INT. J.
LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION,
JULY–SEPTEMBER 2012, VOL. 15, NO. 3, 381–386
A code of ethics for democratic leadership
RICARDO MOLINA and JOANN FRANKLIN KLINKER
Democratic leadership rests on sacred values, awareness, judgement, motivation and cour-
age. Four turning points in a 38-year school administrator’s career revealed decision-mak-
ing in problematic moments stemmed from values in a personal and professional code of
ethics. Reflection on practice and theory added vocabulary and understanding to make the
implicit explicit. Moral consciousness can be accomplished through values contemplation
and clarification.
Principals who lead as democratic leaders put themselves at risk. The public
school leader’s first responsibility, preparing students as citizens to live in,
to participate in and to sustain a democracy, has become lost amid more
strident cultural demands. In Texas, administrators with accomplished
careers have lost their jobs because of low test scores, and Texas principals
who serve as leaders of schools with diverse student populations are espe-
cially vulnerable (McGhee and Nelson 2005). Given this context, what
would compel a Texas administrator to practise democratic leadership?
The answer is sacred values that cannot be compromised. Sacred val-
ues are at the heart of democratic leadership. Also known as protected
values, they are defined as ‘any value that a moral community implicitly
or explicitly treats as possessing infinite or transcendental significance that
precludes comparisons, trade-offs, or indeed any other mingling with
bounded or secular values’ (Tetlock et al. 2000: 854). To trade sacred
values for secular values like money or job security elicits strong moral
outrage as does the mere consideration of doing so (Tetlock 2003). Han-
selmann and Tanner (2008) focused on decision problems that involved
moral considerations and found that decision difficulty increased when
sacred values were involved. Emotion was the signal in decision-making
that indicated something important was at stake (Tetlock 2003: 58).
Decision-makers, they found, would not compromise sacred values.
This study examined how Ricardo, a Texas Hispanic administrator,
became aware of the sacred values that nurtured his democratic leader-
ship. Moral judgement is an essential role in democratic leadership
Ricardo (Richard) Molina recently retired as an administrator at Lubbock Independent School District.
He is currently a consultant on special education issues in schools and an adjunct professor. Richard
can be reached care of JoAnn Klinker. JoAnn Franklin Klinker is a former high school principal with
almost 20 years of experience in K–12 education and is currently an associate professor at Texas Tech
University, College of Education, 3008 18th St., Lubbock, TX 79404, USA. Email: joann.klinker@
ttu.edu.
International Journal of Leadership in Education
ISSN 1360–3124 print/ISSN 1464–5092 online Ó 2012 Taylor & Francis
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2011.617469
382 R. MOLINA AND J. F. KLINKER
(Campbell 1997). We also know that moral leadership itself is only
achievable through deliberate intention (Branson 2007). Without some
process of values contemplation, Branson (2005) found that values
remain unconscious dimensions of a person’s inner self. For values to
become conscious, leaders must acquire self-knowledge about one’s own
values and beliefs and reflect upon that (Hodgkinson 1996). The four
narratives, which Ricardo identified as crucible moments, prompted reali-
zation and articulation of the personal and professional codes of ethics
that sustained his leadership. Bennis and Thomas (2002) noted such
defining moments to be a test and opportunity that can destroy an indi-
vidual or teach self-awareness. A person emerges from the crucible, the
turning point, aware of gifts, goals, opportunities and future.
Ricardo’s crucible
Ricardo chose four personal narratives from his 38-year career that reso-
nated as the most defining of an ethical stance for democratic leadership.
He examines the potential each had as a test and opportunity, explains
the decision and looks to the educational leadership literature for identifi-
cation of sacred values. For him, that process resulted in moral conscious-
ness, what Hodgkinson (1996) identified as self-knowledge of personal
motives, values and beliefs. The narratives are in the first person.
Narrative #1: a value for cultural diversity
Dilemma. During my first year as an assistant principal, the superinten-
dent appointed me to serve on a task force to review the dropout statistics
in the district, especially among Hispanic and African-American students.
A Hispanic professor for bilingual education from a local university
chaired the committee, which included community members, representa-
tives from various local businesses, teachers and administrators. During
one meeting, a community representative suggested making it a violation
of the student code of conduct for Hispanic students to speak Spanish in
school. The committee member felt strongly that should Hispanic stu-
dents learn English that would reduce their probability of dropping out.
Alarmed, I felt the recommendation insensitive to the Hispanic culture.
Ethically, I could not see myself endorsing such a recommendation.
At first, I did not voice an opinion because I felt confident no one
would endorse the recommendation. However, as the conversation
continued, I sensed that the member’s influence was strong, the opposi-
tion needed endorsement, and I spoke up. I acknowledged that learning
English should be a primary goal for our students; however, prohibiting
students from speaking in their native language in school was not
equitable and detrimental to student self-esteem.
Shortly before the next meeting, a mentor cautioned me not to be too
vocal against the member’s position. He concurred that students speaking
only English in schools was extreme, but should I disagree too strongly,
DEMOCRATIC LEADERSHIP 383
possible negative consequences for my career might follow as the committee
member was highly influential in the community social circles. To com-
pound my dilemma, on the day we were meeting to vote on the recommen-
dations to the school board, the chairperson of the committee was unable
to attend. Instead, he called me and asked if I would chair the meeting.
