,\'~', ,

\" L"r', I,
, '.",. f

• 'I' r:
';"" ~ ,
, .1 'I
 • •• •. , I fI~'" " "

"
"
'. \! h,
';, " '
. _-..I • .:!"':'~ ...L~""_~'

I'
I

"

I'

Preface

Gen erat ors and transform ers arc two majo r comcrstoncs in {h ~ rabric of ,IllY
ck ctri c po we r supply system. In [975 the instal led gl' ll cral o r <.: :l p;,d ty wa s in th e
region of "bo ut 650GW in Europe and about 585GW inlhc US A and Canada,
,I lly laki ng a I'alio of abo ut 7: 1, Ibe associated installed tran sfo rme r capacity is
about se ve n timcs the ge nerat or capacit y whi ch gives an idea o f th e Il wgniludc o f
transfo rmer capJ city in se rvice in th ose parts of th e world :1l o ne. All over the
world the IOlaltransformcr capaci ty in service is subslanlially large r: Ihis signines
th e impo rtan ce and vit al duly of po we r tra nsfo rm ers.
The book is int end ed csscnli:J.ll y as a st:11 Cl11 c nt a ll th e current slal e o f th e a rl o f
design, manufacture a nd ope ratio n o f po we r tra nsfo rme rs. II a:-osc from a wc ll-
att end ed course o f lec turcs give n to practising engineers o f th e industri es of
electric po we r supply and of tra nsformer l1l~l l1u f<lc l lJrc. An ed ito ria l effo rt waS
Jl1;-tde to integrate the entire ma terial int o a book arproa cilcd and present ed at a
stand ard level. ,•
Standard specifi catio ns pliJ.Y an im portant part ill till: (.; li o if..:c , design,IlJ;\ ll ll l:Lc· ,! r
lure ;wd operation o f po wer tran sforme rs. A selec tio n of speci fi cations o f th e (
Intcrn;Hi o na i Elcctrn tcchnica l Co mmissio n (IEC), th e Otiti sh Standards In -
51;lul;on (I3SI) aild the USA Sialldards is givell ill sec lioll 1.14, O rllecessily th e list
is rar from complete. Its prima ry p urp ose is to stimula te int erest ,111\.1 to provid l! a
patt ern o f so urces ro r aUlitorit :1 tivc in formati o n also in o th er cou ntr ies.
T he terminology. used is un irorm and in litlc with the currcllt rev isio n of th e
ln tel'llfl [iolla / Elec tro l ec hnic{I / Vocabll /ary oJ the I EC; th e classi fi ca tion oXyo wcr
:1 transform ers with in th e con text ofl his boo k is explain ed in sc~ li o J1 1.1. The letter
symbols for quantll ics and for th e SI units of mcasurement arc in :l cco rda ncc ·with
the lEe publicati o n Leifer Symb ols to be Used ill Electric(li Tedl llo /ngy. Part I:
General. 27- 1 (1971),
A systema ti c guid e to th e co nt en ts o f the boo k is gi\'cn in Cll ;lptr.: r I, Th e boo k is
;;! dclrcsscd 10 " wid e ra nge o f prac ti sin g c lI g ine ~ rs , and s tud ~ nl s may usc it ~t S a
f;t ctu a l refe rence at tIL e in it ia l singes of project o r rcsl:are h wo rk,

Cir e,," "'. Cir esirire, 19 78 R.F,

~­
'.' ~ .
.-. - '- ;ft~-(' , - .. .,
.'
"
 . , fJ.
~
I
" J
"
.' ,

:j
,I ,
.", ; 5)'1111
,
Ir
I II
' 11

",
M~

Nf~r

: ), i
IH rl
List of QU,a ntity Symbols
'"
:u 1\ to • • •
A1el'
11

,r I These quantity symbols arc com mon to chap tt.:rs to 11. N,N IN
'r Notc, For elec trical i.~ll d th el' l1la l quant ities th e subscript n.:ft.: rs 1'0 th e low- P Cu
h I vo lta ge and the subsc ript 2 It) Ihe..: high -vo lt ~i'gc winding. r Cu l , P Cu 2
· " I~I
t' P CU • 1
Symbol /\1(!{/l/illg Unit
I) f Ae ex ter nal cooling surface of a co il m2 .
P elt

Pre
· In , Aeu total ClI pper l r')~I\-scttiOI1 PCI pha se 01 2 I',
;1 Fe co rc leg IId t.: ll''';'; wt.: lion area - 111 1 1'.
AFc,g core leg grns') crms-scc: li o l1 area 1112 p,.
A ,. ex ternal c n·~t.: lj\C lank coo ling su rface 1112 'ioPc u
A, = Aeu !-- / I Fe 1112 %1-\, ,'PI
II, nett co re wil li1 p w nn.:;t be tw ee n core cil'ck~~ 111 2 Il,. Il

1+I 'I
1
Ao
Am
cross-section an'a for thermal power fl ow
hea t Irnn s f~ r :.. tH f:lI;\! lH:twCC Il wind in g Iaycr'\
peak "a ille "r " ,,,:,,,,, 1i" illix de" s il), ill Co,e leg
111 2
11)2
T
%R
H"b

1~ 111
11'11

jll
· p ,
'.

°"11
C,
I . I, . I ,
peak \'a luc a rk " .I,t;": Jlu .'.; density ill axia l du ct T
total cos t of 'J(.:tin: cop p er and iron
winding CllrrL'lIts
Um
A
lit
s;
',' I.'
I, windin g Ctll H..'llt I i1 dt.: r Eltllt condition
norlllal full 1(,.ld ;qciillg currcn t
A
A
.( II.
I,. X
, v,
I"
I )f ,I IN = ll N I = I l'V~ ",iilding ;11Ilj>t.: rc '=- turns A "
%Z
If
n ' J, J" J, winding curlent dt ll!ot ity A I11m - 2 0, ai,
oli I J, short-circui t \\ il1di ng ClIfI't.:nt densit y A nlm - 2 (10
de \ K see equation
. l ,l5
: KA = Arc x Acu ! "0
rr ; J\. :IS o utput cocllil: i ~ llt, sec equation 2.55
I.
'a '
II
I
Kc
K,
cost codlicil.! lll l
empirical hen l I:lllsf(:( coc lTIcicnt
" 1'
ho,
bl

.,·1· K" empirica l cocn{..:k ll t for total hcat {ra mJer h02
I, i I fr ol11 a lall'.: ' III r;lcc
1111' 1 1\, lauk h ~; ,t 11 ;'!I:'!~ I ,·p~ n k i~llt. !,-\.'t,; \.'quatilll1 be
, I
,
K,
2.70
= (1 / K,,)08 ",b
ttn
• :01. K 1'5 output c CniCk-II t, ;,,:e ..:qll:ttioll 2.59 b•
lotallhc rt1)~ tll ,"·.\~r trallsfc r from IInit sur f:,,!.:\., \V m - 2
I ,11,
area
bFc
b.
,~,'I'
"I
'I' •
l i'\
'i l
"
... "
 LI ST OF QUANTrry SYMDOLS xiii ".,
Symbol Alcalling Un it
M~ thermal power transfer by cO llvec tion per unit W m- 2
area
"'I tr
thermal pqwt,;r transfer iJy radiation per unit W 111 - 2
area
thermal power .transfer from tan k surface per W m- 1 .., ..
unit nrca' "
average I.)f Mel over crfective tank COOli llg W 111 - 2
MeT
sUIJace
N, N I , N, winding turns .· 11
le Pc, = PC, I +PC" kW '"
PC,I. PC,' copper loss per phase at 75 ' C kW
PC,.I to tal copper loss kW
1'" ve rtical thermal power fl ow W
.1 PI', total iro n loss kW
P, total load loss at 75 ' C W
PR [ ' R loss per phase kW
P10I to tal transformer loss kW
%I'c, perce ntage copper loss
% PII % Pll. % PI percent age conductor eddy current loss
R 1, R2 windin g resistance per phase at 75 °C
%R pcrcc nt;;tgc resistance
R Ob hori zontal equivalent thermal resistance in K W- 1
winding .'
R Oh ve rtica l equivalent thl'rmal resistance in wind · K W- I
ing .
S ra ting per phase MYA
V. V lt V2 winding voltage per phase V
%X perce ntage rcactance
%2 percentage impeda nce
-, a, (Ill Dl cross-sec ti on area of a conductor stra nd 1\1/112
see equation 9.1
radial clea rance betwcen low- ~lnd high.
voltage windings III III
radial widths of windings III In

radial clearance betwecn core leg and l o \V ~ mm

voltage winding
rad ial cleara nce between high-voltage mill
windings
breadt h of rec tangular conduc tor 111 m
bread th of CO lldu Ch)( strand 111 III
~: di stance between centres of core legs mm
width of vertical dm:t between co il secti ons mrn
-, half the width of wiJest co re Icg plates mill
" widt h of core willdow 111111

.,
"i

"

... ~.""t -~"N"_' .... " " ·11';'· ... · ~.~.,. ,~

l'N,1t. ~.~f{; '~"~ ': ,i- ... ,.1:<"1 ' •
r"" .... ,' .....1" :~ ~" :i,
 r

xiv LI ST OF QUt\N n r Y SVMIIO LS

S),I1II)(
.
S)'II/bo/ "fe(lIIing Ullit I
[ Fe -
bx rea cti ve width of winuill gs. sce equatio n mm
2,60 mcu
e distance between top and bottom en try mm
11
pipes If

ecu
eF,
cost pCI' kilogram of copper
eosl per kilogra m of eol'c sleel
i 11 0
.
.
d
d,
.'.~
diam~ ter of circle circumscribing co re leg
dh"l'lctcr of round conductors
freql!eney
•
mm
mill
Hz
I, lib
11 ;
Il ~b
f lI ~ h
assumed equal heighI of lo w- and high-
"
111111
vollage windin gs PCu
assumed cLjual tOlal axial cl caJ':1n cc be- PFc
"0 twcen windings and core yoke
111m
PI
hei ght of low and hi gh-voltage windings, mm 1'.
"1' "2 S
respeelively
"01' "~2 axial clearance bel wee n low- and high- mm So
voltage wi nd ings and ,eo re yoke
height of bare conduclor strand mm S \' S2
ii,
height of horizo nta l clu cts between co il s,
I'd
secti ons min
height of core mm r.
liFe
(Pm
".
ii ,
hcight of co re wind ow .
111enning It. or hz whicheve r is th e grcat C' r
min
JllJ11
{Sb ...
I
ilO
k, k" k,
height of cen tre of tra nsrormer hea tin g
windi ng space f~tc t o rs
eosl ratio of co pper 10 total of aeli ve
111111

)
, Dbi
bbe
jI
kc l
,11
; k,
mat erial
co rc circle Sp<lC't! fa ctor
.) ~.~ .
('

k. = kl2 l kll
Dc h
k, = Il k, + Il k,
kF see equation 3.7
'I
'I space facio r of co re la minati ons II.
kF'
k; = h, /h,
b; ,'
khX See eq uali on 3.4
kjl kt II kt2 conduelor eddy eurt'enl loss faCIOI', sec equa-
li on 3.6 •t.O
kJ = J ,I},
k}< see equal ion 3.5 0,
ks fracti onal load for max imum ctTk icncy
011
k, = 2b F, l d Mill
k $}{ sec equati on 3.3
ti D.
kll' k. z corn.'c ti on Lo N I, N 1 to all ow for t a ppil1 g~
t\O.on
k, = M ,16O. M.
k. wind ow space facto r, sec cq n'lti on 2.35

~-:- -..
 I'

LIST OF QUAN'IITY S YMBOLS xv

-,
• S)'II/bol J\1('a ll illg
,Ull i/
I Fe totol length o r core legs a nd yo kes Ili
//l e u tota l mass of ac ti ve co pper k-g
I1II~c 10 1:11 ma ss o f acti ve irl?l1 kg
N 2 /N 1 ; num ber of coppcr layers in a coil i
" cooling o nly from ve rt ical stlrfaces I. ~
"0 num ber of co nductor strunds in pnrallcl
"b !lum be r of..h6rizo lllal co nductor stra nds
"h number of vertical conducto r strands
" sb nu mber of hori zo ntal sec ti o ns in a winding
"~Ir number of venica l sec ti ons in a winding
Pc. speci nc copper loss Wkg - '
PF, speci fic iro n loss Wkg - '
PI specinc co nductor cddy Cur rc nt loss Wm - '
PR specific I'R loss Wkg - '
S = !(s,+s, ) mm
So length of mea n turn of int crwinding axial
ducts 111m
length of mean turn o f winding 111111
mea n wi nding circum ference o n each leg mul·

l. . tiplicd by number or legs

duration of shon circui t
pea k va lue of ma gne tic nux in co re leg
m
s
\Vb
hor i7o ntal in sulation thickness betwee n con-
du ctor strands mm
insulation th ickness a t sides of a coil section mm
ex tern al insulati on thickness at coi l cooling
surfaces mil1
eq uivalcnt horizon tal insula ti on thickn ess be- mm
tween conductor strands
equiva lent vertica l insubtion thickness be- mill
tween conductor strands
ve rtica l insulation thickn ess between CO Il -
ducto r strands 111m
in su l,l ti o n Ih ick ll cs~ bl! I WCC IlUPPcr ,l llJ h l\\ 'cr III III
surraces of co il sec ti on
c thermal emissivity of n surface W m- 2 K- 4
60 tem perature difference between surface a nd °C
, cooling med ium
o. ambient temperature "C
a" hot·spot tempera ture °C
6 a" hot-!\pol temperature risc °C
60. top oil tempera ture risc °C
60«11 average oil tempe rature ri se °C
60. mean winding temperaturc risc °C

i -,.
T-- --- ... '.,.,.-- - -:..::;~ ...... ~~,., .. '~... ,'~
• '• .,;, i"~!).
., •• I-
• •1, t, ....O!f.1'•• ,'"~. /:.~
' ."
"d 1 J!
'i1i\
 'I,
"

,
.' I ,,,
"
F,..
'-,,
1f"
xvi LI ST OF QUANT I rY SYMUO LS

Ull if
I 1[:
I
SY/llbol Ai ('fII /ing
60~o lemperalure dro p al a co il surface 'C ~

I M. oi l temperat ure dilTcrcncc betwee n top and 'C

" hO\! OIll
•
of I;lnk
n Ow windi ng temperature measured by rc sist:l llce 'C
t:.O,.,o mean windin g temperatu re ri sc above oil 'C \ G,>;>
I

60.~ maximum win ding temperature risc nbovc oi l 'C I

,! thernial conducti vity W/Il - 1K - t
! R. J
p resistivity o f copper strip. "tak en as I'
2 1.4 x I0 · 'O m
P d. Cu
m;ss dcnsi ly o f copper, lak en ,IS 8890 kg·m · '
PJ ,Fc
mass tknsity ,qf co rc steel, taken as
7650 kgm - J

1.1

The
~mp

<.:On su
p:,rt ir'
. , \\'
~"yS k ':'l

Il,C I r;
f hrr
, 11'01"_
dbl ril-
\ • 11.2 '"
Ira m

1.2
!
1.2.1
Th e.! I" ,
in 183 1
anJ
1 \\ lutl
I

A. . "u
), · '0 li nk "I '

. ( \, ,1 :

.~. -oo;P.J. -. . " - ---- I-

~ .... .;. ~.,I·,l·
••
 , ,t' .~ . t
.
.
'

} Unit ,
, ,, ro' ••• '; ,. .", . ,,' ~
·C
"
" ! ~ L (~~ 'f " I i ,'
·C
, ... . . : ...
..
,\. i
!'!••--.:, ! ,
~.

" ','"f."
'.' "
• t. 'fir I

General Information ,
, I
" .~ .1 '~'"
~'I ,
. ,I"
R, ,Feinberg* .' '1' .... ;
,
•
,'~, "t,;t ."
!tl
;;;.:
,
,:'t,
II
,i
!
1.1 POWER TRANSFORMER CLASSIFICATION
i "
i , , "
The types of transformers considered in the following chapters are co mmonly: "
employed in the chain of electric power supply from generati.ig ' stations to ,.
,~, I consumers o f electric energy. They, include some special ,trunsform e~s designed for " ,;, ,. ,.
Pa llicular industrial purposes. ' .....' 'I ' . ,;:
.
<",:. ,.',
,,' ,;:,;' ,"
. 'r . " 1'
Within the context of this book , transformcrs have been c1ass,Ged I
as power
' .
' ,~,' i '
system and as distribution transfonners, where the phrase power sys tem refers to
the transformer chain from generating s tatic ~ to first dislributi on po inls and the
phrase dislribulion system means the sUb;equent chain to fin~ 1 distri,b ution i: ,
.'
points: Power system transformers and induclors are dis~ussed in c,h apler 10, and
iI , distrib ution transformers in chapters 9 and 12 with spedul types ill;seclions 11.1,
11.2 and 11.5. The remainder of c1mptel 11 deals with o ther s ecial types of
transformers.
"

1.2 REVIEW OF BASIC THEORY

, l' I.

,
f ,
1.2,1 Electromagnelic induction
The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, discOw(cd by Michael Faraday'
in 1831, manifesls itself in two ways: (1) as scli·inducti.'1l producpd in inductors
and underlying th e principle of an autc·lransfo rmer ami (2) as tn\,tual inducti,o n
WIHCh IS the baSIS of ~ransformcrs with two or more \\'tIldlllgs. I
, Assume a coil wilh N turn$ in a l11agnc~ic fielCl and thal each/o f Ihe turns is
linked With the same magnetic flux ", ,'! hieh varies w,th IIIne, The law of

• Consultant. formerl y Ferranti Limi ted.

 ,;' . .' .

.'
2 MODERN POWER TRANSrORM[:J. ?tt,\C"TICE

electromagnetic induction gives for the instantao.-,:us ,oltage v produced across

the coil 'the expression . ' .( { '
. v = -Nd</>/dt
. , , ' (1.1)
' ,-
Let </> be a sinusoidally varying flux of amplilud: ,q. and frequcncy /
f ' . " " 1', \
,~ ., ': ,I \
( 1.2)
'." '.1 . l'
then, from equation ~.1, ;J . j I

! V = 2n/N</>msin(27t/r) = V2' ';iD(2n/ri '

.Q
i iV )' (1.3)
which mea~~ . ' '. ,~,t
.,
I

V/N = 21/2n/</>m = 4.44/</>m = ~A-IjlImAF' (I A) ;!;

. '\ /
where 8 m is Ihe amplitude of sinusoidal flux density .Dd A F, the nett cross·section
of the iron core c,",rying the sinusoidal flux (see equollion 1.2). The quoticnt V/ N
in equation lA denotes the voltage per turn of Ihe gi,'en coil. I
In the two-winding transformer depicted in figun: l.1(a) ~lth , N 1 and N 2 ,.

10) 1
"

.!l- 2-
I:
""

f- )
l- J Z

+ --
v, N, V,
N,
J
-- 1
Ib) \

I
Figu re 1.1 Transformer principle: (a) two-windin g transformer; (b) auto-transformer
\
I
 "
GENERAL INfORMATION ' 3 .011",,
\

_I 'v produced across· : denoting the turns of primary and secondary winding, respectively, the turns ratio " ,
" n of secondary to primary winding is ,;. . ;
!
, (U) (1.5) ,
: :
/'
"
d " equcncy f Ass ume an ideal transformer, that is a transfo rmer without any leakage flux or
'. I ( 1.2)
without any losses, then in accordance with equations 1.4 and 1.5 ' .,
. ., . .- V,/V, = (1.6)
-, /I
, \ where V, and V, are the respective rms voltages across 'the secondary and the
-(,) (1.3)
primary winding. A transformer with n > I is a slep-up transformer,and tha t with
/I < I a step-do wn transformer.
The auto-transformer ,shown in fi gure I.)(b) is in principle a lapped inductor
" ;IF, (1.4) with N J turns for the whole coil a nd N 1 turns for Ihe tapped part of the coil. As
, I shown in figure U(b) the whole coil functions as the primary winding, it is
i_ he nell cross-section
connected to the source of power supply, and the tapped part is the secondary
1.2). The q\l olient V / N ,. .1 '
winding; th e turns ratio is n < I, the transformer operates as a step-down
" oil. tra nsformer. By reversing the input and output connections, the turns ratio is
:a) with N, and N 1
changed to II > I, and the transformer becomes a step-up transformer. .
The two transformers in figure I.) arc of the single-phase type. In either case, a
! three-phase transformer represents a logical extension of the single-phase versi~n.
I -
- 1.2.2 Ampere - turn balance
. ,
\
I ~•
(, .
,
~
.

, z
;
"
Ass ume idealised transformers in figure 1.1 , Ihat is a magnelic flux witho ut a
mag netising current and the absence of leakage flux a nd of losses. With the
respective curren'ts I, a nd 12 in the primary atid seconda ry circuits (sec figure 1.1)
,
I , the law of a mpere - turn balance in the transformer windings requires the
- . r- , rel ati o nship
I (1.7)
1 I which mcans, with equalion 1.5,
J
III, I ,II, = I /n (1.8'-::
,
r- I
" 1.2.3 Change of turns ratio
1
According to equation 1.6 the voltage ratio ofa transfo rmer is altered by changing
z
,I the turns ratio. This is ac hieved by means of tappings on either the primary o r
secondary winding of the transformer. The principle of tapping o n the secondary
winding is indicated in figure 1.2(a) for a two-w inding transformer and in figure

I l.2(b) for an auto-transform er.

1.2.4 Magnetisiog current

The relative permeability of the core steel of a power transformer varies with the
Irmer; (b) aut o ~tran s rormer magnit ude of mag netic flux density in the co re and the elTect of magnetic
I \.
I
I
I
 4 MODERN POWER TRAf'lSFORMER PRACTICE

'.'f' "
f
" , ~ 7'

jv,
l!1
'--_ _ _---'1
.J/tO)
.:. ' /
. -'-- .....
" From

where.
primary
figure '

Figure 1.2 Transformer wi th tappings on secondary wind in g; (a) two.win~ing tran sfor-
mer, (b) auto-transformer

I •
hysteresis. Power transformers are normally opera ted with a sin usoidal primary
voltage; this means that the magnetic flu x density in th eir cores is sinusoidal and
th at the magnetic field s tr~ ngth and hence the inagnetising current arc no n·
sinusoidal. .
The magnetising current contains third and ' highl!r-o rder odd:numbcr hac- '
monics which substantially increase in magn itude as the ampli tud e o f magnetic
flu x d ensi ty exceeds the knee ohhe magnetisation characteristic of the core steel.
There arc circumstances where the harmonic conten t o f lhe magnetising current
cou ld affect in an undesirable manner the opcw tiR I1 of a 'transformer and o f the
power supply sys tem. Remedial meas ures in trans former design are expla ined in J
sub·secti on 10.6.2. I ·'
1
I
1.2.5 Equ iv a lent circuit
II
lf wc ass um e a sinusoidal ma gnetising current and the absence ofleakage flux and
losses, figure 1.3 demonstrates the eq uiva lent circu!it for the transformers in figure
1.1 in accordance with equations 1.6 and 1.8. With th e notations of figu res 1.3
and 1.1 it is . I .- 1.3 TI

I, = III, I (1.9)
A tr_.1
1

and condu c
I
I Bccc ;
Z'= Z/I/ ' (1.1 0)
out s e
where Z is the impedance of the· load in Iig,lre 1.1 and Z' th e equ iva lent also as
the .,,:,
im pedance in fi gure 1.3. 1
1
 t"
•

GENERA L I NFORMATION

~- _'2:_

f ~
J
j~
1 ./
,
"'1 ,.,

Figure 1.3 Equivalent circuit for the transfor mers in figur~ 1.1(a) and (b)
.. l
.,
j
/
From figure 1.3, th~ current s upplied from the source is
!' 1, = 1. +1, . (1.11)

where f Jl js. (he phaso r o f the magnclisillg cu rren t supplied to the transrormer
prima ry w-inding. Figure 1.4 gives th e phaso r c.Jingram 'for the eq uivalent circuit

,~J two·wlOdin~
figu re 1.3"

tran s tn r.
,
,~
wit a sinusoida l primary
°r =- to res is sinusoida l ~I nd
.1.
t :r ng current arc 11 0 n·

r.r>riler odd·number har·

I ampli tu de of magnet ic
~ ... tJristic of the core steel.
i ..
) f t ii c magnetlsmg c ucrent
. transformer and orille
design arc exp la ined in

. iI
.h'c ceof leakagc nu x and Figure 1.4 Phasor dia gram for lhe equ ivalen t transformer circ uit
r e transformers in figllrF
t. notations of fi gu res l.3
),3 TRANSFORMER REA CfANCE
I I!
( I.~)
I A trans form er co re has unavoidable magnet ic reluctance just as an electric

I~)
co nductor Ims resi stan ce (apart from the special case of a supercondu ctor).
(I. Because of the existence o f n:luctance, some o f the magnetic flux is cha nnelled
outside the core of a trans former; it is descri bed as lea kage flux and some times
.1 and Z' the cq u ivaleL a lso as stray flux. The magnitude of lea kage flux is proportional to the curre nt in
th:.: wind ings.

I I
!
 .' .' J:
010 • • .•• • , ' 0'

6 MODE R:-.J PVWER TR ,\NSI OI~~I E H. PRACTICE

The effect of lea kage flux in re's pec t of th c per formance of a trans form er is
symbolised in th e equivalent circ uit diagram o f the transformer by appropriate
indu ctances, known as leakage inducta nces. The corresponding to tal leakage
reactance bet ween the input and outputtcrminals of the tra ns fo rm er denotes the ; .
tran s former reactance. This quantity is o f basic imporlance in the operatio~ and :.'
thus for the des ign of a tra ns fo rmer.
,I ',~ '± ~.
"
./

1.4 TRANSFORMER LOSSES.

i
'.

1.4.1
"

C lassi fic atio n

,
'I
Ther ma l power generated in a tran s forme r is an undes irable bot unavoidable by-
produ~t' of normal tran s formc.r ?c rali o n, llral1sformcr losses arc the electric
power, supplied by the so urce" t1:lat is COIl\'I,.': I 10 therma l power in the
transformer and which has to be dissipated.
A distinction is made betwee n the no· load loss, produced when the tran sformer
is connected to the pq wcr s upply system witho llt be in g connected to a load, and
the load loss that arises additionally when th e tran s for mer is connected to a load.
In the design and operation of a tran s form er the two aspects o f loss are
considered separa tely, but they are considered jo intly i~ respect of th e dissipati~n
o f the therma l power ge nera ted in the transformer. .

1.4.2 No-load loss

The n o~ l oad loss, a lso called iron loss, in a transfo rme r ar,iscs in' the core from the
effects o f magnetic hysteresis a nd of eddy curre nts. The loss compo nent due to
ma gnetic hysteresis of the core steel is propo , tiona l, o n the one ha nd , to the power
supply frequency a nd, on the o th er halld . to the peak value of magnetic fiux
density rai sed to th e po we r o fb etwee n I f a lld 2.5 ucpellding on the co re material
used and the range offiux den sity. The la " COil' ,' ne nt due to eddy currents in the
steclla minations of which the co re is assemb l is proport ional to the sq uares o f
frequency, pea k value of magneti c fiu x d ",,,.i ly a nd thickness of the steel
lam inations; to keep the eddy c urrent s produced of a low value, th e steel
lamin at io ns a re thin and electrica lly insu btccl frb'lll
o nc another (sec s ub-section
4.2.1).
,
j

1.4.3 Load loss

The load loss in a tra nsformer result s frOI11 th'e load c urrent carried in the
windings, The bulk of load loss, usually d cw'ib"d as 'co pper loss, a ri ses in the
co nduc to rs of th e windings, and the remainder df load loss, usua lly ca lled stray
loss, is ca used outside the windings, by maglledc leakage th a t traverses metal
parts such as clamps and tank walls. The coppe r I~ss cons ists of two components:
I\
!
 ,
:E
"
'1 ;\ t GENER.AL INFORMATION ' l .:1':;'
c~ l ~f a trans former is I " • "" • ~) !

