Education in the Responsible Conduct of Research

Scientific Societies and Promotion of the

Responsible Conduct of Research: Codes,
Policies, and Education
Francis L. Macrina, PhD

Abstract
Scientific societies have a significant through specialized policies (e.g., example of a society that has been
opportunity to contribute to the publication practices) developed by proactive in each of these three areas.
promotion of responsible conduct of scientific societies that help define Scientific societies need to recognize the
research (RCR) and to RCR education. normative behavior. Finally, societies impact they can have on promoting RCR
The degree to which societies engage have a role to play in creating materials and to expand their efforts in these three
such opportunity spans a broad range. and resources aimed at educating and other relevant areas. The examples
There are three principal ways RCR may scientists and trainees in matters provided demonstrate the components
be promoted by scientific societies. pertaining to proper research conduct. of a model for all scientific societies to
The first is through codes of conduct This article illustrates examples of each of follow in promoting RCR.
encouraging their membership to these activities embraced by different
practice ethical research according to the scientific societies. The American Society Acad Med. 2007; 82:865–869.
tenets of these codes. The second is for Microbiology is used as a specific

T he environment in which we conduct harm as well as good—so-called dual-use reported that they had specific policies
scientific research continues to evolve, technology— has come under discussion on publication ethics (56%) and on data
and scientific societies should recognize and debate.3 Some scientific societies handling (51%).
such changes as an opportunity to refine have engaged in this debate, embraced
existing policies or develop new policies ethical positions that address this issue, In 2000, the AAAS and the U.S. Office of
that bear on the responsible conduct of and even created publication policies that Research Integrity (ORI) cosponsored a
research (RCR). Regulations from the deal with it. Finally, all of these elements conference that examined the role of
federal government or other sources of change provide an opportunity for scientific societies in promoting RCR.
emerge regularly and must be taken into scientific societies to develop and The initial report of this conference was
account by scientific societies as they disseminate relevant educational published online,7 and a complete report
refine their existing codes accordingly. materials. of this conference may be found in a
For example, federal policies that deal special issue of Science and Engineering
with objectivity in research or the Ethics published in 2003.8 The papers in
sharing of data1,2 have an impact on the Overview of RCR in Scientific that volume affirm that scientific societies
interpretation and implementation of Societies have an important role to play that spans
such codes. Changes in the reporting of The role for scientific societies in a variety of activities. At the same time,
research results have created another fostering research integrity has been the content and commentary of that
impetus for reexamination of normative evolving in the past 25 years. An report suggest that scientific societies play
codes and policies. For example, American Association for the varied and divergent roles in promoting
electronic publication practices Advancement of Science (AAAS) survey RCR. Although these published
raise new issues that range from of its affiliate societies conducted in 1980 proceedings provide baseline information
intellectual-property protection to the concluded that “little attention and only on how scientific societies may engage
appropriate processing of digital images. minimal resources” were being given to RCR, comprehensive data on their role in
Finally, the rising threat of global promote professional ethics among promoting RCR are not available.
terrorism has created a heightened scientific and engineering societies.4 A At present, the ways in which scientific
awareness of the social responsibilities of survey conducted by the Council of societies may promote RCR may be
scientific research. Doing and reporting Scientific Society Presidents in 1994 grouped into three categories: (1)
research that may be used for intentional revealed that 36 of 62 societies (58%) had creation, promotion, and enforcement
some type of code of ethics, but few had of codes of conduct, (2) publication of
mechanisms for enforcing the policies guidelines and policies pertaining to
Dr. Macrina is Edward Myers Professor of they articulated—that is, investigating scientific conduct (e.g., authorship
Dentistry, and vice president for research, Virginia and prosecuting allegations of ethical practices, mentoring responsibilities),
Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia. misconduct.5 A second AAAS survey and (3) development and dissemination
Correspondence should be addressed to Dr. conducted from 1999 to 2000 found that of relevant educational materials.
Macrina, Office of Research, Virginia Commonwealth 39 of 57 societies (68%) had adopted
University, 800 E. Leigh St., Richmond, VA
23298-0568; telephone: (804) 827-2262; fax: codes of ethics.6 More than half of the For purposes of discussion here, codes of
(804) 828-2051; e-mail: ([email protected]). reporting societies in this AAAS survey scientific societies generally describe rules