Decision. The recommendation went forward from the committee mem-
ber. I considered what was best in the students’ interest and how impor-
tant a clear conscience was to me and voted against the recommendation.
The majority of committee members voted in favour of it. I was disap-
pointed and dispirited, but fortunately, the superintendent and the school
board did not adopt the policy recommendation.
Theory. This was my first major lesson about democratic leadership.
Even though my experience at the district level was limited at the time, I
did have a compelling vision (Starratt 2004) for democracy in schools, but
this dilemma provided a valuable test of that vision. I learned that leader-
ship can be isolating when you are the minority voice. Voicing heart-felt
values to a contentious recommendation has ramifications, but moral and
democratic benchmarks (Tuana 2006) become clearer when evaluating
those ramifications. Courage and heightened moral consciousness (Ander-
son 2005) are needed to perceive both sides of the dilemma for informed
decision making. As Branson (2007) noted, reflection upon moral reason-
ing can reveal more fully why one holds so tightly onto one’s values.
Narrative #2: a value for school safety and trust
Dilemma. I always felt it was important to stay in close communication
with students. One day, two students walked into my office uncharacteris-
tically nervous and stressed, and they asked if I could close the office
door. Although afraid of reprisals, they told me that two of their friends
had brought a handgun to school. The handgun was supposedly stored in
a locker. If the students’ story was accurate, this would be my third gun
incident in my administrative career. Because of previous encounters with
students, sharp objects and handguns, plus attending funerals of students
who had committed suicide with handguns, I had learned that compro-
mises are not acceptable if weapons are involved. I investigated. The sec-
ond locker in question had a combination lock on it. Normally, I would
not remove a lock without first checking with the student, but in this case,
because of the possible safety issues, I removed it. We found a handgun
in the locker fully loaded with six 22-calibre bullets.
Decision. I immediately notified our police department and brought the
two students in question to my office. Despite appeals for leniency from
the parents, I recommended expulsion with criminal charges. I felt sad-
ness but I was also relieved that conscientious students had demonstrated
courage and broken the code of silence by bringing this to my attention.
384 R. MOLINA AND J. F. KLINKER
Theory. My belief that school must be a safe place for students was a
sacred value that I could not compromise. Dewey posited that it is the
responsibility of adults to provide pragmatic learning experiences for
students that facilitate their moral progress and maturity (Anderson 2005)
towards becoming responsible citizens in a democracy. I had told the
students they should have loyalty to the school, have ownership in the
school and have a partnership with adults to make the school safe. Rest
(1986) theorized that four components are involved in this type of moral
behaviour—awareness, judgement, motivation and courage. Sustaining
the vision I had for the students required all four as well as an additional
sacred value—the students’ trust in me as their principal.
Davis and Davis (2003) posited that principals intuitively make deci-
sions, a concept that goes beyond heuristic decision-making to access the
values and ethics of the individual. When I acted on what those students
told me, and snipped the lock off the locker even though that went
against what I normally did, I did so with the intuitive knowledge that if I
did not, the safety of my school might be impaired. Mutual trust is vitally
important but the safety of all trumps individual rights.
Narrative #3: a value for generational citizenship
Dilemma. A very upset African-American male parent standing against
the front of my desk shouted that the disciplinary measure (three days
suspension for fighting) administered to his son was not fair. He also
wanted the Hispanic student involved in the fight punished. When I
finally had an opportunity to speak, the parent interrupted me, leaned
abruptly over my desk and alleged that the staff and I were racists. I could
feel myself getting angry; however, experience told me to allow him to
vent, but that was difficult for I detest racism and to be accused of it was
a personal affront. I stood up, leaned forward across my desk and looked
straight into his eyes. ‘You do not know the staff and me well enough to
determine that we are racists’, I said. My breathing and heart rate had
amplified.
Decision. A self-check told me it was time to model what I preached to
the assistant principals: recoil from your defensive stance, slow your
breathing and calmly listen. I sat down and again invited the parent to sit
down which, thankfully, he did. After a period of discussion, we both
agreed in principle that fighting at school was not acceptable. He agreed
to speak with his son, and I reduced the three-day suspension to two days
of in-school suspension. I felt that this decision reinforced the parent’s
advocacy for his son and strengthened his support for the school. I had
learned through numerous incidents like this one to have confidence in
the process of democratic appeal.
Theory. The decision took moral courage, judgement and awareness
(Rest 1986), and after that day was over, I felt exhausted (Bennis and
Thomas 2002). A test of judgement establishes a platform for clearing
DEMOCRATIC LEADERSHIP 385
dissonance through moral inquiry (Anderson 2005). This decision
reflected my deep belief in schools, as places were generations can be
socialized to participate in and to contribute to a democracy (Dewey
1916). As Anderson (2005: 1) wrote, ‘We achieve moral progress and
maturity to the extent that we adopt habits of reflectively revising our
value judgements in response to the widest consequences for everyone of
living them out’.
