Online learning opportunities are now

Teaching the teachers: commonplace, both within the framework of

formal post-secondary education and as part of
teaching and learning continuing education offered through professional
online associations. The National Center for Education
Statistics reports that:
In 2001, about 3.1 million individuals were
Barbara A. Burd and enrolled in distance education courses at either
two- or four-year institutions, twice as many as in
Lori E. Buchanan 1995 (Waits and Lewis, 2003, p. 1).
Furthermore, commenting on online courses and
professional development, the Pew Internet &
American Life Project states:
Fully 41 percent of Internet users – a figure that
represents more than 47 million people – have
received additional online education or training for
The authors a career in the past two years (Kommers and
Rainie, 2002, p. 5).
Barbara A. Burd is Head of Reference and Information Literacy,
Colgate University, Hamilton, New York, USA. Given these trends, preparing to teach and learn
Lori E. Buchanan is Instructional Services Librarian and online is increasingly important for academic
Professor, Austin Peay University, Clarksville, Tennessee, USA. librarians who teach online courses, as well as for
those who participate in online continuing
Keywords education sponsored by the Association of College
Academic libraries, Information services, Teaching methods, and Research Libraries, Association of Research
Learning styles Libraries, and other organizations.
Distance education is broadly defined as any
Abstract learning that takes place when the teacher and the
As online learning opportunities increase in today’s society, student are separated by physical distance.
librarians need to consider additional ways to design online Distance education is commonly divided into
instruction effectively. Developing the strategies necessary to synchronous and asynchronous learning
teach and learn online successfully requires an understanding of environments. In a synchronous environment, the
learning styles and how they may be best addressed in the online teacher and student interact in real-time. Often
environment. As is the case in a face-to-face classroom, the use students meet in a location, typically a classroom,
of a specific teaching style or set of styles must expand in order
at a designated time for either one-way or two-way
to address different learning styles when teaching online.
Successful teaching and learning depend on all participants videoconferencing, which is transmitted by the
possessing the attitudes necessary to succeed in the online teacher from a different location. The advantage of
environment. This paper provides information about learning synchronous learning is the opportunity for
and teaching styles, and it addresses how teaching to various immediate feedback for both teacher and student.
learning styles may be accomplished using the available online An asynchronous learning environment does not
tools and resources. occur in real-time; students have the flexibility of
working at their own pace in their homes or
Electronic access workplaces. Asynchronous learning is delivered via
The Emerald Research Register for this journal is videotapes, audiotapes, or the web, often using
available at course management systems, such as Blackboard
www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister or WebCT. Most course management systems also
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is provide for synchronous learning via virtual chat.
available at Research suggests the most effective learning
www.emeraldinsight.com/0090-7324.htm occurs when courses are designed to appeal to
various learning styles. In a face-to-face classroom,
this traditionally involves developing a pedagogy
that may include lecture, active learning exercises,
and experiential learning. In order to be successful
online teachers and learners, librarians must
understand and utilize learning styles to inform the
Reference Services Review way they approach online teaching and learning.
Volume 32 · Number 4 · 2004 · pp. 404-412
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited · ISSN 0090-7324 Submitted: 2 June 2004
DOI 10.1108/00907320410569761 Accepted: 5 August 2004
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This paper explores how knowledge of learning learners. Imaginative learners rely on CE and RO.
styles can transform learning and teaching in an They seek meaning from experiences and are
online environment. interested in people and culture. They perform
best in situations that allow for “brainstorming.”
Common sense learners rely on AE and AC. They
are pragmatic, seeking to integrate theory and
Overview of learning styles practice. They perform best in situations where
there is one correct way to accomplish a goal and
The definition of “learning styles” varies widely prefer to learn one step at a time. Analytic learners
depending on the perspective of the researcher. rely on AC and RO. They perform best in a
While early researchers, such as Kolb (1981), traditional classroom. Dynamic learners rely on
focused on learning styles as a reflection of how CE and AE. They are willing to take risks and learn
thought is processed, more contemporary through experimentation. They perform best in an
researchers have expanded the field to include environment that allows for trial-and-error and
both psychological and affective dimensions that will rely on information from others rather than
effect learning. Individual learning styles are analytical analysis to solve problems (Kolb, 1981;
developed as an outcome of heredity, experience, Lewis, 1991).
