5

TRANSFER OF SOLIDS

n contrast to fluids which are transferred almost equipment. Most commonly, solids are carried on or pushed
exclusively through pipelines with pumps or blowers, a along by some kind of conveyor. Solids in granular form also
greater variety of igquipment is employed for moving are transported in pipelines as slurries in inert liquids or as
s o k k to and from storage and between process suspensions in air or other gases.

5.1. SLURRY TRANWORT Aude, Seiter, and Thompson (1971),

In short process lines slurries are readily handled by centrifugal C
-= exp(-2.55ut/ku@, (54
pumps with large clearances. When then: is a distribution of sizes, cll
the line particles effectively form a homogeneous mixture of high where
density in which the settling velocities of larger particles are less C=concentration of a particular sue at a level 92% of the
than in clear liquid. Turbulence in the line also helps to keep vertical diameter,
particles in suspension. It is essential, however, to avoid dead C, = concentration at the center of the pipe, assumed to be the
spaces in which solids clould accumulate and also to make provisions same as the average in the pipe,
for periodic cleaning of the line. A coal-oil slurry used as fuel and f = Fanning friction factor for pipe flow
acid waste neutralization with lime slurry are two examples of
process applications.
Many of the studies of slurry transfer have been made in (5.3)
connection with long distance movement of coal, limestone, ores,
and others. A few dozen such installations have been made, in At high Reynolds numbers, for example, Blasius’ equation is
length from several miles to several hundred miles.
Cod-water slurqr transport has been most thoroughly f = 0.0791/pkp, NRe 2 lo5 (5.4)
investigated and implemented. One of the earliest lines was 108
miles long, 10 nn. &a, 510-60 wt % solids up to 14 mesh, at velocities k in Eq. (5.2) is a constant whose value is given in this paper as
of 4.5-5.25 ftlsec, with positive displacement pumps at 30-mile 0.35, but the value 0.85 is shown in a computer output in a paper by
intervals. The longest line in the United States is 273 miles, B i n . Wasp, Thompson, and Snoek (1971, Fig. 9). With the latter value,
dia and handles 4.8-6.0 million tons/yr of coal; it is described in Eq. (5.2) becomes
d e t d by Jacques and Montfort (197’7). Other slurry pipeline
literature is by Wasp, Thompson, and Snoek (1971), Bain and c/c, = exp(-3.00u,/u@. (5.5)
Bonnington (19701, Ewing (1978), and Zandi (1971).
Principally, investigations have been conducted of suitable The latter paper also states that satisfactory Wow conditions prevail
linear velocities and power requirements. Slurries of 40-50 vol % when C/Clle0.7 for the largest particle size. On this basis, the
solids can be handled satisfactorily, with particle sizes less than minimum line velocity becomes
24-48 mesh or so (0.7-0.3mm). At low line velocities, particles
settle out and impede the flow of the slurry, and at high velocities
the frictional drag likewise increases. An intermediate condition
exists at which the pressure drop per unit distance is a minimum.
The velocity at this condition is called a critical velocity of which where u, is the settling velocity of the largest particle present.
one correlation is As Example 5.1 shows, the velocities predicted by Eqs. (5.1)
and (5.6) do not agree closely. Possibly an argument in favor of Eq.
(5.6) is that it is proposed by the organization that designed the
u; = 3 4 . ~ , ~ u , ~ & T j 7 2 , consistent units, successful 18 in., 273 mi Black Mesa coal slurry line.
Pressure drop in flow of aqueous suspensions sometimes has
where been approximated by multiplying the pressure drop of clear liquid
u, = critical flow velocity, at the same velocity by the specific gravity of the slurry. This is not
u, = terminal settling velocity of the particle, given by Figure borne out by experiment, however, and the multiplier has been
5.1, correlated by other relations of which Eq. (5.7) is typical:
C, = volume fraction of solids,
D = pipe diameter,
d = particle diameter, (5.71
s = ratio of densities of solid and liquid,
g = acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ft/sec2, or consistent units. This equation is a modification by Hayden and Stelson (1971) of a
series of earlier ones. The meanings of the symbols are
The numerical coefficient is due to Hayden and Stelson (1971). C, = volume fraction occupied by the solids in the slurry,
Another criterion for selection of a flow rate is based on d = particle diameter,
considerations of the extent of sedimentation of particles of various D = pipe diameter,
sizes under flow conditions. This relation is developed by Wasp, s = ratio of specific gravities of solid and liquid.

69
70 TRANSFER OF SOLIDS

EXAMPLE 5.1
Conditions of a Coal Slurry Pipeline
Data of a pulverized coal slurry are

C, = 0.4,
D = 0.333 ft,
f= 0.0045 (Blasius’ eq. at N, = lo5),
s = 1.5.

Mesh size 24 48 100 Mixture

d(rnrn) 0.707 0.297 0.125 0.321
Weight fraction 0.1 0.8 0.1 1
u, (ft/sec) 0.164 0.050 0.010 0.0574

The terminal velocities are read off Figure 5.1, and the values of the
mixture are weight averages.
The following results are found with the indicated equations:

Item Eq. 24 48 100 Mixture

“c 5.1 7.94 5.45 3.02

k
AEIAPL
5.6 20.6 6.27
5.8
5.1 1
1.36 2.89
1.25
9.38 3.39
1.539
AEI4 5.13 1.296

Eq. (5.1): up = 3 4 . 6 ( 0 . 4 ) ( 0 . 3 3 3 ) v w F 7 3 0 4 . 8
mrn

8.41~~
Eq. (5.6): u =--
Vmm - 125u,,
4 32.2(1.5 - 1) d, - 0.0704drnrn
Eq. (5.8): CD = - --
3 u: 304.8 u; ’
Eq. (5.11): --l+-
Ae-
069 - [
i JTZ@~~BE-J~~
Sphere diameter. ern
APL 0.4°.3 0.0574 304.8(3.39)’
= 1.5391, Figure 5.1. Settling velocities of spheres as a function of the ratio 01
densities of the two phases. Stokes law applies at diameters below
Eq. (5.13): A&
APL
~
-

= 1.296.
+
- 1 0.272(0.4)[
0.0045(0.333)32.2(0.5)
(0.0574)’(3.39) 1
approximately 0.01 cm (based on a chart of Lupple et ul., Chemical
Engineering Handbook, McGruw-Hill, New York, 1984, p . 5.67).

With coal of sp gr = 1.5, a slurry of 4 0 ~ 0 1 %has a sp gr = 1.2.

