CONTROL ENGINEERING

SEMESTER SPRING-2020

Prepared By
Engr. Imran Ahmed
Lecturer Mechanical Engineering Department
The University of Lahore, Islamabad Campus
ALL IMAGES AND TEXT COPYRIGHTED BY MOHAMMAD AAMIR KHAN AND REFERENCES PROVIDED AT
THE END
Resources
Textbook:
◦ Control Systems Engineering, by Norman S. Nise, 6th Edition, Wiley, 2011.

Recommended books (also used in this course):

◦ Automatic Control Systems, by Benjamin C. Kuo and Farid Golnaraghi, 8th Edition,
Wiley, 2003.
◦ Modern Control Engineering, 5th Edition, by K. Ogata, Prentice Hall, 2010.
◦ Feedback and Control Systems, Schaum’s Outlines 3rd Edition.

Other References:
◦ Online resources, MIT lectures, Course Notes and Links Reading materials.

01/2
Block Diagrams: Fundamentals
A block diagram is a shorthand, pictorial representation of the
cause-and-effect relationship between the input and output of a
physical system. It provides a convenient and useful method for
characterizing the ‘functional relationships among the various
components of a control system. System components are
alternatively called elements of the system.
The simplest form of the block diagram is the single block, with one
input and one output, as shown in figure below.

The interior of the rectangle representing the block usually contains a

description of or the name of the element, or the symbol for the
mathematical operation to be performed on the input to yield the
output. The arrows represent the direction of information or signal
flow.
01/3
Comparator
A comparator performs addition and subtraction

01/4
Takeoff Point
In order to have the same signal or variable be an input to more
than one block or summing point, a takeoff point is used.

This permits the signal to proceed unaltered along several

different paths to several destinations.

01/5
Terminology of the closed-loop block diagram

❖ The plant (or process, or controlled system) g2 is the system, subsystem, process, or
object controlled by the feedback control system.
❖ The controlled output c is the output variable of the plant, under the control of the
feedback control system.
❖ The forward path is the transmission path from the summing point to the controlled output
c.
❖ The feedforward (control) elements g, are the components of the forward path that
generate the control signal U or m applied to the plant. Note: Feedforward elements
typically include controller(s), compensator( s) (or equalization elements), and/or
amplifiers.
01/6
Terminology of the closed-loop block diagram
❖The control signal U (or manipulated variable m) is the output signal of the
feedforward elements g, applied as input to the plant g,
❖The feedback path is the transmission path from the controlled output c back to the summing
point
❖The reference input r is an external signal applied to the feedback control system, usually at
the first summing point, The feedback elements h establish the functional relationship between
the controlled output c and the primary feedback signal b. Note: Feedback elements typically
include sensors of the controlled output c, compensators, and/or controller element s.
❖ in order to command a specified action of the plant. It usually represents ideal (or desired)
plant output behavior.
❖The primary feedback signal b is a function of the controlled output c, algebraically summed
with the reference input r to obtain the actuating (error) signal e , that is, Note: An
open-loop system has no primary feedback signal.
❖The actuating (or error) signal is the reference input signal r plus or minus the primary
feedback signal b. The control action is generated by the actuating (error) signal in a feedback
control system (see Definitions 1.5 and 1.6). Note: In anopen-loop system, which has no
feedback, the actuating signal is equal to r .

01/7
Block Representation

X(s) = G(s) U(s)

X(s) = G1(s) G2(s) U(s)

01/8
Block Representation

G(s) = G1(s) + G2(s)

X(s) = [G1(s) + G2(s)] U(s)

01/9
Block diagram of equations

01/10
Example-1
Consider the following equations in which x1, x2,. . . , xn, are
variables, and a1, a2,. . . , an , are general coefficients or
mathematical operators.
xn = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + ........ an−1 xn−1

01/11
Exercise-1
Draw the Block Diagrams of the following equations.
x1 x2
 dt
1
dx1 1 +
(1) x2 = a1 +  x1dt b +

dt b
2
d a1
d x2 dx1
( 2) x3 = a1 +3 − bx1 dt
dt 2 dt
x2 d2
a1
dt 2
x1 +
x3
d 3a1 +
dt −

b
01/12
Reduction techniques
1. Combining blocks in cascade

G1 G2 G1G2

2. Combining blocks in parallel

G1
G1 + G2
G2
3. Moving a summing point behind a block
G G
G

01/13
Reduction techniques
4. Moving a summing point ahead of a block
G G
1
G
5. Moving a pickoff point behind a block

G G
1
G
6. Moving a pickoff point ahead of a block
G G
G

01/14
Reduction techniques
7. Eliminating a feedback loop

G
G
1  GH
H

8. Swap with two neighboring summing points

A B B A

01/15
Canonical Form of A Feedback Control System

E=R B E = R CH
C = E (G) E=
C
G
B = C(H )
C
= R CH
G
1 
C H = R
G 
1  GH 
C  =R
 G 
C G
=
R 1  GH

01/16
Characteristic Equation
• The control ratio is the closed loop transfer function of the
system.
C ( s) G( s)
=
R( s) 1  G ( s) H ( s)

• The denominator of closed loop transfer function determines

the characteristic equation of the system.