:! (I) one known as the l:R loss and (2) the other designated the conductor eddy ~
' '. : \

lj· ,
" {'","'

g'
~t ·
f' mer by a ppropriate ->
. " j eurr n
etlos ',"
s. \ ' ;':.:,
,II. .
,I ,"
I'
I,'!. 'I . " , , ' i',
, ,. I
t ....,1.~ , '·.·i;Wi,! .. 'r~I'
... i. Jrt'(.'•.1·.~.iJ,
I ..
1, ~,

p 'ding to tal leakage " The /' R loss is due to the Joule effect in the conductors. It arises in each ' ~"i <~;;',
'anf former denotes the , :"" I winding and is, as ,the}erm indicates, equal to the product of thcf' wit~ding "" ·1iJ'.c,~!{~!·~
;c . n tbe operation and J resistance and the squafi;0fcurrent carried in it. To keep its magnitude. low, the" \ ' :,.~,iit"\)
.' "/4 winding resi stance is made as low as possible which means that the winding is ' 'h ~,,~~.\ ".
,,I ",' I desjgn~d to ~ave in its ~?~~uc,t~~ ~:currcntl d~nsity as hi~h as p?rm..i~sible at'£pl!- ~ ;;;)I~;\S ..
.,,',). load current. .
,,
,,::.2'" ' 1,1. I" '" :tl... if '
The condtlClbr eddy cu.uent loss is produced by circulating currents induce~ in I ~"'r"" :1;,
:h' ..
'.<. those parts of lhe conducto~ :-vhich. are traversed by ,magne,!ic 'Ieakage flux. Lo.w ~'" :;!:.t)lf.W.'"
,~!{, conducto.r eddy current loss IS achieved by USlOg tliln conductors ,With the thm ,! ti :;:' ':~\,'.
, side perpendic ular to .ll!e direction of the leakage magnelic flux density, that is ' '!, .. ,
,
, ,
perpendicular to the axis , of
the winding, or otherwise, where necessary, by :
)Ie but un avoidable by- I employing conductor strands in parallel and insulated from one another ' ;,
. ' ~ses are the electric l'
t r mal power in. the
'. combined with transposition; that is cross-evers, of the strands as described in
sub:section 5,6.2 and also considered in a worked example in sub·section 9.10,1. "" ;
I"

The margnitude of sl.~ay 10S~ is discussed in sub ·sections 5,6,3 and 5,6.4. ;:",~'." :~I "it
,:f
:d '~he n the transformer
I I.·
o l ected to a load, and
cor'ling
NO
r.s connected to a load.
I
laspeC1S of loss arc
e ,ect of the dissipatio n
1.4.4
". "
"f:'
..
.
, I·
The thermal powe r gener-ated in the core and in the windings is removed from lhe '
places of qrigin by means of a cooling medium. In the core the thermal power is
' '

!,
I
+ ,
1..~.
cond~cted lhrough the laminations to the core sur race and is then transferred to
I
'"
the coolil~g medium. In" the windings the thermal powcr passes lhrough the
conduclor' body to the conductor surface, from where il passes through the
insulation to the insulation surface for transf!::c to the cooling medium.
'ises in t he co re fro m the The coo ling medium is air or gas in a dry-type trans former (see sections 1 I. 1
1
1 "' 55 component due to and 11. 5) 'd r mineral oil in lhe commonly used oil-immersed tran sformers. The
k nh ha nd , lo the power cooling 111~~liuIn transports the thermal power to (IIC places for di ssipati o n. either
val~e o f magne tic flux to ambi c'lj' air or to runnin /t·)\Ialer. '
ing ,On t he core material The coq ing arrangement ora transformcr has to be designed in such a manner
f o eddy currents in the
I
that th e a~bas of maximum temperature in the core and in th e windings. the so~
.'
I
" .. o nal to the squares of called h o t '~pO lS, always remain below specified ma ximum values, Overheating of '"
the lrans r~ rmer core Can lead to damage as outlined in sub·scction 4.5.3, and

I ,'
thi ckness o f th e steel
lo w value, the steel overheat i,\g of the windings means accelerated ageing of the insulation and thus
, o ther (sec sub*sccti o n redu cti o n /o f the life of the transrormer.
1
"
I, .
I.S TR ~NS FORMER IMPEDANCE, RESI STANCE AND REAcrA N CE
CII ,'rOlnl c..'uricd in the
VOl,TAGES
loss, a ri ses in the
us ually called stray A sho rt -<:Luit lest as described in sub·seclio n 7.4.8 pro vides measured infor-
lra verses metal ma ti o n on'the load loss and the reactance ofa given transformer. In such a tesllhe
t wo compo nents: termin a ls ~ flhe transformer secondary winding are short circuited whi ch me~ns l "

, I I
/

r
 8 MODERN POWER TRANSFORM ER PRACTICE .

tha t the trans former represents at its input terminals a co~ple< network
configuration with an impedancc of which tJIe resistive part.is a.:!neas ure o f the
load loss a 'td the reactive part a measure of th e trans former reltctance. L
The voltage that is required at the transformer input terminats to prod ucc a
sho rt -circuit current equal to the rat ed value o f load current is called the
impedance voltage of ·Jhe transformer. Its active compon~ilt ' denotes the
resistance voltage and its reactive co mponent the reactancei voltage o f the ,
transformer. . 1,.. '
,"':, 1
., . ~'

1.6 PERCENTAGE RESISTA NCE, REACTANCE AND:' IMPEDANCE

~ ;,n
OF A TRANSFORMER
. / ','
II'
, !
The resistance vo ltage V. of a trans fo rmer is an indicator of the magni tud e of
load loss of the transfo rmer, and the reac tance voltage V x an indicator o f the
tran sform er reactance. For design and opera ti ona l purposes it ~s conveni ent to ,.,
express both V. and V x as percentages o f the corresponding rated voltage Vof
the, transformer, all voltages being ex pressed per phase.
The percentage va lues of the rati os V. / Va nd Vx/V are expressed by th e
sY,mbols %R and %X~ respectively. Thus , I
%R = lOOVR / V (IP)
I
and
%X = l OOVx / V (1.13)
Simi la rly, the percentage impeda nce o f the trans former is
I
%2 = IOOVz/ V = 1000VR
' + v~:l'i2 / V = (( %R)'+( %X)'}'/' ( 1.14)
il
From equations 1.12 and 1.1 3 for a three- phase transformer with load loss
reac tan ce X, voltage Vand current I, a ll per phase, th e percentage va lues
r
aff
.
and %R = lOOP, /VI (1. i:)
%X = lOOX/ VI (1.j 6)

1.7 TRANSFORMER DESIGNING PROCEDURE

Sk ilfully design ing a power trans former, particulJrly in the range of larger s i 7~s,
provides considerable scope ror creative and imaginative activi ty based on, a
profound understanding o f the c ndcrlying prin ciples of utilising th e characteris-
, ' tic properties o f the materials employed ror transrormer construction so as to
i
\
 -
'"
GENERAL INFORMATION
-"
; ne twork achieve a sa tis factory compromise between connicting demands of a technical
a
" a measure of the and an economic nature. ~ '. L ;'~.J
reac tance. " The basic information from which a trans forme r designer starts to create his ,;
to produce a design is outlined in chapter 3, where section 3.2 d eals with the customer's '(
is called the specification and section 3.3 with the designer's specification. C hapter 2 explains :", .
t ' denoies ,the ' . I
., the general principle of design procedure witho ut using a computer. The "i ~" 'i
voltage of the necessa ry calculations are shown for the design of a 750kYA dist\ibution " '

aid of an electro nic digital co mputer is described in chapter 3. r ,/.

tra nsform er in chapter 2 and in sections 9,9 to 9.12, A design procedure with the

The va rious aspects in preparing a decision for a custorner's specification on

di stribution ' trans formers are disc ussed in secti ons 12.1 to 12,6. A designer's
D IMPEDANCE specification is controlled by th e particular manufact urer's code of practice or'by
standards for th<i'relevant design. In addition, the re are standard specifications of
the International Electrotechnical Commission and of nati'o nal standardisa tion '
,
l If the magnitude of authorities; eX,a mples are listed in secti on 1.14, Examples of customer's: specifi-
cat ions a re given as references in chapters 9 to 12, I'
~ f n indicator of.the
)s~sl it is convenient to . ,'.. '
r g rat ed voltage V,of
I 1.8 TRANSFORMER MAIN PARTS
, arh ex pressed by the
1 •

( 1.12) 1.8.1 General

The main parts of a power transformer are th e core, th e windings with means for
tap changing either off-load o r o n-load, the tan k containing the core and
(1.13) windings, the terminal arrangements for entry for the external elcctric circuit
is I connections and the cooling arrangement to rem ove the heat generated in the
core a nd in the windings and to dissipate it. In addition, there is protective gear
I' I(%X) ' } 1/' (1.1 4) which operates when a fault arises in the transformer. f\ ,

rm r with load loss PI,

i ~ e n~agc values arc
1.8.2 Core constru<:tion

( 1.15) The various practical aspects co ncerni ng Ihe ma gne ti c material a nd th e tech- .
niqucs employed to co nstruct a co re are desc ribed in chapter 4 and in section 9,3.
Aspects for gapped-core power inducto rs a rc d isc ussed in sub· sec tio n 10.4,2.
( 1.16)
I, ft
1.8.3 Winding construction
I~ Common practical aspec ts concerning the construction of var ious types of r'
trans former winding, together with questions of relevant insulation and con-
ductor material, are trca ted in chapter 5 and in section 9.4, Chap ter 5 also deals
, ~angc of larger sizes, with measures in the electric design of high-voltage windings to meet the
ve ~ct'iv ity based On a conditions of su rge-voltage tesling desc ribed in cha pter 7,
II ilisinlg the characteris-
Additional points o f interest are se t forth in sub-sectio ns 10,2.2, 10,3.2, 10.3.4
, , a nd 10.3,5, in section 10,6, in sub-secti ons 11.1.2, 11.1.3 and 11.3,2 a nd in sections
nst ru ctIOn so as to
I
i
I
I
"
 '.- ., ..... ~.

,
10 MODE RN POWE I{ TRANSFOR MER I)RAC." ICE
L
11.5 a nd 11 .6. Windings of power system inducto rs a rc reprcsented in sub-section 1.8
10.4.3 and section 10.5. t.,
r
rili
1.8.4 On-load lap changers
'jlC
Chapter 6 states the condi tions o f opera tion of on-load tap changers and the
princ iples o f their praclica l im plemenlalion iIi Ihose tra nsformers which are
normally employed in ihe chain o f electric power supply systems from generator 1.9
transformer to distrib6tion s u b~s ta ti o n transformer. "
j ~

1.8.5 T3Jlks and lenll illa l arrunJ;cIIH.' nl s '1 lJ

. I m Ol
Ta nk co nstruction i~ Teferred to in secti on 9.5 a nd in sub-seclion 10.7.2. Except ~ n
for very la rge traii{ 'Jllcr sizes, !;t" ks a rc made fr9m mild steel. The tank s for "I..
very la rge transformers arc oflen const ructed from alumini'ulll in order to obtain inc
a reduction of t hc ir · ~~ss. ; g
Term inal arrangc"?ents arc trea ted in section. 9.5 and su b-section 10.7.4. c
. ,,
1.8.6 Arrangements for cooli ng and hea l, dissipation c t..
n
There arc vari ous methods to remove the heat generated in the co re and wind ings (ra
of a tra nsformer in operal ion. These me th od~ a re ind ica led by the use of th(
app ropriate leller sy mbols, for exa t"ple as follows:
(I) AN indicates cooling by natura l circulation of air.
(2) AF indicales cooling by forced circulation of air. 1.1
(3) O N indicates cooling by "at ural circulati'o n o f oil.
(4) OF indicates cooling by fo'rced circulati on of oil.
(5) 08 indicates cooling by a combi nalion o f nalural circulation o f oil and A
forced circulation of air. i . \ wit
,I .
(6) O W indicates cooling by n,"ura l circ ula tion o f oillhro ugh a n oil - wa ter t I
heat exchanger. , t ...
(7) OFAF indicates cooling by/orced ci rcula tion of oil th ro ugh a n oil - air
heat exchanger wilh forced circulation of air. , )
(8) OFW ind icates cooling by t~rccd circu lalion of oil through an oil - wa ter I, _
heat exchanger. '1 i .-
The cooling methods (I ) and (2) apply to dry- type transformers and the I
me thods (3) to (8) 10 oil-immersed tra nsformers. 0.1
Provisio ns to facilitate coo l i ng ' ~ r a tra nsformer core, where necessary, arc is

treated in seclio n 5.7.

T ransformer cooling and heat ~
I
considered in sub-seclion 4.5.3. The practica l p roblem o f cooling in windings is

iss ipat ion in gr.;ncru l arc descri bed ill sec tion
, j
Ira
9.5, in SUb-section 10.7. 1, in sub-stctions
, 11.2.2 and 11.2.3 ana in sectio n 12.7. r

Preservation of oil 10 mainlain ils insula lion quality is an important p roblem

conco mitant with its useasa coo linlg med ium in a Iransfor mer. Releva nt praclical
;I
th'
infor mat ion is give n in sub-scc tio!l 10.7. 3. Sill
 GENERAL I NFORMA Tl ON , II
e ed in sub-section 1.8.7 Transformer protection ..
Numerous fau lts may arise in a transform er in service, and various external causes
may result in an internal fault. Internal and externa l faults and prot ~ t~v~ ...
I •

!"
t!
)::·t ;, :
measures are listed in'section 12.8. ".~ ., ~I ...,
1 • f
p c langers and the • ,r ": /

S Olcrs which are

( from genera tor 1.9 TRANSFOIIMER NO)SE "

The main so urce of transformer noise is the corc which vibrates in a complex' , , ,:'., .'.
,'j j ,
"
, ", 'Ii .,

,c li~n 10.7.2. Except man ner. The vi~r: ..;{ io ns arc ca used by the action of m ag n c tos lrictio~ and of . ' r".
magnetic nux carried between adjacent slcellaminati ons of the transformer corc.
el. The tanks for Their freq uency .is twice that of the power suppl y system, and their magnitude
o r order to ob tain increases with increasing peak value o f magnetic nux density. Noise is also
generated by cooling fan s when in opera tion to produce the air blast for heat
b -riOn 10.1,4. exchangers attached to a transformer.
The subject of noise from transformers and from any cooling fans is treated in
chapter 8, together with pmctical remedial measures to reduce the magnitude of
noise at source by iJppropriatc co nsiderations in the design and manuracture of
Ie ~rcand windings
transforme rs, on the one hand, and by attention bei ng given to site conditions, on
,,
" by the use of
the other hand (sec also sub-section 4.5.4).
I

1.10 TRANSFORMER TESTING

i "Iution of oil and A power transformer, before leaving the fac tory, undergoes a test proced ure
which may be quite elaborate depending on the type of transformer that is being
,--igh an oil - water tested. A complete test procedure for larger power Irnnsformers is described in
cha~tcr 7. - ,
I 10
, . .r,
Il1fOUS I1 an 0 1'1- a ir'
, gh an oil - water 1.11 :J'RANSFORMER TRANSPORT AND SITE ASS£~IIILY

:~ "sfonncrs and the Apart from the sma lIer types, ali transformers h" ve a su b, tantial mass and requi re
I careful attention in their transport from fa clory to sileoThe problem of transport
Wllcrc necessary. arc is accenlUa ted for vc ry large tran sformers. The pral:tical appr oach to various
:>o ling in wind ings is aspects o f transformer transport is outlined in sub-section 10.8:2. .
In particular cases, and for a variety o f reaso ns. it ma~ be impossible to
I
.... ..:SCfl'bed 111
.
sect .io n transport a large three-phase transformer in one piece from the factory to the site .
<lnp in section 12.7. Such a transformer, with appropriate design. is partially dismant led in the factory
npo rtant problem after co nstru ction and co mplete testing. the parts arc separa tely transported to
Relevant practical the site and reassembled there, and the reasse mblcd transformer subjected to a
I simplified test procedure, as referred to in sub-sec tion 10.8.5.
 ~ • t

, ,
~ A.' t".'~'. t'
",~ ,., 12 t-IODERN POWE R TRANSFORMER PRACTICE

1.12 TRANSFORMER MAINTENANCE

' Transrormers in service require regular maintenance, A pattern ror the mainten-
ance schedule o rtransrormers in a distribution sys·tem is presented in section 12.9.

"

1.13 MON ITORING Of GAS-IN-O IL IN LAnGE POW ER

TRANSFORMERS
"

There are fau lts in a power transformer which are very slow in de veloping, Their
incipience, none the less, prouuces in the oil o f the tank minute quantities or gas
.. which can be quantitatively analysed by gas ch romatography. The result of
analysis can be used to diagnose the nature o f an incipient rau lt.
Such diagnosis orincipicllt raults in a transrormer Illay be em ployed as a means
to monitor the state of 110alth of a large power transformer and to indicate, where
necessary, that prophylactic action has to be take n to remedy the cause of tl;e
, incipient fau'it. The finallcial reward of such action Cll l.l be subslUnt ial, for example
with large genera tor transrormers where an outage also means an attendant
considerable loss ill revenue,

1.14 SELECTION OF STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS

1.14,1 lEC S tandards

These are issued by the Internat iona l Electrotcchnical Com mi ssioll (I EC), I, rue
de Varembe. Geneva, Swit zerland.
GI.I. lEC 27. u trer S)'I/Ibols to be Used il/ Elec trical Techl/ology, Part I:
General (197 1)
G 1.2. IEC 38, l Ee S tal/dard Voltages (1 975)
GU, I EC 50. II/tefll atiol/al Electrotec/lllical Vocablllar), (1973 ollwarus) (this is
issued in more than eigh ty ind ivid ually ub tainable chapters)
G 1.4, l EC 52, Recommendationsfor Voltage McaSllremelif by Meal/s of Sphere
,,
I
Gaps (One Sphere Earth ed) (1960)
.' GI.5 l Ee 60. lIigh'l'oltagl' '{,'s t Tcchl/iqlle.l·
I' I'
,',

·f . .' ~
G I 6, I EC 71. JlI.w/a(joIJ Co-ordillolioll
GI.7. lEC 76. POlrer Transformers (1967)
'I G1.8. IEC 79. Electrical Apparotus for ExplosiL'e Gas Atmospheres
j'
J,I G1.9. l EC 85. Recommendatiol/s for the ClaSSification of Materials for the
Illsula(;on of Electrical Afachinery lIml ""'/'(mllIlS ill Relation fa Ihe ir
n crmal S tability in Sm'ice (1957)
GLlO, IEC 99. Lightl/ing Arresters !,I
I t,
t
I .•--------... --- ..-. , -- t
.. :~~--
,
:1.' , ii,
.'.
I , X
I
I' .,

'L . (",fl CE GENE RAL I Nf ORM" lI ON 13

,

G I , ll ,· I EC 137, Oushillgs for Allernaling Vollllges above 1000 V (1973)

G 1. 12. I EC . 152. Idenliji('(lIioll by HOllr Nllmbers of Ihe Phase COlldllClors of
nree -phase EleClric SYS lems ( 1963)
o. A pattern for Ihe mJinlcn· G 1.1 3. nc 156. M elhod fo r Ihe D£'Ierlllill(Jlion of Ihe EleClric Strellglh of
r. ; prescnlcd in scelio n 1 2.~. -, IlIslllatillg Oils ( 1963)
G 1. 14. IIX 214, Oil-load Tap Chllllgers ( 1976)
G 1. 15. I EC 213. Recommellded Melhods oj Tesl Jor Eleclric Strenglh oj Solid
/1I.l'IIlatillg M al{rials al Power Freqllellcy (1967)
POWER
G 1. 16. I EC 270. Partial Discharge M easllrcmellls (1968)
" , G 1.1 7. IEC 289, Reaclors (1968)
G 1. 18. I EC 296. Specijica lioll for Nell' Insllllllillg Oils Jar Trall.rjonllers alld
r, ;Iow in developi ng. Their S,,·ilci'gear ( 1969) - . •
fl"" minute quantities o rgas . G 1. 19. IEC 345, Method of Test for Electrical Resislallce alld Resistivity of
ma lography. The rc sul l of IlJ.w laling Afaru ia/s a( E1Ctl(lfl't/ Tempcrofrlrcs ( 1971)
1· >ic nt rault. G 1. 20. I/,'C 351, l.oadillg Gllide fo r Oil-il/I/I/('rs,'d TI'III/ ,rjo/'//I/'I'.\· (1 973)
n p' be cmploYL:d :I S a 1lll::IIlS GI.2 1. IU." 422, MllilllCIttIfll'l! ami SIlj1C1'I'iSiuli ( jllit/c lor II/suill /illg Oils ill
rmer ami ( 0 inuicate. where S"l'l'i['" (1973)
t, remedy Ihc ca use of Ihe G 1.22. I EC 475 , M elhod of Samplillg Liql/id Dielectrics ( 1974)
I subslan lia l, for example
. :1IS0 means all :Hlcndan l 1.14.2 C:il:ch SU' " dnrds
These arc i<s ued by Ihe British Standards In, tilu tion (BS I), 2 Park Street,
Lo nd o n W I A 2BS, Great. Brilain,
G2,1. f)S 118, IIISlIlolillg Oil f or Trallsform ers alld SlI'ilchgear (1972) (this
r )NS agrees wil h IEC 296)
G2.2. OSI7I , Power Trall.rjormers ( 1970) (this a grees wit h IEC 76 (1967»
02.3, liS 273, /{igh-,'ollnge BI/shings ( 1956) (sec IEC 137 (1973»
G2.4. liS :'31, Pressboard for Eleclrical P/lrposcs (1967)
( mmission ( I EC), I, rue G2.5. f)S 355, M ining"ype TransJormers, Pari I : Dry-Iype Iransronncrs (1 966)
G2.6, f)S J58, Ml'Ihodfor Ihe M eaSliremcnl oj Voltage lI'ith Sphere Gaps (One
1 Technology, Part 1: Sphc e,' T:arlhd) (1 960) (sec I EC 52 (1 960»
G2.7. 8S 6i1 I, Sleel Sheet and Strip for Magn('tic Ci('('IIils oj Elcctrical
AI'IWl'aIIlS, Part 2: Oriented sleel, 0,25 mill Ihic k and above ( 1973)
n ' (1973 onwards) (I his is G2,8, IJS 638, Arc-Ireldillg Plalll, Eql/ipmelll olld Acassories (1966)
1 ,Ie chapters) G2 .9, as 923 , G/lide all High' I'ollage Teslillg Techniql/es (1972) (this ag rees
,,,,,"I by ,1/ caliS of Sphere wit h l Ee 60)
G2,IO. OS 2757, Classification of In s/llaling Materialsfor Dectriwl Machillery
and " '!>r,rall/s all Ihc !lasis of l1/1'1'//lal Slahilily i/l S""'iC(' (1956) (scc I EC
85 (I 157»
G2, 11. 8S 29 , 11, S/lrge Divertersfor Altem aling IIrrelll Syslems (1972) (this
)mospheres c losely fo ll ows lEe 99, sC<: ti on 1)
of Malerials for the G2, 12. ns 2918, Eleclric Strenglh of Solid 11I.l'IIlating Materials al POlI'er
I us lin Rela tion ( 0 their Frcql!<'ncil's ( 1957) (thi s , ubstan ti a ll y agrees wit h ",:C 2,(3 (1 967»
G2.13. 11S 3065 , Tilt! Rafing of Resistallce H'(:lcIing (Ind Resistal/ce J-/l'G/iJlg
M achill"S (1965)

~,f • ."
 ,
,
, "

,,,'
I:.

"•'.:
~ .-'""-
.. I.

14 MODERN l'OwER TRANsrORMER PRACTICE "

:j
G2.14. BS 3435. Measurement 0/ Electrical Power and Energy in ~ccepling
Testing '(1961) ,
G2. 15. BS 3482. Method 0/ Test /01' Desiccants used in Dynamic Delllllllidifi·
cation Equipmellt (1962)
1
G2. 16. IJS 3523, S ilica Gel. Cobalt Chloride Impregna ted (1963)
G2. 17. IJS 4571, OIl·load rup changers /01' Po ...er Trans/ormers. (197.0) (sec nc
214 ( 19 7 6 » .
~
i
G2. 18. IJS 4653. Paper·covered Copper Co nductors. Pa rt 2: Rectangular co n·
. duclors(l970) ":' l
G2.1 9. IJS 4683'. Elec trical AppUrt/fliS /01' J.~.l'/llosi"e A tmosph, ,Part I:
Classificat ion of m<l ximulll slIrracc tempera tures (l 97 1) «(hi . agrees wit h (
IEC 79. seclion 8); Pari 2: The co nstruction and testing of flameproof
enclosures of electrica l appara tus (19 72) (this agrees with IEC,79 , secti on J

I); Part 4: Type of prolecli on 'e ' (1973) (

G2.20. BS 4727. Glossary 0/ Electro /echnical. 1'011'''1' , Telecollllllllliication. Elec' I
trOllies, Ligh ling and Colour Term s ( 1971 onwards Hthese are issued in I
individu ally obla in able groups). Part I: Terms common to power, G
telecommunica ti o ns and electronics (at lC(1 sl cleven gro ups); Part 2:
Te rms particu lar to pOlVer engineering (al Icasl cleven groups); Pari 3: ~

Terms particular to telecom munica ti on s and electronics (at leas t nine

groups); Part 4: Terms pa rlicula r 10 lighling and colour (at least Ihree C
groups)
G2.2 1. BS 4828, Guide 10 Parlilll Discharge M"usurcmenlS (1972) (Ihis agrees
wi lh I EC 270 (196 8))
r
G2.22. BS 4944. Rcac/ors, Arc-.wl'pre,\'s iOIl Coils lim! Earthing Tr(llJ.~for;II(,l's/OI'
Elcctric PUII'or Systems ( 1973) (Ihis subsla nl ia lly ag rees with IEC 289 i
( 1968»
G2.23 . BS CP 1009 Mail/ tel/al/ceo/lns/lIMil/g Oil (1959) (wilh special reference
to transformers and switchgea r)
G2.24. IJS CP 1010, Loading Guide/or Oil·illllllersed Tralls/orlllers ( 1975) (t hi s
substant ially agrees wilh l Ee J54 ( 1973) G

Note. The references G2.23 and G2.24 arc Codes of Practice. The an nually up·
dated secti onal list of Brilish Standa rds. SL26, Elec lriea l engineering: power,
electronics, tclcCOllllllun ica lions, aco ustics. i lIu IIlimll iun, domest ic appliances. is
obtainable rrom British Standa rds Institu tion Sales Depa rtment. 10 1 Pcnton vi!1c
Road , Londo n N I 9ND , Grea l Britai n.

1.14.3 USA Standards

The Cata logue of American N:l ';olla l Standards is issued by the Am er ican
Na tion al Standards In stitute (1\1 '; 1), 1~ 3 0 Uroadwa y, New York, NY 100 IR,
USA.
The IEEE Siandards arc issued by the Inslitule of Eleclrical and Eleclronics

.,
Engineers (IEEE), 345 47th Street, New York, NY 10017, USA.