and current environment. James and Gardner
(1995, p. 20) suggest that a core concept of
learning styles is “how people react to their Gregorc’s mindstyles
learning environment.” Dunn (2000, p. 9) cites Similar to Kolb, Gregorc suggests that individuals
this commonly accepted definition: learn through certain “mindstyles,” which he
Learning style is a biologically and developmentally names “concrete”, “abstract”, “sequential” and
determined set of personal characteristics that “random” to reflect the way that information is
make the identical instruction effective for some processed. Concrete learners respond well to a
students and ineffective for others. structured, practical, and predictable learning
environment in which they can be physically
The following sections cover some of the
involved. Abstract learners perform best in an
important theories on learning styles.
environment that is logical and analytical. They
specialize in synthesizing data to produce new
Kolb’s learning cycle concepts or theories. Random learners prefer
Drawing on experiential learning theory, Kolb sociable and imaginative learning experiences.
(1981, p. 235) developed a model of the learning They think holistically and can take disparate
cycle to illustrate how “experience is translated pieces of information and form them into a global
into concepts, which, in turn, are used as guides in concept. Sequential learners need specific details
the choice of new experiences”. According to presented in a structured, step-at-a-time format
Kolb, learning is a four-stage process beginning (Sarasin, 1999; Lewis, 1991).
with CEs. These experiences form the basis for
observations and reflections, which in turn lead to Multi-dimensional learning styles
the formation of abstract concepts and While Kolb and Gregorc analyzed learning styles
generalization. Finally these abstract concepts or according to cognitive dimensions, other
hypotheses guide in the creation of new researchers recognize that learning styles also
experiences. Kolb further suggests that learners include perceptual and affective modalities.
need to develop abilities that match the stages of James and Gardner (1995, p. 19) suggest “the
the learning cycle. For learning to occur, the ways individual learners react to the overall
individual must undergo new experiences and learning environment make up the individual’s
reflect on those experiences. This reflection leads learning style.” And James and Blank (1993,
to the creation of theories or concepts that are then p. 47) define learning styles as the “complex
used to make knowledgeable decisions. manner in which, and conditions under which,
According to Kolb, cognitive development takes learners most efficiently and most effectively
place along two dimensions. The first places perceive, process, store, and recall what they are
concrete experience (CE) at one end of the attempting to learn.” Thus, perceptual,
dimension and abstract conceptualization (AC) at cognitive, and affective factors all contribute to
the opposite end; the second places active an individual’s learning style. The perceptual
experimentation (AE) and reflective observation mode identifies the ways in which individuals
(RO) at opposite ends of the dimension. This react to external stimuli and assimilate
suggests four distinct learning styles: imaginative information. According to James and Gardner,
learners are opposite from common sense learners French (1975a, b) proposes seven concepts that
and analytic learners are opposite from dynamic contribute to perceptual modality:
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(1) visual (pictures, diagrams, maps, charts); learners visualize information. They need to see
(2) print (written words, text); how each of the parts contributes to the whole
(3) aural (hearing or auditory); concept. Active learners need involvement in the
(4) interactive (talking, discussion); learning process. Sarasin groups learning
(5) haptic (touch); preferences into auditory, visual, and tactile/
(6) kinesthetic (movement, learning by doing); kinesthetic categories. Auditory learners perform
and best when information is spoken. They learn
(7) olfactory (smell and taste). sequentially and process information in a
The cognitive dimension of learning styles reflects structured, logical way, moving from
how thought is processed and is represented by the understanding of parts to comprehension of the
Kolb and Gregorc models. Affective modes reflect larger concept. Visual learners rely on pictures,
the emotional component of learning and are seen images, and graphs to comprehend information.
in individual behaviors, such as preferring to learn They do well in an environment that introduces a
independently or in a group. The affective global concept and then integrates the parts into
modality is evident in the way in which individuals the whole. Tactile/kinesthetic learners need to
use their emotions to make sense of learning “do” in order to learn. They perform best in an
experiences. active learning environment where they can be
Focusing on multidimensional factors, Dunn involved in the learning process.