Narrative #4: a value for loyalty and equity within change
Dilemma. The district wanted to close a low performing junior high and
transfer the seventh and eighth grade students to my school, a new magnet
school. Our ninth grade students would attend a rival high school despite
the neighbourhood’s memories against that school. In addition, parents
who were advocates for the magnet programme would oppose losing the
ninth grade. Neighbourhood parents and leaders perceived the action as
inequitable because none of other eight junior highs were losing their ninth
grades. The superintendent asked me to participate in a committee that
would make the final recommendation. The committee consisted of the
school board president, a board member representing my school’s district, a
third board member elected at large, two deputy superintendents, two assis-
tant superintendents, the high school principal, leaders from my school
neighbourhood, leaders from the high school neighbourhood, church pas-
tors and a magnet parent and PTA officer from my school. The plan drew a
lot of media attention and coverage and heightened concerns and anxiety
among my students and teachers. I started receiving a large volume of tele-
phone calls from concerned parents. As the debate escalated, I was torn
between loyalty to the district and loyalty to my students and the neighbour-
hood community. The committee polarized into two camps, one that sup-
ported the plan and the other that opposed the plan.
Decision. I suggested a compromise: keep the ninth grade at my school
but provide the ninth grade students and their parents an option to trans-
fer to the high school. The committee accepted my suggestion.
Theory. By carefully listening to all views and evaluating the pros and
cons of each position including my own, I practised what Tuana (2006)
called critical reasoning. By seeking a commonality of values from the
committee members’ positions, I was able to suggest a compromise. Prac-
tising principles of participation, communication, association, nonviolence
and community (Maxcy 1995) reflected democratic leadership and
strengthened my moral resolve.
Final thoughts
The ability to articulate his personal and professional code of ethics
occurred in three stages for Ricardo. First, he contemplated the experi-
386 R. MOLINA AND J. F. KLINKER
ences that defined a clarification of his value system. Second, he posited
and applied a conceptual framework synthesized from the literature.
Third, only through this process of reflection, analysis and synthesis with
the literature was he able to articulate and gain the self-knowledge
necessary to articulate those unconscious values as moral consciousness,
his code of ethics. The validity of this experience rests here in the consci-
entious effort to discern truth. Leaders ‘with a moral purpose have power-
ful potential to nurture daily transformations for others’ (Starratt 2004:
145). Ricardo’s personal and professional code of ethics and narratives
when nested within democratic leadership revealed value certainty that
over the course of a 38-year career influenced many. But, moral con-
sciousness became apparent only through values contemplation and
clarification.
References
Anderson, E. (2005) Dewey’s Moral Philosophy. Available online at: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/
dewey-moral/ (accessed 26 March 2006).
Bennis, W. G. and Thomas, R. J. (2002) Module 14 leadership: excerpts from geeks and geezers, in:
D. Ancona, T. A. Kochan, M. Scully and J. V. Maanen (eds) Managing for the Future: Organiza-
tional Behavior & Processes, 3rd ed. (Mason, OH: South-Western College), pp. 42–51.
Branson, C. M. (2005) Exploring the concept of value-led principalship. Leading and Managing, 11
(1), 14–31.
Branson, C. M. (2007) Improving leadership by nurturing moral consciousness through structured
self-reflection. Journal of Educational Administration, 45(4), 471–495.
Campbell, E. (1997) Administrators’ decisions and teachers’ ethical dilemmas: implications for moral
agency. Leading and Managing, 3, 247–257.
Davis, S. H. and Davis, P. B. (2003) The Intuitive Dimensions of Administrative Decision making
(Latham, MD: Scarecrow Press).
Dewey, J. (1916) Democracy and Education (New York: Free Press).
Hanselmann, M. and Tanner, C. (2008) Taboos and conflicts in decision making: scared values,
decision difficulty and emotion. Judgment and Decision Making, 31(1), 51–63.
Hodgkinson, C. (1996) Administrative Philosophy, Values, and Motivations in Administrative Life (Trowbridge:
Redwood Books).
Maxcy, S. J. (1995) Democracy, Chaos, and the New School Order (Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin
Press).
McGhee, M. W. and Nelson, S. W. (2005) Sacrificing leaders, villainzing leadership: how educational
accountability policies impair school leadership. Phi Delta Kappa, 86(5), 367–372.
Rest, J. R. (1986) Moral Development: Advances in Research and Theory (New York: Praeger).
Starratt, R. J. (2004) Ethical Leadership (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass).
Tetlock, P. E. (2003) Thinking the unthinkable: scared values and taboo cognitions. Trends in Cognitive
Sciences, 7, 320–324.
Tetlock, P. E., Kristel, V., Elson, S. B., Lerner, J. S. and Green, M. C. (2000) The psychology of
the unthinkable: taboo trade-offs, forbidden base rates, and heretical counterfactuals. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 853–870.
Tuana, N. (2006). Moral Literacy. Available online at: http://rockethics.psu.edu/resources.htm
(accessed 9 March 2006).
Copyright of International Journal of Leadership in Education is the property of Routledge and its content may
not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written
permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.