I,
'11 I.
,.' ------"<TI-,...,.=-·="....=,....'"",.....-----.~--·
.,
Ii

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.~
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".
 GENERAL INFORMATION 15
. I . A . G3.1. ANS C42.IOO. Dicliollary 0/ Eleclrical alld Electrollies Terms (1972)
'jY 11I cap/mg {IEEE Sid 100 (1972))
: n; ' lic Dehlll1l idiji. G3.2. ANS C57.12.00. Gelleral Requiremellis lor Dislribulioll. POII'er. alld
Regulalillg Tralls/o/'mers (1973) (IEEE Sid 462 (1973). IEC 76 (1967).
, ; ) 288. scc ti on 2. 289 (1968)) •
cr.'. (1970) (sce IEC G3 .3. ANS C57.12.10. Requiremellis/or Tralls/ormers. 138'000 vailS alld belolY.
. 1 5111 Ihrough 10 000113 333/ 16667 k VA. sillglc-phase. 501 lilrough
~ cclal1 g ul;Jr C() I1- 30000/40 000/50 000 k I(A 11z/,,·('-plzll.f(· (1969)
I I. G3.4. AlI'S C57.12.20. Requiremellis/or Overhead-Iype Distriblllioll Trails/or·
'1
"" ipheres, Part I: mers 67 000 vailS alld belolY. 500 k VA alld smaller (1974)
(thi s anrees wil h G3.5. ANS C57. 12.30. Requiremenls Jar Load· ,ap-clzallgillg Trall.l/ormers
,11£ or O:lJll CpI'O Or 138 000 roilS '''/1(1 6"'1111'. 3 75U liz /'11118 Iz 3(J (JOU,.IU O(JO/50 (}(J(J " JI A. Ih/,,,e·
Nilh I EC 79. sccl io n phase (1 97 1) (I EC 76 (1968)) •
G3.6. ANS C57.12.90. Tesl Code Jar Distribulioll. POII'er. alld Regilialillg
•J
I . .
1PUlIC(1(lOfl, J;
r.1cc· Tralls/ormers (1973) {IEEE S/(1262 (1973). I EC 76 (1967).288. seclion 2 • .
(these a rc iss" d in 289 (1968))
lbon to powe r, G3.7. ANS C57.16. Requiremellis. Termillology. alld Tesl Code lor CUTrell/-
.1 groups); Pa rt 2: limilillg Reaclors (1958. revi sed 1971) (lEC 288. secl io n 2.289 (1969))
Icn groups); rart 3: G3.8. ANS C57.2 1. Requiremellis. Termillology. alld Tesl Code lor ShU/II "
'~- ics (at least nine Reaclors (1971)
, Jr (a l leasl thl c G3.9. ANS 57.100. Tesl Procedllre lor 71'CT1l1al E"alllalioll v/ Oil· immersed
I DisTriblllioll Tralls/ormers (1974) (IEEE Sill ]45 (1972))
. (1972) (Ihi s aGrees G3.10 ANS C57.92. G ll ide lor Loadillg Oil-immersed Distriblliioll alld Poorer

~rall.I/O/'l I ~' /'S

Tralls/ormers (1962)
I •• lo r G3.11. ANS C57.96. Guide lor L oadillg Dry.l)'pe Disiriblliioll alld POlI'er
grebs with IEC 289 . Tralls/ormers (1959)
G3.12 . . ANS C57.97. Gll ide lor PreparaliOIl oj Specijic(Zfiolls Jar Large POlI'er
Il pcCia l refe",,"c Transformers . lI'ilh or wilhom Load-lap C/ulIIg illg ( 197 1)

~r L ers (1 975) (I his

G3.13. ANS C57.99 . Gllide lor Loadillg DrY'I)1" alld Oil-immersed Cllrrelll·
limilillg Rearlors (1 965)
G3.14. ANS C59.2. Metltods oj Teslillg Electrical IlIslllalillg Oils (1974)
, !i G3. 15. ANS C59.21. MeTitods 0/ SlImplillg Electrical /" Sllialillg Liqllids (1973)
:e. The '''' Illla.lly 'p' G3.16. ANS C59.23. Melltod 0/ Tesl/or Gas CplllellT o/ llIslIlalillg Oils (1966.
, ginccrin g: po '.! r, . rcvised 197 1)
I 'slic applia[ l\.·L'~. is G 3.17. If NS C59.50, Specifica tion for Eh"'lricallllslllating Paper (llld Pa{wrboarri-
, I P CIl\ DIl\ l'1Ie
ICl1t,lO Sill/II/{' or Krafl LlI)'cr Type (1974)
I G3. 18. ANS C59.I07. Metltod 0/ Tesl Jar' Approximale Acidil)' alld Polar
Contamination in Used A1illc..' ral Transformer Oil by Spot Tests (1970.
revi sed! 975)

I by th e I\nl ~I'H:.tn
I. G3. 19. AN S C59. 129. Sperijic(Zf iOIl /or Ullillitibi/ ,·d AI ill<'ral /lI slIllIlillg Oil lor
Usc ill Tl'lIm/ornt<'rs alld Oil Cir('llil ilreakas ( 1975) .
w York. NY '100 18. G3.20. A NS C59. 131. Gllide/or Acceplallce alld MailllnlOllee oj Illsullllillg Oil in
I Eqllipmelll (1971) (IEEE Sid 64 (1969))
: , 1 a lld Elect 1'011 ies G3.21. ANS C59.144. Specificalioll Jar Chlorillaled A romalic Hydrocarbolls
J SA . ! (A skarels) lor Tram/armers (1975)

I
I .... - ...-.,.
T-"
-,.,'
- ' ---"''-'-''''~~'---'I'~'~-~''''',.,---~ ~._._.
-~~~-----

'.' 1 l" ..

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'
1

16 MODERN POWI!R rRANSI-ORMER I'R .'\CrJCE

G3.22. ANS C62.1, Surge ArreSlers lor Allemoting-current POII'er CirCllils

(1975) (/EEE SId 28. (1974), IEC 99, seclion 2)

~ I I,; , G3.23. , INS C68.2, T,'c1l11iques/or S';'it rhing IlIIflulse Tes ting ( 1972) (I EEE S Id '.-
Quo
332( 1972)) .
. ,
J III
i:t·
II i G3.24. ANS C76.1 , Rl'quirelllents and TeSI Code l or OUldoor Aflparollls
Oushings ( 1964. revised 1970) (IEEE SId 21 (1964), IEC lJi(1973))
'el I
p< \
. I1 G 3. 25. AN S C84 , Vollage ROlings lor Eleclric POII'C/' S)'.\I(III' WId Equiplllenl (60 . r;Ufr

i "l illl'
•1 •. ,
I-Iz) (1970) (I EC 38 (1975), 7/)
G3.26. IEEE Slt1 507, Guide/or Luading Alilll'ral-oil-inulU'rsctl POII'('r TraJl.t/or-
.
n;
I
I ! ,n/l;, 111(1rs with 55 °C or 65 °C 'Vindillg Rise"( 1975)
«
I h, . I the rr
1 I h(' q
. Jll ril ' m I
.I i"l :1/ pc
I iii' 1.15 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT USB) IN CIIA I'I'ER5 I TO 12 lll ;tL\1

·1 '''1 1' I
(m :},;;
,

I·
I eJi~,!
..
j .I

:d
" I" II
1.15.1 51 base unils up ,
reac t
~r)('d
.J
," :1/1' Quan tif), Name S)'/Ilhol vi!

I~~;0 II
length metre m
mass ki log ram kg 1.15.
lime seco nd s
thcrnlodynamic kelvin K
! tCl11pcwture

, h~ r ph ~I SC

I
1
i1."~Ii ;~i II:'
l.lS.2 51 dcrircd units . . . ilh specia l lJamcs 1.1 5.~

QII I
:;J /IIn.;/
!: :;~ :!! :.
QII(llltilj' Name RI!tl/ark

I frequc.:ncy hertz Il l.
energ:

Id iI.:111 II force newton N

,,
J; , ,

1·1, :'1,I.', I !,
press ure
work, energy
power
pasCo.l l
joule
watt
Pa
J
W
I Pa = I N III ~ 2
IJ = 1 Nm
IW = IJs · 1

''.I i vo lt :I1;C, r (lI clltial volt V ] V = IWA - '

, 'I: 'I dirrl.:lt'II I."C
' capal.:ita rll..'c r:ll ao F ] I· _ 1 As V - I
, ,1.'1 rcsist'" nee ohm 0 10 = I VA - '

:' '/ Iif comlu clan ce

magnctic flux
magnetic nux
siemens
webe r
tcs la
$
Wb
T
1$ = IAV - I
1 Wb = 1 Vs
IT = IWbm - l
1,0) :I, density
inductancc hcnry II
li'l
I ; ~1/
rcactil llCC ohm n
1
impcdanc:c ohm n
temperature (Celsi us) degree Ce lsius 'C I · C ~ ( 27J+ I)K
l '

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" i¥' " ~ I
'-'1 ./',.-
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, '" .<" t
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--'- , _......... _
i,"'!,
...:-_ _ _
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.:......_M • ..:... •. .:..L-.... •• _
. ,,' I.· .'
..... ,....... _ ---._ .... ." .J.. _ _ _ ........ _
~-~""-"""-
'-'-

GENERAL (f'j I'ORMAT ION 17

r lI'cr Circllits ,.
1.15.3 51 derived units C ~ I) r{'sscd ,by Ull'a n S o f SlI l'c ia l nam es
I
1~/2) (IEEE SId QWlllrify Namt!
- - --Symbol
- --
• )r AppOrtl lllS ckr tric Oeld s t re ngth volt pe r met re
pCl' mittiv it y - rilr1\d per metre
,'- 137 (\973»
(;llfl\:111 dells ity ampe re pe r sq ua re
,d eqllil'lIIelil (60 me tre
1 r ... ~ iqi\'i I Y ohm me tre nm
lir a Tl'llll s/o,: (decl ri\: ) c()J1ductivity sit.:Il1CI1S pl.:r met re S m- I
'. W Ill ~ I K - 1
I thamal cond ucli \' il y walt per IIll.: lrc kelvi n
th"rmaJ rc~jS l3n cc kt lvin pe r wa l( • K W- '
tl l; lg nelic fie ld strengt h ampe re per metre A m- I
r 'fll h.:abi lity '. henry pcr met re II m - I
II .I flll'lk rductanc.:e I pe r henry I 11 - I
.S I 'f0 12 kg m
(Illa:-:-) dens it y kil ogram pe r cubic ,1

metre
, ill'PMCllt powcr voltampcre VA
I 1'1.,':H.:ti,,! rowe r reactive vo ltampcre va r
r-- ' I'<'~' ilk
\ i",,;u!'t ilY
heat C:II):lCi t)' jou le per kil ogram kelvi n
pascal seco nd
lkg - ' K- '
Pas
.'

1.1 5A SI supplementary unil

QrlCll1tit y Name S),mbol

pha ~ 1.: di rfcrCllCC !'ad

------
1.15,5 F llrt her IInit

Q,ldl,/;/)' Naml' S),mbol

:mark
\:ne rgy kil o w<l U Iwur kWh
,.
l·~b JNm - l

J ~flNm
- 1J s ~ '
1.1 5.6 $ 1 prefixes indicat ing cJcc iUla l mult iplcs or s ub- multip les

· I WA ,\ fllilip/t· Prlfi~ .))'1,11'01

F ~ I As V - ' I U'
----
giga
-
G
- ---
::; I VA - 1 10' mega M
1 = I A V- ' la' kilo k
IWb = IV s 10 - 2 cen ti c
J "f _ 1 Wbm - 1 10 -' mill i m
10 - " micro I'
1 1 = IWbA - '

C = (2 73+ I )K

,;~

"~"""".
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,.
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o
I ,';
i
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"

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o

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.\
2 of th e r
corc. 1 ,
. Juctojo
In pra '/'
'f co rcs (
Typi,. ,
Theory of Transformer Oesig'n Pri':lciples th e rc<.l \l (

1 A, B. Crompton*
• I"
o

'I
I
I
2.1 INTHOOUCflON

The ge nera l problem o f d esign may be defined as that of dele, miniJlg tile most
su ita ble form of equipment. if both technical considerations ilrlU ('l1::,( ;lfC tak en
into accoun t. A satisfactory resu lt is not obtained simply by the sl )l ulion of a
series of eq uati o ns. The design process is basically iterative, wl H:: tll cr pl.: rformcd
by hand or by comp ut er.
It is the purpose of this chapter to review the fundamellt a l p riIll'ipl ''\ ;lt ld sho w
how they apply to a specimen design. More detailed treatment of mode rn practi ce
in construction and design is given' in other chapters and in rcfcl cncc I.

1.. 2 GENERAL CONSIDEnATlONS: THE LOSSES

2.2.1 Spedfic iron loss .,

The specific iron loss is the lo ss in walls per kilogram of th e Ill:l tcli;d u'-,i:d in the
form o[ thin laminations [or assc mblin g the core. . I Figu re 2.
To a first ;Ippwx imati oll and O\'-.;r limited ran ge of si ll llsn id :!l t), rt tl: ll l; Iting
:l

flux lil.! IlSily of:llnplitul.lc Urn. tlJc spcc ilk iron lo ss ofhot·rul h:d :-.tcd d,,:,) h~ taken
as pro portio na l to Or! for a given core material and frequ cncy. Fo r clll d· rolied • 0 2.2.3 J !
steel, however. any simp le mathematical relationship a ss ulll ~d ~1i.: 1 \\,L'C n the
specific iron loss and Om is very approximate. I The COppel
nowinl; 11.1'
thc eirci II
2,2.2 IrOIi loss in HsscmlJlcd cores
co n<illcluls
The losses occ urring in a n asse rnbicd co re ca nnot be taken as simpl y the product In order
ass umed H
• Wi gan Coll egc o f Tcchn ology, fo rmerl y rei ranl i Limited .

,. ",
 .~,~ .::: ..
,
." ," ., "

',:
..
~
I;
oe •
J

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, ..
".. ;,.

-
. ... ........
.- .-~"""''''-' ~' -''''''-'' ----~-..;.~- - .-'-- -.:: .
-
'I

T II EO HY O F TRA NS FOfU.·f ER DES IGN P RI NCI P LES 19

of the specific iro n lo ss meas ured on a spec imen of ma teria l an d the ma ss of t he
core. T he losses in th e asse m b led corc a rc increa sed by ll l1 CVC n flu x di s tributi o n
due tojoints, bolt holes and burrs on lamination edges, as dcscri bed in chapter 4.
In practice the core loss is calculated fro m curves based on tests.a n asse mbled
cores or similar type alld consl ruction. "
Typical curves for co ld-ro lled steci arc given in fi gure 2. 1, which also illustra tes
' rihci
I.
ples the redu ctio n in loss obtai ned by usin g mitred jo ints.
., ,..
'.2 -

'.0

2.8

2.6

2,4

., 2.2 -
ermin i-ng the most Y
I
, d cost arc taken
. 1C solution of a
~
.
<t 2.0
i
)

vhcther performcd 1.8

r ciplcs ~md sho w 1.6

JImode rn prac tice
1/1 -
reference I.
1.2

1.0

0.8 I I I I I I
'.2 U I .• 1.5 1.6 1.7 1. 8 1.9
8",(1)
~ . :riol used in the
Figllrc 2. I Ir on loss in co ld -rolk ,1 51!.!\.!! CO I'I.! S: ( II I \'c J, sq lJ:l rC-C lll co rne rs: curve 2. Ini trcJ
'lda ll yalt erna ting ((..lr lll: r s
; r f~ c l l1la y be taken
, For co ld-ro lled 2.2.3 " R loss
llc;d bet wee n the
T he co ppe r losses co nsis t of two pa rt s: ( I) the / 2R 10:-'-; , due to the load current I
nowing through the con ductor resista nce Rand (2) the eddy currcntlass. due to
,~ .
the ci rculati ng curren ts ind uced by the I!!<lk agc fi el d which li nk s th e wi nding
con ductors, ' , r~

.
; '.

I' Jly the prod uct In orde r to find the [ 2 R loss, the wind ing rcS iS la l'i.C~S are calc ul a ted a t an . .
assumed mean workin g temperature k now n as the n; fcr\,llcc temperature. whic h,

.,
'I
"._,..-- ' .~ ...
 MouERN POW ~K TRANSI' ORM~R "RA C II CE

from st , Ida rd specifica ti ons, is 75 tC for transformers with cla ss 1\ in sulation .

ampere - tu l
Fo r c;\:l: dplc, the r~s i s t aI1 cc of the low-,":oltagc winding is
(which is cc
., R, = pN,s ,/a , n per phase (2. 1) millimetre
of equaliG ..
whe re Ihe subscripl denOles qua nlilies rela led 10 Ihe 10w-volla£G win di"g,
irres pecli ve of· Y;hc lher Ihi s is used as Ihe primary or seco ndary side o f Ihe
transformer, N 1 is th e number of turns, Sl is the lengt h of mean turn and III the
In cqua
cross-sect ional area of cond lIclor. If Ihe dimcnsio ns arc in III ill imclrcs, the va luc
current loss
of I' for recla ngula r conducl ors may be la ke" as p = 21.4 x 10 - 6 0 mm al 75 ' C.
For rOt· ~
In praclice N,s, 'may be increased slighl ly by Ihe le"glh of Ihe leads from Ihe
obla in ed 1
windi ng. .~'
From elll
It ca n be sho wn~ thalllli nimu m J2 R loss is ' obtained approximately when
J, = J ,. (2.2)
whe re Pi : -
where J I and J 2 arc tile t:Ullc.:llt densi ties ill th e low- and high-voltage windin gs,
wiJl(Jing.
respecti vely, arid may be C~PJc~~cd convenient ly in amperes per square mi ll i- For Ihe
metre, ThllS, frOl

2.2.4 Specific J' R loss

where Ihe
The specinc J'R loss is Ihe I '/( loss in wallS per kilogram of eonuuclor malerial ThccJ,,)
alld is given byl -
Ihe conducl
(2.3) Subdivisi(
th e ends it
wherc Pd. Cu is thc d,c nsity o f coppa in kilograms per cubic mctre. If we take Pd,Cu the result t:
as 8890k g m-' and p as 2 1A 'x 10 - 6 001111 at 75 "C, Ihis gives ohlnin c.:u
r. = 2.4 IJ ' (2.4) n: I ~l ti vc Ie i
be Cc'ltl then
uividing Ih,
2.2.5 Eddy current loss in l" ·;" ' l1t.' lors
---------
For a thin copper shee t of II " \ lIeSS 15 in. a sin usoiqa lmagnc ti c field of maxi mu m
nu x densi ly B", a llhe frcqucllc),/anu a l 75 ' c, eq ualion 5.5 gives Ihe sJX"ilic eddy
strand s.
T rollsp __
ror large In
cu rrent loss based upon the assu mption thaI the magnet ic flu x is pa rallel to the il/ustratl'( I
surface o f Ihe sheel. II call , be shown Ihal equal ion 5.5, whe n applied 10 Ihe eddy' ,
recta ngular cond uctors of the v~ indin gs in a transform er, leads to the appro- so lid condu,
ximate expression
. Iype o r c, '"
) rn gell( I
PI = 6.2(i3 I",o fbd' x 10 - ' 11' sma ll tra ll!'! 1
'" J(Ii, .. !ofbcJ' x 10 - ' Wkg - ' (2.5) irycrcasing t

where
I T 1~ . 6)
2.2.6 Sf",)
, Sl ray 10<>
denotcs the peak kakage 1l1"l,;n ': lil' flux densit y (which is equal to lJ lII in equatio n ill d illl '
<1.;;
5.5 ) in th e duc t bet wec n th e 1 (;I\~~ \ '\l It<lgc and the high-vo ltage winding, I N is th e 5.6.4.

'T-,.' _

" .-
,. :.1" ~
"
•• /~>tIf
,. ,'
,, ,
•":. '.
 , ,
,": )-r~ \ ".
P~ ••

~~,_,_, :.fu:. .:... '; A,

TlIEORY OF TRANSFORMER DESIGN PIU NC [PLES 21

h Cl lSS A insubt io n. ampere - turns of either wind ing. II is the ~V i lldill g heiuht in millimctrcs and be
(which is equal to ~ in eq uatio n 5.5) repr~sent s Ihe breadl h of a conductor in
(2. 1) l11illimctrcs; thc llla gne tic cons tant is Po ::;~ 0.4rc to( 10 " ll m - I .. The substitu tion
of equation 2.6 into equation 2.5 gives ./
ow·vo !tagc winding.
( nd" ry side of I he . (2.7)
I" IIllU rnanlltl 1 lhc
1n c4ual ion 2.5 P appcars in the dcnOI,lIin:.1to r su Illa t, unlike J 2/~ losses, cdtly
nillimctres. the value current losses dec rease wi th tcmpcra tur\c rise .
. nJ 6 !1mmaI 75 C.
For round conductors the specific eddy currellt I {I ,;,) is Ihree·qua rtcrs of that
he leads frol11 Ihe obta ined by s u~bsiituting the diailleter (j~ for be ill tilt,; eq uati o n.
Fro m equat ions 2.7 and 2.4 .
)nr ximatcly when
9
P'/PR '" 3.8(JI'c I Ni "J)' X 10 - = 1', / 1'. (2.8 )
(2.2)
where Pi and P R arc the total eddy currcllt loss and 12/~ loss. rcspecti vely, ill a
gh·volta ge windings. winding. .
I
per square mill i· For the design proced ure it is co nve nient to c·. press 1', as a perccllIage of I'R'
Thus. fr ol11 equation 2.8
'/. ", = 100 i', / i'. '" 9.5(bc l N /lOO"J)'
.
Oi l 75 ' C alld 50 li z (2.9)
.'. !I <
w here the symbol %P1 represen ts th e perccntage t't)!1t!l lctor edd y current loss.
)f conductor material T he eddy curren t loss is proportional to b~ a ll d "'''Y he red uced by_su bdividing
the co nductor into ins ulat cd strand s, provided tl! l:.';C arc suitabl y tran sposed.
j
(2.3) Subdivision alonc is insufficien t beca use the strand s pre cO llnected in pamllcl at
the ends and curren ts will continuc to circula te Ih rc.''J~' h the end connections with
IIp.l re.lfw~ takcPd,cu thc result that th e losses remain pract ica ll y UIlU;[ ~I.! d. Idea l transposition is ,.r
1 'es obt.1ined when equa l lenglhs o f each strand occu py each different po~i ti on
t2.4) re lati ve to Ihe leabgc field ac ross the conducto r as a \'. hole. The strand breadth
b, cn n then be substituted for the c(Jnd uctor breadlh he in the equal ions, thus ,
di vitl ing the eddy curren t losscs by the sq ua re o f thc num ber of radial r .
'

strands.
etic field of ma.illlum Transposition is effected by cross-overs as dc!)<.:ril I ill l'(.; rcrcl1ccs 2,) and 4 or,
. ies the speci fic eddy ror large transrormcr!', by the use o f a con th ll Hll! \:Y It IIlSpO SCU co nductor, as
: .. l1X is pa rallel 10 the illustratcd in chapter 5. Jn practicc. idea l transp{hili l,:'1Id:ty Il ot be necessary. and
5.5. when applied to Ih e cudy cur ren t losses willlhcll have a val ue bct\·. ~'l'!1 llw l corres ponding to the
cads 10 Ihe "ppro· solid conductor and that for id ea ltranspositioll. del' " lillg upoll the Ilumber and
type or \.'1 ~1S:S-ll\'C I·S.
III gl: Il t.:l'a l, eddy current losst.:s may be kepI qu it . .· !; dl by ~ uj tit b l e des ign. In
sma ll trallsror mcrs they Olrc orten 110 more [hall 5'" or the J 2 R loss at 75 l' C.
(2.5) increasing to abo llt 15 % in large un its. ,.~!
2.2.6 SIr:!)' los.'\cs \ j
(2.6) , --
51 ray l(IS:-'CS a ri !\(' frolll eddy eu rrcII IS i nd uced ill ni L1:11 1':1 rts o r :1 t nl nSrOn IlCI', stich
qual to Bm in equat ion as in clamps and in tank wa lls. These losses arc disGi':l.:d ill sub·scctioJ15 5.6.3 and
....... c wind in g. I N is the 5.6.4.

--,_.---- ----- -"~---""""~---'-"---'--'

.'
--- ---_._----
. ... _-_.
I
I
I
., ' ..
 ."
, ,
v
.' \ '.
, ,
~'

~
.
, . , I . ~. ~
.,
.' ,,- ...... ~
"

22 MODE RN roWrlt I f{ANS I O ItM tR I' R.\l fl eE

2.2.7 Load loss an d r('~ i s l 'IIICC ~ u ll:,l (~C

From standard specificati ons the load loss is the pow,>, "bsorbcd on short-circuit
"

tes t related to the rderence tempera ture. It therefore consists oflhe I'R loss and

I, cddyc lIrrcn t loss in the copper and the stra y losses; the iron loss is negligible a t the
very low vo ltage of the test. If Pc, is the eo l'P'" loss pcr philse, then for a tl"cc-
phase t rall sfo fm cr the load loss Pc is
PI = 3/\ :-u + stray losses (2. 10)

where •
I Pc, = ( I + '1, PII / IOO)Ii Ii, + (1 + ::r" I' 12 f100 )/ jR, (2. I I)
I' The subsc ri pts I and 2 denoic quantities related to the low- alll! high-volta ge
,I windings. respecti vely, and the "nlucs o f res istance a nd percenta ge eddy current
loss are at 7S 'c.
The resistance voltage is the component or tlle impeuance voltage in phase wilh
the c urre nt. Its value is related to th e refere nce tcmpc'ra lllrc and is equal to JR ,
where I is r..lled curre llt and R is the effecti ve ill.: phase resistance a t 75 ('C.
I includin g an allowance ror the effects of ('ddy curn.: nl and stray losses.
i Expressed as ;] perce ntage, the resistance vo ltage is
%11 = 100 x Ill / V (2.12)
f
I wh ere V is rated phase voltage rererred to the sa me side of the tran sfo rmer as /
and R. Thus.

I
.. ,'
,
~ 1I = - x lOO =
•
I ' ll
VI
load loss per phase i" l\"I tts
- - - - x 100
voltamperes per ph:"e
:'." 1
, or. for" th ree-phase transformer. with equa ti on 2. 10
,
'i. R = 10 - 4 x p,ns (2. 13)
whe re PI is in wa ll s and S is th e rating per phase in Ilh.: gavoltarnpcrcs.

2.3 GENEI!AL C ONSIDERATIO NS: TnANSFOn ~I E R WI ND INGS

ANI) INSU LATION

The subjcl.:t of IrJllsformcr winuings ~Ind ins ulati on is prcsenll.:d in chapter 5.

Additi onal informati on, contained in subsequent chapters, is listed in sub·scction
1.8. 3.
Figure 2.2 illustrates Ihe principies of t he ar r:lIl gclll~n t uf wi nd i ng ins ula l io n in
one type 0(' uis tr ibu tio n tra nsformer.
I:ig :
The ultimate lilllit 10 the life of:l .allsfurl1l !.!r is i;nposcd by the life of its (b) .. J I
ins u1:! tion which decreases with increa se in ope rating temperature. To ensure an ·i. spaci
ct:o nomic life. up per limits of tcmpcra ture ha ve been sci for the vari ous classes of slrir ' \I
in sula tion, for eX:lmple. 105 rc for class A Il1tl tc" ia ls(iI.9. Such li mits re late 10 the

. . _._--_. ____
.. .. ~-. -. ;:-
,. -~...,

"
 , .
; .t "-I } .
..
t
• !., " . 'f
"
. -~-.-- ----~--- ...

1- - --6 ,j
".
j
short -circ uit
11
! . ~ .
'R loss and ..> I, .';
tc,ligi blc at the "

,en for" three- '.

I ,,
(2. 10)
"
,
, (2. 11 ) •
"i:
I
,r! high-voltase
! Cldd Y clirrent " ,
I
~
,I

Igc in phase with.

j ; eq ual to / R,
~ nee at 75 ClC,
Ly Idsscs.