Accordingly the rule, A e l A P , = sp gr, is not confirmed accurately
by these results. For particles of one size, Eqs. (5.7) and (5.8) combine to

APs/APL= 1 + ~ O O C , [ ( U , D / U ’ ) ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ,
consistent units. (5.10)

The drag coefficient is The pressure drop relation at the critical velocity given by Eq. (5.1)
is found by substitution into Eq. (5.7) with the result

A e / A P L= 1 + 0
L[(l/ut)qgd(s
69 - 1)/CDJ’3. (5.11)
c:3
For mixtures, a number of rules has been proposed for evaluating
the drag coefficient, of which a weighted average seems to be With Eq. (5.10) the result is
favored.
A e / A P L = 1+ 1/C:3. (5.12)

With the velocity from Eq. (5.6), Eq. (5.7) becomes

where the wi are the weight fractions of particles with diameters di. A e / A P L = 1+ 0.272Cu[fgD(s - ~ ) / u : G ] ’ . ~ (5.13)
 5.2. PNEUMATIC CONVEYING 71
10 ' I I I I

. /='Ope = -0.5'

IO-' L- I I I I IO0
IO" 10'' 100 10' 102 io3 io4 to5 I
Shear rate, I/sec Shear rate, I/sec
(a) lbi
lFigme 5.2. NowNewtonian behavior of suspensions: (a) viscosity as a function of shear rate, 0.4 wt % polyacrylamide in water at room
temperature; (b) shear stress as a function of shear rate for suspensions of TiO, at the indicated vol % in a 47.1 wt % sucrose solution whose
viscosity is 0.01'7 Pa sec (Denn, Process Fluid Mechanics, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1980).

and, for one-sized particles, 5.2. PNEUMATIC CONVEYING

(5.14) Granular solids of free-flowing natures may be conveyed through

ducts in any direction with high velocity air streams. In the normal
plant, such lines may be several hundred feet long, but dusty
These several pressure drop relations hardly appear consistent, and materials such as fly ash and cement have been moved over a mile
the numerical results of Example 5.1 based on them are only in this way. Materials that are being air-veyed include chemicals,
roughly in agreement. plastic pellets, grains, and powders of all kinds. The transfer of
From statements in the literature, it appears that existing slurry catalysts between regenerator and reactor under fluidized conditions
lines were designed on the basis of some direct pilot plant studies. is a common operation. Stoess (1983) has a list of recommendations
Nornettling slurries are formed with fine particles or plastics or for about 150 different materials, of which Table 5.1 is a selection.
fibers. Although their essentially homogeneous nature would Basic equipment arrangements are represented in Figure 5.3.
appear to make their flow behavior simpler than that of settling The performance of pneumatic conveyors is sensitive to several
slurries, they often possess non-Newtonian characteristics which characteristics of the solids, of which the most pertinent ones are
complicate their flow patterns. In Newtonian flow, the shear stress
is proportional to the shear strain, 1. bulk density, as poured and as aerated,
2. true density,
stress = strain), 3. coefficient of sliding friction (=tangent of the angie of repose),
4. particle size distribution,
but in other cases the relation between these two quantities is more 5. particle roughness and shape,
complex. Several classes of non-Newtonian behavior are recognized 6. moisture content and hygroscopicity, and
for suspensions. Pseudoplastic or power-law behavior is represented 7. characteristics such as friability, abrasiveness, flammability, etc.
by

stress = k(strain)", it < I, Sulfur, for example, builds up an electrostatic charge and may
introduce explosive risks.
where k is calleld the consistency index. Plastic or Bingham behavior In comparison with mechanical conveyors, pneumatic types
is represented by must be designed with greater care. They demand more power
input per unit weight transferred, but their cost may be less for
complicated paths, when exposure to the atmosphere is undesirable
stress = k , + q(strain), and when operator safety is a problem. Although in the final
analysis the design and operation of pneumatic conveyors demands
where 9 is calked the plastic viscosity. Data for some suspensions the attention of experienced engineers, a design for orientation
are given on Figure 5.2. purposes can be made by the inexpert on the basis of general
The constants of such equations must be found experimentally knowledge and rules of thumb that appear in the literature. An
over a range of conditions for each particular case, and related to article by Solt (1980) is devoted entirely to preventive trouble-
the friction factor with which pressure drops and power shooting.
requirements can be evaluated. The topic of nonsettling slurries is Some basic design features are the avoidance of sharp bends, a
treated by Bain and Bonnington (1970) and Clift (1980). Friction minimum of line fittings, provision for cleanout, and possibly
factors of power-law systems are treated by Dodge and Metzner electrical grounding. In many cases equipment suppliers may wish
(1959) and of fiber suspensions by Bobkowitz and Gauvin (1967). to do pilot plant work before making final recommendations. Figure
72 TRANSFER OF SOLIDS
TABLE 5.1. Flow Rates and Power Requirements of Vacuum and Low Pressure Pneumatic Conveying Systemse

Vacuum Systern(8-9 p s i 4 Low Pressure Systern(6-12 p s i g )

Conre>ing Ilistauce Con\ e\ iiie Distance

Alum 50 3.6 4.5 3.9 5.0 4.3 5.7 4.7 6.3 110 4.0 1.6 2.7 2.0 3.4 2.2 3.8 65
Alumina 60 2.4 4.0 2.8 4.7 3.4 5.7 4.0 6.4 105 5.0 1.1 2.4 1.6 3.4 1.9 3.9 60
Car1)onate. 25-30 3.1 4.2 3.i 5.0 3.9 5.5 4.2 6.0 I10 3.5 1.4 2.5 1.8 3.3 2.0 3.6 65
calcium
Celluloseacetatc 22 3.2 4.7 3.5 5.1 3.8 5.7 4.1 6.0 I00 3.0 1.4 2.8 1.7 3.4 1.9 3.6 55
Clay,airfluated 30 3.3 4.5 3.5 5.0 3.9 5.5 4.2 6.0 105 4.0 1.5 2.7 1.8 3.3 1.9 3.6 50
Clay,water 40-50 3.5 5.0 3.8 5.6 4.2 6.5 4.5 7.2 115 4.5 1.6 3.0 1.9 3.9 2.1 4.4 60
washed
Clay. spray dried 60 3.4 4.7 3.6 5.2 4.0 6.2 4.4 7.1 110 4.3 1.5 2.8 1.8 3.7 2.0 4.3 55
Coffee beans 42 1.2 2.0 1.6 3.0 2.1 3.5 2.4 4.2
--
I > 5.0 0.6 1.2 0.9 2.1 1.1 2.5 45
Corn,shelled 45 1.9 2.5 2.1 2.Y 2.4 3.6 2.8 4.3 Ill5 5.0 0.9 1.5 1.1 2.2 1.3 2.6 55
Flour, wheat 40 1.5 3.0 1.7 ?.3 2.0 3.7 2.5 4.4 90 2.5 0.7 1.8 0.9 2.2 1.1 2.7 35
Grits, corn 33 1.7 2.5 2.2 3.0 2.9 4.0 3.5 4.8 100 3.5 0.8 1.5 1.3 2.4 1.6 2.9 70
Lime, pebble 56 2.8 3.8 3.0 4.0 3.4 4.7 3.9 5.4 I05 5.0 1.3 2.3 1.6 2.8 1.8 3.3 70
Lirne.hydrated 30 2.1 3.3 2.4 3.9 2.8 4.7 3.4 6.0 90 4.0 0.6 1.8 0.8 2.2 0.9 2.6 40
hlalt 28 1.8 2.5 2.0 2.8 2.3 3.4 2.8 4.2 100 5.0 0.8 1.5 1 1 2.0 1.3 2.5 55
Oats 25 2.3 3.0 2.6 3.5 3.0 4.4 3.4 5.2 100 5.0 1.0 1.8. 1.4 2.6 1.6 3.1 55
Phosphate, 65 3.1 4.2 3.6 5.0 3.9 5.5 4.2 6.0 I10 4.5 1.4 2.5 1.8 3.3 1.9 3.6 75
trisodium
Polyethylene 30 1.2 2.0 1.6 3.0 2.1 3.5 2.4 4.2 80 5.0 0.55 1.2 0.9 2.1 1.1 2.5 70
pellets
Rubber pellets 40 2.9 4.2 3.5 5.0 4.0 6.0 4.5 7.2 I 10
Salt cake 90 4.0 6.5 4.2 6.8 4.6 7.5 5.0 8.5 120 5.0 2.9 3.9 3.5 4.5 4.0 5.1 83
Sodaash,light 35 3.1 4.2 3.6 5.0 3.9 5.5 4.2 6.0 I10 5.0 1.4 2.5 1.8 3.3 1.9 3.6 65
Soft feeds 20-40i.0 4.2 34 4.5 3.7 5.0 4.2 5.5 1 IO 3.8 1.; 2.5 1.7 i.!1.9 3.7 70
Starch. 40 1.7 3.0 2.0 3.4 2.6 4.0 3.4 5.0 YO 30 0.8 17 1.1 2.4 1.5 3.0 55
pulverized
Sugar, 50 3.0 3.7 3.2 4.0 3.4 5.2 3.9 6.0 !10 5.0 1.4 2.2 1.6 3.1 1.7 3.6 60
granulated
Wheat 48 1.9 2.5 2.1 2.9 2.4 3.6 2.8 4.3 105 5.0 0.9 1.5 1.1 2.1 1.3 2.6 55
Wood flour 12-202.5 3.5 2.8 4.0 3.4 4.9 1.4 6.5 100

