Fourier’s Law

and the
Heat Equation

Chapter Two
Fourier’s Law

Fourier’s Law
• A rate equation that allows determination of the conduction heat flux
from knowledge of the temperature distribution in a medium

• Its most general (vector) form for multidimensional conduction is:

→
q′′ =− k ∇ T
Implications:
– Heat transfer is in the direction of decreasing temperature
(basis for minus sign).

– Fourier’s Law serves to define the thermal conductivity of the

 → 
medium  k ≡ − q′′/ ∇ T 
 

– Direction of heat transfer is perpendicular to lines of constant

temperature (isotherms).

– Heat flux vector may be resolved into orthogonal components.

Heat Flux Components

• Cartesian Coordinates: T ( x, y , z )
→ ∂T → ∂T → ∂T →
q ′′ =
−k i −k j−k k (2.3)
∂x ∂y ∂z
qx′′ q ′′y qz′′

• Cylindrical Coordinates: T ( r,φ , z )

→ ∂T → ∂T → ∂T →
q ′′ =
−k i −k j−k k (2.24)
∂r r ∂φ ∂z
qr′′ qφ′′ qz′′

• Spherical Coordinates: T ( r , φ ,θ )
→ ∂T → ∂T → ∂T →
q ′′ =
−k i −k j−k k (2.27)
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
qr′′ qθ′′ qφ′′
Heat Flux Components (cont.)

• In angular coordinates (φ or φ , θ ) , the temperature gradient is still

based on temperature change over a length scale and hence has
units of °C/m and not °C/deg.

• Heat rate for one-dimensional, radial conduction in a cylinder or sphere:

– Cylinder
= r qr′′ 2π rLqr′′
qr A=
or,

qr′ A=
= r′ qr′′ 2π rqr′′

– Sphere
=
qr A=q
r r′′ 4π r 2
qr′′
Heat Equation

The Heat Equation

• A differential equation whose solution provides the temperature distribution in a
stationary medium.
• Based on applying conservation of energy to a differential control volume
through which energy transfer is exclusively by conduction.
• Cartesian Coordinates:

∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T  ∂T
 k  +  k  +  k  + q =ρc p (2.19)
∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y  ∂z  ∂z  ∂t

Net transfer of thermal energy into the Change in thermal

Thermal energy
control volume (inflow-outflow) energy storage
generation
Heat Equation (Radial Systems)

• Cylindrical Coordinates:

1 ∂  ∂T  1 ∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T   ∂T
 kr + 2  k ∂φ  + ∂z  k ∂z  + q =ρ c (2.26)
r ∂r  ∂r  r ∂φ    
p
∂t

• Spherical Coordinates:

1 ∂  2 ∂T  1 ∂  ∂T  1 ∂  ∂T  ∂T
2 ∂r 
kr +
 2 2  k +
 2  k sin θ  + 
q =ρ c (2.29)
 r sin θ ∂φ  ∂φ  r sin θ ∂θ  ∂θ 
p
r  ∂r ∂t
Heat Equation (Special Case)

• One-Dimensional Conduction in a Planar Medium with Constant Properties

and No Generation

∂  ∂T  ∂T
k  = ρ c p
∂x  ∂x  ∂t

becomes

∂ 2T 1 ∂T
=
∂x 2 α ∂t

k
α≡ → thermal diffusivity of the medium  m 2 /s 
ρc p  
Boundary Conditions

Boundary and Initial Conditions

• For transient conduction, heat equation is first order in time, requiring
specification of an initial temperature distribution: T ( x,t )t=0 = T ( x,0 )
• Since heat equation is second order in space, two boundary conditions
must be specified. Some common cases:
Constant Surface Temperature:

T ( 0 ,t ) = Ts

Constant Heat Flux:

Applied Flux Insulated Surface

∂T ∂T
-k |x=0= qs′′ |x=0= 0
∂x ∂x

Convection:

∂T
-k |x=0= h T∞ - T ( 0 ,t ) 
∂x
Properties

Thermophysical Properties
Thermal Conductivity: A measure of a material’s ability to transfer thermal
energy by conduction.