I (2. 12)
to l
t l':msfo l'lll cr as I
,'.
< 11 I
13- ·
14 - r
t.
[,
(2. 13)
t' ,
'j'

1- - - 15
1. mpercs.
G
. INDINGS I
· - - - 16
r,
I
I \,-
cd in chapter 5.
iSlcU in ::.ub-scc tio ll
tol
ling insulation in I .
Figure 2.21 T)" pica l distri bution tr.1l1s form c: r in sulatio n: (al ve rt kal $cC li un;
{bl ho ri'l.mlljd ~l'ction on X- X: I. core leg: 2.low·volt agc winding: 3. high· volt age wi ndin g;
"~I by the li fe of its
4. spacing sll ip; 5. edge block: 6. insulation end block: 7. end \\ ,ls hcr; 8. space rs: 9. spacin g
. ure. To ensure an strip: 10. J1a l'.~r iLl !>ula ti t1n: 11 , spaci ng strip; 12. p<lpcr insulation: 13, duCI; 14. cooling ducl;
hI,; various classes of 15. !!paccr: 16. duct
h limi ts relate to the

--j'-'----- - -.-,------- •. ,
" , 'I 'Ill. 1i~

."
• 'l
I
I " , . 'r 1'1
::' ,'1 "~' , .,
~ J'

24 MODt~ RN rOWER TRAN S FORMER I'RAC-II CE

hottcs t pa rt of the ,wi ndings nnd are implici t in the defin itions of continuous
rat in g in sianda rd specificatio ns. IOO~
.., 00
I
! t
2.4 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS: COOUNG OF ONAN , • 601-
"
, ,
I i(
.,,I
TRANSFORMERS
., E
~
'0

7..-1.1 Tempera ture Jb;trillllti OIl in core, windings ?r:d oil 1:'
2°1-
a I
rigurc 2.3 indicatcs thc app ro xilllate tempera ture distribu tion. Figure' } (a)
represen ts co ndition s, nCa r the top of th e windin gs wllCre thc rnaxlr1~m
Icmpera tures occur. All th e o il·above the transformer is ass um ed to . :- Ihe same
tempe ra lll re, irrespec tive of whet hcr it has ascelld ed thr.o ugh the d 'ls t th e
I

I
c.'\tcJ'll:11 winding surfa ccs. Si llce th e thermal resisti vity of copper
c()l11p:! riso n with tha t of insul atio n, the high -vo lta ge winding is the,
to cool and usually contains thc hot spot.
1)lc in
.k ult
+-
Tile co re m:l tcr ia I has a gtca ter t h crll1 ~ I res isti vi ty t ha n Iha t of copper bu t much
kss 111:111 til:1I o fpapc r insulatio n o r of th e in sul:tti o ll bct\\'cc I11a mill;~tions. A pat h
I'
,,:. [If
o f' cu mparat ivc ly hi gh th ermal cond uctivity is thus provickd to thc edge of the ,,
,,
I
laminatio ns. This generally li mits lh~ temperature o f th e co re to a va lue less th an
thu! o f the windings whe n th e tr:1llsformcr is ('pera tin g a t fu ll ~ l oad condition. I
I 1111
Figu rc 2.3(b) shows the temperat ure distribut ion ac ross the hi gh-voltage ,,I
winding to an enla rgcd scalc. In te rnally, thc hea t passes by conductio n through ,I
the layers o f in sulat io n and the cu rve is approxi mately parabolic. T he coil I
I
surfaces, ho we ve r, coo l by CO Il\ l.;c ti o n, and this resu lt s in th e (' ractcr isti ca ll y ,,I 1111
Sleep surface tempera tu re. drops show n. T he L1iflcn:lH.:c bcl the hot-spot ,
I

temperature and the o il tempera tu re is ca lled the maximull1 \I. ;

gradien t 60" ,,". Sim ila rly the diO'crcncc between Ihe mean COlI ; ... 11pcrat ure and
.; tempe rature
~--
that l\f the oil is the mea n gradient 60"'0' The ter m gr~j(.Ii e lll is uscd mere ly to
indk:ak a dirrel't:: ncc ill t": lllpCrat ll rc ami no t ill the slriL" l se nse of tL":llperat urc
di(f~rcncc pc.:r uni t length.
At the tank surfaces. th ere a re a lso steep drops in tempera tu re. ' tS show n in
Fig ure 2.3 Tc ?
ngurc 2.3(a). The cx ternaltempera ture drop, howe,·c r, does not take ·lec entirely profi le (' n hori2 )
:.i[ the:: surfa ce. Coo ling by both radia ti on a nd convecti o n is invo l\ 1 ·!nd th e a ir voltage winding to
tempe rature rema ins above th e ambient value for so me di stance · n the tank <I I. secti ons o r winc
wal l. I vo ltage windinl
temperature ris. ;.
:
fi gure 2.3(c) i l1 dic~l tc approximately th e 11 ·npcralurc d istribution ve rti call y "
ri se; c5, maxim um I
til rough lhe wind ings. T he oi l tempera ture ma y be considercd to inc rease lin ea~ l y
with hdg ht up the co il stack . rcachin g ct maximum a t th e top of the windings. The
tcmpcr:1{ ure th en rcmains cons l ~fn t to the !;urfacc and is refe rred to as the top oil ,I
I tjO"' (nI ' maximum
grtldlr.;nt·; tjO~ o' s (
oil tempe rature s
1I': lllpt'r:lture. Over thc full heig ht of thc \\ indi ngs th e graph of co ppe r
[c.:rnpt' ra tulc is parallel \\it h that (l f the oil, since the tClIl j}\.' ratu rc gradients in th e I frOI11 th e uppc \.
body of the windin g arc assumed indcp!.:ndcl1 t o f \'cr ti ca l pos iti on, as shown. In
ract. th e hot spo t does no t occur ~l( the very top o r the wi ndings o\ving to c oo li~1 g
and the appro T

Ii
I
tCll1pera ture.

I
I

-.--~- .. -- .~ --.

'.
 I ,i· r ••,.
. ,.

,
1
t
!

1,' :~.
~,
':
,', . ~
~

\;~
; ...
_ ___ ..2.-. •• . ,• -.~
I ~, , ,
!

TII EORY OF TRA NS FORM ER DIlS leN PR INCIPLES 25

n~ Ircon tinuou s ~ -------- 8tt Of ClOt<!
•
.~
------ 1)2
• -'
I 2 ."
•!l 60. ,
·J ,< N
I
'f

~
•
J !::l(J ..om T
1\810

~!l
E
•
__J - 8, or ~Oo
-,
.,
Il' '' . Figure 2,3(a)
[O[O]O[U/oIDl
101
n: ~hc maximum
01 1," ye I he same
lucls or pasllhe
p .r is negli gible in
-l--l I--H-.L1-....jI · -- - - .- - ---- - - -e3
lie mas I di meult
60,
i
I- / (60,·68,/2 )
i.
Jfco pper bul much I
,,r r / ~ 6()o
lill:~lio n s. A p?\t h
,, ,
- ----- 1-
r
. 6£!,
) the t.!<.lgc of the ,, , I
t

to:l value less than

,, ,, I
,
,
r
- 60_
·ull· I<lad co ndilion. 6£!,
,,r e2 -,
r r
llie liigh·vollage , .
I
I
I
.... Iduction through
,,
r 6.8"0 -t -e4
parabolic. The co il r

,,
r
c h3 raclcris Iica II y
,, I~~II:::-~----- -- ·- ·---
'ce ll Ihe ho t·spo t · - - CI
!..-
Niw,ling tempera ture '--l
o 20 60 eo
; " l lcl~' Ix:raturc and - temperature ';'l' tOC)
is used me rely to
(,I (e I
.em: or temperat u rc
I
.tll/fe. as sho wn in Fi gure:U TL:lll lJC taturcJi stribulio li in an ON!\N Il all~f(!Il1lcr : (a) ty pical tempera ture
l ' ' l t 'kc place enti rely pronk (l Jl Iwrizc ll wl plane throu gh winding hot !>POI ; til ) Il.:lJ1 pcraturc gra\!icll ls in high-
'11\1 h~d, alld the air voila!:!!.! wi nding to enlarged seaIe; (e) simplified tempera I Ufl.! rist.: diagra m in "crti cal pl ane:
:tKC from the tank ai , se('\it1 !lS ofw indil1 gs to cillil rgcd hor izontal scale.:; it::!:. du cls: 33. oillc... cI; b I , lOP of high-
volwgc \\ inding: cI . approximate oi l tem perature ri se at t:-lnk bott om; e2, i.ln:ragc du el oil
, temperatu re risc; c3. approxima Ie oill Cl1lpc ralurc ri se <I I lank lOP; c4,,'mcan oi l tcmpcmlurc
ubtributio l. ver ti ca ll y risc; c5. max imum oit temperal ure ri s!!: 011, hot ~s pot temperat ure; 0., am bie nt ICIllIx: rat LIre;
" : to increase linea rly 6fJ .. ,m ' ma:t irnum winding tempe rature gradie nt; 6.(1,..". mean wind ing tempe rature
)flh~ wind ings. The grad ie nt; I!.0w. sur raclo: lem pe ral ure dro p; 600' tc mpcral ure risc or lop oi l; 60~. difference in
oillcmpcr;lt urc ri sc be twee n tank lOp and bott om; i\OR , illea n wi nd ing tcmperat ure risc
[..::rn.:d to as the lOp oil
. , : .~ !,;raph of copper
lu re gradien ts in the rrom th e upper surracc. hs vertic,, 1posi ti on is vcry dinicult to determine, however,
posilio n, as shown. In il nd th e approxima ti on implicit in the graph is accepted in calculating the win ding ,
uilll,;s owi ng to cooli ng 1
tcrnpcraturc.

I
I
~ . .'
-- . ',~ -

,
- ... ". ,-- --
 'd,.~....
,k.. !!,J
.,, :io·,r· 'if'
',"~ ' 1/

0(., '';~';.,

'--' _. _.', ~ -' . j

_,.. _1:._~..b..~~ __.::: _4;':,

26 ~ I OD£RN POWE R TR A NSFdRMER PR ,\ (,' I IC E TII£ORY OF

2.4.2 Sp<'Ci/il'd lim its of temperatu re rise ~ Substitu ting for 1;0, and re
'1
Alth ough thc hot-spot tcmpe rat ure is or critica l illlPOI lance, it can only be 1;0 •• =
measured direct ly by a thc:nllocouplc -embedd ed in the win din g. whi ch is
Thu s va lues of !J.O"C) C() ll1 pat
obviuusly il11pral.:ticuble, St:.lIld.lrd speciOcatiolls. tIH.:rl.:rorc. give limi ts o r tem-
be calculated.
pera t tI re rise a bOl'e am bien t tem pem ture li'hieh, all h ou ~ h rela ted on ly ind ireet Iy
It may be assll med r that
to thc hot~ spO l tl!mpcruture risco arc casily: measured on lcst. T hese arc lhe mea n
t l: l11p~ ratt1rc ri se o f the windings as measured by the increase liO R in resis tance.
;~n.J tile tClllpLra llll'C rise 60 0 of the tOI ii' lllc:lsurcd by tll Crll10 lllctof:
Ihu s the hot-spot lemperalur

2A.3 T:Ifl I( l'on f'iglJra ri ull ;lJId nin dill g tempe rature gr:,dicll ts
and th e hot-fo po l tcmperatu ll
Thc "pc"'i ficu Iilll it s of II: lll pcra t u re ri se cOllsidcre rJ in conjullct io n wit h the design
of the lank imply max imum valu es fon he wind ing tempera ture gradie nt 1;0.,.
:\11<.1 the windings should be ror llled in such a W,ly tha t th ese va lues arc not
where 0 is th ~ ambient Icn ' r
IllIrl11i111y c,"ccc(kd. 1

III figure 2..1(C), the d irli.: rl.!l1cc in t C ll1 pl~ ra turc rbe bc t\\('c ll tile oi l at th e_lOp :111(1
botl om o f Ihe ta nk is denoted by !!.O, . This depend s "pontile ta nk design. and a
low value is preferable as the slope o f the grop hs; · lil" n increased. Thus the 2.5 PRACTICAL CONS·...
maximulll coppc r temperature risc a t the top of Ihe ,', indi ngs is reduced for the
same speci fi ed mea n tempe ratu re rise, whic h. for the linear grap hs ass umcd.
2.5.1 Sp<'Ci/ic electric and
occurs a t ha lf th e windi ng height. A lower va lue of AO, corresponds to a more
vigoro us fa Ie of oil ci rc ula tio n, resulting in a n increased nile orh eat tra nsfer at the Equa tio n 2.4 in dica tes tha t tl
coi l :lnu tank su rfa ces and thus rt!ducing the surface Icm pcrnturc drops, a nd figure 2. 1 rela tes the spe '.
In ON -type transfo rmers the r~lt e of circulati oJl ()f o il depends upon th e: a nd type of construction, F ,
diITcrl.! nce ill de nsities be twee n the ho t oil, whic h ri sc~ thr oug h and abo \'c the n u .~ dcnsity IJm :lrc orten IeI'
tra nsfo rmc r, a nd the cool oil which descends a l the ta Il k \ 11 r f<tccs. Idcal cond it iolls respecti vely, Th e choice o f Sf)('
ror ON -type coo ling a rc thus obt'ain i.!d by plac in g the t lall~ ror lllc r in a rcia ti vely poi nt for p rel i rlliJl ~lry dcs ig
ta li pla in tank. The bulk of the ascend ing oil thell has lit " rlla, illlu lll tCl1Ircrature rcac tance arc no l ~ rc,,' i fictl, 1',,_
rise 6,0 0 , co rrcspond ing to the lowes t possible uClI sitY I :lIlC.I th us giving tn:: mos t nnd B",. thu s rculIl:iflg the co:
vigoro us ra te of oil ci rculat ion. F urtherm ore. a pla in ,urCal: c is the mo t cnicicn t The cooli ng mel hod de ter
for hea t di ssipation. in class A insula ted transfor
Exce p t fo r transror mcrs rated a t less than abollt )1.. ).; VA, however. such an transformers to 5.5 A 111 III - 2
arrallgemcll t is unecono mical, as the tank wou ld han: to be \ cry large rd Jli\c 10 The li mi t On the va lue of I?
the S i lC of tr:lIlsfor mer to prov ide ' 'Imcie nt coo lin g ~Iil face area. Rad::Ho rS or :Jnd genera tio n o f noi!ic, '
tub~', an:, IhadoJ'c. pruv idcd to illl lLasc Ihe coo ling :tll':I \': itho ul a cN r':S r t)JIt! - J'cs pcCl iq,:ly. Fur gcn~r: lt o J' tr:l J
ing ;ncrcase in oil quan tit y bu t a t the expense of so rnc1 loss in coo li ng ef!kie ney.
The relationsh ip be twee n ~O~ and 600 may be e.. p~t.:"scd j'n the form
.1. :1110 nU;t d~ns i ti cs as high as 1
conside red good practice Ie :
60, = k,!!.D, 'c I (2. 14)
2.5.2 Udlt itlllShip b::: t\\ct,O " j
when.: Iht.: fac tur k, has values rang ing fro m about OJ j'jll 1,1,lin lanks N fl.'r tanks
equipped wi th radiators to 0.5 ro r three-row tu bular tank .... Fr O IllIi G ur~ :'':!c), the If wc:ISo"IJIIlC t":t l the pcrc~Jl
mea n du ct oil tcmpcrU lurc rise is 60" - tJ.() J 2; tlllI s 11 J~ Ilican winJ in,£ :! mrcra· vol tage \\imJill gs 0 11 nOflna l
lure risc is I appro :\ i l ~~.1 h.: l y equa l to the "I

'C I ""J'" / IOC ,

_ ... ---_. "---f

~

,'
.....,..,..-.......
", , ~
~# '--....
 .. '
, .~
... .. ~. ... -.~------. -_..... ....'........ ' ..-.
,.',!,
; ..... ~. ....... , >
... .... .....:.. _,,_ ....... J .,: • ~,.' •. ( .,
I'

I I:
I
TIIEORY OF TRANSFORMER UrSIGN I'IU NCIPLE$ 27
Subs titutin g for L\O, ,tn,d rearra nging. we obtain
an only be 60 •• = 60. - 60,( I - ~k.l (2. 16)
. whic h is
Thus value . . ur tlO ... u l:ulI1patiblc with th e spcl:ificd lil1~i l s of IClnpcr;l turc risc may
o f (em-
be calcil lat ed.
) ",directly
li may be assllflIed' that
'e th e mean
sist:JIlCC, 60.", = 1.1 60.. 'C (2.17)
thus the ho t-spo t temperature rise is g':vcn by

60" = 60,+60 wQ" = 60,+ 1.160 wom ·c (2.18)

and the hot-spo t temperature is
1the design
"': . . 1111\° . . 0 • 0" = 60" + O. 'C (2. 19)
a rc not
\\ here Oa is the ambien t temperature ill ol.!grccs Ccl<i ius.
the top and
In,jand a
:hrs the 2.5 PRACTICAL CONSTRA INTS ON THE DESIGN
ecd fur the
ss LlI1cd,
2.S.1 Spec ific electric 3ud Illagnetic loadings
~ a morc ",. '

nsrer at the Equation 2.4 ind icates that the specific ,'/I
loss is direc tly proporti ona l to J'
r lS . and fig ure 2. 1 rela tes ,he specific iron loss at 50 lIz to 8 m ror a given core material
pan the and type or construction. For these reasons, the values or current density J and
"bove the nux density BUI an! often termed the specific electric and magnetic load ings.
(,nnditiollS respec ti vcly. The choice or specific loadings is common ly regarded as the starting
clatively poin t for preliminary desig n work on a transformer. Provided the losses and
(. peral ure reactance arc not specified. the highest acceptable values may be cho," n ror both J :,
g the most and 8 m • thus reducing the cost of materials to a millill1u/1l, t: ' .

L:fficicl1t The cooling method determines the Illaximum va lue of current densit y, which r. "
in class I\. insulated tran s formers var ies frorn abo ut 3.2/\ Illm - 2 fur di~lr i bll lio n : .>1
:r, syc h an tr:lll sforlllt.:rs to 5.5/\ mlll - 2 for large tran sfol rn~rs wi th forced coo liJlg. : ~~ "

ialive to The limit o n the value of 13m is imposed by distorlion or tht; J1vlgnctisi ng currellt
ators or and gelleration of noise. as described in sub -st'Cti on 1.2.4 ami sec ti on 1.9.
_rrespond- resp\.!ct i vcly. For gencrator t ransformcrs, these f3ctors are reb li ve ly u ni mpor lan t.
: f'flicicncy. and flux densities as high as I. S T have been used. In o th er case" however, it is
, 1 cO llsiJercd good practice 10 keep 8 m be low 1.6 T.
1(2.14)
2.5.2 Relationship between curren t density and nux dc,,,,ity
orltanks
_.3\c),the Ir we aSSllme tbat the perc entage eddy current losses in the low-voltage and high-
g ten/, pera- voltage windi ll Ss on normal tapping, %PiI a nd %P'2' may be taken as each
;lppruxilll:lI!.: ly c(.llIa l to th e avcrage pcn,:clllagc cudy L:urrcill h,ss %p.. .
(2.15) I -I- %P,JIOO "" I -I- /o P12 /lOO '" 1+ %P,I IOO = k,

-1-- ... --
..
--~-- .-. --r-- ....... ~.... ,
..,
I'
, I,
, J.i
I ,.
"': 1
~t:. i' :',
I~'
" ... .I
r.: •
I ,
"~'~ "" l,
I,
':'Iw'~
, '\~
'. ~"! 1

." .,;1
 .
y::l"f ,I ,

.
-".~"" I
,. ,~"".
J:
" '.1

•... ., .... ir,· I

,'
;
~
~
'it • , I .' "

,.I
I
I • I ~ ,.
"
"
~, " I~

., . ",
, . ..' \. .''',
,"
.~-<.t, '.. : '.
\"
, .
',';:~ ~.

. I .:1\
,.j
..
I' " I
,'. '
...
';.
.~~
• 1
·"11 . -
-_. . =:.;-'.~~.~ ..... _~•.: .......... ~'.~.I~ ~.,;: to: ;' ; .

28 MOI)13RN I'OWE R TRANSFORMER PR ACTI CE

.' :I ud l" lu:l tion 2. 11 ro r th e co pper loss pe r phase lllay be wr itt en their I'll II heigl'
. ,..vo~~
, Pc, = (fIR, + JjR , )k, x 10 - ' kW (2.20)
'! . SlI hstitu ting ro~ .R , un d R, rrolll .. eq uatio n 2. 1, we obta in where So is It 111
duet bet ween t I"
. Pc; ~ (I ;pN,5,/\ + / jpN,s,llI,)k, x 10 - ' kW
wi dth o r the ga"
Therero re, :1I111 /)2 a re the r:
lllillillll.'tICS, :111 ....
'Pc" = I N(f,s, / o , + 1,s, I(/,)pk , x 10 - ' kW \'o l tilgr.: w i IlJiJ1 g~
where IN is the ampere - turns in eit her wind ing. To a first ap
The :Is,\umpt ion of equa l cur ren t densities in the windin gs in accordance with
Ih ~ CI'IHlit ioll ro r mini mum / 2R loss expressed in eq uatio n 2.2 J;ivcs
Tht.:reforc, rC~I'
pc" = 21NJspk, X 10 - ' kW (2.2 1)
\\ IJ · , ,- i ~ the m,ea n value of S I and 52' Thus
Let the cxpr c s~
J = 10' Pc"/2 1Nsp k, 1\ 111 III - 1 (2.22)
wid th throu gh \
r-.lll1lip Jying eq uati on 1.4 by I and rearrang ing, we get icakage nux p__
Therefore, the I"
IN = VI /4.44jU",A F, lcak:1ge nux po
\\'h ~ IC riFe is the nett core cross~scc ti ona l area. From eq uati(
II'S is the ra tin g per phase in ll1egavoltampercs, VI = 10"S an d rn cgavol tam pcrcs

I N = IO·S/4.44jUm A,.,
Sllh~litl!l illg thi s va lue in cq ll:ltio n 2.22 and t a~illg p as 2 1.4 x 10 ' 60 1l1Ill a t or, cxr rc;ising in
75 ,C. we lind
,,
I
/\ HlIll - 2 (2.23)
E .\I H\.·~"...:d as a Ix:rl:c.: nta gc of th e tran sforme r rating. th e co ppcr loss is From these cq
i IIcrcasc j n bo \~
, %P c" = 0. 1Pc, l S (2.24 )
for this rcason

kiIO\:a~sl::;UUk~.~t~t:,ti;:p:" CqU'~i:::1l2_:3
than low-vo ltage
Wlle\'r c I',,, is in If we aSSl llll C f1.-
(2.25) wcre altered, ret
I \ S tile voltage per (UI
n,llIs. if J and BIU are chose n illdependen tly. th e tnillsfo rm cr wi ll han; a na tuml \'o ltage, Simi larlv.
va hl eof co pper 1055 dependi ng 011 th e rat io A/.c/s. Convc;rsely, if tht.: 11lSSCS arc co nsta nt . the r(';
guar;lII tcc.:d, the choice of J lllust corrt.:spOilti to that of IJrn an d possihle \ ', 11ut.:s of the quantities ill
d es ign :litcration I
A r, /s.
All increase ill
where Acu is the
2.5.3 I Ill' ~ i g llificallcc of rC:H' (;IJ1l'C tha t, in ge neral, a r
~llld incre;] sed in "\ '~
,\ p!,I,I\i',l"I tc formu l3c de ve loped for a two-willding tra llsfo l l1l1'r. o n the li ls Illay be i,1O' \
I I
the lcakage fl ux densilY is para ll el 10 the winding ,, 11I1; \CC5 for
'!-';S lllllplill l1 111<1 1 n.:duccd iro n los;, t!
 I
I . "'., .~:t.lr ,~r ,,,, .. """
, ,~.
," I
,
'\. ,,
'; r f
t' . ;,. II
r:~'.~
I
,..L ._._ .. .. ~- - - " - • - •
~ ,

..:::.~-,-
.'
"
t;j

....
,~,.

.. . . . . . . . . .# _ _ •
~1(·' •. ro~ I,.,
-..""'"'---_._-'---'
•
. ~-
.'
"
t
i... IJ.,~.. ~
. J.,
,., ~., ••. ~.. • ....

J'lI EOR Y O F ', RAN SFO RM ER I) ESIGN I' HINt ll' l.! :S 29
: written their rull hcight 1
. 5, may be arra llged in the rorm
.,
(2. 20) %X = 59AI Nx 1O - 9(3bos o ·.b,,,, ''''',)/<1>",'' (2.26)
! .
.n \vhere So is 1t mu ltiplied by the mean diamctl!r or 'th e h.:nC lh of mean turn' of the
kW d ucl between th e high- and lo w-voltage ~ i l1cJing s in rn ill imc trc.!s, bo is the radial
I width o r th e gap between ,he hi gh- and low-vo lt ,tgt,; v, indi HgS in llJill illlclrcs, b l
and b, a rc th e radial widths orthe low· and h igh .vo lta ~e lI'indi ngs. respecti vely. in
kW milli uH..trcs, and II is the axial ICIl£th. a ss u~ll cd equa l ro r bUlh lo w- and high-
vo ltage windings, in millimclres, , .- ,::
T o a fi rS I a'pproxima lion So is equal \( -, Ihe mea n v: llue of S l a nd~sl ' a nd
,
i n ~s in a cco rda nce with • I
1 r-
'2 gives
. b, s, +b, s, = (b , + b, )s

(2. 21 ) Therefo re, rearrangin g equntio n 2.26, we oblain i\

%X = 17 81N x 1O - "s {b o + ;(b, I f"J)N,n" (2. 27) I
,
(2.22 ) Let the expressio n in brackets be b x . Then b x ca n he regarded as an effecti ve
wiut h th ro ugh whk:h the IOlallea kage nux passes, rile Ct t.)Ss-scctio llal area of the ,
I
leakage nux pat h is rcpresclI [cd by sbX a 110 i IS <rt' p l t) ;.;j rlla te leng l h by II . ,
Therefo re, the large r the qu antity sbx / " the slll,lIler is th e re lucta nce ·of the
leakagc nux pa th ilnd the largcr is th e percentage reactance. Ii
I Frolll equatio n lA. <l>m = V/4. 44/ N. The phase current I. ex pressed in terms of
10' S and mcgavoltnll1pcres, is equa l to lOGS/ V. S ubstituti un in equu tiol1 2. 27 gives I
It
I
'14 X 10 · '011 1111 at
%X = 0.79S /N 'sb.d V' /i
or! cxpressing in terms of th e vo lt age per lurn ~t t1d the ntlio Jr /.~, wc find
(2.28)

0.79S/ "x (2. 29)

,- ,
]
(2. 23) %X = (V/ N)' '' /.~
;1ppc r loss is Fro m th esc CqU:l ti llllS. it can be see n that a n il tL:II.'il"'t,; i ll h\. ca used by a n
increase in bo wh ich d e!,c no s main ly on the vo lt ' 1 L~". i fl.:, I :-.I.: S th e rea ctan ce, and
; 3
(2.24)
fo r th is reaso n hi g h-vo ltage. trallsro rlll crs ha ve a tl il I , r ,tlly hi g her I'c:tc l !w CC
th a n lo w-vo ltage tran sfo rmers,
i
If we ass um e tha t all th e o tl H:r qu a nti ties co uld Il'ltl; dfl " (! Il :-. la Jl! while th c turns

Hiner will havc a lI a tura l

lVf'rscl y. if t he losses arc
(2.25) wc re altered, reacta nce is :l lso '. :cn to i)c in ve rsel y pld pl' rtiu llal to lhe square of
th e vo ltage per Lurn o r di rectl y pro pOi li o nal to tlt e ~ q u a rc uribe turns fo r a give n
vo lt age. imiJarly, ir we ass ume that s and th e VO II:tg(,! iH.: r tU t n co uld be kept
co nsta nt, th e rcacti.lIlCC is in ve rsel y p ro po rtj o Jl ~11 to Illc\·(.l il heig ht I" In pra ctice,
I
1 alld poss ible va lues of the q U:.lIllitics in equations 2.28 a nd 2.29 are <.III illtcrrcli; lt cd, li nd in an eco ll o mic
des ign a lterati o n of one implies alterati o n in t!'"it.: U l lt c.:~S , •
An increase in vo ltage per lurn co rrespond s to :.UI i!1 dc ase ill the rat io AFc / Acu
where Ac.:u is th e to tal eo ppc r cross-see li o ll in Oll t ' p h j t se ~ II is ~ h ow ll in rere rencc I
t lin I, ill ge nera I, n red uctio n in n:acta nee is associ;,;!I'd wil h j 1l t: 1 eascd mass of iro n
a nd i Il(,: reascd i ro n loss a no red uccd mnss uf cop p ' ! ~ I l ~ d C~ l pp!.: r luss. Also th e fa tio
If' trallsfo rmer, o n t he hi s may be increased. Conve rsely. (111 i!l e rCH ~C ill l (il(; lHll c e is associa ted with
I ! wi nd ing sur facl.'s rur
redu ced iro n loss and ilH.:rcascd copper loss, :tlld Ih e lallo It/ s ma y be dcac:tsco.