a HP/ton = (pressure factor)(hp/T)(sat.). The units of sat. are standard cufI of air/lb of solid transferred), and those of hp/T are
horsepower/(tons/hr of solid transferred).
(Stoess, 1983).

5.4 shows a typical pilot plant arrangement. A preliminary design solids from a source and to deliver them under positive pressure.
procedure is given by Raymus (1984). Many details of design and Friable materials also may be handled effectively by the equipment
operation are given in books by Stoess (1983) and Kraus (1980) and of Figure 5.5 in which alternate pulses of granular material and air
in articles by Gerchow (1980), and Perkins and Wood (1974). Some are transported.
of that information will be restated here. Pressure drop and power Typical auxiliary equipment is shown on Figure 5.6. The most
requirements can be figured largely on the basis of general used blower in pneumatic conveying is the rotary positive dis-
knowledge. placement type; they can achieve vacua 6-8psi below atmos-
pheric or positive pressures up to 15psig at efficiencies of about
EQUIPMENT 65%. Axial positive displacement blowers also are used, as
well as centrifugals for large capacities. Rotary feeders of many
The basic equipment consists of a solids feeding device, the transfer proprietary designs are available; Stoess (1983) and Kraus (1980)
line proper, a receiver, a solid-air separator, and either a blower at illustrate several types. Receivers may be equipped with fabric
the inlet or a vacuum pump at the receiver. Four common kinds of filters to prevent escape of fine particles; a dacron fabric suitable for
arrangements are shown on Figure 5.3. Vacuum systems are up to 275°F is popular. Cyclone receivers are used primarily for
favored for shorter distances and when conveying from several entirely nondusting services or ahead of a filter. A two-stage design
sources to one destination. Appropriate switching valves make it is shown in Figure 5.6(d). Typical dimensions are cited by Stoess
possible to service several sources and destinations with either a (1983), for example:
vacuum or pressure system. Normally the vacuum system is favored
for single destinations and the pressure for several destinations or
over long distances. Figure 5.3(b) shows a rotary valve feeder and line diameter (in.) 3 5 8
Figure 5.3(c) a Venturi feeder which has a particularly gentle action primary diameter (ft) 3.5 4.5 6.75
suitable for friable materials. Figure 5.3(d) utilizes a fan to suck the secondary diameter (ft) 2.75 3.5 5.0
 5.2. PNEUMATIC CONVEYING 73

Gravity-flow Hop

Pickup (a)

Vent

Blower
and Motor

Switch Rotary Valve

Collector a

Figure 5.3. Basic equipment arrangements of pneumatic conveying systems. (a) Vacuum system
with several sources and one destination, multiple pickup; (b) pressure system with rotary valve
feeder, one source and several destinations, multiple discharge; (c) pressure system with Venturi
feed for friable materials; (d) pull-push system in which the fan both picks up the solids and
delivers them [after F. J. Gerchow, Chem. Eng. (17 Feb. 1975, p . SS)].

Piping usually is standard steel, Schedule 40 for 3-7 in. IPS and feeders, positive pressure systems are limited to about 12 psig.
Schedule 30 for 8-12 in. IPS. In order to minimize pressure loss and Other feeding arrangements may be made for long distance transfer
abrasion, bends are made long radius, usually with radii equal to 12 with 90-125psig air. The dense phase pulse system of Figure 5.4
times the nominal pilpe size, with a maximum of Xft. Special may operate at 10-30 psig.
reinforcing may be needed for abrasive conditions. Linear velocities, carrying capacity as cuft of free air per lb of
solid and power input as HP/tons per hour (tph) are listed in Table
OPERATING COMDIT[ONS 5.1 as a general guide for a number of substances. These data are
for 4-, 5-, and 6-in. lines; for 8-in. lines, both Sat. and HP/tph are
Vacuum systems usually operate with at most a 6 psi differential; at reduced by 15%, and for 10-in. by 25%. Roughly, air velocities in
lower pressures the carrying power suffers. With rotary air lock low positive pressure systems are 2000 ft/min for light materials,
74 TRANSFER OF SOLIDS
and bulk density is due to Gerchow (1980) and is

R/min
Line length
(ft) 55 Ib/cuft 55-85 85-115
200 4000 5000 6000
500 5000 6000 7000
1000 6000 7000 8000

Conveying capacity expressed as vol % of solids in the stream

usually is well under 5 ~ 0 1 % From
. Table 5.1, for example, it is
about 1.5% for alumina and 6.0% for polystyrene pellets, figured at
atmospheric pressure; at 12 psig these percentages will be roughly
doubled, and at subatmospheric pressures they will be lower.