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Education in the Responsible Conduct of Research

to which members are expected to adhere Guidelines and Policies Pertaining guidance was updated and expanded in
in practicing their profession. Policies to RCR 1998, 2003, and, most recently, 2006.16
describe an expected course of action In addition to codes of ethics, scientific
to be taken in some defined process, societies may issue policies that provide The detail of the 2006 guidance goes
such as preparation of a manuscript. guidance in specific areas of research considerably beyond that seen 20 years
Guidelines, on the other hand, comprise conduct, such as mentoring, conflicts of earlier:
recommendations that are intended to interest, and use of research subjects. One An author is one who made a substantial
provide advice to the membership on a such example that I will examine in detail contribution to the overall design and
specific process. In this article, I will is the question of authorship. execution of the experiments; therefore,
provide some specific examples of how ASM considers all authors responsible for
An overview of authorship policies the entire paper. All authors of a
scientific societies have engaged in these
manuscript must have agreed to its
three categories of activity. The examples Societies that publish their own journal submission and are responsible for its
illustrate the value of scientific societies or journals usually provide guidance in content, including appropriate citations
committing to ongoing activities that the area of authorship. Here, policy is and acknowledgments, and must also
promote and enhance RCR from the articulated in instructions to authors. have agreed that the corresponding
author has the authority to act on their
standpoints of both scientific practice These instructions provide a breadth of behalf in all matters pertaining to
and education. information about the publication publication of the manuscript. All authors
process from policies on manuscript must agree to the order in which their
preparation and peer review, to names are listed in the byline. A change in
Codes of Conduct and RCR data-sharing requirements, to criteria authorship (order of listing or addition or
for authorship. Examination of such deletion of a name) after submission of
Descriptions of the development and the manuscript will be implemented only
instructions, now typically found online after receipt of signed statements of
implementation of ethical guidelines or at a given journal’s Web site, provides
codes of conduct for the International agreement from all parties involved.17
useful information on many aspects of
Society of Environmental Epidemiology,9 publication norms. Broad surveys of Clearly, this level of detail sets specific
the American Sociological Society,10 and authorship criteria taken from various standards that carry the endorsement of
the American Society for Microbiology journals’ instructions to authors, the scientific society. The membership of
(ASM)11 have been published. The code including journals published by scientific the society and the relevant scientific
of ethics of the ASM provides a useful societies, have allowed consensus community have an authoritative source
case study. This code was adopted in building of key authorship criteria.13–15 to consult regarding norms and values
1988 and was revised in 2000 to reflect In addition to instructions to authors, related to authorship. Equally important,
changes in the growing culture of RCR scientific societies also may use separate the society’s values form the foundation
to include language that captured the publication policies as overarching for educating trainees.
federal definition of scientific misconduct documents to articulate philosophical
(fabrication, falsification, and plagiarism), and practical matters related to their Extended view of authorship norms and
data-sharing expectations, and issues journals. Both instructions to authors scientific societies
related to conflicts of interest. Recently, and society publication policies are The impact that scientific societies may
the ASM has further revised its code of dynamic in nature and are subject to have on establishing publication
ethics to invoke an awareness of dual-use revision and updating on a periodic, standards can be more broadly illustrated
research. In 2005, the ASM Code of sometimes frequent, basis. by considering the requirements encoded
Ethics12 was amended to read: by the International Committee of
The ASM authorship policy Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE). The
ASM members are obligated to The ASM continues as a useful exemplar ICMJE comprises a small group of
discourage any use of microbiology to illustrate this topic. The ASM currently general medical journal editors. The
contrary to the welfare of humankind, publishes 12 scholarly, peer-reviewed committee established guidelines for
including the use of microbes as
journals. All ASM journals have included uniform requirements for manuscripts
biological weapons. Bioterrorism violates
the fundamental principles upon which
the same information on authorship submitted to biomedical journals in 1978
the Society was founded and is abhorrent criteria in their instructions to authors and has updating them periodically
to the ASM and its members. ASM for more than two decades. In the mid since.17 The ICMJE guidelines are
members will call to the attention of the 1980s, the information relevant to rigorous, and they have much to say
public or the appropriate authorities authorship in one of the society’s journals about the criteria and responsibilities of
misuses of microbiology or of read as follows: “An author is one who authorship in particular. Evolution of the
information derived from microbiology. made a substantial contribution to the criteria for authorship since the initial
overall design and execution of the 1978 publication has occurred in a
We see in this evolution of the code one experiments; therefore, ASM considers all fashion not unlike that outlined above
example of a scientific society taking a coauthors equally responsible for the for the ASM. The ICMJE criteria for
proactive role in the development and entire paper. Individuals who provided authorship have evolved to be quite
promulgation of standards for RCR. As assistance, eg, supplied strains or reagents specific, stating that “authorship credit
I will discuss below, this aspect of the or critiqued the paper, should not be should be based on (1) substantial
ethics code is now manifest in the ASM’s listed as authors but should be recognized contributions to conception and design,
publication policy. in the Acknowledgment section.” This or acquisition of data, or analysis and