-,-I. -----------·-'·---"---."......,..z~-...,.-r----,-
. . • -. - ,...,.
~

I .. ' ! I~'
,
:. ~

" "
, • 1
 .t,\ ... ;c,',.. .'J!!'" "', :" 1~ ~
. ,' l
~ 1'rl""

.{)"': ... . ~
I.
, I" .
,},

_ • ....A-. _ _ •• :...:... '"

._ _ _ .M":'.;--'o

_
~
30 MO/J!!.RN POWER TRANSrORMI; K I'I( /\l" li CE

Reac tance is thus of fundamenta l importance in dctcfI 'l il ling Ihe initial
dimensions of a desig n and sho uld be considered at thi s star....:. This is possible.
provided an approx imate va lue can be found for b).'.
Substituting V/N = 4.44J4'm in equa tion 2.29 and rearranging, we lind

(2.30)

The qua ntity (I)!~\ his is of major il1lpO rl~lIl cc in transformer design. Its evaluation
is beyo nd the scope oflhis c haptc~. but in chapter 3 a n expression is given re lating
¢>,~\ his to the quant ities knowrr from the transfor mer specificat ion. IL is also
shown in chapter 3 that, provided the rc"e!:lnee and copper loss ,II'e bo th I
specified and th erefore cons tan t, <p,~) his must remain practically j,;o nstan l I
I
irrespect ive of a ny chan ges in dime nsio ns made whe n fOfming the design. Thll .~ it 3'
I
follows frolll equation 2.30 thnt bxalso remain s constan t under th ese cOI1<.li r' .:: ~ , I

and its value cn n be fou nd if 4);, his is know n.

r11 conju ncti on with standard in su latio n clearances the value of b x determines
the tow l width of the windings and or th e window in the rrame n: quired to ,
I
accolll lllodate Ihell1, For this rca so n, trall sforlllt:r s whh.:h nearly ;lll h :IVt' ... irnilar I
I
valu es of pCl'cl.:ntage rca.;tancc and pcrcenlagt.! copper loss, such as di st l ibutio n I
I
tr:IIlS fOrlllcrs. ca n usua lly'be bu ilt on fram es with stalldard JislaJlj,;cs bel wee n leg I

centrcs, Thesc stnndard centres a rc related 10 the corc cross·scctional :l l'eas and
arc know n from pnst des ign experience. Thus. if til e required core ;lrL'J is ~nownt I !
d-
I
it is orten possible to estimate a reasonably aCCu rate va lue of b x without previous
knowledge of (P,;, iI/s.
Equation 2.30 ma'y be rear ranged by subs tituting l1 m AF(, fo r q)m' uS

(2,3 1) Fjgurc ~ . <1 Thll'L:

IH.:ight: /I ... "",judo'
where the nett co re cross-sectiona l area AFc is ill sq uare mdrcs, h,\ inlllill imctres lIccli olla l art.:a: d
and 13m inlcslas. Therefore. whcn rt!ncta ncc and (.'o ppt,;r loss arc specified, A~e"ls
is a conSI~lnt ror ~l parti c ul~lr value o f Bm'
A fc.g,a rl: I1xcd, h!
arca IS
2.5..4 St:lllu:lrtli:'::l lioll

Inlhc m;lIlUrilctli re o f tran sformers it is possibk 10 :': lillHlardisc for a fcw )l'a rs 0 11 where "Fe. is tl
:-;{lm~ designs. cs pel,' i;\ ~l y with distriLJlIl i~) n tran~ro rlll c rs which al'o,; pro duced in Because I hI.!
I:lrge quant i ti c~. I n general, however, stambrd des igns suitable for usc O\'l.: f a lo,ng tran sformcr s are
period arc not possib le becausc ofa lt cmtions in cllstomers' rcquircm l.: nl '> an d new 10 lise a stand I

dcvelo pments in materials ~lI1d in manufac turing methods, StalHja rdi~a li o n on I11 C:I IlS that, fo

corcs, insu lation, tank s and fittings, however, I1IlJ ~ t always be pra c li ~c Ll in order 10 ust.:d, variable 0
make manufacture at all econom ic and th is Illay be regl1 rd cd as scm i- ce ntres whe n n~ (,
sin nd" rd isa t ion. For large r )
Figure 2.4 shows the main dimcnsions or a three-phase corc- Iype frame. The \\ ilk]y. an o jt •.,
number o f steps, meth od ofconslrllction and dill1cnsions of the co rc, d, "fca nd the u:-I! or sland:
I

~ . .. -...---. .- -.. ,- ~ ~-- -. ..-

.',,'-' "" \
 ~'~f'~
'.' \" f
1 ~,\'" 'i)''i ' •
" .
.
' . y., ...
... .. r'
, .' , '~"
~

':' -.'.¥,\ .•
' .
' ..,. I ~
, ,
"
, . '.: _ _ .4--_
"

~.

-_ ...-" . --- 1\
I IiPORY OF TRANSFOKMl:.R DESIGN PRI NC IPL ES 31 i:"
l1ing the ini tia l A.

"l is is possi ble.

ng, we find

I
1 (2.30)

L'I. Its eva luatio n

~ iYC J1 re la ting
)n. It is also
loss arc bo th
.Ily constan t
!sign. Thus it
lese conditions.

x determines
me required to I I I I ' I I

all have simila r 1·

,
1
I
!I :I
distributio n
_~.; bc !wccnlcg I I· 1 i .i
iOlljl areas and - I : I

ca is k now n. , I : I· V A I : I
1
r',9 t I

-~~~~--G
ou t previolls
,
Thus
Note: T!'I,,, d'OQ.om ,., nOI to 'Scole

(2.31) Figure 2.4 Th rcc-pha\c (ure-ty pe frame: h.~", distance between leg \.:c nlrcs; II ... wint.low
height: h ... window widlh : hi c. hair-width o f wid est co re- rl;lle ~; :1I q • gros~ ,ore aOsS-
1 millimclrcs secti onal a rca: d, di,llllc,d or cir,umscri bing corC circle: A ... wind o\~ area taken lx:t\~ccn
.. j{ied, If ;"eh/.'i core t:i lclcs
:'
A h.!; are fixed , but till' \\ indow height II . . b \,I riabl e. The 11t:1! ('.Ire cross-st:(.:!iOl1a l
, ,
:Irea IS
AFc = kFcA"c,g (2.32)

c,L",
, ccd in
...: prt"HJu
"0
whe re k Fc is the ~ P:l cc,r;!l' l o r or the core lamillations used.
Because th e pl: rct:ll t;'!gt: \alues ~pcci n cd ro r losses and rC:H.: t;IIlCC in di stribillion
tra nsrorme rs art; ~illljl;\[' for Illost units or a particu lar size. it is ge nerall y possi ble
,I"C over a I, ,ng
:l1ts and ne w to usc a standa rd win1dow v;idth II . . :tnL! hence sta lllJard leg cen treS bl: cn ' T his
Mdisation on mea ns that, ro r the m;\jnl'ity or distrib ut ion transrormers. sw ndard rrames arc
sed in order to used. V:lri:lhlc oilly in' Ih:ig hl. Provisio n is. however. Iry:ld c ror nOI1 -st:lIlda rd
d as se mi- ecn tres wiJ t:1l n.:qll ill..'d ill 11:ll1s I"Ol'l1Il.: rS wi th tlfllisua l ch;lIa~l.,:rb tj cs.
I:-or larger trallSrnl" lI1 : rs the val ues or reactan ces and Il)So,;CS spccilicd vary j"1.

pe frame. The wiciely. and it is not u ~tI. t1 l y possible to stan dardise on the leg l:c.:ntrcs. although ~ -....t'
I. 'I
c, d, hFc and the use or stand arJ CIY'CS is no rma l.

-....-.. .. ----.-.-.. ...

~ , ----.-..,...,~---~ "':- ...-----_.,_.. _--- -.--..-...-
I '. ,."
.,.t· ,
.:*. '," ,
• t" r

"
,\
,"
 .' ,', '. '.
,..,~ " ,"

, • ~
;.I"
I ' .. '
'J'

...... -- ..
t ....•
.-.:.. .~
---
32 ~ 1 0 DEKN r OWE R T RA NS I OR MER I' RACl ICE

The clTcet of sta ndardisation, especially for cores, is to impose limita tions on- price o f cor'
the des ign. O nce III,,! dimensions of th e stan uaru L:o rcs ha\'~ bc~ n fi xed, it is nearlY.' ~ cost o f actl
. always cheape r to design the tra nsformer on the most appropriate standard core' rI' J cpends u p,-
even tho ugh this may not be exactly the opt imum size. In pmcticc, the cx istcnceof I vo lume. For
sta ml,ud co res and fram es often simplifies the proL:css of obtai ning a <.I esig'n b,Y " lota l and r
restrictin g the fi eld of ch oice. 'f I,
~ 't all d ard cond uctors a rc also empl oyed. Theil' lI SC mealls th at it is not a lwnYs
poss ible, when forming the wind ings. to o b t:lin o ptimum va lues for the lengih f 2.6.2 L: ,,"
:l lld rad ial width or for the, Current density, '
:
'. !, lf thcprud
• as the dimcn
1'l.' lationshi-
2,6 FR AME AND WI N DI N G P llOl'O ltTlONS l.'a /cu Ia ti)l g
L'l n .: trk:a l ell:
• I.ll ppcr ar('! I I
2.6.1 Sile anti sflllpc or rr ame I tl cu. give t
The selectio n of fra me dimensio ns is th e fi rs t allt.i proba bly the most critica l stage If wclisc .
a I hrcc ~ p h a ~
in the des ig n ora transformer, because th e bes t dc..: sigll will only be obta ined on a
frame of th e correct size and propo rtio lls. 1 he d imcnsions of this frallle arc
I
determi ned by the full technica l specir,ca ti on for the tran sformer in conjunction
, I with considcra ti ons of cost. il bu t
An indicatiolT of the size of frame required is obta ined fro m the o utput
equa tion de . . eloped in reference I. which may be written
11, \\ ha c Iro is II
M VA (2.33) I hl!ass u III pt
rh crcforc
A\tcl'Ila ti\'ely, the out put ma y be ex pressed ill terms o f the wi nJo w area A.,.
I
.,
" illstead o f th e co pper cross·section A c u. For a thrce· phase .t ransfo rmer, t
S = l.II J B", JAr, k. A. MVA (2.34)
I \\ h~ rc lJr:cn
1" J i,,1cle","
\\ here th e wind ow space fa t.: tor k"" is give n by
• (2.35)
with 2Acu representing the tOlal c ro ss~scc ti o ll area of copper in the wind ow. \\ hc re bo I · W

The out put equa tio n thus rela tes the tran sformcr ra ti ng pe r pha:,c to the size of winding :lnd
frame req uired, in so far as this is indicated by the prod uct of arcas A Fc x A cu or The tot,
AF( x ;t wo II does no t. however, ena ble the <I n.'as to bt.: scpa r:t tcd without ma king circu mfcn:
c!.!rta ill assumpti ons or a ve ry ap prux illlat c 11; tun.:. nor docs it gi\ c any indica ti on fu r the (hl e(
of the shape of wind ow area required.
The electrica l characteristics o f the tr~.IIl s fo r/l} c r dcp!..: nds upon its shape. For
exam ple. reac tance depends upo n thl.! ra tios A, c/ At,'u and hi s. fh csc ra tios, i n and rrolll 11g
co nj ullc ti o n with appropria te space ractors a lt d iJlsuli! ti..m ckari1 llccs. :1150
esta blish the re la tive volumes of co pper and irull 1I ~t.: t1 ill the des ign. Con·
scqucntiy. if I1 xed va lues o f speci fi c loadi ngs and therefore spec:ifi c losses <.:a n be If it is :1 lso "
as"It/llcd. the ratio of lotal co ppcr loss Peu,1 to iron loss Prc is octc..: rmillcd.
COllsicil:rations of matcrial costs also innucilce the shape of the frame. The

" .. ••
•
 -""""'" .. . __.---
,-
TH EORY OF T RANSFORMER DES IGN PRINCIPLES 33
sc limit , ,11S op price 'of co ppcr per unit mass is app roxi lllll tcly three ,il11cs that of iron. Thus the
~I.. "11 ·cd, it i::. nea rly cost of active iron and copper employed in the constru cti on of the transformer
)ciute standard core, depends upon the relati ve volumes of these materials as well as upon their total
:. he ex istence of . vo lu me. For a give n size of tran sfo rmer, the shape of the fra me aITccts bo th the
l1i 19 :.l design by lotal and relative vo lu mes of Hl:llcri:l ls used, :~;,

t it is !lo t :dways
:s 'for Ihl.! I l~ ngt h 2.6.2 Lengths or ac(i\'(~
.: '
iron :1:1111 c:oPIlcr
If the prodw..:t Brn x J in the out p ut (equatio n 2.33) isass ulll ed to remain COJlstant
as the dimensio ns Of":l design arc varied, Acu is proporli oll<..l llO 1/ AFc . From this
relatio nship the cITect of ci13l1 gCS in fralllc geometry l11ay be in ves ti gi.lted by
c dc.: ubtin g varying propo rti ons for typica l designs. Ihe corrr.;s pondill g eha Il gt:s ill
electrical characteristics being ignored. l:"'o r this purpose th e lengt hs of' iron and
copper are requ ired wh ich. when multipli ed by the cross-sectiona l areas AF< and
A cu. give the totnl volumes of ac ti ve mate rial s in the <.lifrcrcnl frames.
If we usc the no ta tion o f figure 2.4 the to tallcngth I,<ofthe cores and yokes I'or
~ 111°11~riti\.:a l Slage
)C ~)btHj Hl.: d on a a thr ee~ ph ~lSC co rc· typc trallsrormer is given by
,. vf this fl llll e are IF< = 3". + 4b. + 12b,< mm
mer tn cOlljl l l1c tion
II .
but
. ·or' t!le ll tp ut It", = h + ho mm
whcre 11 0 is Ihe Io ta I ax ia I clen ra nee be t wcc n enos of the wi nd i ngs a nJ Iht: yoke on
(2.3 3) i the ass umption thaI the low· and high· vo ll;Ige wi nJ iJl gs arc or equa l k:ng lh.
Therefore
J
wil uow area A",
r IS orl1l f r. m ill (2.36)
(2.34)
whe re " ce'l = hw + 2b fc ' I f we ex press th is ill terms of t he wi nd ing di mellsiolls a I1d
radia l ciea r<lIl CCS, the wid th of the wind ow is

(2.)5 ) 111 III (~ 37)

....oct;.
I.
~.

'ii!·.
~ in the windo w,
l S I~ to ,the size of
, ... ;-t.' AI ~ '< tl cu or
:u wi !1 0":, ( tlHl king
where hOI is· the nldial wid th of the ga p bctween the corc a nd the l ow~voltage
wind ing and b02 the radia l widt h or the gJP between h i g h ~vo lt(l gc windings,
The tot31 le ngth -", o f co pper cross·scction in Ihe tr ~ I ll S rO J"1ll Cr is the mea n
i ,;!f'

•
,

ci rculllfc rellL'e of tile windings 0 11 each l c~ Illult ip lied by the Iltllllbcrof' lcgs. Th us
• :: :.lily illdic, l li o n ror the threc~pha sc co rc~typc transfurm er. ~ ...
I I
,",Oil il !) ",h:l pe. For 111111 (2.38)
.! Ti'lr.;:-. r.; Ifa I.to1i, 111
.
ano f'rom fi gure 2.4. if wc ass ul1le tha I hi = h z •
: I C~lr :lllteS , also
Jhe c;k si'::;'ll. Con· s = 2"(",-, + hOI + b l + -lb o) 111m (2.39)
;I"itic 10:)1.'('$ ('tII1 be I I f it is al so assul11ed lhal b01 = b02 / 2.
dCle l' llli IlL'd . .1
II the f'nilt1C. The ITInl (2.40)

,-'[ - ... .. ·0·'

. ' ro' '.,'

 ,
·~'I.•f(~r, ."f.
,
"\\' . I" ". '.
" "
'.. :. "•
,
I'

'.
/ . < !
.i .~t
" I
i ~ I'~ '. I
.~
"

, ~",,"',~
~ . . - • .,.J _.

34 MODERN POWER TR A NSI (m~1I It PltAC I·ICE•

•> .
The diameter .of the core circlIrnscribin g cilde is va lues of rC~lc t
(2.4 1) disl !iblltiol1 I ,
Ilun
illslJ!:tt io n pl
\\' I \!.:r~ th e corc·circle space factor kt is '<gi\'t:l1 by tlwJI the llalul
1
red uec tile rca
k, ~ 4k 1 ,A ",:.Incl' Distribuli(
"Iso h rt = k d/ 2, \\here k~ is a rat ior (il'pc ndill]J upo n the nun'\ber ofs tcps in the used in the de
core. Thus • '. . , -. . Af'c/i1("u muy I
(2.42) vo ltage.
For sma ll
For a given type of core construction, IhclL:fI.)J'C, b Fc is proj)ortiona l to At{7 aP llrox illlatcly
Usi ng th is relation ship between b Fc and III c and asslIIning a lso that A c u is Il l s in prnc tic:11
proportion" 1to II A F •. we may employ equ"tio ll' 2.36 to 2.40 to eva lu"te 'F. a nd s, indka tes the
as the dimcnsions of an existing design arc va ried. vo lt a III peres.
11\ t hc ca leu Ia 1io n, a com mon a!ld co n:\ 1:111 1 \':tltJl.: o f' wi I1ding spare fa cto r k may
be ass lIlllt:d for both low- and high·vo llagc \\ i l\ di Jl~s, thus enabl ing the ove r II
windi ng dimens ions to be rela ted d irec tl y to 11eu ; ndivkl~ral space fa<.:tors me
(2.43 )

and
(2.44)

where " I N I and Ql N 2 arc the cross-section;:! 1.. , r 'lreas of the low · :Inti high-
voltagc windings. If both windings ha ve th l: ~all :I." I rC ll t density, 02 N 2 = 0 , N I: h/ ,
ir we ;tiso ~ISSU llle a common windin g height II ;111 <1 tha t b2 = b l • then
k, =a , N,/u,h = k, " k
and
(2.45)

2.6.3 l', "ctical li mits of AF.IA c .. and his

Calculatio ns ba"cd on tyrica l designs and cq u., ii(l ,r s 2.36 to 2.45 indica te tha t the
minimu m kn gths and most economic utili ~ ilt itlp 11J'at.: tivc material:-; ol.:(.; ur within Fi t:.ll rc 2.5 Pratt
a limited ra nge of hJs rroll1 about 0.3 to 1.0. Wit hin this range, wid!.! . . ariilli ..~ n s in \\ it h norm a 110:
At'c / ..1cu do not ca lise much increase in !cn gth ',I\)o\l' the min imum. In practice. Ceu/('Ft ~ 3, 1: :
the limits of AFt l A c u fo r nearly all c1a s~cs of p n\',"~ 1 lIa llsform!..!rs lie be tween I or AVc/ACU: 4, hI!
and abo ut 3.5, and dis lribution transforl1\cr~ \,.:tld II) Itil\'!..! lower \,:1 1111.::-' tlt:ln high- or AF..
\, olta Ue transform ers,
It may appc~lr that distributi on tral1sfoI"II H:r., ,, 11I.,)tdt! have th~ higher valu~ s of The upper 1... 1
Arc l Acu since their srccificd rcactancc i :; kl\\ :II \ ~! 111\\ I ,,;;rctancc '" as"oc i ~It cd wit h n:iu.: tatl t.:c, hi tl h
high \,;!lucs of AFt / Acu. The effect o fth~ dilrn,'rh'c ill voltage, ho \~c\'c r, must be CO !lvt! rscly, I
con sich. red. Transfo rrn crs dcsigncd withou t c.'. j, lil 'it considerat ion 0 1" pnrti!.;\I!ar cO lllhil1l;d \\ it ' I,

p:lranlt'tcrs may be said to have nawrn! va l'll·" II I' th t.: . . t! quanlit it.:s, Thc /1;!tur~1I Ii mit.

'\ . - .,.....-.. - .... ~.--.,-~-.... ----,.....---.

I,
 t
II
.'''~lcrICE I THEORY OF TRANsFORMER DES IGN PRINCIPLES 35 +
values of reactance for high-voltage transformers arc much larger than those for :'i i
mm (2.4 1) distribution tra nsformcrs, owing LO the increased value of bo required fo;' ',' ,I
I insulation purposes<fh e specifi ed reacta nces a re a lso higher but tend to be Jess :
than the na tu ral \'a lues. In these cireuillstances IIrc / IIcu IIlU !:i t be incrcJscd 'to, I
reduce the reactance to the specified value. ' .~ }/
Distribution transformers arc designcd for low iro n losses. Thc amount of iron '
) 1 th e number o f s teps ill the used in tb e design a nd hence the VJlu c of A "'c / Acu is thus restricted, Low v,dues o·
AFe l Acu may be used becn usc the inherent reacta nce is very small due to the low . ;: .
112
(2.42) vollO£e, ;
Fo r snw ll transformers the lim its o f hIs of 0.3 to I, stated above, a rc very
;. ~ is propo rtiona l to II II{~ :'1 pprox ill1;1 lciy correct. As the sizc ur t ra 1I::,f"o rnwf iIlcreascs, howevl:r. t he range of
1<.1 ~ss umill g also tll at lieu is "/s in practical use n"nows. Figure 2.5, ba,cd o n a n ana lys is of modem designs. (
3 ~o 2.40 to eva luate IFe and s. indica tes the fU1l1l of , the practical ran ge o f " /.\ plo tt ed to a base of mega- '
I ~

voltnm peres.
ofwindin gspnce fac tor k may
I ....'
l"'-'lthllS \.'Il:lb ling thl.! \l\'l.!rall
I' I1lii vidu:11 !'pacc fa cto rs are
0.9 3
(2.43 )

(2.44)
re"s of the low- end high-
I bt
I
density. '"
N 2 = a , N ,; I!/S O.!I
that b, = h,. then
0.'1 -

o. ~

I ' / 1 II (2.45) 0 .:'

0.'

_ I I I 1 __ 1 I 1 I l
o 1 0 ?O 30 tl O ~o (.() 70 AO '10 100
to 2.45 ind icat e that the MVA
cti re matcri3 1s occ ur wi thin
Figure 2.5 Pral.:lil':11 limi ls o f Jr ',\ ror Ih rcc· ph<lM': CU I'C. I)rL'l r:l·l1~ fllr mas: I. mOs! designs
: ' ra nge, wide va ria tio ns in
wi th no rmal losses and rCill.: tan cc: 2. designs based o l1l y on minimuill cos t o r materi als ror
! le minimum, In practice,
cCu / CFe :::: 3/!: 3. 10"'" rcaclal1 cc. increased iro n loss. reduced co pper loss for the S{lInc va lue
tra nsf"'ll1crs lie betwee n 1 or IIFe/ ACu; 4. hi gh reactan ce. r(.'ciul.:cd iron I {)s~ . ilH: II.';I',cd cp Jlpa Ill'S rm Ihe sau \! value
I" " C 10\\ r \'a lues th:111 high. of tll~ / Acu ; 5. h"" ighl restri...'tiol) lilll it!> Ii ... \1 11 large transformcrs

10 Ipvc the higher values or The lIpper lim it is assndu tc1.1 wi th IransfiJrIIICI'\ ha vin g low va lues of specified
reac tance is associ:! ted wit h reacta nce. hi gh iron loss ami low coppa 1(I,,\s. as cxplainctl in section 2.5. 3.
1 o lt age. howc.;vc r. mll s t be Co nversely, tran sformcrs ha vi ng rt;; u.: lanl·CS hig her Ihan their natural va lu,e
:.. ns i dc r ~ltion or parti ctllnr combi ned wit h very low iro n Inss ;\lId high c(lppe r loss arc dose to the ho tt om
esc I quantities.
.. 1" 1(; na lura , lim it.

-1- ------.--_.. - - --
 '~
.:: .
,,.
," :; 't
" "':,,. I,
.,
,'I ~_

t.' (l.~

"',
"~

.- - ...." ~- ...

!I I ,

, " I

11. i 36 ~ t OOFRN I'OWE R rR ANS l 'ORl>.lER I'RACTI CE

The majority of tran sfu rl11crs with normal \'alues of losses and reacta nce lie
bC{\\'ccn these extremes, the valu es of his used ran ging very appro xima tely from
"
j I ! abollt 0.55 to 0.7 5. ror these transrorillers the exact vaille .or "Is depend s on the
circll Jllstances of a pa;~lic lll a r ucsign. In some cases depe ndi ng all the vn luc of
1: I
I AF,IAc" the co nditions at the bounda ries o r fi gure 2.5 lIIay be reversed:
I
: '1
tran sformers with lower reactance have the hi gher vallie of "Is and vice versa, r,
j,"
For the ,brgcsl transformers. height res trictions due , to . transport dim culties
1imit th e value or "Is to less than abo ut 0.6 in th e majority or unit s.
The limiting geometrical proportions within which a ues ign should be
produced ihus follow from the factors outl ined in this sect io n. Within these limits
'. the exact uimensions of a parti<.: ular design Illust be fi xeu by ma rc detailed
co nsiderati o ns o f re:.lc t ~IIlCC and of losses and cos ts,

2,7 CONSIl)[IlATIONS OF EF FICIEN CY AN D COST

2.7.1 Loss Hild II H1SS rnl iog ror IIIlIximum cffici(,lIc y

it call be sho wn '!. $ lhal lIla :d l1lum dlicicilcy oC~lI r s at a fr;J l.: tiollall ua d ks sllch
tha t the copper loss is eq ual to the iron loss. Thus

(2.46)

If the mean working 10::\(..1 of th c transformcr is known frol11 the sys tcm load
factor, t his gives a va luc for ks , :1nl! th e 1ra Il sforll1 cr (,'iI n be designed wit Ii a ra t io of
full -load copper to iron loss such tha t
(2.4 7)

It wi ll· then opc r:tte a t maxim um cffid cllcy at it s nH,~a l1 working I03d,
Let I1Irc be the tota lm:lss ofacti \'c i ro n alill /IIcu ht.: the to t;III1l:l sS ofco ppt.: r in
the trallsforll1er. The specific il'OIl i1 nJ cop pa l os~es arc Ph; and !'Cu. rt.:s pcl.:livcly,
Thus

and, if we assume that thc p rc~ e ncl! of ex Ira turns for positi ve tappi ngs may be
igno red for the pu r pose o f establishing appl'oxinlOtc eq ua ti ons,
PCu,t == I1I Cu PCu

Subs tit uting in equa tio n 2.47, we obta in

III , c/"'cu = qpcu / fll c (2.48)

A st lilly of lypical moder n Ira nsf'orm cr designs I i nel ica tcs Iha t for di stri bul io n I'

and ru fa I transform ers t ht.: rc is I'I:;l sona hie correia t ion bet wee II the at.:1 ua lloss a 11<.1 i>
ma ss ratios and th ose dcrivL',1 frlil ll the i!bovc l'(jlwtil)lls,

I
, ,,
- ;;:~~'~ .... ~~ ... ~-.-

I •• ,.,1\.'. '
 t,

... .; . . '-" ~
"-;;.. - ,"" --'--
I' ~CTICE TII[!ORY OFTKANSFOR M f.R 01 SI c.;N l' UI NL'l I'LES 37 ,',
'!
CS <j>f losses and reac tance lie 2.7.2 Mass ratios for minimum cost of ma terials
~ ;n rl very :lpprox im ~lt c ly frolll
Vari ati ons in material costs betwecn (lifr~'rellt dl!s i1; IlS are determined mainly by
;1 :tlllC of hIs depends I' ll the
Ihe proportions ofacilve iron a nd copper in Ihe Irall slo rmer. Depending on Ihe
" +pend illg 011 the v:': lIe of
rela ti vc cos ts of thesc materials, an optinjum mass I alio for minimum cost ~a n be
fi gure 2.5 may be re versed:
ob tained. givi ng an alterna ti ve basis ror design to tha t of maximum efficiency.
r ) IU e of hIs and vice versa.
Let 'Fe:.. and cCu be the specific co;ts per uni t Illass of iron :tnd copper,
_ c to tran sport dinicultics
respcc livciy, and C, be the tOlal cost c .ct ive rrKltel iids ill the transformer. Let
~ mbjority of units.
keC, be I he proportio n of Ihe 10 lal cosl <I lie to t he copper and (I - k, )C, be tha i
, ' ieh a desig n shollid be
du e 10 Ihe' iro n, Then '
II ;cc tion. \Vithin lhesc lim its

t be fi ,cd by Illorc delai led

s 1

I
'II) COST
, Thus
kc ( 1- kc) CI2= Cfc cCu IIlFc IIlcu
:y
or
" frac li onal load ks slieh
C, =; {cr,cc,mr, mC, lkC(I - kL ,IZ

(2.46)
It is shown in reference 1 that the numerato r of th is equation rcma in s
approx imately co nstant as thc dil11 c~sions of a d..:sil,!n arc vari ed. It is therefore
nuwn from the sys tem load poss ible 10 write
111 be designed with a ratio of
(2.49)

'I wh ere, as:.l first approximat ion. th e coeffi cie llt kc Ill:!)'. bl.: ;~\s tJm cd co nstrt nt. C, is
(2.47)
thus a min imum when kc (1 - kc) is a ma ximum , Ihal , is whe n
working load.
'1
d(k c - ktJ/ dk c = I
Ie tOlalmass of copper in
or ,I,
Ire Pr, and Pc,. respeclively. ,,
kc = 0,5
Th erd'urc , for 111ill illlUJ1'I cost ofa cli ve materials. t!lI: 1.:1~" t n"lhc copper is equall o
positive lappings may be
the COS I or the irol1, or Ihe COSI ral io 1,- ',
!quations, cost of copperl cosl or irol1 .- I (2,50)
III terms of specific cos ts, t he cos t of copper i... III, '1I~ ' 1I and Illal of iroll /1/ 1
ceFc .
Thus, fur lIIinillHllI1 ..:ost I
I
(2,5 1)
'I
(2.48) I
Ma rke t nuctu<l lions, of co urse, affec t the (;Itio o f ('cu to cfc' AI th e lime o f
. ;..1 les th ~ t for uistr iblllion w,iting, il is impossible 10 quole a stable I'al ue, bUI" ngllrc of"bo ul 3 10 I co uld
bclwcel1ll!e ilc tual loss and be' .rssumed for tran sform ers wit h co ld -ro lleu 5tcc.:i co reS.
,;. . . os. I he Hchicwnrcllt ora design based solely 0 11 mi nil1ltlllll:n~ t of m<llCria ls is ofte n

.. .~...,.'~ ' .. _ ., _.- .. .,...........,. .... I~·

 ,?' ~ • rf .. ' ,. '"" "
•

"
,
.. .... ...... ,
"
., ~
"_~,

P' I

38 MODERN I'OWt;R I'RAN!)I O R1I. IEn PRAt li CE

impractica ble, because such a design wo uld have natural val ucs of J6sscs and If we aSS Ulll1
rc aC I:lIlCC, correspond ing to <lny specified va lu es o n ly by coincidence, II may be
... hO\\,II , however, th at til e cU llditj O I ~S established ill equatioll 2.5 1 afC lIo l criti ca l;
(:ollsidcrablc vnriations in UlFc/ l1I c u arc pos~ ib l c \\ ithoul nl1l!.:h alteratio n ill to tal
cost.
It is foum] , tha t m od~rn gene ra tor ami prima ry tr:1I1slIli:-;sio l1 transformer
designs show good co rrda tion between th e ac tua l JIl\! uptinHl Il1 v:i1ucs of cost
fa lio. I n seco ndary transmission, dis!ri bu t iOIl a Ill! ru falulli IS t he ac t UJ I cost ra t ios or, for tire :\1

arc hi gh <1111...1 th e I11:lSS' ratios arc lower thall the optimum, indicatin g that the
amount of copper relat ive to iron in the desig n is grc~l".: r than tha t required fo r
mini mulll (os t o r materia ls.
T hus a I" .I
direct ly rr 11
2.7.3 C"I, il" li''' Ii oll
III rcrcrcnc
Til t.: l:os t or:u: tive l1l:l taia is is lln iy tht.: 1110:; ( eas il y c"il lua ted p :1I 1 o r th e total cost are not of " ':1
of the Ira ll ~ forlll c r . and th ~ above theo ry iglw rcs the ('o~ t or la bour and as co nstul I '
ovc rh ca us. Ma ny modern designs. howevcr. a rc ba sed on capi talis.Hi on formulae str uct ure. I il
which take accou nt of the total cost of buildin g the transformcl :lnd th e cos t of cx isting c!c<'il
the losses and all ow for int cJ'!.!sl and dc.: pr!.!t.:ia li on 0 11 Ihl.! IIWIl CY in vo lved. The
formulae give a to ta l annua l cost, and th e best desig n is that having th e minimum
,
2,8,2 DUI. I
ann ual cost.
Figure 2," I
arrangeml ~.
2,8 TR'\N S FOR~IUt " ' INO I NG SI' ,~CI, F,\ CTOltS r:lnging from
unit sconsist l
2.8. 1 ApJl li(, :lt ioll 1.55 10 1.6 I:
res istallcc, ..0
Va lu es o f windin g s pace fa ctor indica te til l.; a mount of \\ il1llll\\' area requir ed to iHlpcua nce 'Ol
accommodat c the cop per of Ih e windi ngs. In the dt.: tel'lll inatio/l of preliminary
dim ensio ns fo r a transformer, tilcrt; fnrc . da!:! arc I't.:quircd frqm whic h th e space
All Ihe 1 t"
:lodthch il '
fal'h )rS 1ll ~l y be found . Th ese l:<l1l he obwincd frolTl ~j lllil : 1I dc::, rI;lIs with the sa me lhe sa me proJ
type of windings a nd coo li ng requirement s. and slIch inful lllati on represents onc pos itive ta... ·)i '
way in which past desig n experience may be stored. the cappel r·
Space ractors employed ill program Illes of co mp\l! c r~a i tl cd desig n necd not be for no rma l l
\'(;1'), :.lcc ur:ll e since the computer forms the \\in di llgs and Ihe values ini tially
ass llllled a re mod llied <..Ill ring t he design process. 1ft he fralll t.: Ui Illcnsions a rc to be
sck:ctcu with out rorming the wi nd ings. however, a more accu rate es timati o n of
dimensions. b
(cq ualioll
fr om it is t IS
l,
sp:\CC fa cto rs is required, especia lly in luw-vo lt age tranSfl)IIIlCrs where the therefore, inc!
windi ngs occupy a hlrgc r pl'l\po rliOIl of tht' tota l winu ow ;Il'l':l than ill high- equation .- '3.
volta ge uni ts. rile gro s
II is convenient to ex press th e sp;\I,:e facto rs ill the f01'111 fo r d es igns sill
k, = I l k, I I l k, 12.52) ap proxi m<.d ,·ij
a rea will t ·a
Thus, fr om equa ti ons 2.43 and 2.44. problell1 sl. ,dc
dt.:llsity bctwel

,
1
"
I , '\ I -_. ---.--- --_... -_. - -; ~- - ---
... ...... ~- ". "~
 ,'fl ,., I
• .. "
I"

.'