(2000) suggests that environmental, emotional, Grasha (2000) groups individuals into six
sociological, physiological, and psychological categories: competitive students need to learn
factors influence learning. Environmental factors material better than their counterparts in order to
include seating arrangement, temperature of receive attention and recognition; collaborative
room, and lighting, while emotional factors are learners share ideas and work with others; avoidant
represented by motivation, initiative, and learners are not very interested in learning and will
responsibility. Sociological factors are preferences not participate in class discussions; participant
for learning alone versus group learning and learners are active in class and tend to be good
working in various types of classroom settings. class “citizens”; dependent learners rely on
Physiological factors include perceptual authority and show little intellectual curiosity; and,
dimensions, such as visual, verbal, and kinesthetic, independent learners work alone and determine
as well as time of day and other stimuli that affect the extent of their own learning.
an individual’s physiology. Psychological factors Felder and Solomon (1993) combine modalities
reflect the way that individuals process to include active and reflective, sensing and
information (global versus analytic and impulsive intuitive, visual and verbal, or sequential and
versus reflective) and hemisphericity (right- global. Active learners perform best in
brained or left-brained). environments where they can experiment and
Other researchers also focus on learning styles “learn by doing”. Reflective learners need to think
as preferences for certain behaviors or conditions about the information they receive so need time to
under which learning occurs as well as how process information. Sensors need to experience
information is processed. According to Sarasin ideas in logical, structured sequences, while
(1999), Sims and Sims group learning styles into intuitive learners think in abstract concepts. Visual
cognitive, perceptual, behavioral, or affective learners learn best through graphs, pictures, and
domains. Persons with cognitive learning images, since they need to “see” new ideas or
preferences learn best when information is concepts. Verbal learners do best in an
presented in a logical, sequential manner. They environment focused on both written and spoken
need to understand parts of a concept before words. Sequential learners respond well to
applying understanding to the whole concept. information presented in a logical, structured
Perceptual learners view concepts holistically. order, while global learners think in abstract terms,
Understanding the whole leads to understanding often grasping whole concepts before seeing how
of how the parts influence the whole. Perceptual each idea contributes to the whole.
learners learn best when presented with Research suggests that individuals are usually
information graphically. Behavioral learners favor strong in one learning style, but will exhibit
experiential learning and “learning by doing.” multiple learning styles or a combination of
Affective learners depend on their emotions to learning styles depending on age, gender,
bring sense into the learning process. personality, culture, and environment[1]. The
Harb, Durrant, and Terry suggest that learners following sections discuss some strategies that can
are reflective/abstract, concrete, or active (see be used to adapt instructional design in an online
Sarasin, 1999). Reflective/abstract learners need environment to appeal to the learning styles of
time to think about information while concrete various types of learners.
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Planning for online education (2) glancing through all content as soon as the
course is available in order to become familiar
Before considering whether to teach or participate with the layout;
in online instruction, individuals need to consider (3) noting the scheduled chat times and making
whether they have the technical tools, personality, necessary arrangements to be present;
and resources to achieve success. Online learning (4) going online at least once a day to see what
is most successful when individuals are other participants have posted;
enthusiastic about teaching and learning in this (5) making every attempt to meet the due date for
medium and willing to take risks to learn to each day’s activities, which build on each other
communicate effectively employing the available and lead toward completion of the final
technology. Teaching and learning online requires project; and
preparation in the following prerequisites. (6) using the calendar within WebCt (or other
course management systems) to keep abreast
of important dates and events.