POWER CONSUMPTION AND PRESSURE DROP

The power consumption is made up of the work of compression of
the air and the frictional losses due to the flows of air and solid
through the line. The work of compression of air at a flow rate rnL
and CJC, = 1.4 is given by

Figure 5.4. Sketch of pilot plant arrangement for testing pneumatic w, = 3.5(53.3)(7‘ + 460)rn~[(P2/P1)0~2s57
- 11 (ft lbf/sec)
conveying under positive pressure (Kraus, Pneumatic Conveying of (5.15)
Bulk Materials, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1980).
with the flow rate in lb/sec.
Frictional losses are evaluated separately for the air and the
3000-4000 ft/min for medium densities such as those of grains, and solid. To each of these, contributions are made by the line itself, the
5000ft/min and above for dense materials such as fly ash and elbows and other fittings, and the receiving equipment. It is
cement; all of these velocities are of free air, at atmospheric conservative to assume that the linear velocities of the air and solid
pressure. are the same. Since the air flow normally is at a high Reynolds
Another set of rules for air velocity as a function of line length number, the friction factor may be taken constant at fa = 0.015.
Accordingly the frictional power loss of the air is given by

Material
inlet [
w,=APlrnL/p,= (u2/2g) 1+2n,+4nf+(0.015/D)(L+c Li)]rnL

1 (ft lbf/sec). (5.16)

-
rCI To receiving hopper The unity in the bracket accounts for the entrance loss, n, is the
Air to number of cyclones, nf is the number of filters, L is the line length,
pressurize vessel and Lt is the equivalent length of an elbow or fitting. For long
radius bends one rule is that the equivalent length is 1.6 times the
actual length of the bend. Another rule is that the long bend radius
is 12 times the nominal size of the pipe. Accordingly,

Li= 1.6(nRj/2) = 2.5Rj = 2.5D;ft, with D; in inches.

(5.17)

The value of g is 32.2 ft lb m/(lbf sec’).

The work being done on the solid at the rate of rnflblsec is
made up of the kinetic gain at the entrance (w2),the lift (w,)
through an elevation Az, friction in the line (w4), and friction in the
elbow (w5).Accordingly,

w --mi
UZ
2-2g
(ft lbf/sec). (5.18)

Air knife
The lift work is

g rn,‘ = Azrn,’ (ft lbf/sec).

w, = Az - (5.19)
Figure 5.5. Concept of dense phase transfer of friable materials, by gc
intermittent injection of material and air pulses, air pressures
normally 10-30 psig and up to 90 psig (Sturtevant Engineering Co., The coefficient of sliding friction f, of the solid equals the tangent of
Boston, MA). the angle of repose. For most substances this angle is 30-45” and
 5.2. PNEUMATIC CONVEYING 75
I O P COVtR

GASKET

HOUSllG

PACKING

ROTOR SHOI
(SPRING LOADID1

ROTOR

Air
Thimble f

Primary cyclone
Secondary
discharge lock
Primary discharge lock

Material

CEMEVT

(e)
Figure 5.6. Components of pneumatic conveying systems. (a) Rotary positive displacement blower for pressure or vacuum. (b) A rotary
airlock feeder for fine imaterials (Detroit Stoker Co.). (c) A four-compartment receiver-filter (Fuller Co., Bethlehem, PA). (d) A two-stage
cyclone receiver. (‘e) The Fuller-Kinyon pump for cement and other fine powders. Powder is fed into the aeration chamber with a screw and
is fluidized with compressed air (Fuller Co., Bethlehem, PA).
76 TRANSFER OF SOLIDS
the value off, is 0.58-1.00. The sliding friction in the line is company’s manufacture and a factor for determining the power
requirement. An abbreviated table of about 150 substances appears
w4=f,Lmi (ft lbf/sec), (5.20) in the Chemical Engineers Handbook (1984, p. 7.5). Hudson (1954,
pp. 6-9), describes the characteristics of about 100 substances in
where L is the line length. relation to their behavior in conveyors. Table 5.3 lists bulk
Friction in the curved elbows is enhanced because of densities, angles of respose at rest, and allowable angles of
centrifugal force so that inclination which are angles of repose when a conveyor is in motion;
references to more extensive listings of such data are given in this
u2 2xR table.
w, =La (4)i-n; = 0.0488f,uzmj (ftlbf/sec). (5.21) The angle of repose is a measure of the incline at which
conveyors such as screws or belts can carry the material. The
The total frictional power is tangent of the angle of repose is the coefficient of sliding friction.
This property is a factor in the power needed to transfer the
Wf = w1+ w,+ w, + w, + w,, (5.22) material by pushing or dragging as in pneumatic, screw, flight, and
Redler equipment.
and the total power consumption is Special provisions need to be made for materials that tend to
form bridges; Figure 5.13(a) is an example of a method of breaking
up bridges in a storage bin so as to ensure smooth flow out.
W = (wc + wf) [HP/(ton/hr)], (5.23) Materials that tend to pack need to be fluffed up as they are pushed
55017 (1.8i-n:)
along by a screw; adjustable paddles as in Figure 5.7(d) may be
where 17 is the blower efficiency. Pressure drop in the line is sufficient.
obtained from the frictional power, the total flow rate, and the
density of the mixture: SCREW CONVEYORS
These were invented by Archimedes and assumed essentially their
(5.24) present commercial form a hundred years or so ago. Although the
equipment is simple in concept and relatively inexpensive, a body of
experience has accumulated whereby the loading, speed, diameter,
The specific air rate, or saturation, is and length can be tailored to the characteristics of the materials to
be handled. Table 5.4, for example, recognizes four classes of
saturation = 0.7854(60)D2 materials, ranging from light, freeflowing, and nonabrasive
(cuft/min of air)/(lb/min of solid)], (5.25) materials such as grains, to those that are abrasive and have poor
flowability such as bauxite, cinders, and sand. Only a portion of the
where the velocity of the air is evaluated at atmospheric pressure. available data are reproduced in this table.
Example 5.2 makes the calculations described here for power Lengths of screw conveyors usually are limited to less than
and pressure drop, and compares the result with the guidelines of about 150 ft; when the conveying distance is greater than this, a belt
Table 5.1. or some other kind of machine should be chosen. The limitation of
length is due to structural strength of the shaft and coupling. It is
5.3. MECHANICAL CONVEYORS AND ELEVATORS expressed in terms of the maximum torque that is allowable.
Formulas for torque and power of screw conveyors are given in
Granular solids are transported mechanically by being pushed along
Table 5.4 and are applied to selection of a conveyor in Example 5.3.
or dragged along or carried. Movement may be horizontal or
Several designs of screws are shown in Figure 5.7. The basic
vertical or both. In the process plant distances may be under a
design is one in which the pitch equals the diameter. Closer spacing
hundred feet or several hundred feet. Distances of several miles
is needed for carrying up steep inclines, and in fact very fine pitch
may be covered by belts servicing construction sites or mines or
screws operating at the relatively high speeds of 350 rpm are used to
power plants. Capacities range up to several hundred tons/hr. The
convey vertically. The capacity of a standard pitch screws drops off
principal kinds of mechanical conveyors are illustrated in Figures
sharply with the inclination, for example:
5.7-5.13 and will be described. Many construction features of these
machines are arbitrary. Thus manufacturers’ catalogs are the
Angle (degrees) <8 20 30 45
ultimate source of information about suitability for particular Percent of capacity 100 55 30 0
services, sizes, capacities, power requirements and auxiliaries.
Much of the equipment has been made in essentially the present Allowable loadings as a percentage of the vertical cross section
form for about 100 years by a number of manufacturers so that a depend on the kind of material being processed; examples are
body of standard practice has developed. shown in Table 5.4.