• Which is usually determined as:

1  G( s )H ( s ) = 0

01/17
Example-2
B( s )
1. Open loop transfer function = G( s )H ( s )
E( s )
2. Feed Forward Transfer function C( s )
= G( s )
E( s )
C( s ) G( s ) G(s )
3. control ratio =
R( s ) 1 + G( s )H ( s )

4. feedback ratio B( s ) G( s )H ( s )
=
R( s ) 1 + G( s )H ( s )

5. error ratio E( s ) 1 H (s )
=
R( s ) 1 + G( s )H ( s )

6. closed loop transfer function

C( s ) G( s )
=
R( s ) 1 + G( s )H ( s )

7. characteristic equation 1 + G( s )H ( s ) = 0

01/18
Example-3
For the system represented by the following block diagram
determine
1. Open loop transfer function
2. Feed Forward Transfer function
3. control ratio
4. feedback ratio
5. error ratio
6. closed loop transfer function
7. characteristic equation

01/19
Example-3
◦ First we will reduce the given block diagram to canonical
form

K
s +1

01/20
Example-3
K
s +1

K
= s +1
G
1 + GH K
1+ s
s +1

01/21
Example-3
B( s )
1. Open loop transfer function = G( s )H ( s )
E( s )

2. Feed Forward Transfer function C( s ) = G( s )

E( s )
G(s )

3. control ratio C( s ) = G( s )
R( s ) 1 + G( s )H ( s )

B( s ) G( s )H ( s )
4. feedback ratio =
R( s ) 1 + G( s )H ( s )
H (s )
E( s ) 1
5. error ratio =
R( s ) 1 + G( s )H ( s )

C( s ) G( s )
6. closed loop transfer function =
R( s ) 1 + G( s )H ( s )

7. characteristic equation 1 + G( s )H ( s ) = 0

01/22
Exercise-2
Determine for the following system,

1. Open loop transfer function

2. Feed Forward Transfer function
3. control ratio
4. feedback ratio
5. error ratio
6. closed loop transfer function
7. characteristic equation

01/23
Exercise 2 – Hints

01/24
Exercise 3

01/25
Exercise 3

01/26
Exercise 4

01/27
Exercise 4

01/28
Exercise 4

01/29
Exercise-4

01/30
Exercise-5
Find the Close loop transfer function

Do it your self. ☺ ok?

01/31
Exercise 2A

01/32
Exercise 2A – Hints

01/33
Exercise 2A – Hints

01/34
Example-4

H2

R _ C
+_ + G1 + G2 G3
+

H1

01/35
Example-4
H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1 G2 G3
+

H1

01/36
Example-4
H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1G2 G3
+

H1

01/37
Example-4
H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1G2 G3
+

H1

01/38
Example-4
H2
G1
R _ G1G2 C
+_ + G3
1 − G1G2 H 1

01/39
Example-4
H2
G1
R _ G1G2G3 C
+_ +
1 − G1G2 H 1

01/40
Example-4

R G1G2G3 C
+_ 1 − G1G2 H1 + G2G3 H 2

01/41
Example-5
Find the transfer function of the following block diagrams

H4
R(s) Y (s)
G1 G2 G3 G4

H3
H2

H1

01/42
Example-5
1- Moving pickoff point A behind block G4
I
H4
R(s) Y (s)
A B
G1 G2 G3 G4
H3 1
H3 G4 G4
H2 1
H2
G4 G4
H1

01/43
Example-5
2. Eliminate loop I and Simplify
R(s) II Y (s)
G2G3G4 B
G1
1 + G3G4 H 4
H3
G4
H2
G4 III
H1
II feedback III Not feedback

G2G3G4 H 2 − G4 H 1
1 + G3G4 H 4 + G2G3 H 3 G4

01/44
Example-5
3. Eliminate loop II & IIII

R(s) G1G2G3G4 Y (s)

1 + G3G4 H 4 + G2G3 H 3

H 2 − G4 H 1
G4

Y (s) G1G2G3G4
=
R( s ) 1 + G2G3 H 3 + G3G4 H 4 + G1G2G3 H 2 − G1G2G3G4 H1

01/45
Example – 6
H2
B
G2G3
G3 B
G2
H1
+ H2
1 G3
H1 G3

01/46
Example – 7

II
R(s) G2G3 Y (s)
G1
1 + G2 H1 + G2G3 H 2

H1
G3

G4

01/47
Example - 7
Eliminate loop II
R(s) G1G2G3 Y (s)
1 + G2 H1 + G2G3 H 2 + G1G2 H1