Teacher and student prerequisites for online Successful online students are active learners, who
learning are willing to take responsibility for their own
Prerequisite to online education is the availability learning and able to communicate effectively in
of technical resources. Both teachers and students both a synchronous and asynchronous
must have easy access to computers and a good environment using a variety of technologies.
internet connection. It is impractical for students
to believe that they can complete most coursework
during work hours, even when the course is Applying teaching styles to online learning
mandated or supported by employers. If either Just as students possess different learning styles,
teachers or students need to rely on dial-up teachers tend to exhibit specific teaching styles that
connections, they must make sure that the reflect their belief in how individuals learn[2].
connection is fast enough to allow for virtual chat Grasha (2000) proposes five teaching styles:
and reliable download of large files. Students may (1) Expert. Possesses knowledge and expertise
need to check with system administrators to make that is communicated effectively to students to
sure that firewalls or other security systems will not insure they are challenged and well prepared
interfere with access. Teachers may also need to for future experiences.
troubleshoot technical problems or have access to (2) Formal authority. Relies on position and power
others who will supply fast technical support. Both to engage students in a structured, acceptable
teachers and students need basic technology program of learning.
fluencies, such as file management, uploading and (3) Personal model. Will model behavior that
downloading files, and communication etiquette. students should emulate in order for learning
Before enrolling in an online course, students to occur.
need to assess the practical considerations that will (4) Facilitator. Encourages student-teacher
interactions and develops independent
affect their success. Online students should be
learning activities in a consultative fashion.
motivated and self-directed. Successful online
(5) Delegator. Acts as a consultant and resource
students prioritize their home, work, and study
person as students develop into self-directed,
responsibilities. While online learning often allows
independent learners.
for great flexibility in scheduling, students must be
able to manage their responsibilities to allow Grasha further suggests that individuals exhibit
sufficient time for course participation and study. these teaching styles in four teaching style
The physical environment should be conducive to clusters, two of which are teacher-centered
interaction via computer and reflection on course and two, student-centered: expert/formal
material. Students need to work independently, authority; personal model/expert/formal authority,
often with less direction from the instructor than is facilitator/personal model/expert; and delegator/
available in traditional classrooms. Distance facilitator/expert. Both the expert/formal authority
education students should be comfortable and the personal model/expert/formal authority
communicating in an online environment and styles focus on the teacher as authority, employing
willing to take the initiative in communicating with lecture as the primary mode of instruction. The
teachers and other students. They should be open personal model/expert/formal authority style also
to experimenting with new technologies. employs role modeling. The facilitator/personal
Buchanan et al. (2004) suggest the following steps model/expert teacher provides goals and objectives,
for success in online learning: while including active learning to facilitate student
(1) reading suggested background materials involvement in learning. The delegator/facilitator/
before the course start date; expert teacher provides a student-centered
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environment in which the students are responsible effective teaching. The most successful teachers
for their own learning. The delegator/facilitator/ spend time carefully designing their courses for the
expert teacher works on developing good online environment. Even when adapting a fully
relationships with students to allow for maximum developed traditional course which has already
student learning to occur (Grasha 1996). Grasha been used in the classroom, they incorporate
likens the process of learning to a dance that learning activities specific to distance learning.
involves both teacher and student as one responds They enjoy working with technology and are
to the other. Using various teaching styles provokes willing to help students with technology issues
a certain response from students, just as (Gilbert, 2001).
accommodation to various learning styles can effect In Implementing the Seven Principles: Technology
change in the teaching styles of instructors. as Lever, Chickering and Ehrmann (1996, pp. 3-6)
When designing an online course, teachers suggest using technology to support online
should employ a variety of techniques and active instruction through the following “good
learning experiences for students. Typically online practices”:
courses are developed using Blackboard or .
encourage contact between students and
WebCT course management software. These faculty;
systems offer opportunities to incorporate various .
develop reciprocity and cooperation among
activities that appeal to different learning styles. By students;
its very nature, online learning requires a student- .
use active learning techniques;
centered approach. Teachers whose mode is .
give prompt feedback;
primarily expert and formal authority may have .
emphasize time on task;
difficulty adapting their styles to an online .
communicate high expectations; and
environment. On the other hand, online courses . respect diverse talents and ways of learning.
provide an opportunity for teachers to expand Implementing these good practices using course
their teaching repertoire. Courses built on management systems to recognize the strengths of
instructional design that recognizes differences in various learning styles is covered in the next
learning styles are often more effective and section.
satisfying to students than courses that primarily
rely on written content or lecture format. Verduin
and Clark (1991, pp. 157-62) propose five factors
to be considered when designing instruction for Teaching to learning styles
distance education:
(1) entering behavior; The four types of interactions critical for DE
(2) instructional objectives; learner success includes (1) learner-to-content, (2)
learner-to-instructor, (3) learner-to-learner, and
(3) designing the learning unit;
(4) learner-to-interface (Schutt, 2000, p. 1).