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS HANDLED BELT CONVEYORS

The physical properties of granular materials that bear particularly These are high capacity, relatively low power units for primarily
on their conveying characteristics include size distribution, true and horizontal travel and small inclines. The maximum allowable
bulk densities, and angle of repose or coefficient of sliding friction, inclination usually is 5-15‘ less than the angle of repose; it is shown
but other less precisely measured or described properties are also of as “recommended maximum inclination” in Table 5.3 for some
concern. A list of pertinent properties appears in Table 5.2. The substances, and is the effective angle of repose under moving
elaborate classification given there is applied to about 500 materials conditions.
in the FMC Corporation Catalog 100 (1983, pp. B.27-B.35) but is The majority of conveyor belts are constructed of fabric,
too extensive for reproduction here. For each material the table rubber, and wire beads similarly to automobile tires, but they are
also identifies the most suitable design of screw conveyor of this made also of wire screen or even sheet metal for high temperature
 5.3. MECHANICAL CONVEYORS AND ELEVATORS 77

EXAMPLE 5.2 = [(45.4),/64.4][5.9 +

(4.5/D)](4.91D2)
Size and Power Requirement of a Pneumatic Transfer Line +
= 157.1D2(5.9 4.5/D)
A pneumatic firansfer line has 300 ft of straight pipe, two long radius
elbows, and a lift of 50ft. A two-stage cyclone is at the receiving For the solid, take the coefficient of sliding friction to be f, = 1.
end. Solid with a density of 125 Ib/cuft lis at the rate of 10 tons/hr
Power loss is made up of four contributions. Assume no slip
and the free air is at 5000ft/min. Inlet condition is 27psia and velocity;
100°F. Investigate the relation btween line diameter and power
requirement. w, = w, + w, + w4+ w,
On a first pass, the effect of pressure loss on the density of the
air will be neglected. = [u2/2g + A 2 +f,L + 2(Q.0488)f,u2]mj
Mass flow rate of solid: = 5.56[45.4'/64.4 + 50 + 300 + 2(0.0488)45.42]
= 3242.5ft lbf/sec.
rnd = 20,0800/3600= 5.56 lb/sec.
Total friction power:
Mass flow rate of air:
wf = 3242.5 + 157.1D2(5.9+ 4.5/D).
50061n
m;=--- (0.075)D2 = 4.91D2 lb/sec.
60 4 Pressure drop:

Density of air:

p, = 0.075
(3~ = 0.138 lb/cuft.
Fan power at q = 0.5:

Density of mixture: . W C + Y 2e!!.f~~p/tp~,

P = 550(0.5)(10) - 2750
5000(x/4) D2
saturation = = 11.780, SCFM/(lb/min).
20,000/60
-
- (rn;+ 5.56)
rn:/0.138 + 5.56/125 IPS ~ ( f t ) rn; pm w, w,
Linear velocity of air at inlet: 3 0.2557 0.3210 2.4808 6362 3484
4 0.3356 0.5530 1.5087 10,959 3584
5 0.4206 0.8686 1.0142 17,214 3704
6 0.5054 1.2542 0.7461 24,855 3837

AP SCFIVI/
Assume air and solid velocities equal. Elbow radius = 120. 1 PS (psi) HP/TPH Ib/min
Elbow equivalent length, 3 10.2 3.58 0.77
4 6.1 5.29 I.33
Le = 1.6(n/2)(12D) = 30.20 5 4.1 7.60 2.08
6 2.9 70.44 3.55
Power for compression from 14.7 psia and 560 R to 27 psia,
From Table 5.1, data for pebble Iime are
k / ( k - 1)= 3.5,
w, = 3.5RT1[(P,/P,)O 2857 - 111.: sat = 1.7 SCFM/(lb/min)
power = 3.0 HP/TPH
= 3.5(53.3)(560)[(27/14.7)0.a57- 1]4.91D2
= 973050, ft Ib€/sec. and for soda ash:
sat = 1.9 SCFM/(lb/min)
Frictional!contribution of air
power = 3.4 HP/TPH.
uL The calculated values for a 4in. line are closest to the recom-
w --
1-2g
i'[ + (O.O15/D)(300 + 2(30.2:1D]rnA mendations of the table.

services. A related design is the apron conveyor with overlapping For bulk materials, belts are troughed at angles of 20-45". Loading
pans of various shapes and sizes (Fig. 5.8), used primarily for short of a belt may be accomplished by shovelling or directly from
travel at elevated temperatures. With pivoted deep pans they are overhead storage or by one of the methods shown on Figure 5.9.
also effective elevators. Discharge is by throwing over the end of the run or at intermediate
Flat belts are used chiefly for moving large objects and cartons. points with plows.
78 TRANSFER OF SOLIDS
TABLE 5.2. Codes for Characteristicsof Granular Materialsa TABLE 5.3. Bulk Densities, Angles of Repose, and Allowable
Angles of Inclination
Major Code
Class Material Characteristics Included Designalion
Recom-
Density Bulk Density, Loose Actual Average Angle of mended
IbS/fP Weight Repose Maximum
Material (Ib/cuft) (degrees) Inclination
No. 200 Sieve (.0029")And Under
Very Fine No. 100 Sieve 1.0059")And Under
No. 40 Sieve 1.016") And Under Alum, fine 45-50 30-45
Alumina 50-65 22 10-12
Fine No. 6 Sieve 1.132") And Under
Aluminum sulfate 54 32 17
Size Granular %"And Under Ammonium chloride 45-52
Granular 3"And Under Ammonium nitrate 45
[')Lumpy Over 3"To Be Special Ammonium sulfate 45-58
X=Actual Maximum Size Asbestos shred 20-25
Irregular Stringy, Fibrous, Cylindrical, Ashes, coal, dry, ;in. max 35-40 40 20-25
Slabs, etc. Ashes, coal, wet, :in. max 45-50 50 23-27
Ashes, fly 40-45 42 20-25
Very Free Flowing-Flow Function > 10 1
Flowability
Free Flowing-Flow Function > 4 But < 10 2 2
Asphalt, in. rnax 45
Average Flowability-Flow Function >2 B u t c 4 3 Baking powder 40-55 18
Sluggish-Flow Function < 2 4
Barium carbonate 72
Mildly Abrasive -Index 1-17 5 Bauxite, ground 68 35 20
Abrasiveness Moderately Abrasive- Index 18-67 6 Bentonite, 100 mesh max 50-60
Extremely Abrasive- Index 68-416 7
Bicarbonate of soda 40-50
Builds Up and Hardens F Borax, in. 55-60
Generates Static Electricitv G 45-55 20-22
Decomposes- Deteriorates in Storage H Borax, fine
Flammability J Boric acid, fine 55
Becomes Plastic or Tends to Soften K Calcium acetate 125
Very Dusty L
Aerates and Becomes Fluid M Carbon, activated, dry, fine 8-20
Explosiveness N Carbon black, pelleted 20-25
Miscellaneous Stickiness-Adhesion 0
Properties Contaminable, Affecting Use P Casein 36
Or Degradable, Affecting Use Q Cement, Portland 94 39 20-23
Hazards Gives Off Harmful or Toxic Gas or Fumes R Cement, Portland, aerated 60-75
Highly Corrosive S
Mildly Corrosive T Cement clinker 75-95 30-40 18-20
Hygroscopic U 18-25 20-25
Interlocks, Mats or Agglomerates v Charcoal 35
Oils Present W Chips, paper mill 20-25
Packs Under Pressure X Clay, calcined 80-1 00
Very Light and Fluffy-May Be Windswept Y
Elevated Temperature Z Clay, dry, fine 100- 120 35 20-22
Clay, dry, lumpy 60-75 35 18-20
"Example: Afine 100 mesh material with an average density of Coal, anthracite, fin. max 60 35 18
50 Ib/cufl that has average flowability and is moderately abrasive Coal, bituminous, 50 mesh max 50-54 45 24
would have a code designation 50A,,36; if it were dusty and mildly Coal, bituminous, in. max 43-50 40 22
corrosive, it would be 50A,,,36LT. Coal, lignite 40-45 38 22
(FMC Corp., Materials Handling Division, Homer City, PA, 1983). Coke breeze, in. max 25-35 30-45 20-22
Copper sulfate 75-85 31 17
Cottonseed, dry, delinted 35 29 16
Power is required to run the empty conveyor and to carry the Cottonseed, dry, not delinted 18-25 35 19
load horizontally and vertically. Table 5.5 gives the equations, and Cottonseed meal 35-40 35 22
they are applied in Example 5.4. Squirrel-cage ac induction motors Cryolite dust 75-90
are commonly used as drives. Two- and four-speed motors are Diatomaceous earth 11-14
available. Mechanical efficiencies of speed reducing couplings Dicalcium phosphate 40-50
between motor and conveyor range from 95 to 50%. Details of Disodium phosphate 25-31
idlers, belt trippers, cleaners, tension maintaining devices, struc- Earth, as excavated, dry 70-80 35 20
tures, etc. must be consulted in manufacturers' catalogs. The selec- Earth, wet, containing clay 100-1 10 45 23
Epsom salts 40-50
tion of belt for strength and resistance to abrasion, temperature,
Feldspar, fin. screenings 70-85 38 18
and the weather also is a topic for specialists. Ferrous sulfate 60-75
Flour, wheat 35-40
BUCKET ELEVATORS AND CARRIERS Fullers earth, dry 30-35 23
Fullers earth, oily 60-65
Bucket elevators and carriers are endless chains to which are Grain, distillery, spen, dry 30
attached buckets for transporting granular materials along vertical, Graphite, flake 40
inclined or horizontal paths. Figure 5.10 shows two basic types: Grass seed 10-12
spaced buckets that are far apart and continuous which overlap. Gravel, bank run 90-1 00 38 20
Spaced buckets self-load by digging the material out of the boot and Gravel, dry, sharp 90-1 00 15-17
are operated at speeds of 200-300fpm; they are discharged Gravel, pebbles 90-1 00 30 12
centrifugally. Continuous buckets operate at lower speeds, and are Gypsum dust, aerated 60-70 42 23
used for friable materials and those that would be difficult to pick Gypsum, fin. screenings 70-80 40 21
Iron oxide pigment 25 40 25
up in the boot; they are fed directly from a loading chute and are
Kaolin talc, 100 mesh 42-56 45 23
discharged by gravity. Bucket carriers are essentially forms of pan Lactose 32
conveyors; they may be used instead of belt conveyors for shorter Lead arsenate 72
distances and when they can be made of materials that are
 5.3. MECHANICAL CONVEYORS AND ELEVATORS 7
TABLE 5.3-(confinued) TABLE 5.4(a)-( continued)

