to set the desired course. A "course deviation
indicator" (CDI) is centered when the aircraft is on the selected course, or
gives left/right steering commands to return to the course. An "ambiguity"
(TO-FROM) indicator shows whether following the selected course would
take the aircraft to, or away from the station.
A Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) is considerably more expensive
and complex than a standard VOR indicator, but combines heading
information with the navigation display in a much more user-friendly format,
approximating a simplified moving map.
A Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI), developed previous to the HSI,
features a course arrow superimposed on a rotating card which shows the
aircraft's current heading at the top of the dial. The "tail" of the course arrow
points at the current radial from the station, and the "head" of the arrow
points at the reciprocal (180° different) course to the station.
An Area Navigation (RNAV) system is an onboard computer, with display,
and up-to-date navigation database. At least two VOR stations, or one
VOR/DME station is required, for the computer to plot aircraft position on a
moving map, or display course deviation relative to a waypoint (virtual VOR
station).
In many cases, VOR stations have co-located Distance measuring
equipment (DME) or military Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN) — the latter
includes both the DME distance feature and a separate TACAN azimuth
feature that provides military pilots data similar to the civilian VOR. A co-
located VOR and TACAN beacon is called a VORTAC. A VOR co-located
only with DME is called a VOR-DME. A VOR radial with a DME distance
allows a one-station position fix. Both VOR-DMEs and TACANs share the
same DME system.
VORTACs and VOR-DMEs use a standardized scheme of VOR frequency
to TACAN/DME channel pairing so that a specific VOR frequency is always
paired with a specific co-located TACAN or DME channel. On civilian
equipment, the VHF frequency is tuned and the appropriate TACAN/DME
channel is automatically selected.
Using a VOR
If a pilot wants to approach the VOR station from due east then the aircraft
will have to fly due west to reach the station. The pilot will use the OBS to
rotate the compass dial until the number 27 (270°) aligns with the pointer
(called the Primary Index) at the top of the dial. When the aircraft intercepts
the 90° radial (due east of the VOR station) the needle will be centered and
the To/From indicator will show "To". Notice that the pilot sets the VOR to
indicate the reciprocal; the aircraft will follow the 90° radial while the VOR
indicates that the course "to" the VOR station is 270°. This is called
"proceeding inbound on the 090 radial." The pilot needs only to keep the
needle centered to follow the course to the VOR station. If the needle drifts
off-center the aircraft would be turned towards the needle until it is centered
again. After the aircraft passes over the VOR station the To/From indicator
will indicate "From" and the aircraft is then proceeding outbound on the 270°
radial. The CDI needle may oscillate or go to full scale in the "cone of
confusion" directly over the station but will recenter once the aircraft has
flown a short distance beyond the station.
In the illustration on the right, notice that the heading ring is set with 360°
(North) at the primary index, the needle is centred and the To/From indicator
is showing "TO". The VOR is indicating that the aircraft is on the 360°
course (North) to the VOR station (i.e. the aircraft is South of the VOR
station). If the To/From indicator were showing "From" it would mean the
aircraft was on the 360° radial from the VOR station (i.e. the aircraft is North
of the VOR). Note that there is absolutely no indication of what direction the
aircraft is flying. The aircraft could be flying due West and this snapshot of
the VOR could be the moment when it crossed the 360° radial. An
interactive VOR simulator can be seen here.

Oceanside VORTAC in California

 VOR simulator

Main New Features:

1) The six primary instruments are included (ASI, AI, Altimeter, TC, HI
and VSI)
2) Labels on map to show radials, courses and other information

3) Execute holding patterns using a holding guide

4) Three ways to set knobs

5) Three ways to change heading

 6) DME instrument shows distance, speed and ETA at navaid

7. Save a snapshot of aircraft position and settings

(in most browsers memory will remain even if you close the page
and load it again later so you can continue where you left off)

Work procedure

1) To make some notes about VHF Omni Directional Radio Range :

main purpose VFR;
main features;
main operations;
using a VOR;
2) To get familiar with VOR simulator :
to maneuver the point of vertical navigation and make note with
– altimeter;
- DME;
- DME dist;
- aircraft radial;
- GS;
- TAS;
3) Measure and calculation.
According to this formulas we calculate
GS=TASFL±WSeff,

WS eff ≈WS·cosWA,
and we have navigation triangle

4) After calculation we must to build diagram where

On the diagram we have Wind Speed (WS) is constant, Ground
Speed (GS) and Wind Direction (WD) are changeable. On the
diagram the horizontal axis is the direction, the vertical axis is
ground speed
On the another diagram we have that Wind Direction (WD)is
constant, Wind Speed (WS) and Ground Speed (GS) are
changeable. On the diagram the horizontal axis is the wind speed,
the vertical axis is ground speed

5) Conclusion

Check equations:

1) What is the VOR (VHF)?Principles of VOR?

2) What is the main purpose of VOR?
3) What features of VOR do you know?
4) What VOR is measured?