G4

Y ( s) G1G2G3
T ( s) = = G4 +
R( s) 1 + G2 H1 + G2G3 H 2 + G1G2 H1

01/48
Schaum’s Outlines
Example # 7.6, 7.7, 7.9 ,7.10 ,7.15

Determine
1. Feed Forward Transfer function
2. control ratio
3. feedback ratio
4. error ratio
5. closed loop transfer function
6. characteristic equation

Do it your self. ☺

01/49
Superposition of Multiple Inputs

01/50
Multiple Input System:
Determine the output C due to inputs R and U using the Superposition Method.
Example-8

01/51
Example-8

01/52
Example - 8

01/53
Exercise-3:
Multi-Input Multi-Output System
Determine C1 and C2 due to R1 and R2.

01/54
Exercise-3:
Ignoring C2

01/55
Exercise 3
Letting R2 = 0

01/56
Exercise-3:
Letting R1 = 0

01/57
Exercise-3:
Now we ignore C1

01/58
Exercise-3:

01/59
Signal Flow Graphs:
Alternative method to block diagram representation, developed
by Samuel Jefferson Mason.
Advantage: the availability of a flow graph gain formula, also
called Mason’s gain formula.
A signal-flow graph consists of a network in which nodes are
connected by directed branches.
It depicts the flow of signals from one point of a system to
another and gives the relationships among the signals.

01/60
Fundamentals of Signal Flow Graphs
• Consider a simple equation below and draw its signal flow
graph: y = ax

• The signal flow graph of the equation is shown below;

a y
x

• Every variable in a signal flow graph is designed by a Node

• Every transmission function in a signal flow graph is designed
by a Branch
• Branches are always unidirectional
• The arrow in the branch denotes the direction of the signal
flow. 01/61
Signal-Flow Graph Models
Example-7:
R1 and R2 are inputs and Y1 and Y2 are outputs

Y1( s ) G11( s )  R1( s ) + G12( s )  R2( s )

Y2( s ) G21( s )  R1( s ) + G22( s )  R2( s )

01/62
Signal-Flow Graph Models
Example-8:
xo is input and x4 is output

x1 = ax0 + bx1 + cx 2 f
c
x 2 = dx1 + ex 3 x0 x1 x2 g x3 x4
a d h
x 3 = fx0 + gx 2

x4 = hx 3 b e

01/63
Construct the signal flow graph for the following set of
simultaneous equations.

• There are four variables in the equations (i.e., x1,x2,x3,and x4) therefore four nodes
are required to construct the signal flow graph.
• Arrange these four nodes from left to right and connect them with the associated
branches.

Another way to arrange this

graph is shown in the figure.

01/64
Terminologies
• An input node or source contain only the outgoing branches. i.e., X1
• An output node or sink contain only the incoming branches. i.e., X4
• A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of branches along which no node
is passed more than ones. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 X1 to X2 to X4 X2 to X3 to X4

• A forward path is a path from the input node to the output node. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 , and X1 to X2 to X4 , are forward paths.
• A feedback path or feedback loop is a path which originates and terminates on the
same node. i.e.; X2 to X3 and back to X2 is a feedback path.

01/65
Terminologies
• A self-loop is a feedback loop consisting of a single branch. i.e.; A33 is a self loop.
• The gain of a branch is the transmission function of that branch.
• The path gain is the product of branch gains encountered in traversing a path. i.e.
the gain of forwards path X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 is A21A32A43
• The loop gain is the product of the branch gains of the loop. i.e., the loop gain of
the feedback loop from X2 to X3 and back to X2 is A32A23.

• Two loops, paths, or loop and a path are said to be non-touching if they have no
nodes in common.

01/66
Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following
Example-9:

1. Input node.
2. Output node.
3. Forward paths.
4. Feedback paths (loops).
5. Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
6. Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
7. Non-touching loops

01/67
Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

Example-9:

There are two forward path gains;

01/68
Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

Example-9:

• There are four loops

01/69
Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

Example-9:

• Nontouching loop
gains;

01/70
Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

Example-10:

a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths.
e) Self loop.
f) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
g) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.

01/71
Input and output Nodes:

Example-10

a) Input node
b) Output node

01/72
(c) Forward Paths:
Example-10

01/73
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops:
Example-10

01/74
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops:

Example-10

01/75
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops:
Example-10

01/76
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops:

Example-10

01/77
(e) Self Loop(s):

Example-10

01/78
(f) Loop Gains of the Feedback Loops:
Example-10

01/79
(g) Path Gains of the Forward Paths:
Example-10

01/80
Mason’s Rule (Mason, 1953)
• The block diagram reduction technique requires successive application of
fundamental relationships in order to arrive at the system transfer
function.