866 Academic Medicine, Vol. 82, No. 9 / September 2007

 Education in the Responsible Conduct of Research

interpretation of data, (2) drafting the contain a section on dealing with possible balance, has significant potential for
article or revising it critically for scientific misconduct. harm.
important intellectual content, and (3)
final approval of the version to be The subject matter of publication ethics As important as this message is, it leaves
published. Authors should meet also is dealt with in detail in both of these us grappling with some problematic
conditions 1, 2, and 3.” documents. The scope of coverage leaves issues. The first is the inability to readily
little to the imagination of the first-time classify research as dual use. Although the
Several hundred journals have adopted author, and it provides a good source of National Science Advisory Board for
the ICMJE guidelines, including a reference information to the seasoned Biosecurity (NSABB)21 has recently
substantial number of those published by investigator. In addition their usefulness developed categories of experiments that
professional societies or organizations. to new or seasoned scientists, a present dual-use concerns, much if not
Thus, although the ICMJE is not an compelling case can be made for most research could fit the description of
open-membership organization, it has using documents such as these as dual use. Developing a useful definition
made an impact in promoting standards trainee-teaching tools in RCR. may be difficult and a long time coming.
in responsible authorship though the A related argument involves the reality of
adoption of its guidelines by professional Dual-use technology and scientific an expansive research literature, with
societies such as the American Medical thousands of journals in print in all fields
publication
Association, the American Dental of scientific research. At present, the
Further evolution in the ASM Publication policies of the ASM and AAAS journals
Association, and others. The ICMJE
Policy is seen in the consideration of are the exception, not the rule, among
requirements have become standards that
dual-use implications. In 2003 the scientific society journals, and even if
are widely invoked in the teaching of
ASM added a section called Use of they become widely adopted in years to
RCR. The detail of the ICMJE guidelines
Microbiological Information to the come, finding a journal that will publish a
is suitable for exposing trainees to basic
editorial policy statement contained in its controversial paper with dual-use
ethical principles in reporting research
instructions to authors for all of its implications is not likely to be difficult.
and related conduct. The guidelines also
journals.16 This two paragraph statement Last, although the scientific societal codes
provide trainees with a succinct narrative reiterates the principles mentioned in and policies promote a culture of
that spells out the basis of authorship the society’s code of ethics (see above) conscience and responsibility, the
credit, assignment of responsibility, and affirms that bioterrorism violates practical matter of monitoring and
justification for inclusion in the principles of the code and “is abhorrent enforcement ultimately falls on
acknowledgment section, and issues to ASM and its members.” The statement individual institutions.
related to conflict of interest as it applies goes on to invoke the process of peer