(4) presenting and performing; and
(5) assessing performance. Online course communication must be intentional
and planned. Learner-to-instructor defines the
To design an effective online course the teacher communication structures enabling interaction
must understand the motivation, goals, and level between student and teacher, whereas learner-to-
of understanding of entering students. He or she learner reflects media used for student
must develop clearly defined goals and objectives communications. According to Schutt (2000),
built on knowledge of entering behavior. learner-to-interface includes the process whereby the
Objectives should be both instrumental, designed student gains mastery of the technology used in the
to produce behavioral change, and conceptual, course management system, while learner-to-content
planned to generate application of knowledge. describes the cognitive processes as the student
Presenting involves the way content is delivered learns the course material. The course management
and the communication process utilized by teacher system is the interface with which students interact,
and students. Assessment of performance should and it contains the tools that teachers need to
be formative and summative. Formative carefully consider in addressing the various types of
assessment occurs during the learning experience learning interactions that are available.
and includes feedback to both instructor and
student. Summative assessment happens at the
end of the course to ascertain the achievement of Using the syllabus to create community
the learning objectives. An important step in this When planning online courses using course
model is utilizing technology to meet behavioral management software, the development of the
objectives. By appealing to various learning styles, syllabus requires careful consideration. In an online
teachers can use technology to design instruction course, the syllabus provides more than the course
that creates a variety of learning experiences for outline often typical of the syllabus used in a
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traditional classroom. The syllabus provides learning, student-centered environment. Content

information about the course instructors, including ought to be presented using various technologies
links to e-mail, telephone numbers, and times of and formats. Online lectures should be concise
availability. A personal message from instructors with lots of white space between bodies of text.
personalizes the course and begins to develop a sense Using headings and sub-headings helps to break
of community. Besides the goals and objectives for up heavy textual content and provides an
the entire course, the goals and objectives for each opportunity for linking that will appeal to the
lesson or module need to be explicitly expressed in global learner. Written course material will appeal
the syllabus. The syllabus should also provide an to the visual and verbal learner, while audio files
overview of course content. All activities, which can be used to appeal to the auditory learner. The
should be student-centered and include discussion written content should include charts, graphs, and
boards and chats, need to be described in detail with images, thus, facilitating learning for the non-
due dates highlighted. Expectations for posting to textual visual learner. Both visual and auditory
the discussion board have to be clearly defined and learners relate to material presented in a logical
should include some group interaction. Virtual chat and sequential format. Links to definitions provide
should occur at various times in order to include as quick explanations of unfamiliar terms. Linking to
many students as possible. Due dates should be related concepts allows the global learner access to
linked to the calendar, which needs to be kept materials that support random multi-directional
current to remind students of important dates. The learning. Students may be asked to develop links to
syllabus needs to explain methods of additional lists of resources that are relevant to the
communication, as well as guidelines for submission topic, thus supporting the active learning
of materials and when feedback can be expected. environment. Providing optional as well as
When appropriate, grading criteria and other class required course readings that are relevant and
expectations should be included in the syllabus. challenging appeal to both sequential and global
Links to content support those learners who prefer a learners.
global or abstract approach to learning, thereby Course content needs to incorporate
allowing students to approach the course experiential learning with time to reflect on new
sequentially or randomly. learning experiences. Activities should be
It is important for the teacher to establish a integrated throughout the course. When possible,
sense of community by including initial activities simulations or case studies can be used effectively
that encourage students to get to know one to involve students in the learning process.
another. The teacher can post a biography and ask Encouraging debate and discussion is necessary
for students to post introductory biographies or for effective learning. Using the discussion board
provide other information about themselves. If for both threaded and unthreaded discussions
possible, an “ice-breaking” activity can be based on course content aids in learning and
designed as the first discussion thread. A integration of new concepts.