Lead oxides 60-150

Lime, t i n . mar 60-65 43 23
Lime, hydrated, f in. max 40 40 21
Lime, hydrated, pulverized 32-40 42 22
Limestone, crushed 85-90 38 18
Limestone dust 80-85 20
Lithopone 45-50
Magnesium chloride 33
Magnesium sulfate 70
Milk, dry powder 36
Phosphate, triple super, fertilizer 50-55 45 30
Phosphate rock, pulverized 60 40 25
Polystyrene beads 40 (b) Characteristics of Some Materials (A Selection From the
Potassium nitrate 76 Original Table)
Rubber, pelletized 50-55 35 22 -
Salt, common, coarse 40-55
Salt, dry, fine 70-80 25 11 Eorae-
Salt cake, dry, coarse
Salt cake, dry, pulverized
85
60-85
36 21 €E&
"E"'
Saltpeter 80 -
-
Sand, bank, damp 100-130 45 20-22 ........................
Alfalfa meal. .4
Sand, bank, dry 90-110 35 16-18 Alum, lumpy.. ...................... 1.6
Sawdust 10-13 36 22 Alum, pulverized.
*Alumina
...................
............................ .8
2.0
Shale, crushed 85-90 39 22 Aluminum, hydrate. ................. 15-20 1
Soap chips 15-26 30 18 Ammonium sulphate.. ............... 52 ....
Soap powder 20-25 A s k h . studded..
'Asbea. dry..
.................
........................ 20-25
55-40
1.0
2.0
Soda ash briquetts 50 22 7
Aaphalt. crushed.. ................... .K
Soda ash, heavy 55-65 32 19 Bakelite, powderad.. ................. 1.4
Soda ash, light 20-35 37 22 Bakhr powder.. .................... .6
Barley.. ............................ .4
Sodium bicarbonate 41 42 23
Sodium nitrate 70-80 24 11 1.8
Starch 25-50 24 12 .5
.4
Sugar, granulated 50-55 1.0
Sugar, powdered 50-60 20
Trisodium phosphate, pulverized 50 40 25 1.7
1.7
Wood chips 10-30 27 1.7
Zinc oxide, heavy 30-35 1.7
Zinc oxide, light 10-15 .7
.8
Other tables of these properties appear in ,these publications: A
'1. Conveyor E(quipment Manufacturers Association, Belt Conveyors for -
Bulk Materials, 1966,pp. 25-33.
2. Stephens-Adamson Mfg. Co. Catalog 66, 1954, pp. 634-636.
3. FNIC Corporation Material Handling Equipment Division Catalog 100, [c) Factor Sin the Formula for Power P
1983,pp. 8.27-8.35.
4. Perry's Chemical Engineers ffandbook, 1984,p. 7.5.

21 33 50
33 54 80
54 96

TABLE 5.4. Sizing Data for Screw Conveyorsa

(a) Diameter [rpm and cuft/hr) I

(d) Limits of Horsepower and Torque

Diameter
of
Conveyor,
Inches
Diameter
of
Coupling.
Inches
I Maximum
Hors;ywer
100 R.P.M.
Maximum
I&
Torque
Ca acityin
Pounds

"Example 5.3utilizes these data.

(Stephens-Adarnson Co. Catalog, 1954,p. 66).
80 TRANSFER OF SOLIDS

Shear pin

(a)

(b) (C)

(d) (e)
Figpre 5.7. A screw conveyor assembly and some of the many kinds of screws in use. (a) Screw conveyor assembly with feed hopper
and discharge chute. (b) Standard shape with pitch equal to the diameter, the paddles retard the forward movement and promote
mixing. (c) Short pitch suited to transfer of material up inclines of as much as 20". (d) Cut flight screws combine a moderate mixing
action with forward movement, used for light, fine, granular or flaky materials. (e) Ribbon flights are suited to sticky, gummy or
viscous substances.