to authors, editors, and peer reviewers. review of manuscripts containing In the case of research that is frequently
Other topics include issues related to peer information that could be used considered under the rubric of dual
review and the protection of research inappropriately, saying that “members of use, oversight by federally mandated
subjects. In short, these guidelines are an the ASM Publications Board will evaluate institutional biosafety committees (IBCs)
authoritative primer for use in teaching the rare manuscript that might raise such is required in institutions receiving
about authorship and publication issues during the review process.” In federal funding. Institutionally based
practices in RCR courses. The acceptance 2003, the AAAS also added language with IBCs were formed in the 1970s to provide
of these guidelines by a number of similar implications to its General local review and oversight of research
scientific societies validates their merit. Information for Authors in the journal involving recombinant DNA. Since that
Science, the official publication of the time, many institutions have expanded
Finally, some scientific societies have AAAS. This document has evolved (at their own discretion) the oversight
developed extensive documents dealing slightly since that time, so that the 2007 activities and responsibilities of their
with publication practices. These societies instructions read: “Some papers may IBCs to include biological hazards, use
have gone above and beyond what is present potential security concerns. Such of select infectious agents, and other
found in instructions to authors to reflect papers will be brought to the attention potentially hazardous agents.22 For
the importance that they place on the of the Editor-in-Chief for further proposed research involving pathogenic
ethics of scientific publication. Two evaluation. If necessary, outside reviewers organisms or agents, toxins, or other
noteworthy examples are the Society for with expertise in this area will be virulence factors that can affect humans,
Neuroscience18 (SFN) and the American consulted.”20 animals, or plants, the typical IBC may
Chemical Society19 (ACS). The content of well find itself confronted in the future
ACS guidelines served as a model for Both the ASM and AAAS statements on with issues and decisions that fall under
the SFN committee that prepared the security implications of research results the umbrella of dual-use concerns.
neuroscience guidelines, so the content imply that a manuscript could be rejected Whether this transformation actually
of both is similar. Both cover, in detail, on the grounds that it represents a happens, and whether IBCs will have the
the obligations of editors, authors, problem in terms of dual-use research. expertise and resources to deal with this
and peer reviewers in the scientific In effect, this affirms that scientists bear challenge, remains to be seen.
publication process. The ACS and SFN responsibility for the research they do
guidelines also provide guidance for and that professional societies are willing That a few scientific societies have
researchers who publish outside of the to invoke the means to prevent the articulated positions on the misuse of
scientific literature. The SFN guidelines dissemination of knowledge that, on research results can set the stage for

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Education in the Responsible Conduct of Research