• On the other hand, Mason’s rule for reducing a signal-flow graph to a

single transfer function requires the application of one formula.

• The formula was derived by S. J. Mason when he related the signal-flow

graph to the simultaneous equations that can be written from the graph.

01/81
Mason’s Rule:
• The transfer function, C(s)/R(s), of a system represented by a signal-flow
graph is; n
 Pi  i
C( s ) i =1
=
R( s ) 
Where
◦ n = number of forward paths.
◦ Pi = the i th forward-path gain.
◦ ∆ = Determinant of the system
◦ ∆i = Determinant of the ith forward path

• ∆ is called the signal flow graph determinant or characteristic function. Since

∆=0 is the system characteristic equation.

01/82
Mason’s Rule:
n
 Pi  i
C( s ) i =1
=
R( s ) 

∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of the products of the

gains of all possible two loops that do not touch each other) – (sum of the
products of the gains of all possible three loops that do not touch each
other) + … and so forth with sums of higher number of non-touching loop
gains

∆i = value of Δ for the part of the block diagram that does not touch the i-
th forward path (Δi = 1 if there are no non-touching loops to the i-th
path.)

01/83
Systematic approach
1. Calculate forward path gain Pi for each forward path i.
2. Calculate all loop transfer functions
3. Consider non-touching loops 2 at a time
4. Consider non-touching loops 3 at a time
5. etc
6. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4 and 5
7. Calculate Δi as portion of Δ not touching forward path i

01/84
Example-11: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the
system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

Therefore, C P11 + P2  2
=
R 
There are three feedback loops

L1 = G1G4 H1 , L2 = −G1G2G4 H 2 , L3 = −G1G3G4 H 2

01/85
Example-11: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the
system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

There are no non-touching loops, therefore

∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)

 = 1 − (L1 + L2 + L3 )

 = 1 − (G1G4 H1 − G1G2G4 H 2 − G1G3G4 H 2 )

01/86
Example-11: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the
system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

Eliminate forward path-1

∆1 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...

∆1 = 1

Eliminate forward path-2

∆2 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...

∆2 = 1

01/87
Example-11: Continue

01/88
Exercise-5: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the
system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

01/89
Exercise-6
Find the transfer function, C(s)/R(s), for the signal-flow graph in
figure below.

01/90
Example-12: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the system
represented by following Signal Flow Graph

There are three forward paths, therefore n=3.

3
 Pi  i
C( s ) i =1 P11 + P2  2 + P3  3
= =
R( s )  

01/91
Example-12: Forward Paths

P3 = A42 A54 A65 A76

P1 = A32 A43 A54 A65 A76 P2 = A72

01/92
Example-12: Loop Gains of the Feedback Loops

L1 = A32 A23
L5 = A76 A67
L2 = A43 A34 L9 = A72 A57 A45 A34 A23
L6 = A77
L3 = A54 A45 L10 = A72 A67 A56 A45 A34 A23
L7 = A42 A34 A23
L4 = A65 A56
L8 = A65 A76 A67

01/93
Example-12: two non-touching loops

L1 L3 L2 L4 L3 L5 L 4 L6 L5 L7 L7 L8
L2 L5 L3 L6 L 4 L7
L1 L4
L1 L5 L 2 L6

L1 L6 L2 L8

L1 L8

01/94
Example-12: Three non-touching loops

L1 L3 L2 L4 L3 L5 L 4 L6 L5 L7 L7 L8
L2 L5 L3 L6 L 4 L7
L1 L4
L1 L5 L 2 L6

L1 L6 L2 L8

L1 L8

01/95
Example 13: From Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graph
Models
H1

R(s) E(s) X1 － X3 C(s)

G1 G2 G3 G4
－
－ X2
H2

H3

－H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X2 G3 X3 G4 C(s)

－H2
－H3

01/96
Example 13: From Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graph
Models
－H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X2 G3 G4 X3 1 C(s)

－H2

－H3

 = 1 + (G1G2G3G4 H 3 + G2G3 H 2 + G3G4 H 1 )

P1 = G1G2G3G4 ; 1 = 1

C ( s) G1G2G3G4
G= =
R( s ) 1 + G1G2G3G4 H 3 + G2G3 H 2 + G3G4 H 1

01/97
EXERCISE-7. Find C / R for the control system given

First step is to convert block diagram into signal flow graph

01/98
Exercise-7.
The two forward path gains are P1 = G1, P2 = G2.
The two feedback loop gains are L1 = G1H1, L2 = G2 H1.
Then

01/99
EXERCISE-8. Find C / R for the control system given

01/100
Exercise-8.
The two forward path gains are P1 = G1, P2 = G2.
The only one feedback loop gain is L1 = G1H1.
Determinant of the system is
and

01/101
EXERCISE-8. Find C / R for the control system given

Q#1

Q#2

Do it Your Self.
01/102