Thermal Diffusivity: A measure of a material’s ability to respond to changes

in its thermal environment.
Property Tables:
Solids: Tables A.1 – A.3
Gases: Table A.4
Liquids: Tables A.5 – A.7
Conduction Analysis

Typical Methodology of a Conduction Analysis

• Consider possible microscale or nanoscale effects in problems involving very
small physical dimensions or very rapid changes in heat or cooling rates.

• Solve appropriate form of heat equation to obtain the temperature

distribution.

• Knowing the temperature distribution, apply Fourier’s Law to obtain the

heat flux at any time, location and direction of interest.

• Applications:

Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 5: Transient Conduction
Problem: Thermal Response of Plane Wall

Problem 2.57 Thermal response of a plane wall to convection heat transfer.

KNOWN: Plane wall, initially at a uniform temperature, is suddenly exposed to convective heating.

FIND: (a) Differential equation and initial and boundary conditions which may be used to find the
temperature distribution, T(x,t); (b) Sketch T(x,t) for the following conditions: initial (t ≤ 0), steady-
state (t → ∞), and two intermediate times; (c) Sketch heat fluxes as a function of time at the two
surfaces; (d) Expression for total energy transferred to wall per unit volume (J/m3).

SCHEMATIC:
Problem: Thermal Response (cont).

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) No internal

heat generation.
ANALYSIS: (a) For one-dimensional conduction with constant properties, the heat equation has the
form,

∂ 2T 1 ∂T <
=
∂x 2 a ∂t

Initial: t < 0 T ( x,0 ) = Ti uniform temperature


and the Boundaries: x = 0 ∂T / ∂x 0 = 0 adiabatic surface
conditions are: 
 x = L - k ∂T / ∂ x L = h T ( L,t ) - T∞  surface convection

(b) The temperature distributions are shown on the sketch.

<

Note that the gradient at x = 0 is always zero, since this boundary is adiabatic. Note also that the
gradient at x = L decreases with time.
Problem: Thermal Response (Cont).

c) The heat flux, q′′x ( x,t ) , as a function of time, is shown on the sketch for the surfaces x = 0 and
x = L.

<

d) The total energy transferred to the wall may be expressed as

∞
Ein = ∫ qconv
′′ As dt
0
∞
Ein = hAs ∫
0
(T∞ - T ( L,t ) )dt

Dividing both sides by AsL, the energy transferred per unit volume is

Ein h ∞ <
= ∫ T∞ - T ( L,t ) dt  J/m3 
V L 0  
Problem: Non-uniform Generation due to Radiation Absorption

Problem 2.37 Surface heat fluxes, heat generation and total rate of radiation
absorption in an irradiated semi-transparent material with a
prescribed temperature distribution.

KNOWN: Temperature distribution in a semi-transparent medium subjected to radiative flux.

FIND: (a) Expressions for the heat flux at the front and rear surfaces, (b) The heat generation rate
q ( x ) , and (c) Expression for absorbed radiation per unit surface area.

SCHEMATIC:
Problem : Non-uniform Generation (cont.)

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction in medium, (3)

Constant properties, (4) All laser irradiation is absorbed and can be characterized by an internal
volumetric heat generation term q ( x ) .

ANALYSIS: (a) Knowing the temperature distribution, the surface heat fluxes are found using
Fourier’s law,
 dT   A 
q′′x = -k   = -k - 2 ( -a ) e-ax + B 
 dx   ka 
 A  A 
Front Surface, x=0: q′′x ( 0 ) = -k + 1+ B  = -  + kB  <
 ka  a 
 A  A 
Rear Surface, x=L: q′′x ( L ) = -k + e-aL + B  = -  e-aL + kB  <
 ka  a 

(b) The heat diffusion equation for the medium is

d  dT  q d  dT 
 + = 0 or q = -k  
dx  dx  k dx  dx 
d  A -ax 
q ( x ) = -k + e + B  = Ae-ax .
dx  ka 

( c ) Performing an energy balance on the medium,

Ein - E out + E g = 0
Problem : Non-uniform Generation (cont.)

On a unit area basis

E g′′ = -Ein
′′ + E out ( A
a
)
′′ = -q′′x ( 0 ) + q′′x ( L ) = + 1- e-aL . <

Alternatively, evaluate E g′′ by integration over the volume of the medium,

( )
A L A
E g′′ = ∫ q ( x )dx = ∫ Ae-ax dx = - e-ax  =
L L
1- e-aL .
0 0 a 0 a