'I "
,-
!
1
---
~, ~E
} ., '1 I I Eo'R Y OF TRANSI' ORMi!R DLSI(j!'l l'U I NC II'LI~ S 39
,
1 I values or losses and If we ass ullle a common curren t de nsity in tJ1C low. nnd high-voltage windings
,. I'
'Y coincidence. It may be
I . In 2.5 1 ar(: not cri lical;
- ,, fl l Nt = (llN 1 = {lieu x 10 6

t Iw..:l1 al!cration in lo tal "

T hererorc.
r'Hlsmiss ion Iransrorme r I
)t ililUITI valu es or cost
til lis I he ;I\::t u;d L' O~ I ratios
nu n, ind icating that the
c han Ilmt required ror (2.53)

rhu s a predicled value or k ( enables Ihe window arca required 10 bc ruund

direct ly rrmn Acu.
In rcrcn': I1I': c I, forlllu lac arC developed rel ati ng k I to (J /S )I /2, T hese forIllulae
Hed part ()rlh~ to t:tl cost are 11tH of gCll\ ' r: !I ;lpplit'ati o l1 becall se the cocnkicllt " of (J /S )I/2 may bl.: trea ted
Iw cos t o f Ial hHlr ilild as CO li ,tall I" l \l1 ly o\'(:r a lilll'itcg range of similar I.Icsigns \\' ill! the sal11e winding
"
I tpilalis;.I(io ll forl11uhc stnu:tl rc. TilL)' tl o, however, indica te a co nvenient mel hod of storing dala fro m
,:" orlllcr artu th e co~ t or existing d c~; it:l1s .
he Illolley illvolvl!d , The
I I ha vin g tltt..: minimum
2.8.2 J) :~ t4.l ft; r l' j tr ibutio·1I trilnsforlllcrs nith h<:l:c:lI windillgs I
I

Figure 2.6(a) , holl's va lues or k , plolled 10 a base or (J IS)' /' ror cach
II
, arm ngcll1l!1l t l ) f \ ·l' r t iC~l l ducts i 11 <l seril!s or distribu t iun t l'ansfurmers wit It ra lings I
.' ranging fro m 0. 15 to I M VA. Do th the low- and high · \'o!tagc windings ofa lllhcsc
units con sis I o f" hdiea l coils; a ll ha ve s imilar va lues of nux dClIsi ly wi t hi 11 1hc range

,'. .. ld a w Hrea required to

Illinatian or prd iminary
1. 55 to 1.6 T Hnd of perce ntage reacta nce be twecn 4.1 and 4.7 hi' The p<.: n':clltagc
resistance, hO\I,ever. varies rrom 1.83 to 0.99 %. alth o ugh no tran srU l lller has an
imped ance oUlsidc Ihe range 4.5 10 5 %.
I1

/\ 11 th e Irall rill Hiers are constrllctl!u wi lh stallLla rd tappings ur ± 21and 5 %

( frolll which th e space and Ihe h i gh .~ ul t aGe willd ing cross·secl iOllal a reas IIw s al l i Ilr..:lud c apprux i Iu:tlely
: designs with till.! :-::l Il1C th e same III op\lrtio;, or ex tra space 10 aCCO lll IlHHI;IIC tht.: turns requ ired fur th t:
o rmatio n represe nls une I·
pos ilive tappillgs. Thi s enables the va lues on 1 to be l"tlc ulaled so th a t they relate I I_
the copper cross·seclions on norma l t app if;~ posi ti o n. (11 x (hig h·voltage turns I' •
I cd design need not be ror nOrlna l t'.t ppi ng), to th e overa ll winding arC:1S obl"jnl;d rro111 the full
ill/d the va lues initially dirllen siolls, "2Irl. It is cO ll vcnien t to l;xprcss kl III this for m since the OLltpu l
m~ dimensi o ns arc to be (eq(lUlioll 2.34) is derived by neg leclillg lapp ings. and Ihe va.lllc o r A c" obwincd
r i..'Clll'i.ltc estimation of
'u ilsrn rmcrs where the
from it is thu s th a t fo r norma l tapping positio n. The eorrespo nding values ofk f' ..
Iherdorc. inclnde all a llowance ror lappings and ca n be subslilUkd direc lly in ,(
Jow arcn than ill high~ equa li o n 2.53: I ;,
T he uraphs may be used to predict wit h rcasonJblc accuracy the space ractors i'
I n
ror designs sil:lila r to th ose ror whic h th ey arc dr;t\~ ll . rhe nu x dcnsi ty should be
(2.52) approxima tely the SilIllC; o therwise the number of tU lllS requ ired ro r a givcn ore
area wi ll be altered considerably, and some error may result . In practice, this
proolcm sc l d~1l1 arises since th ere arc normally ollly slight \": riations in nux
density between differen t tr:lIlSrurrl1l:rs within a par ti cular l'iit SS.

1-- ., ..-.-~.--
 ) ,
.'. L!t

"
"
.J

•. 2,.-- - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - ,
.1 . 1I1EO.RYO, I"
0' HI':"'"""

2:11.3 Effect of "arialion ill rca

'.0 - 1 1" \

T Ile v'l hI C", of ill"lpcda nce S lei

3.0
within Ihl.: r;!n ge 'l 10 5 %~ tl. ... rc
. ~~ccpliol1:t 1 ca.;;cs i mpeda nc~s Ot
.' sPecified r~r Inrgc r transrorl I"
. I~C same size.

• figure 2.6(a ) can not be useL

transformers or ,Ibllormal r ~1.Ci
"bo~t + 5 to I· 7 % or the .! Ie
I I I
3. 2 I / I simila r windin g s t rll~turcs. copp
/ I I
A,
/ I I .graphs but with reac tances o r Uf
3. 0 / I I percentage by whic h the pre( ,te
// 1/1 in designs wilh the highest I . .lei
I I
I/ // 1/
2.B
I I I
I / I 2.8.4 Tr:::!' .frrl nc rs with dh ",.
2.6 1/ /
1/ / Some dis!1ibu t\o n Ira n sfo rm~~rs 1
1/ /
2.4 II / of cOlIslrul:liorl is 110t now v· Y(
// I
// / obtained . fro m fi vc ucsign! ra
II ./
/1 I tran sforme rs h :~ \·c a ve rti ca l due
2.2 pi be tween th e luw- an d hi gh- ···~lt;
t' /
~/ rcactanccud\\\ 'c n 3,fJOand4 ',5 ~
2 .00'---'----~- -!-
3 --4L..--~L..-.J6'--J7,-J 1.53 to 1.62 T. The I ·centage re
(.115 )"2 for such dc:,ign" problem,
(0)
variati ons in th e 11 11 '1 r ofh \iz(
0.0,--- - - - - - - - - -- ,
variations in l h,~ n:II ,· 11 dim .• sil
sea ltcr ill the ,,!I lles of k r plotted
,.~
classified accOI".ling to the ra .~ ,.
2 number o f condll ctur s tran d ~ ,~I
straight lines orhest fit ca n be d",·
" 3.0
\ design stage, hvwcvc r, the val" '.: 0
and the mean ti,lC, .)f best fit .Ill '
althou gh :ld t"III 'lI c. is less thall tli
2.~
.- \
I
2.00!f---~--2:!-----!-'---!-4----! 2.9 ESTI ~l'\ I tON OF FRA I\H
!.I/ S)1/2

(b)
2.9.1 Ou tpu t I.: n' ITiricllts
FiGure 2.6 Values of k j as a runcti on o f (l I S)1/2: (a) distribution tfilns for rncrs wilh 1
helical windings: cu rve I. range 0.6 to I MVA; curve 2. range 0.33 to 0.5 MVA ; curve 3. Very npp roxilll:itc frn mc dilllf'n si ,
r a.ng~ 0. 15 to 0.25 MVA: (b) di stributi o n transfo rmers wi th di sk windin gs: curve 1, II,J n h coefficients. Th ~:s~ arc based 0 pn
wlthlll mngc 1.1 to 1.4 min; curve 2. ltd /1J h within range 0.6 to 0.7 111m: cur ve.1. mean \a lli cs nature.
from 1 and 2

\~
 .~ \
TII EO ItY OF TRAN SFOIH.1ER ()~S l liN "IUNClI'US . 41 . . ,
.,I, ',,'I,
I ' l '

2.8.3 Effecl of variation in reactance

The v~ l1u cs of impedanoe spcci licd fo r distributio n transfor mers lie normally
within the range 4 to 5 %; therefore the reactance is approximately constan t. In
exccptional cases impeda nces outside this range arc required. and the reactances
speci ned for l.arger tran sformers may difTer considerably. even between units of
/ the sa me s i z~.
fi gure 2.6(a) ca nn ot be used directly to predict acc ura te I'alues of k I for
Iran ~ fo rmc rs' of abnorma l reac tance. Th e magn itude of the error in vo lved is
abo ut . + 5 to + 7 % of the true va lue of k I for distributi on transformers wi th
si milar winuin g structu res, coppe r losses and nu x densities to those fOfming the
graphs bu t with reactances of up to approximately twice the normal fi gure. The
pe rcen tage by which the predicted va lue of k I ex ceeds the actual va lue is grea test
in dcsiUns wi th lhc highes t n.':u,: la m ;c. .'

2.8.4 T ransformers with disk \\ inLlings

Some distributi on transform ers ha vc tli sk- lypc hig h ~ vo l t agc windings. T his type
of constructi on is not now very common, but figure 2,6(b) summarises the data
obtained . from nve designs ranging in size fro m 0.5 to I MVA. All the
transform ers have a vertical duct in the centre of the low-voltage winding and
between the low· and high· voltage windings. They have values of percen tage
reactance between 3.90 and 4.95 %. and all the nux densities lie wit hin the ra nge
7
1.53 to 1.62T. The percentage resistance varies from 1)4 to 0.95 %.
fo r such designs the problem of predicting the va lue of k r is compl icated by
variat ions in th e number of hori zo ntal cooling uucts in th e <.Ii sk winuings ;..111(.1 by
varia ti ons in the ve rt ica l dimension lid of th ese ducts, and th ere is co nsiul.:rable
sca tter in the values of k I plott ed to a base of (J / S) " '. If the transformers ca n be
c !3. s~ ificd acco rding to the rat io duct heigh t per stran d " d / llt. where lit. is th e
2
number of cond uctor strand s Lctwccn horizo ntal coo ling duclS, quite ilccu ratc
straight lines of best fit can be drawn as shown in fi ru re 2.6(b). At the preliminary
design stage, however, the value of "d /"h wi ll not be known wit hin close li mits, \
anti tlte mean line of best fit mu st be used to cslim3 1e k r '~ Thus the acc uracy,
a lth o~g h adequate. is less than that obtainable for hetical ooils.

2.9 ESTIMATION OF FRMIE DI~IEN S IONS

2.9. 1 Oulpu t coefficien ts

i -ibu ri l11l tr.II \ .. fur ml.'fS wilh
'· 0 ..'.1 10.1 t),5 M VA ; curve 3, Ycry approxi mate fr.lmc dillll.' llsiolls Illay be ohtai ncd by lIleanS of output
I ol s k win!!in i..: ~: \,: \lr'VC: I . IloJ / T1h coc nicients. The se arc based on previolls design ex pcriellce bu t are im precise in
) O.p mill: (.'11 1"\'<: J, mea n val ues nature .

._.-.- .......
,_ ~_c~. ~~~,~~;~._·:;:;"E~:~-~.;~<~~~~~~~~I~;:· 'l~>~ ~; ;·<~:t;~ -:~~~t~,! .,' '"
'I:;~:: t
__

~ __ -:; ,. ti . 5 '~~~ _.:":.-2-: - ~ ;g. J ::-.. ;: :;: - "2~_~ ;f . ~ .~ ~...;r_O :::'~ 3 Q' ~ ::.- ~ ~~ E.1Lj$ -, --. .,....~ .. -:rr :.-~~ .'
:.r~-..___ - ~~-;-7--;;;::~~---;.:'£~~-= K._-.:;:;.:::r=..S...::>-~=- ?"GJ@::.:t.ffi! ':' ~"':';';"D;~ "H7--!'+~"::""-~~ __ _~~- ..-- ....:..... -:.:-~.~: ::.:.--:~~~.-;;,;;.~ ......... ~~:/
•...=........-. ...... _ . -----,
___-_ _ --.:::.::.:. ___=_____
- - - . - . - -- - _ •• -._- .-.-:-----~~-.."..,.. . ...........------.- ,.,. • • -:-...!:!..:- .~::!= ,..:.~
.-......- - - ... - .. -::!'!J-::'"_~.. -- 044 C ' •. "'-,0.:;'" -_ _ _ ___.____
~ --.!.:;..=-..:=-~ . ~.--== ~ --'-'--=-~ ~-':'\'\

<
,

[ c'

;
A ! '",
'"
J
t,.
~l
<

l·~,
r
!
:~ . -. :::;..:
.~--, --: .~ ... ~~,;.

l~~ti~~;>t:j~t;,:~
-
TABLE 21 DwpfIl and winding co~lficienlsfor t ypical core-type transformers ,. .
;j Class of transformer o
~

Perrentaye reactance
,~~. ~ii~!0>',,;;~.,~
OUlp.IC coeJlicienr' ' l'f.(oge.. winding i · 0
coeffic1e'ni - ". ,J --=- 1, '"
"z
~! K ... = At-c / S I 1 K" = (V/ N)jS'" (3
~
~~:~~':':~'jfI1
~~ ~

ApproxinU1'f' A l"e r ClYt' Approx imah' A n-raul'

_ _ ( tmgt' nillle! remy ,'
- - -.
nlhh' ( 1\ I~ = 2.22 Bm1\ H X 10 l ) "
>
z
genera to r 12.0 · 1s'0 , 5.0 0.056-0.075 0.071 26.8
:r.
;; l. ':y

"""
~15::,;t~' '. ,~)~~~~
prima ry trans mission 12.0-22.5 17.5 0.045 - 0.060 0.055 19.0 m.
(including a uto-transformers)

secondary transmissio n 10.0 - 26.0 14.2 0.05 \ -0.069 0.058

• " "':'

">
20.0
dist ribu tio n 4.75 4.75 0.054 - 0.060' 0.057 19.6
9 t' i
"m
, ~,,,)~;~},~t~~>
·~J;;K:'~'~"~"~~ •.
.
<l
j -
.!
1

.. ,
.1
r··c>,,,... .•
If:::,,.:f :. ::"
-':';~7:'j
'"J<

~
r-"
--- L-: -'. f --:~
 --~ ". I '
"5 ".054 '1 - 157 ---~ ~

-=-,- 19.1
:?
._- .. - !:.
.j , I

(1 I r ·~·

~J
'.'

~> .. !t"""
.~,
j

,"01
~:l TABLE 2.2 Compudsoll oj theoret ical and DCLUal output coefficients

~;~ Class of Currenl den sity

2
A.,JA c,!or At:erag(" flux
I·

I :, . A
(I

,)' l
Average
oj
tra/lsformer J(Am m- ) transformers density F aClual
ill table 2.1 Bm(l)for K, s = ( 2.22fBm J x A " ralue 8
c
roE
t ransJormers ofK,s "-<
o-r,
,~ ill lable 2.1 .'
l~
t,if:'·I.· Approximate
Tlmge for
Average
vahH> jar
Approximate
rO,lIge
Al:eroge
value
Calcu lat ed Jrom
average values
-!
">-z
•• -l class of transfurmers Jar each class of ~

{;' i Ircms/ormer in IUble 2.1 lralls/ormf!r a

:.! ~ "3:
, generator 2.6-4.0 2.9 2.1-3.8 2.9 1.70 0.073 0.071 '""
3.7- 5.0 1.4-2.6 2.2 1.55 0.055 0.055
transmiss ion
(including
4.3
"'"
~

Ci
auto· z
I transformers}
dlslribullun 2.7- 3.2 2.S 1.2- 2.8 1.8 1.55 0.061 0.058 ""'z
.. I
;.; fin:.!1 Cl .
~: ~

di st ribut ion
rural
2.4-3.1
2.Q-2.5
2.6
2.3
1.4-1. 7
0.65-0.85
1.6
0.8
1.55
1.55
0.060
0.045
0.057
0.042
r
tii :·:.~.,,~~~!~i~'t~]:~f
,'!....··~ -t~ ·.,. .. -~~.;.,;: ..d~ 7
1 (single· phase.
wound l.:orcs)
... 1
~.