EXAMPLE 53 Accordingly,
S i i g a ! h e w Conveyor
Dense soda ash with bulk density 60Ib/cuft is to be conveyed a I;= [171(40) + 0.7(500)(60)]100+ 0.51(12)(30,000)/106
distance of 100ft and elevated 12 ft. The material is class 11-Xwith = 2.97 HP
a factor F = 0.7. The bearings are self-lubricated bronze and the
motor H p = GP/q = 1.25(2.97)/0.93 = 3.99,
drive is V-belt with 7 = 0.93. The size, speed, and power will be
selected for a rate of 15 tons/hr. torque = 63,000(2.97)/40 = 4678 in. Ib.

From Table 5.4(d) the limits for a 12 in. conveyor are 10.0 HP
Q = 15(2000)/60 = 500 cuft/hr. and 6300in. Ib so that the selection is adequate for the required
service.
A conveyor 137ft long would have a shaft power of 4.00HP
According to Table 5.4(a) this capacity can be accommodated by a and a torque of 6300 in. Ibs, which is the limit with a 2 in. coupling;
12 in. conveyor operating at a sturdier construction would be needed at greater lengths.
For comparison, data of Table 5.5 show that a 14 in. troughed
w = (500/665)(50) = 37.6 rpm, say 40 rpm belt has an allowable speed of 267fpm at allowable inclination of
19" (from Table 5.3), and the capacity is
From Table 5.4(c) the bearing factor is
2.67(0.6)(38.4) = 61.5 tons/hr,

s = 171. far more than that of the screw conveyor.

 5.3. MECHANICAL CONVEYORS AND ELEVATORS 81
TABLE 5.5. Belt Conveyor Dataa
(a) Capacity (tons/hr) at 100 ft/min, 100 Ib/cuR,
and indicated Slope Angle

45" Troughed Belt

Flat Belt

~~ ~

a +
Example 5.4 utilizes these data. Power = Phorironta,Pven,ca, +
P, (HP), where Phorironte, = (0.4+~/3OO)(W/1OOL PVemica, =
O.OOl%, and P, obtained from part IC),with H=lift (ft),
L = horizontal travel&, and W = tons/hr.
(a) From Conveyor Equipment Manufacturers Association, 1979; (b)
from Stephens-Adamson Catalog 66, 1954; IC)from Hudson, 19541.

(b) Maximum Recommended Belt Speeds for Mondusting

Service

Belt Speed in Feet per Minute

nelt

12 250 300
18 300 350
Eel 24 350 400
- ~ -
30 400 450
Figure 5.8. Flnght conveyors in which the material is scraped along, 36 450 500
and apron conveyors in which the material is carried along in a 42 500 550
closed path of interconnected pans. (a) Flight conveyor, in which
the material is scraped along a trough with flights attached to a
continuous chain. (b) Scraper-type of flight. (c) Roller flights. (d)
Apron conveyor, in which the material is carried along in moving,
overlapping pans. (e) Shallow and deep types of overlapping pans.
82 TRANSFER OF SOLIDS
TABLE 5.!j-(continued) particularly suited to a process. Capacity and power data for bucket
machines are given in Table 5.6. Flight and apron conveyors are
illustrated in Figure 5.11.
(c) Power to Drive Empty Conveyor
CONTINUOUS FLOW CONVEYOR ELEVATORS
One design of a drag-type of machine is the Redler shown on Figure
5.12. They function because the friction against the flight is greater
than that against the wall. Clearly they are versatile in being able to
transfer material in any direction and have the often important
merit of being entirely covered. Circular cross sections are available
but usually they are square, from 3 to 30 in. on a side, and operate
at speeds of 30-250 ft/min, depending on the material handled and
the construction. Some data are shown in Table 5.7. Most dry
granular materials such as wood chips, sugar, salt, and soda ash are
handled very well in this kind of conveyor. More difficult to handle
are very fine materials such as cement or those that tend to pack
such as hot grains or abrasive materials such as sand or crushed
stone. Power requirement is dependent on the coefficient of sliding
friction. Factors for power calculations of a few substances are
shown in Table 5.7.
The closed-belt (zipper) conveyor of Figure 5.13 is a carrier
that is not limited by fineness or packing properties or abrasiveness.
Of course, it goes in any direction. It is made in a nominal 4-in.
size, with a capacity rating by the manufacturer of O.O7cuft/ft of
travel. The power requirement compares favorably with that of
open belt conveyors, so that it is appreciably less than that of other
types. The formula is

H p = 0.001[(L1/30 + 5)u + (LJ16 + 2L,)T], (5.26)

where
u = ft/min,
T = tons/hr,
L , = total belt length (ft),
Lz = length of loaded horizontal section (ft),
L, = length of loaded vertical section (ft).

Speeds of 200ft/min or more are attainable. Example 5.5 shows

0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
Length of Conveyor in Feet that the power requirement is much less than that of the Redler
conveyor.

DRIVE-END
-

Figure 5.9. Some arrangements of belt conveyors (Stephens-Adamson Co.) and types of idlers
(FMC Corp.). (a) Horizontal conveyor with discharge at an intermediate point as well as at the
end. (b) Inclined conveyor, satisfactory up to 20" with some materials. (c) Inclined or retarding
conveyor for lowering materials gently down slopes. (d) A flat belt idler, rubber cushion type. (e)
Troughed belt idler for high loadings; usually available in 20°, 35", and 45" side inclinations.
 5.4. SOLID FEEDERS 83
.,::..:..._..
'...... ?
:;.?
..:
..>-.-.:.
....

...
..

Closing Comments. Most kinds of conveyors and elevators are speeds. All of these methods require free flow from a storage bin
obtainable from several manufacturers, each of whom builds which may be inhibited by bridging or arching. The device of Figure
equipment to individual standards of sturdiness, materials of 5.9(a) provides motion to break up such tendencies.
construction, mechanical details, performance, and price. These For the most part the devices shown provide only rough feed
differences may be decisive in individual cases. Accordingly, a rate control. More precise control is achieved by continuous
selection usually must be made from a manufacturer's catalog, and weighing. The equipment of Figure 3.16(1) employs measurements
ultimately with the advice of the manufacturer. of belt speed and the weight impressed on one or several of the belt
idlers to compute and control the weight rate of feed; precision
better than 0.5% is achievable. For some batch processes, the
feeder discharges into an overhead weighing hopper for accurate
Several types are illustrated in Figures 5.9 and 3.7. Rates are measurement of the charge. Similar systems are used to batch feed
controlled by adjusting gates or rotation speeds or translation liquids when integrating flow meters are not sufficiently accurate.

EXAMPLIE 5.4 conveyor length = 12OO/cos 5" = 1205 ft,

Sizing a Belt Conneyor rise = 1200 tan 5" = 105 ft.
Soda ash of bulk density 60lb/cuft is to be transported at
400 tons/hr a horizontal distance of 1200 ft up an incline of 5". The With the formulas and graph (c) of Table 5.5, the power
running angle of repose of this material is 19". The conveyor will be requirement becomes
sized with the data of Table 5.5.
Considel. a 24 in. belt. From Table 5.5(a) the required speed is Power = Phorizontal+ Pvertical+ Pernpty
+
= (0.4 1200/300)(400/100)

u = (40C1/132)100 = 303 ft/min.