engagement by a given institution’s the general public the rationale for and collaborative science, responsible
IBC. IBCs also should benefit from the uses of animals in research. The APS also literature searching), a society code
establishment of the NSABB, formed in publishes a number of scholarly journals, of ethics, consensus statements on
2004, to provide advice and guidance to so guidance on authorship and improving research integrity, and
the federal government on biological publication practices may also be found published manuscripts of meeting
research that may yield results that could on the society’s Web site. Material on proceedings on ethical and RCR topics.28
be misused and, thus, pose a public mentoring that is suitable for RCR
health or national security threat. In educational purposes may also be found These kinds of educational contributions
2005, the NSABB was asked to consider a on the APS Web site, including guidance are ad hoc in some cases, whereas in
manuscript submitted to Science that handbooks for both trainees and for others they provide the basis for the
reported the reconstruction of the mentors. In addition, the Federation of establishment of ongoing resources that
pandemic flu virus of 1918. On the basis American Societies for Experimental can be revised and used for considerable
of the recommendations of this board as Biology, of which the APS is a periods of time. At least one scientific
well as the journal editors and peer participating society, has developed society, the ASM, has published a
reviewers, the paper was accepted and guidelines for an individual development textbook designed for use in RCR
published.23 Although the ASM and plan to be used in the training of courses.14 The book is broadly aimed at
AAAS journal policies on security issues postdoctoral fellows.26 all disciplines in the biomedical and life
are relatively new, this manuscript sciences, with graduate and postdoctoral
provided a unique test. However, it is not trainees intended as the primary
clear whether this will turn out to be a Contributions to RCR Education audience. ASM Press, the imprint of the
plausible model in the long run. Scientific societies can play a role in society, published the first edition in
education in RCR. A defining feature of 1995, with second and third editions in
Policies and educational materials in such societies is the national meeting of 2000 and 2005. The current edition of
other RCR core areas the membership. Such meetings provide the book has a companion Web site and
The ORI recommends nine core areas of a forum for symposia and special features a variety of teaching tools,
RCR instruction: (1) data acquisition, programs on topics in RCR. Society- including case studies, as well as attitude
management, sharing, and ownership, sponsored symposia demonstrate and knowledge surveys for promoting
(2) conflict of interest and commitment, leadership that can have a broad impact. classroom discussion.29
(3) human subjects, (4) animal welfare, Such activities reach a cross-section of a
(5) research misconduct, (6) publication society’s membership, from all levels of
practices and responsible authorship, (7) trainees, to scientific staff, to scientists, Conclusion
mentor–trainee responsibilities, (8) peer to administrators. RCR symposia at a Scientific societies have unique
review, and (9) collaborative science. number of recent meetings were the opportunities to heighten the awareness
Because many scientific societies publish result of special projects funded under of researchers to the ethical issues
scholarly journals, guidance on the ORI’s RCR Program for Academic surrounding the responsible practice of
authorship and publication practices is Societies and jointly administered by the science. Similar opportunities exist for
naturally encountered in society writings ORI and the Association of American education in this area. The examples
and policies. The examples given above Medical Colleges (AAMC).27 provided here illustrate how scientific
amply demonstrate this assertion. societies can take a proactive approach to
Another example of an RCR core content Since the ORI–AAMC program was contribute to RCR in each of three main
area where one may look to scientific initiated in 2003, 39 grants to 33 areas: codes, policies, and education.
societies for guidance is the use and academic and scientific societies have Several scientific societies that have been
protection of animal subjects (animal been awarded. In addition to meeting active in some or all of these areas serve
welfare). Two scientific societies in symposia, sponsored activities included as examples—particularly the ASM,
particular present a rich array of roundtable discussions, lectures at which has seriously engaged all of these
materials on their Web sites that can national meetings, educational areas. Policies that emanate from the
serve a useful reference for established curriculum development including values and norms established by a
investigators, while at the same time computer-based teaching tools, writing scientific society provide concrete
serving as educational materials for legal and ethical guidelines relevant to guidance for scientist members and an
trainees and those new to research that the discipline of the society, guidebook educational substrate for the socialization
employs animals. The Society for development and evaluation, publication of trainees. Scientific societies with ethics
Toxicology24 site contains position of symposia manuscripts, and codes and policy documents should
statements and guiding principles development of policies on such topics work to keep them relevant and widely
for animal research, relevant slide as authorship, data management, and disseminated. Scientific societies should
presentations dealing with the use of assorted RCR best practices. consider working together to develop,
animals in research, news stories, links where appropriate, global codes of
to other educational sites, and links to Emerging products from the ORI–AAMC scientific ethics and conduct, and
regulatory agencies. Similar kinds of joint endeavor may be accessed at an societies that have not yet developed
materials for use by scientists and trainees AAMC Web site and include curriculum ethical codes should do so. Similarly,
may be found on the Web site of the modules for a variety of RCR topics (e.g., scientific societies should develop
American Physiological Society25 (APS), managing conflicts of interest, subjects relevant policies that promote members’
as well as materials aimed a explaining to protection, peer review, mentorship, awareness and practice of RCR. Scientific

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 Education in the Responsible Conduct of Research

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