<, ,

~ -i
""
~~~~~
w

"

-,~",.""-"''- ''"'' ' ' 2'~. ',:=~,' "';L~:: ~,'

~

~
,••"':0:'<
..... -:£ 1\.':~:' '.. .CI '
 ,.

44 fl-l bD ER N POW [K rRl\ NSFORMER PRAC'(ICE

.,
The ou/put (equation 2.33) Illay be rearranged in tile form
A F' '". { (I / 2.22jn",J)(A F, / ACu)) 1/' S ' /2 (2.5 4)
'j
Let
. j
. '! K AS = { ( I /2.2 2jlJ",J)(A F,j Acu)) 1/2 (2.55)
~ I . • . .
It is sho wn in rcfcrcnc<;. ,1' ,hal K . ~s call be regarded as very :lppr.Qxiln:ltcly
constant for transf i1crs o r a pnl' ticlI la r class ~i lh ~rp pro x ill1 a lc ly ~ I andard
values o f losses a nd reacta nce.
Thus .

m' (2.56)
where K AS is an ou tput eoeflicient relati ng the core a rea to the ra tin g.
Average valu es of K AS for a number of typica l transformers d c~ i g ns arc give n in
table 2.1 , togeth er with the range of variatio n fOf. th e transformers in each class,
These arc currcrtl values ap plyin g to the tran sformers of one manufacturer a nd
"'''y dirrer appreciably from the correspo nding "a lucs for ot her firms. ~rhc
approx imate nature of the output coc n1cicnts' is ind icated by the range or
\,al ia ti oll ill their va lues.
Changes in reactance. associated wit h f.:h ullges in AFc: / Acu. have considerab le
cfTect on the o ut put cocITicicn ls. Th \IS, where the ran ge or reac tance ror a
particular class or lrans roJ:n1cr is large. as ror the ge nerato r anu transmiss ion
tran srormers, the vnriation in K .IS is a l ~o I;lrgc. \Vhcre the specified rC:lctnncc is
the same for a ll the un its in a pa rtielll" r class, as for the di stribution and rura l
units considered, the range of va ria tio n in K AS is very much sma ller.
In table 2.2 the theoretica l va lues o f · .u tpu t coeflieient calculated fr om the
a\'crage figures for 8 m• J and Afe / A(·u ror the designs considered in c,ac h class or
lrans form cr arc co mpared with the i!v~ra!!c va lues o f i<;A S ca lculaled from AFe
and S1 12. The co rrelation is quile lllh)l.J :lIld wo uld appear to inJicale tha t the use
of cti rre rent specific load ings, or va lues of AF, / Acu, to those listed can be allowed
for by modifying the output cocnicients accordingly.
Once AF, has been determined from K AS , Acu ca n be ~l l c ulated from the
outpu t (equation 2.33) by using appropriate "allies of lJ", and J. The nell wind ow
area Aw may then be found from C'l il:1tk)/l 2.35 and the winJow SP,H':C fa ctor kw.
Typic..1l values o f k ... ror mode rn '-: t:S i~ 11 5 ;Irc listed in table 2.3. The va!!I\!s a rc
obviously very appro ximatc, sincc ' tl lt: y l.,'o vc r the range of Illcga volt:llllpcrcs
corresponding to e~lch class of tr:lnsformcr. More precise tab ulat ion is no t
practicable. because, in eva lua ting k ~ , 11 0 distinction is made bet wee n conductor
alld major insuliltion. Therefore no accou nt can be taken of va riat ions in the
relativc proportions of conducto r to Illajor insulati on in d e'i i g n ~ with Ihe ~a lllc
rating but different values o f Are / ACu.
. The va lue round fo r A ... is thus very appr,oximatc bu t, in conjunc tion with AFc:,
gives an indiC<1 li on orthe size or fram e required. The window hcight II ... and wid th
b. are unknown; thererore additiol wl info rm a tion is required to fi nd the shape of
the rra me. If, however, a standard r~ ll gc of frame sizes is ava ilable, the proced ure

i-
I,
.
I''j" /

I:
'J !" i..
I,
, ,.1.:
;
' ... -,. .---.-~. - .. - ........ - -.~ - . '""!.
 r·. ;." ,,,'
• ,,
.\
•
.i 1
"
"
•
- ... • . -
) .... ...
_~_~ _ _ IoI~'"
~
<
:-- ' C._---
\
.1
I lCE THEORY OF TRANSFORMER or':;ICN PIUNCII'LES
4~
P' f
1 Ie form
- !
5' (2 01
2 (2.54)
"
,W" (2.55)
j 1\ as ve~y
approKimately ,;
, ,
•
til, ppro xlmatcly standard
"

(2.56)
i ::a to the rating.
:1 11crs designs arc given in
tra ,nsformers in cHch class.
Aj
s one m an u fac l u re r a od N

I ror oth.; r firms. The o

n(lIl" tcd by the range or .,.
I 'Acu, have cons iderable
o
r...1gc of reactance for a
'ncrator a nd transm issio n
Ie specified reactance is
I.
., fl
distribution and ru ral
y much sma ller.
~" nt calcul"ted rrom the
~
I'\
I I
jt
I,
.• ~ i d crc tl ill each class of
I
K AS calcu lated rro m A" I! I',;
I

"r to indica te tha t th~ usc

,e li sted ca n be " lI owed i\ I
Ii
, be ""let""ted
rro m the
11
, nd J. The nell wind ow
ndow space racto r k . . . .
table 2.3. The v"lues arc
I ,l or lllegavo lta l11peres
I ;isc tabulatio n is not
nude between co nd \lctor
I· ... ~ of vari ati ons in th e
i Jcsigns with the Sa me

in conju ncti on with Arc: .

J W height h. and width
Lod to find the sh"pc or
avai lable,lhc procedure

!
I
.......... - - - - . . P I
I i.,.,o • ••' .
,
tI ,
--.~_ ----.~ . - ....!'-..---,.-.... -r--"""--."...-.-.,......
 t ,
'. ,
~-!._.:._~...:..w:.~:"'...;_.~ o.:.~~ •.
I, J
, "
"

" ,. 46 M ODEKN I O WE lt 'I RANS I O lt MEK I'RA<.: Tl CE

is to calculate AFc and th~n to sclCC llhc frame with a nett corc a rea nea rest to that which a par
I'
e.1lcu la lcd, This will h4 ve standard centres, a nd so bw is de term ined, The value of nil requi" ~l :
.1 A Fe for th e sUllida I'd frame is used in ca leu 10. ling Aw. whkh is t he nett wi ntl ow:l rca
h CIWC'1.: 1l ('o re circlc:s. Thus. fOJ a thl'l:c~ pha sc tran sforme r, rrom ~igllrc 2.'1.
fra me h Ii
tfa llsformc
I rh m ill (2.57)
widt h b x 0 1
;~j Ille dime ;
,,
'I',
I It is sometimes r~q.ui rcd to relate the vo ltngc pe r turn to the t ~a n sformc r ra ting To "P• .Y
i
I'.
, I'
., L"odTicien t, ;
VI N = 4.4418", A,,;
T" A I'c to b l I
~, " Subst ituting for A F, fro m equatio n 2,54, we Gnd d ia meter t
, 'rn co rrcs lH'I lld i
VI N = {(S.8S) 1i", IJ){A,., / Ii,,)) "'S 'i2
in be cu leul:" ',

.i',
!j " 10
. and thu s
VIN ~ KvsS ' " (2.58)
. An appro
I '11 \ wh c.:rc th e winding ou tpu t codTicic nt however, I:
I ,r of volt :t(>( .f
(2.59)
theref,
liO
.\J Can be re garded as cons tant to the same degrcc o facc ural:Y as K A,s.Avc ra gc va lucs and AI ,
" ~' o f' K 1'5 arc givcn in ta ble 2. 1. low·vah
For tJlrcc·phasc transfo rme rs it may be convcn ient to exp ress cq uations 2.56 5% o f the i~
I l1P
E:'( anti 2.58 in terms of the to talmcga vo llampcrcs in stead of thc IlIcgavoltnmpcrcs va llie of' ,A '''c
per phase, S. In this case, the I'a lucs of k,'lSand KA >li sted in the tables arc di vided assumed.
; 11 by 3" '. . The J'"",d
rJ The method descri bed above for Gnding the rra llle propo[ tions ta kes no cquat i· , 1.,1
il ( exp lici t aCc:ount of reactance o r losses or o f econom ic cO Il ~ iuc ra ti o n . It requires three·) 15 ~ I
pt: th e usc or tll e ,.,Iindo\\' space fac tor k", which ca n be vcry inaccurate, and depends The \'illue r
l il l , upo n a knowledge of st::lndard fram es to obtai n the windo w h ei~h! Ii ..., a nd thus eq uat ion 1.4. ·,
tif; th e ~\' i nding le ngt h " = Ii . . , - ho' 2.9. 1, beco, ,
,f In practice. reacta nce a nd losses a re nearly always specified, and the va lues lit tle co nse It
", ob tained by this method arc unl ikely to meet the guar:l nt ecd Ggures wi th Eq uation 2,
i l', $unicicn t accuracy. It may, therefore, be ncces·. a ry to undertake a lo ng process of
II ! mod ifica ti on by trial a nd error, involving the formation of th e \\f inuings on
alternative sta nd:!rd fra llIes.
Ii The v" l(le of IJ
I, :tpproxi mal 'y

'\
,
,,,: .,
ill:
I,
2. 9.2 Incl usion of eop~c r loss and rC flc l nucc
Whcrc th e specified values of rca Cia nee and losses arc fairly normal for the type of
whic h is co p
The value o t
is 100 10w.;J I:u
I, tr~ln s fo rm e r considered. it is poss ible by th e usc o f cqu :ltiol1s 2.25 311 0 2,3 1 to
If ~ ( co nfine must of tile tria l a nd error process to the preli mil1ary dl!si gn Sl:l gc, instead indica ted, A 1I

of during the ca lcu la tion of thc \\'indings. The 11lt:tI IOd J cpc nds inili:.llly upon higher value. vI"
outpu t coc mcient s to se lect a standard fralllc. but the use ofa wi nd ow space fact or d irect ly propor
k,. is avoided. increase in \' 1:1
"' As disc ussed in sub· s ~c t ion 2,5.3, when the perce ntage reac tance and copper turn is ill!.:!' St

. ,
loss ~Irc bot h s pc~:ifleJ. till.! wi ndow wiuth b" is fi xed, Many tra nsformers for red uced, :l nd a

':'-r;""' ~ •.., --
, (,
 I" .'
,J
i
II . • ,r ,. ,.
, "
I. " :.'
;1' "
;.
, • _ ... _ _ l __ ~~

,
I

'r,: '
'c ala n rest to tha t
TH EORY OF TRAN S FOIt."lEJ\ " UI ~ S I G:-': " I{ I;\UI'L ES

whic h a particll b r standn I'd core area is sui l.l ble hi.! ve spc<.: ifk:al ions such lhat Ihey
47
I« '

[ Illcd. f he V<!! \l e of
t • ne ll \I/illdow arca
nil requi re approxima tely the 5,1111(: wi ndo w wid t h and L':i ll, therefo re, be built on a
frame h~t\'ill g sta nuard h.!g ce ntres h~'~'ll ' This is gC ll l.: Jally true of d istributi on
.I
Iro!" fi gure 2.4, transfor lller!'> :Ind mea ns tha t. for mo St J l.:signs of a . . ifll ila r rating. the rc~t.:I i vc
r I
h... ransformcr r~lI i l1g
(2.57)
width 1) .\ of' the windings i s approxi matc(y cO nstant ;Ind GIll he d ctc l'I llincd from
the d imensions of the app ro priate sta nda rd frame.
T o apply Ihe melllO'u: :I1l approxi lll:t ':due of ,·1I )! i . . !'d l ltl J fro m the ou tput
I'
coef1i<.:k nl. anJ the ncarc:-,I ~ tandard t:orc IS ~ c lc.: c t cd. Th lli :.:_iq.::s the actua l va lue of
AFc 1(.) be u:,cd in the eq uati o ns. the number o i' sll: PS in Ihe t:ore, the co re t.: irclc
Jia1l1el l·r. I Ill..: plate widths. th e spacing of th e ~ 1 .n\t I ; \ r J ce ntres and the ,
I.:lHTc:-' Jlllndi ng wid th of window o pe nin g. The :! "cra g\.' 1l l1 i. .! liI .\ ol' lnc:111 turn may I
I'
be caku l;llcd for the sta ndard value of h" from t:Ljll atil lll 2.40
,i,
.\ == 2n{h, c + !h"l mill
(2.58) I·
_ An a pproximate vallie o f /Jill is J..n(mn frOIll whk _~ 2. When 11 ,.1:., is fi xed. I.
Il owe\e r, il is genc rally not po!'>siblc to U\e th t.: \ :lI ut.: iiI c.' ' l 11·\.: led. Poss ible va ltl cs I'
of voltage pCI' lurn mllst a lw3 Ys co rrc:-, po nu to \\ hol L' IIlI lIllll!fS of turn s and nrc,
(2.59)
Ihere fnJ" e, dl'lo..:r lll in..:d fro III the.: winding \~ith Ica'-\ tUln ', I hus til..: v:lI ucs o f U",
s·Avcragc va lues and .-I",: must be cOl11patibh: in th e vol tagt.: (;ljlla tilJ ll 1.,1 \\ ill! int eg ra l numbers of
low-volta ge (urns. In large d istrib uti o n transrorm ers li p' w'd lage per l urn i s 4 to
pre S equations 2.56 51';', o f the to ta l voltage of the low-vo h age winding. T IH.; rc forc, fo r a standard
1 t 1cgavO!t ampcrcs valut.: o r >f!-c . the uClual vu lu !.! o f JJ", ma)' tlilT!.!r t.:oll ~ it! e ra b l)' frolll Ih;ll lirst "
I abies a re divided a SSlIIl1C\.!. '
Th e rr occu u rc is first t o su bsti III te ,II c a nu tho..: i Jl it i,d , ;!lU l: o r Bm in t hl: vo ltage
(' ... t lions lakes no equ ati o n 1.4 to give a n approximal !.! figure for th e 1 l)\\' ~ \'() lt a ge turn s. N I' For
l 'alion . It re quires t h rce- pha sl: (r~ 1 nsfo nnc rs th e ne.:arcst ,wllLl!c 11 U III bel' or I til H:-. may t hell be selected.
curate, :rnd de pends The \'.d ue o f lim ro r su bsequen t USc l:'all rhu ~ be t'iI Il' I1 Lttt.:U from th e \oltagc
' height II . a nd thus equation 1...1 . This proccdure is not appJiL:d in the IlIc ti1 (' d dl':-.t,: rihed in sub-s..:etio n
2.9. 1. bec:lll::-c the approximate.: na ture of k" Ill e.::l ns th;11 .. Pla ll arors in 11", are or
Lj, a nd th e v:.t lucs lillic CO!1 scLjuen ce in the calcula ti o n of' ,-1" .
tntced fi gures with Eq ua ti on 2. 25 states
I a long procc,s o f :,
J = l OAf llm ;1 J c ., /'
the windin "s on
I 0 , ~; .1
" (u I.
I
I
Till! \,:lllI": o f 8 m is kn own. and th l' eddy c urrent Insli f:tl: tor kl ca ll .gc rcgard!.!d as
approx ill1<Jld y cons l;1I11 fo r:l 11:!rticular class or Ir:llhJ'l ll'tllo..: r. Thu s thc \' alue of J
whi eh is compatible wi th the !':I r ed lied C\' ppL' r IllS ~ IiI ;! ), h~ (:a/c ulal cd .
/., I'

)rIl1<t1 ro r the I) pc o f The \ ;!lue lli>tail1l'd SIHluld IiI.' ;IPPI {l\ illl 'ltt.:ly \\i lh in t ilL' lilll its oftahle 2.2. lf il ,;
2.25 a nd 2.31 to is too II l\\',;1 larger core area Illa ~ he.: rl'qll lr ~ d. a nd. ij' 1" 0 b i :!ll, a ~ l1IaJ!c.:r fram e is
Ic,;.) ign stage. instead ind ic;tl l'Li . Adj ustm cnts o rth is 11<i! url' :,,"e rl'qu ircd b ~' l' :11'.'; 'Ie.: la rger co rc has the
ends , in iti ally upo n hi ghc!' \ ' alll~ {If J ro r th e S;I!1lt.:c{)ppcr I l ~!) !). II' IJnI i " l·o ll ~ L'Jl l. l h c vo ltage per turn is
\ ,dow space fJ e tor directl y proport iollal to th t.: core.: ar Ca. An in l:fl;asc.: in ' ! ! I' th erefore, lll c.: allS an
inc rc:l\c.: in \olwge pc r tur n a nd:l redt/ttion in turn'!'. Althn ugh th e length uf mea n
Ic la ncc nnd co ppe r turn is illl'fl':;I... c.: d :-. Jightl) . till' :IIllP\J lll n f l'I' Jl I'l: r 1"'l u il ed in th e wimling is
\ra ns for rn crs fo r rcci ucL'd, :lI1d a hi ghe r ,·:ilu t.: {If J is u\,L'd to nl L'l'l ti l, :'!i'lr, ln tccd cop pcr loss.
I
II•
II
It
.. '--~- .... I'
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;1
.
,
..
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"

<
i;' j
'n 48 ~IO[)I ' RN POW I H. rH. :\ /'-s r OR.\ I [1l Pit /\(. r rCE

When the vrl iue obtaincd fo r J is :-:lri$"aClo ry, the next stcp is to nlld th e widt h va lue or
f,.l fthc windings fro rn the fr:l ll.lc t1illh.: ll ~ i l! IlS. A knowk<l 1,;c (I f !) t:uu.l:lrd <.:kaJilIlCCS arr:\!lgc
" :It th e req uired vo lt ngc is need"a r),. Th ~' ItHal winding widt h hi I· h 2 lI1a y th ell be

I! hi
:01
',U'
"
,
I
I I
calcu lat ed rro lll equ ation 2.37
. h•. = 2{1'o,+h o I- ;ho,+(h , + /) , )) The '
,
: :u:
and Ihe rea clive widlh round rrorn aCCO fllnl O
slig ht inc.
I
• nt "x = ho I- ~(" , 1- /',) (2 .60)
(b, + h.
n Eqllation 2.3 1 stat es may on ... :
0 11 th e st<.r
AI,ft /s = O.O~ Sh .\ I IJ,;J "u X clcarlln
Thus .. tf c"/S is obtaiJh..' d frl)1ll 1,.\. 11m lind th e spl.·ci lied rc;,clancc. Thc illitial Ihis C;II
,. va 1u...:s of hi s :1lid " :1 ret her dl}/ e delc! tIIi nL'd, siflL'e ..1 ! c i:-o k llOwn. It eu JIla y :1I "u he I f (h,
ea !culiltcd from th c outp ut equat il)l1. o r by c\'alu;lting 'I ' by dividin g by J :II1lJ by \\ !ricll :'~ ..
I II
Illultip lying by 2N I ' invalid, :
d. For acc urnt c res ulls, i he th eo ry ~ho\J ld lake acco un t of the ex ira turns rcquired loss. PH)\I
it)l
for p ~Js j t i " l: tappi ngs. III the lk ri, ;l[ it) 1l of cqua ti o ll s 2. 25. 2.J I an d the output 1: 1/ 10 111
f t(I ;' sat i sfn~
I -.: equation. equali ty ofarnpcre tUl ns i ~ ass umeu; thus these ex tra turns arc not !

l' I,:· in th e ~ I
I II I ' ,~
I' expli l, ; itly allowctl ro r. Al l Ihe \;ducs subs tit ut ed in the eq uHti o ns !' houkl,
In prat
...: ( ,
iI thcl'I.:fore . be th ose for normal lappi ng positio n.
pro\'isi I
Th e g ll ;tI~lIltced va lu es of copper loss :'Illd rCal,,; laIK~ rcl:ltc to Il orrnal tapping
a nd will thus gi ve the co rrec t result. In 111311), disk coils. t he tap ping sec ti o ns arc with v )
;1 ,
r :1
[, !
I si lu" Icd enli re ly in Ihe bod y o r Ibe \\ i nJ in g anJ occu py ih ru ll dep l h. The wi n<l i ng
widt h is th erefore indcpL'ndcl1 t of t:lppilll! pos itio n, ~Ill d the filii \'.riu c o f b x
sicierably
rrame "'i:
1:1 j •
! oi>lai llcd from the dillll'nsio ll s or the ~ t iln dard fr31llc lIlay be used in Ihe prcrcr~ t

t r 1~ I'
J." :;
l i.I
I
cakulatiol1 s. III layer·t) pc \\ illoings Ihe t ;~ pp ir1 g sections occ upy the..: c.'{ tcrna l tram;rlllir
laycrs of the..: hi gh'\'o ltagc coils. To lind 11.\ , the width il\'ailablo..: for tile windin gs
I!( I II
• shmlid thus be ,'cliul'l'd b) an am o unt depe nding upo n th e ex tra turns required 2.9.3
'f i'l)f' the po~itive ta ppi ngs. Si nce th e \\ idt h uf lhc coils is "11 1:dl compa rcd with th eir
n il.

. !li t; Ii ' diameter . the clrcet upo n s of sma ll changes in hI r!J], j" negligible .
Frum th e consi dera tions i ll SUb·5CC ti l) 11 2.6.3, th e \ ,due of his wi ll give SOJI1C
Th e mdh
loss, bl . :J
d. : I

I idea o f' tl](.: "iabi lity o f th e ini tial de:-. ign, It is, however, l''';''l' lltia i to l..' l1 ct:k whethe r
the winding wit! li t within th e spac\.! a\·ail:rb lc. The p':II.: lica l \'alue o f k r C:tl] be
dim cn: II
guarantee
I rt
c$timat e..:o ["ro m dala sti ch 1;\5 tha t gi\c ll ill S\lb· ... I.'~lhl n 2.8.2. fo r similar m uS!. 11 0\
I. ., !j t r nns forll1~rs wit h the ~ ;!rnc type ()r \dnui l1 gs ami cou lin g rC4 l1 irclllc nt s. From
For ,
:1/: j nlClY b ~ J

. , , . \ ('l..ju:lIio n 2.SJ th e an:a ;j\;,ilall!c for th e windings is 1 t( •.1\ I ' ;Illd Ih c 1.·(lI h litilll l 10
II
r".
be sa tislicd is
11.6 1) If w e ;; u
I . llfi lo nl s
..• whcre (hi f Ill)h x 10 b is Ihc :-o pal.:"': ;IIhJ \\c.:d fOi Ih t' \\ illdings \\ ith in th e
t m1i. . '
prciiminary dimensio ns o f the tf'an :-o fl1rlll l' f window.
The..: \'a lu e of A t u cak ul;lted fro m til e OUlput CqUatil11l is that o n norma l
I I:lrpi,ig Iw "ilinn, an d :111 all lJ\\;IJl I.·c rdr tilc pll"iti\c !:I I'I'ings is required . For wlil'J'l: 1'.1.
Ii t!Uf(.' .~ 1
dl"tl'il)JIlillll Iran:-o rlll'Il1l'I'S with :-.t;lIId:lrd t:IPl'illg'i. Ilti, 1:1 ;1)' be: illL' hlded ill Illc

j
'T
C.;
.,
I 1.
 '. ,,;. ~

.. ,
.,,

[---
49
' 'fICE

Ip is to lind II H': widl h

, TIIEORY Of lIt J\N SFOIt~ IER DI SIGN PIU:-':l'II' I.ES
\':·11I "': o f k f' as described in sub ·:o.I.'e.:tio ll 2.S.2. Any n(l ll ·st;ludard lappin g
h.... f stalll.lard dell rallees ;111;ln:':I,I IICll t must be al1 owcd ' for by Icwr itin g cljualillil 2.6 1:
'idt h hi + /1, ma y th on be (il, I· il , ,,, x 10 - · '" lA c"k, (I O() + 0. 5 x Illa x. "" p",itil 0 tappillg),' I 02.5
I
(2. 62)
,I I rhe.: \;t!lU':S lI sc~i for~ the stalllJard frame.: ccn tres arc chose n by cx pl: ri cllcc 10
;H:<"P 1I\II:t 1I 1:l\c Ihose: designs rcq lJj ri ng th e larger \I:l l u c~ 01/I .. : 01 he.: r de.:o.; iglls ha \Ie a
, Iit;h t il'jT ~· ; I';i.: on the miniJllulll clcara nce rc.:quirc.:u br t\\'c.:c n windings. "I h\l ~, jf
12.GOI (hi! h.l)h X IO - C) is' slightly greate r than 1A t uk f' til t.: pre liminary dil11 ~ ll si(1 ll s
lila) ortl..' l1 !-t ill form a sati sfacto ry basis for furthcr \\ork. "lu re spal'(,' is ;1\;Ji lablc
ull Ih ~ SI:! IH.laru frame than is actually rcquired, whi ch mt:ans that th e ill ~ lIlaljoli
rI ca [":lIlCt:!;:J re i Ilcrcascu by a s ma II a mOLlll t, Some i rO il !\, lwi Ilg wa stc(l, bu I :t g:1ill ~ t •
! I·
j~ d r~;!(.;tallc~,.Thc initia l this e.::l ll be sL'l the advan tages of stalH.lardi :-.a ti o n. 1 I
If ill, t /,, )" x 10 - " is slight ly less tllall lAc-"k, all th e prov ious ca lculations, II
'{\\,11' ;l eu may a lso be \\ hi~ h ;Irc ba~c d on t,he exaclloa u loss and reactan cc ~ pc <.'ili c d, arc 110t n cee~sari l y
" J. dividin g by./ and by
iIl\ a Iid:l tl'll. Sia ncJ:t rd ,:- peci fiea Iion s allow lo lera m:Cs or + 1/ 7 o f cach CO lli pOllen t
I,,:-s, Pl l '\ idl'd Ihal a loll:r;llll'C; or "' 1/ 10 nf the hll :l1lll:-<;l's is !lot c.\ n:e.:ded , and
I'
I l 'ex lra lurns required
i, 2..11 an O th e outpu t ..t I, 10 ~\ r Ihi.: impedance vo ltage, COll sc;qucll tl y it 111:1)" he.: possible 10 oblain a I
these exI ra turns Jre.! no l s:l li <; r~! ~ l {l l']' compromi se by making, within th ese lim its, appropr i:.J tc alterati o ns

, 'h ~ I'qu;ltin lls sho uld. in th e.: 1;: k'lIl:1 lioll,

III 1 " 'l'li~\: , the l1Iajnril)' ~lf dc,ig lls :o. ho uld iii III~ ... t:Jlld :u·d It; Hll n, hut ,
re.:J atc to norma! tapping prl>\, j:;iillil i..; u ~ ua II)' madc for a ' tl'r;1t ion or t he leg ce llil e:- t {I ;1""\': 111 Ill1loda Ie de:-. ig ns I:
• 1he ta ppi ng sectio ns arc \\jl h \cry unus ual speci lic,lli o ns, Fo r e.:xiltIlplc, if ~h! ! /11)11 x 10 I ' is (.;0 11- t,
. ',,11 dcpth. The winding ~ i de.: rahl) k~:-. lh:t11 ~A<.uk,. thc usc or 1l 01l -S laJld;ud ("'I.' II IIC:> 01' a ' ~t q;c r . . t,lnd; lI·d
.. .J'the fu ll vallie of b x fra me (llay be indk-:.ttclL If it is pos ~ iblc 10 rm' ct Il l(,: \ p l\: jfi c "li ~ lll. it is unell
l1C ,)11 <1) be lI~cd in th e pr ~ rcnb1c.: to ~'l1lp l o y a large r stand ard frame. p:lrt!\ Idarl) when IHl ly ; t 1"1..' \\

( S occu py th e e.!x lernal I lanSri.lIIl1~'rS o f a gi n': l1 des ign arc to be 1Il:tl1ufal.llI Ie.: d.
, jJ,Lb!e f()( th e windings
LIh y exIra "Hns required
I 11 comp: rcd with tho ir
•ineg ligih lc. The.: 1l:l..' tIIPt/ desc ribed in sub-section 2.9.~ doe.:!) not la~',: C\ pli<: it :iC(.;(l unt or 11'011
lu i.: ~lf hj.\ H' ill gi\'i.: S(l JllC I ()~:. . 1111 t ; 1 ' Ll Ihb I'd va Iti C is i!l i t i~1 JI)' ;1 ";' 11 III I.: d ['0 r fl", . 1 ilu" if' t he ~;r k: u 1a Il.'d fr a me
~~f 'n tiallo l'IJ('ck \\ hctha d inll.·l1 ~i" JI' arc wi th ill IHH mal l i lllil ~ , the tk ,it~ t: \~ III prnha bly Jll l..'c t till:

t, eal !.~ uar :tJ1I,:\' d iron loss, provided this is also \\ ithin IHi lllla i lilllirs. I he il'Oll loss
, vahle.! o f k r Ca n be Illll~ t, . hi l \~(.! \e r , be cakulateu bcft)re proe.:l.'c ding fllrtl l. .'r with th e dcsig n,
:... ,, 011 ~"8.2, for s im ilar
lin \! require mc nt s. Fro m fllr~:1 thrl'l'·phasc co re.:·ty pc transrormer, thl.! l{) t:. d length pf iron in th e rrallle
\ r,ano tll c~o ndilion 10 may be obt~line d cOIlVl'ni(;/ltly b) ~ ub $ titutin g rt1r h H '!1 ill e.: qu ati nll ::!,J6:
II- I! = :3 (11 i- /, O ) •• 1/,.. I- I ~h , . . : . . 10 J mill 12.63)
(2.6 11 I{,wl.' :t :-'~ lIl11C tha t th e yoke ha ~ th e \:l I11C <:ro s:H;c~· t il'I1, " ::Ic;r a~ th e IcI~S , tll c ma ss
wind in gs wilh in thc o f i ro'n is ..
12.( 1)
;ltil)1l is that o n normal
, pill!.:' j ... n:qllill'd. For \\ h !' r ~' {),l.l I! i, IhI.' dCll :o. ity of Ihe I..'ille IIl;tll..'ri:t 1ill ~. ii ," " 1111 \ pe.: r l..· lIh ic me lre, I ro m
I Illay he.: illL"iu(kd in the liu II re.: 2. 1 I It I.' :o. pecifk iron los<; 1' 1c i ~ found ri ll' t hI..' t~ pc •,I U II i.: ~\III ' 11 tl etiP Il \I ' n L
 ... - .:.

50 MOU I: It!'lI'OWLR I ItANS I OItMLK I'RA <: I I<..l;

and the to tal iro n loss is, there fore, obta ined. From I;'
If the result exceeds th !.! 1;uarqtltl:\,.'d 1I0-lo:l(j Joss by Ill u re Ili:11l Ih l.: 'il:I1I, I:1l d ,.. 0.0 57.
I ' tolerance of + 1/ 7 of CO lllpOll l.: nt losses, the pl eliminary Jcsigll work 111 11 I :)!.!
repea led wi tl~ thc object of reducing the to ta l mass of iron in the "':O I'C, llf " 11 a
,, reduced nux density. In practicc, ow ing to su, h manufaclUrin.g u Il,crt :lill li -; :lS I II .1
the e£fect of jo int s and burrs on lamination ed ges, it is w:uall)' nol au vi:;ab Jr.: " t the h:i\ C I
final design stage to acecpt a calculated loss which iS lllorc th, . :-. Ii g htl y illl' .l,f·e:;s the Oil"
·1 of the guaranteed vnJuc, :, e L"ti~l - '

, 111"1 11
I Thi s !Ill
111 , ,, 2.10 FnAME DIMENSIONS FOil ,\ U.75~1\"'\ IIIHE[-I'II;\SE
the S lilil

j''' )Ii
)'} ' 1
DISTIUBUTION TnA NSFOIL\IE H
In
conSI{
cost ofi
2. 1(j.t S",,,,ificaliO Il cor!.! I,
aIlH.ll!
To illus trate the (I pplication of the lIleth ods tk ~'_ ribcd in sub-sec ti on" 2.9.1 :mu re u lH':Cl.
2.t).~, preliminary rraJlle Jitll cnsiulls \\ ill Ill' llbt:tilll.:d fllr a thJ'l.:c-pit:I '"o l.' O ~· ' N CUI rt.'n l
class A insulated distribution transformer des ign. Th e spr.;c ilicati on 1'0 1 Illis Til·
transformer is as fo llows.

Haling O.7S MVt\, thn.:c-phasc. 50 11 7 Cr() s ~' .~

Nomin:iI \'olt:.Jt;C 11 000 10 ·IJJ 250 V r roll1

Conncctio ns high-\'O! I;lgc delta , low-voltage ~ta f aYt.: I ;J
Tappings ± 2~ "~, an d ± 5 "" o n Iri!!h., ~ 1 1t ~II.!C 10 s wi tch From t.
1m pt.·da nee 4.75"(0
a\' (
1 {1;ld 10SS 9 500 IV
No- load 10SS 1420W' fron:
Fr om t ,
rhe Ir;J l\!'I rOnn cr is 11 0 t co nstru cted cntirel), in ~lCcorda l Kc \\ illt the ht."s t III ' I It ayl'
h'
)f
,
. pr;I\.: li ec a s th e ~o rc ha s square-cuI illlr.:r!c:t\'cd j o int s <lmlnot mitred j l \ i lll ~ , " I a FrulII
I II I
,I disk winding is used fo r the high volta ge. whereas a Jaya-\) pe windin g woul d 110W for lite
. i bc more cOlllmo n. The limits of temperature ri se ~ If' e (,0 C ,lI1d 50 C for ,\O J: .lll d fr aml
liq . ~