discussion board can be set up for community The reflective student requires time to think
interactions outside formal discussions. Social about new concepts. Students have to be given
learners appreciate the ability to chat virtually with opportunity to reflect on the course content
classmates in informal venues. through discussion or reflection essays that include
Teachers can effectively make use of the their own observations on the content and also
announcement page to encourage students and how they can incorporate the experiences or
reinforce learning. The announcement page can observations of others into their own knowledge
provide feedback, pose questions that further base. Teachers should be prepared to facilitate
critical thinking, and point students to useful discussion as students may guide their own
resources. It can also be a forum to encourage and learning through experience or reflection. Both
support community through use of personal active and reflective students benefit from an
anecdotes that are relevant to the course material. instructional design that provides feedback and the
Overall, the syllabus conveys the teacher’s ability to talk about concepts and experiences.
expectations, as well as addressing student
concerns. Together with the announcement page
and introductions, it builds online community and Using discussion boards effectively
introduces the process that students will use to Discussion boards often become the primary
engage in course content. means of communication. Benfield (2002) offers
useful suggestions for managing effective online
discussions. When setting up discussion threads,
Developing student-centered content the teacher needs to be clear about expectations,
Developing course content requires setting up guidelines and protocols for discussion.
comprehensive planning to create an active Time limits for postings need to be clearly
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articulated with defined beginnings and endings. situations. Ip and Naidu (2001) provide useful
Discussions should be task-oriented and provide a suggestions for experience-based pedagogical
useful advantage to students. Students need to designs that work well for e-learning. Using goal-
know when they can expect teacher feedback and based scenarios, the instructor develops general
the criteria that will be used if discussion is goals for the course while students complete
assessed. In an online discussion, the teacher acts projects that give them the opportunity to learn by
as facilitator and model. The best discussion is doing. This gives students the freedom to decide
student-centered with the teacher intervening to what content and skills are most important for
provide structure. Feedback should be timely. them to learn in order to complete their project,
Teachers need to encourage students through which is often based on a real-life need. In goal-
praise and reassurance. A useful technique is to set based scenarios, the teacher acts as delegator/
up group debates requiring students to work facilitator/expert by providing consultation and
together and collaborate on postings. Discussion direction while students work independently. This
boards can be used effectively as building blocks to scenario works well with independent and active
a final research report, annotated bibliography, learners.
multimedia project, or portfolio. Reflective In web-based role-play, students are organized
learners may be reticent about posting initially, into teams to come up with a constructive solution
whereas active learners may engage in discussion to a problem or crisis that is rooted in experience.
more easily. To be effective, teachers need to Each student is responsible for conducting his/her
communicate with non-participants privately to own research and contributing insight into the
encourage discussion. Most importantly, the solution of the problem through role-play. The
teachers in online courses need to model the teacher acts as delegator/facilitator/expert by
behaviors they expect from students. providing a supportive environment and guidance,
but does not actively participate in the learning
Suggestions for virtual chat experience. Independent and active learners
Virtual, or synchronous, chat provides an perform well in this environment, as do random
additional medium for communication that and global learners who will see the problem in its
appeals to active, social learners and global, entirety and work towards a solution.
abstract learners. Before the chat session, students Rule-based simulations allow the learner to try
should make sure they can connect to the Internet out various schemas by adjusting input variables in
and should become familiar with the chat a system to observe changes in output variables.
interface. For virtual chat to be effective, group Rule-based systems can focus on conceptual or
size should be limited to no more than 12 operational models. Sequential or cognitive
participants. Time for social interaction is learners will enjoy the structured and analytical
appropriate at the beginning of the chat session, approach to rule-based simulations while the
but the session should have a specific agenda that is teacher acts as facilitator/expert by providing
posted to students beforehand. Students should be consultation and expert reasoning to the solution
encouraged to prepare carefully for the chat of problems.