+ 0.001(105)(400)+ 303(3.1)/100
= 69.0 HP.

Since the recommended maximum speed in Table 5.5(b) is Perhaps 10 to 20% more should be added to compensate for losses
350 fpm, this size is acceptable: in the drive gear and motor.
84 TRANSFER OF SOLIDS

LT CPLNED
R DISCHARGE

\
T A K E - U P PULLEY

(a)

Figure 5.10. Closed belt (zipper) for conveying in any direction (Stephens-Adamson Co.). (a) Arrangement of pulley, feed
hopper and open and closed belt regions. (b) The tubular belt conveyor for horizontal and vertical transport; a section of the
zippered closed belt is shown. (c) Showing how the zipper closes (on downward movement of the belt in this sketch) or opens
(on upward movement of the belt).
T .6. Capacities and Power Requirements of Bucket
Elevator Conveyors

(b) Capacities and Maximum Size of Lumps of Centrifugal

Discharge EIevatorsbTc

(e) Centrifugal Discharge of Continuous Belt and Bucket

Elevators"
Empty return r u n

carrying r u n

a Buckets 80% full.

Buckets 75% full.
Horsepower = 0.00:2(tons/hr)(lift in feet).
(Link Belt Co.)

fd
Figure 5.11. Drag-type enclosed conveyor-elevator (Redler Design) for transfer in any direction (Stephens-Adumon Mfg. Co.). (a) Head
and discharge end of elevator. (b) Carrying and return runs. (c) Loading end. (d) Some shapes of flights; some are made dose-fitting and
edged with rubber or plastics to serve as cleanouts.

85
Figure 5.12. Bucket elevators and conveyors. (a) Spaced bucket elevator. (b) Bucket conveyor for vertical and horizontal travel. (c)
Discharge of pivoted buckets on horizontal path. (d) Spaced buckets receive part of their load directly and part by scooping the bottom. (e)
Continuous buckets are filled as they pass through the loading leg with a feed spout above the tail wheel. (f) Centrifugal discharge of spaced
buckets. (g) Discharge mode of continuous buckets.

TABLE 5.7. Speed and Horsepower of Drag-Type Conveyors of (bl Factors F, G, and Kfor Use in the Power Equation for Three
Redler Design" Sizes of Units
(a) Typical Speeds (ft/min)*
19" Unita
itlaterid
MATERIAL
HANDLED
Coal
1000
Conv.
125
1000
Elev.
125
2000
Conv.
80
3000
Conv.
150
Beam dry navy
Bipardanate of soda, dry,pulvw
---
E F
1.1 2.02.6
G

Coke 40 40 40 40 ,zed 2.2

2.6 4
5. 6
024 . 43
Flyash 30 30 30 30 Bran
Celluloee acetate dry, c o w
Grain (Whole) 125 125 80 250 granular
Cement dry Portland 4.4 8.52.6
(Processed) 125 100 80 150 2.1 4.83.4
Salt 125 100 80 150 Clay. d& lumpy 2.1 4.02.8
100 80 80 150 Clay pulverized 3.8 9.93.7
Wood (Chips) Coal: minus X" slack dry withl'e
(Sawdust) 100 100 80 150 pmpOltlOn fine3 1.7 3.1 2.6
Coal. minus %" alack moderatel
ret 2.3 4.23.1
a HP = 0,001 (FL+ GH + K)(tons/hr), where H = rise (ft),L =
Coal minus %" slack very wet
Coal: minus 1%" slack dry or
damp
1.8 3 . 6 3 . 2
1.8 3.32.6
horizontal run (ft), F, G, and Kare factors from Table (b); factor E is not Coal,sized wet or d n 1.5 2.82.4
usedbin this formula. Coconut. a h d d e d 1.9 3.72.1
Coffee. ground 1.5 3.02.1
Series 1000,2000, and 3000 differ in the shapes and sturdiness of Corn flakes 2.1 4 31.7
the flights. Flour. wheat 2 . 1 4.32.3
Fuller'a earth d y grand= 2.1 4.44.0
(Stephens-Adamson Mfg. Co.). Lime:<burned'y puisk " lump
2.0 3.53.8
Lige,G b E r n e d small lumpa
and dust 2.5 4 . 9 3 . 6
Lime. fine with tendenoy to paeb 3.0 5.84.1
Lime hydrated 1.5 18.1
6.0 2 . 8 33.8
.2
salt, hry granulated
Salt rock 1.5 2.63.6
Sand. silica co- dry 1.7 3.23.8
Sand very fine, dry 1.9 3.84.0
Sawdust dry 3.4 7.62.5
Soda a d light
soybean kea1 1.5
2.8 3.1
6 .63
2.8
.6
Starch lump 1.4 2.52.4
Starch: pulverized 3.4 n.93.4
Supar. dry granulated 2.0 3.94.8
Sugar bmwn 3.0 5.64.1
Wheal. dm fzirly clean 1.2 2.23.0
Wood chips. dry 2.0 3.7 1.9

86
 5.4. SOLID FEEDERS 87

la1
Storage bin

EDER HOUSING
OVABLE OUTER

AIR VENT
ADJUSTABLE INNER
BACK PLATE

\TUM0LER ROD (OPTIONAL)

(e)

Undercut gate - -- -.,

II

'Cmscfing rod

(i (k)

figure 5.13. Types of feeders for granular solids; also suitable are conveyors such as closed belt, Redler, and bucket types. (a) Bin discharge
feeder. (b) Rotary plate feeder with adjustable collar and speed. (c) Flow controlled by an adjustable gate. (d) Rotary drum feeder,
regulated by gate and speed. (e) Rotary vane feeder, can be equipped with air lock for fine powders. ( f ) Vane or pocket feeder. (g) Screw
feeder. (h) Apron conmeyor feeder. (i) Belt conveyor feeder. (j) Undercut gate feeder. (k) Reciprocating plate feeder. (1) Vibrating feeder,
can transfer uphill, downhill, or on the level. (m) "Air-slide" feeder for powders that can be aerated. (n) Weighing belt feeder; unbalance of
the weigh beam causes the material flow rate onto the belt to change in the direction of restoring balance.
88 TRANSFER OF SOLIDS

\ 1

r Pressure, 3 to 8 oz

(n)
Figure J.lS-(continued)

EXAMPLE 5.5 5.25

Comparison of Redler and Zippered Belt Conveyors 1000
+
HP = -[11.4(120)+ 6.5(30) 201 = 8.31.
Soda ash of bulk density 301b/cuft is to be moved 120ft
horizontally and 30 ft vertically at the rate of 350 cuft/hr. Compare F~~a closed belt,
power requirements of Redler and zippered belt conveyors for this
service.
A 3-in Redler is adequate: u=-= 350 83.3fpm,
0.07(60)

which is well under the 200 fpm that could be used,

L, = 300, L, = 120, L, = 30.

which is within the range of Table 5.7(a),
Use Eq. (5.26):
tons/hr = 350(30)/2000 = 5.25
HP = 0.001{(300/30+ 5)83.3 + [120/16 + 2(30)]5.25)
Take constants from Table 5.7(b) for a Redler. = 1.60.

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