session by reading assigned materials and In case-based learning, students discuss and
considering agenda items. debate a real world problem or topic in order to
The teacher facilitates discussion by directing develop critical reasoning. In case studies, learning
comments to certain individuals or to the group in proceeds from the specific case to understanding
general and by encouraging participation from all of concepts or theories that can be applied to
(Varvel, 2001). This is also an opportunity for the similar life situations. Thus, case studies appeal to
teacher to be supportive and encouraging. After abstract and random learners. Because case
the session, the teacher should follow-up on any studies can be analyzed either independently or by
unanswered questions. An archive of the chat individuals working in groups, they can apply to
should be made available as soon as possible after independent or social, collaborative learners. In
the chat session. This provides additional access to case studies, the teacher acts as delegator/
material for the visual learner and allows for facilitator/expert by offering consultative support
reflection on the content and dynamics of the chat while encouraging participants to work out their
session. For auditory learners, the teacher may use own understanding.
audio format or perhaps conferencing to facilitate Project-based or problem-based learning
group discussion. activities appeal to those students who “learn by
doing.” In this scenario, students are presented
Developing experiential activities with a problem and asked to develop a solution
Activities should provide learners with the through use of discussion boards, independent
opportunity to apply concepts to their real-life research, and reflection. Building on activities to
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complete final projects students can potentially use dance partner responds affects the next move of the
in their work or personal lives increases retention person leading. Good dancing partners make
and integration of concepts. Projects can take the needed adjustments to accommodate each other,
and the exchange of signals allow a creative and
form of written presentations, spoken
artistic expression of movement and form to occur.
presentations using audio or video format, or
multi-media presentations, offering students the Taking time to understand learning styles better
opportunity to incorporate various media into has the potential to improve teaching and learning.
their final projects. It is often beneficial for projects When students are aware of their learning styles,
to be shared via a virtual “dropbox” that can be they can choose the instructional format that will
accessed by both students and instructor. Students appeal to them and compensate for formats that
can be asked to comment on the projects of others are not conducive to their learning style. They
and to find ways that they may use their colleagues’ learn to adapt to other learning styles in order to
ideas in their own presentations. Project-based or become more balanced learners who adjust to
problem-based activities will generally appeal to various situations, thus, providing experiences that
many types of learners, as they accommodate reflect real-life. Teachers can develop courses
active learning with RO. Problems or projects can using a variety of formats and techniques to appeal
be assigned independently or collaboratively, to various learning styles. This addresses both
appealing to independent or social learners. dominant preferences and provides learners with
Critical thinking is developed as individuals reflect additional opportunities to develop other learning
on their own problems and comment on the styles. In online education, the role of the teacher
projects of others. The teacher acts as delegator/ changes from one of authority or sage to facilitator
facilitator/expert by providing resources while or guide. Online learning promotes student-
encouraging students to engage in online centered, active learning in which the individual
discussion, debate, and reflection on both the becomes largely responsible for his or her own
completion of the project and the method of learning while the teacher is responsible for
learning. presenting multiple opportunities for processing
Critical incident-based collaborative learning information and assisting students in the creation
engages participants in reflection of real-life work of new knowledge. By applying these principles to
situations. Ip and Naidu (2001) suggest the use of instructional design with deliberate planning,
learning logs to record experiences, how the online education becomes a wonderful, fulfilling
individual dealt with the incident, and successes experience for both teachers and students.
and failures. The learning log provides a medium
for reflective thinking as it focuses on the process of
problem solving. Learning logs are shared with Notes
other students so that all can learn from each
others’ experiences as concepts or theories are 1 Various learning styles questionnaires are included in the
applied to experience. Critical incident-based Appendix.
2 Grasha-Riechmann’s Teaching Style Survey is available at
collaborative learning appeals to imaginative or http://longleaf.net/teachingstyle.html. Also, see “ Teaching
abstract learners, as well as random learners, who styles: teaching styles and instructional uses of the world
will enjoy the social process of integrating wide web” (Indiana State University Center for Teaching
experiences into holistic concepts. In this scenario, and Learning, 2004) for a discussion of teaching styles and
the teacher supports the collaborative learning their impact on online instruction.
environment by facilitating and guiding
discussion. Whenever possible, students should be
encouraged to use local resources, such as
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