60 0 , rc" pcet i,·cly. bu t tll o se curren tly ~pcci fi ed r or class ,\ i Ilsul a led II :l ll', rlll J Il l!rS Fo r I
!,,: ~
, ,
I -fl~
J 1 I'
I
I,
II.
arc 65 C :llld 55 ' C. rcspct'li vcly. These ract o rs ti(' lint an'r.:<: 1 the j1 fi ll l i, des
j nvo h c~j"i n the uctermin:t t iOIl of t he preli minary uimensions in t hiS ~cc li o 11 , Their
cfTect is full y discu ssed in chapter 9, \"'here a complete design is obla incJ,
r fr" " ..
for Ihe
fra
l ;, !( l
1 r tI
including th e formali on of th e windin gs and ca lcu lali0 1l oftcmpcratu rc gradien ts
and tank dimcnsions. !
Frorr
T \\o
' 1 'j I
is im
r, 2. 10.2 App r<n iltl all' J: lt.'I!lo d dt.' ':o ig

, , Preli mina ry dimensions lIlay be nht.lilll.'d \'e ly :tppW;.. illl :Jtr.:iy by til t.: 11;,,,; \)1'
2.111.:
window ~ p~I CC factors. as Jesc ribcd in ~llb - :"L'clio n 2.9.1.
Applyi ng this mc th od, we find D el l i '"

S . 0. 75 .1 1I ..~5 ~ 1I ' i\ f:" 111 r im

I.
 .,.' ,I
...... M _~., ,.~~~, _!-..o "

'III f 01(" UI I R ,\ N S ~UR~ILR DtSIG~ I' l( l S t I PI.I~ S 51

Fro m table 2. 1 I he a vcr:l!)C 0111 pul coc llkicll t K AS for distributioll I ran sft.ll'IIlCr s is
, than the standard 0,057. T hu,s from equa tion 2.56 the lH.: t1 corc section
:. ign work must be A ,., ~ K"sS'" = 0.057(0.25) ' " = O.02X5m'
1 in the corc, or wit h a
I n'a rang~' of 51:! Iltl urJ rra Illes \~ it h sq ua re-ell t corners. t he nearest core s~c tio n s
"-j' 19 ullcertainties as
I o t advisable a l lhc have (le tt ar,cas o r 0.0273 111 1 <1110 0.0307 m 1, T he Sh:siglls in table 2. 1 rrOIl1 which
til. n sligh tly in excess the output coeOicicnts arc: obta hlcu have fralllC:s wit II mitred jo ints. L:ugcr cross-
sec ti ons arc permissible wi th mi tred frmnes because the iro n loss is red uced so
th;\l thc ';'pcciric:d valuc C;1 11 be obtained when a comparatively large rrame is used.
This JlH.:a ~l s tha t thl.: corc :IJ c.:1da ivc:u fr o III table 2. 1 will lcnti to be too 1.11 ge, a nd
the slllallc2r sta ndard cure is probably the correct o nC.
' n : -PIIASE In the: subsequen t <,'alcuirHio ns, howcver, both !o. landa rd framcs wi ll be
considc·rcd. With ~i st r ibll ti o n tra n s ror ll1 ers the ratio or thc cost orcoppc r to the
cost or,i .1 is nO~ l11 a ll )' glca tcr than tI{c optim ulll value of one. The usc ofa large r
corc cross-section 11:1 ", thcrdorc, th e adva ntage tha t the number 6f 1 1Irll ~ a no the
amoun t of copper requ ired is reduced. 1\ 150 thc natura l v;duc or rC;ll.:la m:c is
b-sccii ons 2.~.2 a nd reduced. since rewe r IUIIlS arc u scd ~ For th c same copper loss a higher v(l ilic or
a threc-pha se ONIIN t.: urn.: nl density is rcquin:L1. whic h Illay lead 10 L1iniculty ill coo ling Ihe windings.
JCcifieat ion for th is The Calcula ti ons fo r the two standard fram es ma y be su mmarised as fo llows.
Flame J F rft Ille II
Cross-scct iOllal :I rca , I F, (m.') 0.0273 0.0307
From table 2.2,
..~ r average va lue 11", IT), 1.55 1. 55
:lgc 10 !<.wilch
From table 2.2,
I average va lue J (II mm - ') 2.6 2.6
From equatiott 2.33 ;Ie, (m') 0.0205 0.OIM2
From tab le 2.3,
. ",ilh the bes t IIHHicrn average value k. 0.35 0.35
. mitred joints, and a From equatio n 2.35 A •. (m') 0. 11 7t O. I()..IO
ypc winding would now For the standard
: - 'ld 50 ' C for dOR and · • frame b. (mm) 152 165
'i ulutcd transfor mers
" 11fect the pri ttciples
Fo r the sta ndard
frame ':
, d (mill) 197 211 I
IllS in this sect ion. Their
design is ob tai ned,
For the standard
frame
I
I
2b l·c {lll l11) , 2 x 95 2 .< 11)2
I
1
I
I . ;mpc railln.: gra di ents From cq uati on 2. 57 II,. (mill) ~08 658
i,
I

Two sets of apPI'l,:\i I11:ltc frame dimensions are thus obtai ned. bct WI'Cll witit' ll it ,
is imposs ible to di ,>( int,; uish withoul considering more dctailcJ a Sp l.!"l' IS of the
design. I
,
I't tcly by the usc of
2, 10:3
i
.\ Iore aC(.'UI':L!l' JIH.'lhud fur ~ I :lllliartl fra lllt's
I,
I ..~.
Def enninat i UII of (' 1/ rf't'llf dell .\ ;lit·5
Emp loy ing the llh..' thpu described in sub-secti on 2.9.2. wc lind the follow ing.
"

,
.-,i-~-'--'--- ----~ . , ., "
J "

,t
,,.
'

" ,
> 1/
'-
• ,I
I

j
, (f) .I
'!. 1 52 ,\ lonFR !'I I'OWII{ ]RANSI OHM I R I'RAI IKE

~
I ,-1 i
Frame I Frame II
• .t Frolll equation 2.40 s (mill) 83 7 900 F, J
Fro m specificati on 1' , (W) 9500 9500 al
, Fro m equat ion 2, 13 /"J« ~,) 1.27 1.27 F I
!I' Allowance for stray
"i(' ;l', II I
", .-~ losses (W) 500 500 The
r-rolll equation 2.24 °uPcu(%) 1.20 1.20 .
1 F
From eq uation 1.4
'I with IJm = 1.55 T Vj N(V ) 9.4 10.57 •,
CVIl
I Corresponding low-voltage
13 .'
I turns pcr phase N, (tll .... S) 26.6 23.62
,.
!
"
N ~;ll'c s t whole Ilumber
of low-voltage turns N , (tufIlS) 27 24 i ,on'
Revi sed vo lt age '1 1.:1IU;
,
pCI' turn , ... Vj N(V) 9,26 .' 10.42 -
Rev ised nux density 8 m (T) • 1.53 .f )
Frolll equatio n 2.35
For
.
with k, = 1.0S J(AIl1Ill - ') 2.97 3.10
f
Ii
The va lue of J for frame I is ncar the upper limit of table 2.2 and that for frame Fnr
II is just at the upper limit. These va lues arc considerab ly higher than the average
va lue quo ted in the table, and thi s illustrutcs a major so urce of inaccuracy in the
previous method. fo r each class oftransformcf the range of J is wide; thus the usc f
of an average vahle I11 I1St lead 10 co nsidl:fablc error ill the ini tia l dimensions of
those dc~. ign s where a vidue ncar the ends of the lange is appropriate. ",
d
WIll
Estil1llJl iOIl (If \1'; fld ;fl y !lciyll! ,II
The winding arrangement used in the co nstru cti on of thi s tran sfo rmer consists of
.
I" -..,
tl :
a simple two- layer helical low-voltage windi ng with a disk- type high-voltage V:tll
wind ing. Vertic:!.! ducts are provided bet WC!.!11 the low- and high -vo ltage windings.
dl.: p
No specia l provision is maue for a coo ling UU(:t be l Ween tilt.: IQw-voltH gc winding
"
,
and the core, alt hough the I11l:l.:hanica l clearances bdwecn the winding a'nd the ;
<1
fla ts of the core scc tio n do allow so me circulation of oil. T he cJld~illsllhilion
F
consis ts of blocks and spacers, no ben t washers being employed.
a (
Suitable cleara nces for this arrill1gcllIclll arc
"\\ il l
bOI = 6.4111111
bo == 9. 1 111111
l' U 1 '" 12 mill
excluding cond uctor insu lation I,.. t h:"

The cqu iva knt total 3xiHI el1u clearance. based on the ,I,\,sulliption of equa l high- [. )

Clnd low-voltage wind ing leng ths. Illay be taken as Red

Ir 0 = 60 111111
fram e I Frilllle II Thl
From equation 2.37 b, + b, (111111) 54.5 61 .
From' equation 2.60 b x (mrn) 27,3 29.4

"---,., ~
-... ,~.:r
~
~!.

"
",
.
l'?). .

'.
, -.
" ~
 r'

l I
- ~ ,'
., ..'

TII/J.OItY OF TRANSFORMER DES IGN l'I{I ~C IP I.ES

.,

53
.l.!.;... ,

rame I Frame II f r,lI11C I Frame II

7 900 From specifica tion
, _J I 9500 alld equation 1.1 6 %X ( %) 4,58 4,58
1.27 1.27 Fro m equa tion 2,3 1 A ~, "Is 5, I x 10 ' 5.484 x 10 - 4
/I enee "Is 0,684 0,582
)I
Ir I.~
500
J.~o

10,5 7
Thcrdo re
F rol\1 equa tion 2,33

Compa t ibility
" (1\1111)
A c , (1\1 ' )

't
573
0,0 182
524
0,0 155

I Bo th ini tia l va lues of ll/s are wi th in th e prac tical range 0[0.3 to I discussed ill stlb- .
26.6 23,62
sectio n 2.6,3. Tiler 'fore, the next step is to check each sct of dimcnsiolls;for
I 24 comp:H ibi Ii Iy. TJy.; '{I a I1 sformcr has ~ t illlda rd pI-lsi I i \'c ta ppi ngs.of 2~ and 5 :',,' "'us
equation 2.6 1 Ill:!)' be lIsed in conjunc tio n \\jlll dalu fro l11 figure 2.6(bJ.

~6
, 3
10.42
1.53
Frall1e I F rame II
For va lues of J
, rrom r,gu re 2,6(a) (J IS )' (2 3.45 J.52
7 3. 1()
Fro m'curvc 3 in i
r,gure 2,C,(b) k( 3, 22 3.25
2,2 ,aml tha i ror rrallle
,- Iler tha n the average
For equalio n (I> , + ",)1, x 10 - (' (1\1 ') 0,03 : 3 0,0320 II
2,6 1 Ac,k ,/2 (m ' ) 0,0293 0,0252
: Jf jn ~\(XUral;y ill the
r J is wide; thus the li se
I
Fo r frame I, approxi mately 7 % Illorc space Ihan requ ired appears to be I
! ini tial dim ensiolls of availa ble fo r th e winli ings. SIH.:h a result is 11 0 1'l n:1 l1 ), sa tis faclory for th e ini tial
? propriate, dime nsions. II also in dica tes tha t th e va luc of b x co rrc!- ponding to th e standard I
r ls forlll cr cO llsi:-:t s of
winuow wid Ih is appropriate to th e cJ csign II nde r cOllsidera t iO Il , a It hough slightly
la rger tha ll tlia l ;lclua lly req ui red. Th e ":l lllC of h/ s ob taille d frO nl equat ion 2.3 1 is !,
I h u ~ high wit 11 I hc rcsuI I [hat II is OVCI't:s t i lila 'ted by a :-o ma II a moun t. A more preci se
I
J :-Iypc hi g h ~ \'oJlagc
\'; t1 ue wi ll be obtai ned by repea ting the ca icu l:Jl io ll for :.t slightly rcouccd \\ inuing
ti gh-volt:\gc windings,
J cpt h a ltho ugh, ill praclice, th is \\'oulJ hard ly beju,lilied Oili ng to the lillli ts of
e l ..:nv-voltagc winding
acC ur3CY of k I and (ile lim itations imposed on the willdillg formation by the lISC
I lC winding and the
of standa rd cond uctor s('c tions.
I. rhe clld.in sul,it ion
Fo r frame II , the area available is 27/0 grea ter than tlial rcquircJ to
,ployed,
accomlllodate th e windin gs, and th e window dilllctl!\!,'ns of the slfllluan.l frame
arc inco mpatible wit h th e transformer speci fi ca ti on. Thu s, if' frame II is used, it
will require non-slanua ru cen tre spa cings to give [h e same width of window tiS
that or the sllI;!lIcr rramc,
• ,tio n or eq ua l hig h· Rel'isl'cJ dillll!lIsiol/s jor frame I
Rc<.llH:ing b! +hl ill ihe ra ti o ( 100; I U 7 ) 1 ~ , we tl b!ain

hJ I- hl = 51.7 111 III

amc II 'rhus
611
.4 fJ.\ = 16.7 111111

:---.~.--- - .. _. _. _-.-

.' .' i"',

I'
,. "
I '. I,
 ,. ....-;,1',-
,~, ,~

;..J '" ! '.' ,j+/' 1 !~ 'r"t ':1 .~ ~

:~ .. i .::~,~~,
.~ ..: !' . ,
i. "'/.' } ;.;:,

. \.
, .' ~
.....:. .- .•~ ..!...... ...-

J I,
1• 54 ~IOI)I~ RN I'UW c R rRANSFORMER I' RA( riCE ••
rroll! equation 2.31.

and
1,
"
hIs = 0.67
,
•

The slight re<luction in ", + ", ha s a negligible ciT·,"t upon s. Thus

, " = 56 1 nlln
" 11 2.1
II Applying the test or compatibility. rrom equati on 2.61

II (I>, + ",)h x 10 - 6 = 0.0296111'

1
L.
I:
· I
A", k , /2 = 0.0293111' fiU

! .,
."., i I The space available is now on ly J '~~ grc:l tcr than lil:tl requircd, and the final value
of h for frame I can thus be t:l~ C II as appro xi ma tcly
I· ,j
• I
h = 560 mm
rr
1
I ..
Rel)ised diml!lISiollS for fral1l l' II
I'!
I From c.q·uatiun 2AO the valuc of s fur the nOli-standard ccnln:s is
s = 2n (102 + 152/ 4) = 880 ; 'n
an.
Since s appcnrs in th e den o minator orcqu<ltion 2.25. lh t.: reduction in ,oj illlplics an
g
increase in J. lhe new value of which is '
)
,. r
J = 3. IO x9 00/ 880 = 3. 17Anlll, - 1 be
I Thi s is ;Ihotlt 2 . 3 ~ " above th e lIPP"; !" limi t ~)r tilbk .~ ,2 't ll tl may H.::-.ult ill high
e

winJing t('lllpcr:lturc gradi t.:'lls. Oy ibclf, an nc(' '-iS I t! ' his Ill<l f!li tude in the sta
.,
"
pre limi nary value o f J is 1I0 t. how,.;n:r, sullk-kllt to pll'I'lude funh l'r •. \ HI~iJl: 1 ation 1"
,I,·' of th e large r l'o rc.
I.
. ' Jd l.'! I
, The vaillc of 13", is tile sa me as that for fralllc I: thus both dC~I 1.! II'" must ha ve
2.1
practica II )' Ihc sa me \ alue of A fe h, ,~. Fo r (h ~ Ia rgc r core, (h crcrQ rc, if wc usc th e
t. ',. ' revi st.:d li gures for Afch /s a nd h, 1- 1'1' 1
.1" . "Is = 4.99 x 10 - ';0.0307' = 0.53
c
~ ,; f' ex[
·
t
I ,
' , Thus
I . b
• It t " = 0.53 x SSO = 466111111
F~~r Ih,.; ill!.: r c a ~,.; d \ :lI ue of J,

.. 1\"1I = 0,01 55 x l lO,'.1. 17 ()Ol ';~ rn 2

1) / .1')" • .1. l l / D.5 = .1.%

,~ 1 I From figure 2.6(b) t h,.; clHrcspllfHlil1g \:du!'! \,r J.: I j, ~ ~ (" ·1he (n rnpOI1Cllt s of
•
1
•
,
,' ._~._ " • •• _ _ _ __ -<l '--;-- - ... - --
.~- ~-.;~ -- --··:··-..,.,.
i .
.,
),"'.\.~:.,..'--P \~·-··
{~( "-;-"<.:
.' , .'
.' . ( : /"1: ~ '\ ..
 ,
,..,
" ,
:.1~\ '"'
' .)
\

" •"
.'
"
,"'.'1 I· '"
, ':'
; (!" ,.
. ..... 1,..
, ,
~ .\~ ,
~ ': I 'I. I, ," , ',.,. ".
.--.. ..... I,
j'
,"(
, I
---_. - .-~ ....... ~- I

T II EOR Y OF TRANSFORME~' DES IGN I'HI N<.JI ' I. ES 55

cquation 2.6 1 Jrc ."

(b . + b,)" x 10 - 6 = 52.7 x 466 x 10 - 6 " 0.0246 m'
Acuk,/2 = 0.0 152 x 3.26/2 = 0.02·IR ,,,'
"

In this case tic space avai lable is less thdn that required, out only by 0.8 %. The
dimensions a rc therefore sat isfactory'. ~ Ild II Il1.:ly be takc n as approximately
hus 470rnm. ."
~
. "

. 2.10.4 Calcuilltion of iron loss

for the two possible sets o f prel imina ry dim cnsio n, (lh tn irlcd, th c iron loss lIlay
be fo und fro m equat ion 2.63, cqu"tion 2.64 (if we t:r he I',•.• , ilS noo kg 111 - ') and
~ gll rc 2.1.

Frame I r r ~lIne II (non-standard ,.,

ilnd 1lhc filJaI valuc u :II\I' ~ )

Frol11 equa l ion 2.63 (",(Ill) 1608 '2 ",

Frol11 equat io n 2.64 "'I', (kg) 758 I,U 1
,

AI 13", = 1.53 T,
I. ::.[
~ ......
from fig ure 2, I PF,(Wkg - ') 1.84
Therefore PF,(W) 13.95 I·W9
l
For fr jll11c I the re sult is on ly 1.8% below the g ll~lI alll (.cd irollioss o f 1420W

I in s implies:.lll
a nd is quite sa tisfact ory. Fo r frame lJ the cakulatu l I{)ss is 4.9 % above the ,,
gua ranteed value. This is we ll within th e all owauk tok l :: ncC of + 1.7 which m;,st
not be cxcccdctl o n lest, bu t, ror th e reasons C.Xph1il1 ~d in 'o ub-scc li on 2.9.1, it may ~

lay result in high

be co nside red inadv isa ble to acce pt a prel iminary rC."ld l \" !lich is nea rly 5 % in
excess or the spcc i ~ed loss.
It is of interest to note th aI a fram e wit h the S,Hlh.' ' ilL1t.!l1sions as the non-
f
I :gJlitudc in the sta ndard fm me II bu t co nstru cted wilh mi tred join t", ~ l:\" a specific loss I' Fc o f

,,f
t :r c.:onsid crat ion 1. 5 W kg - 1 . giving a tota l iron loss o r only 121·' W.

I ~"'i i gn s
mu st havc
2.1 0.5 Ass"ssmcnt of results l- n
re, if we use thc Ii
The larger frame has a high current den sity, a high ill)1l to ~s a nd lion-standard
cons tru cti o n. For these reaso ns, frame I apPCHt:S pn;faablc, although. as l'
explained in sub-section 2. 10.2, it is more expc nsi"b ill materials. )
I
T he existin g design fo r the transformer specified iq :Hlb·scction 2.10.1 is. in fact,
hal'cd o n rr:lll1c I. Th e window height of th is dco;ig.11 is
t· ."
(, . •
I•• = 624 Illlll
and the mean speci fic loadings
i
13m = L53T J = 2.89 A !l 1l11 2

lC l:ompo lIl: nt s of
The c,1lcula li ons of sub-secti on 2.9.3 indicate thaI fo r this frnme the window ,..

i
II
.~---,~---~- . -~.......,.-~-------
, I
_.° 1
_ .... _

I ' , '~ 1
 "I;,; ;

56 MODE R N Pu\VI. R rRA",,;SI O R,\ I r. R ,' R,\ CTI C E

height should be wo uld rcquJl

". '" 560 + 60 = 620 min I chapte r 5. Fe
I based on r
an d tli e co rrcs p o ndin g s pec ific load in gs <Jrc I, a rr 3 n gc m e nt ~
,,
8 m = 1.53T J = 2.97 A mm - > ,' tra nsformer..
"0 1 depe nd I
III I ii I.: cX;l l1lp lc. thc.; rdore. vcry aceur;1t c result s :U'c.; ;I c hi c \' ~ d. ow ing principa ll y to I~ given in CO il...
Ihe rl.:eak ulation of the dimensions aft er the initial list of com patibi lity, vul ues ern plo
To attempt to att:lin such acc uracy in the preliminary calcula tions is norma lly Empiri"" l
neither necessary nor justific;d by the nature of the d ata upo n which they u rc cleara nces, b
ba scd. Uetwcen the init;,,1 :uid final result s for fra me I th ecuangc in II is only 2.4 % of reaso nably
a nd in b l + b1 only 3.3 %. Variations of similar magnitude to th csc may oft cn be du cts and S(, 1
imposed on the wind ing shape by the usc of standard conductor sections. lists, having I
The limitati ons of the " pp ro~ im a te meth od arc indicat ed clearly by a the sta ndaru
compa rison bet ween the rcs uI ts obtained froll1 su b ~ se\..' t ions 2. 10.2 a flU 2. 10.3. For as!)cl1lbly, wit
fra me I. this reveals a discrepa ncy of 12.5 %in th" va llics of J " nd 30 ~ o in th ose of low-I o ltage
"w. Th ese errors arise from th e selecti on of an a ve ra ge fi gure for J from table 2.2 The thick
an d fro lll the very approx ima te nature of kilo' The me th od gives a tcnt ative dCll' rmined n
indication o f thc co rn:cl s tanda rd fram e. but to fi nd all at cura tt.: \'aluc fo r th e co re Nllf llla l pral
hcight it is necessa ry to form the wi ndings by trial and error; there is no provision thc ba rccoll(
for incl udin g losses a nd reacta nce in the prelimina ry ca lculations. insulatio n. T}
Alth ough the mcth od of sub-section 2. 10.3 ove rco mcs these li lll it a tions. it docs rcclilll gular (' I
nol fo rm a eOll lpl ele so luti on frol11 IIrst pri ncipl l!s because it relics lIpo n Pa per insl
knowledge o f the d imensions o f standa rd frames. The shape oflhesc fwm cs lias the uppe r I ~J
beell evo lved by ex pe rience to accomlll odate desig ns of no m la l specifica ti on; thus dr.: lcrl11 inc its
the: mClhoulacks nexibi lil Y. Furthe rm o re, th l.:re is no provision to enab le eX l' licit or I.trgcr 1m
co nsiderati onlQ be give n to cco no mic f,:1 C10 1"5 in the in itia l calc ul ati ons. These arc, be t ween laye
however, implicit in th e evoluti on o f the standa rd fra mes. and kn owledge of the norrll al wo rk i
pri nciples of sec lio n 2.7 will enab le the best choice to be made bd \\'cc n al te rna tive sho uld not ("
designs. hart.: t'om.lllc
In prac ti ce. exi:;t in g design shee ts 0 r computer pr ()g ra Jll lll e~ f\)( 111 the bas is of T he fo rm al
ncarly a II design \\'0 rk II ndert a ken by mtl n u ft\ r ture rs, a nd it is un Ii kcly t hu t uctiJil s preli III inary dl
of standa rd fra mes wi ll be ava ila bl e witho ut access to the correspondin g design sections 9.9 ..
nics. The cx,lI nple ~ i\'c n is. therefore. chieOy o f interest ~I S an ill ustra tion of the When winl
appl icatio n of theoretical principles. h" I'e been ob
descri bed in
ror mati o n m
2.11 D ESIGN OF WI N DIN GS AND TANK be dissipa ted I
has been obt'
2.11.1 D esign of \\indings
2.1 1.2 Ocsig
Th e prob lc m of winding lk s ign is to form, \\i lh in the rcqu ir c.: d di lllcnsio ns.
wi lid ings wl1 ieh a I"C :J dcq un tdy i nsulatcd and ha \ e 1he co rrect Hducs of relicta nce. So me of th,
/ 2 R losses ami edd y current losses. t lU n ~ fo fll le r
To des ig n the insula tio n fro m lirst principles woul d be ex trcmely difficult an d depend s " pon

,
, ,1 1
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.
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ICE I TIIEORY OF 1 RANSfO RMCK DESIGN !'fUNe ll'LES 57

..' would require a. quantitative knowl edge o f IIlallY of the factors ou tlin ed in
chapt er 5. Fortunately, much insulation is scmi·stalll.lardised, ilild insulation lists
based on previolls experie nce arc normally available which give ge neral
:11 rangemcilts of ~vind in gs alld ·insulation for the vario us sizes a nd types of
tran sformer. The axial clearances bo l , bo and 1)02 alld the elld clea ra nces " 0 1 and
"02 depcnd upon thc arrangcmen t of insula tion, :.I nd minim lI lll va lucs arc lIsually
eel, Qwing principa lly to given in conjuncti o n with the standard insul:lt ion lists. These arc the clearance
Co m ra t ibili (y. va lues cmployed in dCiermining th e preliminary fram e dim ensions.
I • .
~ ... Cl.l lal lOns IS normally
Empirical fO?I1lulacl"havc been dcveloped which give a guid e to safe va lues of
a upon which the)' arc clearances, but these formulae arc necessari ly approxima te since, if th ey are to be
lnge in II is on ly 2.4 % of rcasollably ge ,~era l applicatio n, they must ;;lIlow for dilTercnt arrangemen ts of
I
o these may oneil be dllcts ;lIlCl so lid inslilation. The clearanccs associat ed wit h stantlard insulatio n
'ond ucto r sec ti ons. "
lists, 11:1\ illg been proved on t..:st, should be used whellever possible, Funhcrmore,
' ieated clearly by a the standa rd lists allow ror such raetors as the Illcdwnical requiremen ts of
2. 10.2 and 2. 10.3. For asse mbly, which in some transformers may decide the clearance bOI bctween the
r J ~\l1d 30(\ in those of 10w· \'011:1 £,c wi ndin g find the core. >I
,,,-,: fur J from t:, I,1c 2.2
The th k'k ncss or insulation on p "lj)C r~covcrl.":d t:o nJuctors may also be
,d gi ves a It :t live determined more by the mcchanical properties o r Ihe paper th an by voltage.
lIf.tlc \';tllIl.: for 1 <.:orc Norrn;lI pra t.: lice is to·c!.cfinc th e thickn ess orthe covcringas th e amo llnt by which
)1'; Ill~r~ is 110 P[ \ I \ Isiol1 the bare cll utiuctordjmcllsioll is increased, which is twice tile wa ilih ickncss oft llc
I: li ons. insulation. Typica l v~i'ucs ror the thick ness or covering on double-pap"r-covered
_ 1,.:; limit :l ti ons, it docs rcc tall!!lIlar co nductors ra nge from about 0.36 to O.S lllm.
)Cl" lllSC it re iics upon P~ll' e r insu lati o n between winuing la yers llIust with stan d the effect o f winding
: br (h est.! ffa Illes has till! IIpper layer over it, so that aga in rn cchnnit'al co nsider..lIions may ,partly
<.II specifica tion; thus deter mine its thickn ess, whi ch is se ldom less than abo ut 0.25 mill in distributi o n
'Isio n to ena ble ex plicit or I::t rgt r transrormcrs. Greater thi cknesscs may bc req uired when thc vo ltagc
r- 'c ulalions. These arc, bet weer layers is high, and, as an a pproximilte guide to thc thickness req uired, the
ld kn o\\'ledge of the norm:!l wo rk illg rlnS vo lt age grad ien t be! ween layers a t the poi n I of grL'a tes t st rcss
....Ie bl..'tm,,:t.!11 alternative sho uld 11 0 1 exceed 2 kV 111m - I. The in sulation thi ckness is IIlcaslIf t.: d be tw el:1l
bare I 'lldw.:to I'S and thus Includes th e conductor ill ~ lIltlt i o n .
)cs form th e basis of Thl! forrllatiol1 of windings suit:tble fo r the 0.75 MVJ\ transfor mer wit h the
,... llnlikcJ y lhat deta ils prc li III i rli! ry dimen sions found ill t he previous sect iO Il is (kscri bed in de In iii 11 $ 11 b·
co rrespondi ng des ign sections 9.9.3 to 9.9.8.
~ illustrat ion of the \Vh e ll windings with satisfac to ry dimensio ns and vallH:s of reactance an d los.ses
ha ve hc~: n ob tnincu. th e willdin g lemperature gratiit.:ll ts must be c;.I leu lated as

., i dcscri b.. : d ill sub·section 9. 11.1. If th ese gradi ent s ;:Ire too hig h, th e windin g
form :lilo l1lllust be fe-examined with the objec t orredncing th e th erl1wl po wer to
be dissip"tcd pc r unit of cooling surface area; it is only when satisfuc lory coo ling
ha s bcJ n obtained that thc winding design can be nna liscd.
I
7..11.2 I"" "'~;i3 11 of I1Ink
+
l'qll :i rcd dimensions.
'c t Ill es or rcaclanee, Some or Ihc considerations underlyin g th e dc" ign of tall k for all ON/\N
trallsfOll ll Cf arc discu ssed in sub·section 2.4.3. T he rate of circula t ion of till.! ~li l
rtmc ly diflieu l! and clcpi.: llds upo n th e vcrtiC<ll positi o n o f th e heat sourCl'S o rthe transformcr rela ti ve

T--'--~"~~ ---- ,.
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j 1\IUIJI'HN I'OWER I'I~AN S I(lI{Ml.lt I'I( A( ' rr cE
"
Ii II.) 1111..' tall~ l"(ll\ !ill g ~\l t
fal'L's and III the type or tan k, wh e tl1l' i' plain tH' l'IP 1il'IX: d "r
, I with r:ldi :!loJ's. As in II I her :ISPl} ts of d t.:~ il\Jl, cIIlpi, ica l Ctl ll.'. !:l u ts aH.! u\\' d, a lld
, ,, , rlt l'''c f:1I..: 1I1I's art! ir np lic it in Ih ~ lr valtll.:[\,
I The \:lllk surface cools by both rad iation and COllvcc ti o n. but it is shown in ~ w h ~ rc K ( is equal t
rcfc n.: nt c 1 thaI, within th e r;lII gc o f klllpcratu l'c di ffc n.:nccs illV u lvl..' u, the hea t ;,p,)li t.:s o nly ( 0 a Ii
tran sfcr fro m s uch a surfa ce may be c~lI culat cd apprux ill1a lcly fr o m va lues or K,. uscJ ill
0.27 ror piainlan kc'
'W ill " ! (2.65) rro in equati on 2.6:
~
,, i whe re ."'f~, is the tota l ra te of hea l transfer from unit t~l l1k surface, Kc' an clTlpiri~1
dl cocnicicnt ""d /;0 the lempera lure diffe rence between the surface a nd coo li~g
,I medi um. It is genera lly more convc ,~ i 9 nt. howe ver, to express the rcbti o Jl ship In Semi·s)andardi s.
.,
I :1 the fC'lrrn .~ thus the ge neral ar. .
va lues c:l n be select t.!'
(2.6~) .
'i iit M = . K,M~;' 'C
where K, is (1 IK ,,)o .• and has cmp iric.11 values dependent upon the type o f
hi gh- voltage windi
tl. 0wo f0l1 nd from
~. I lallk. tl: ll1pcra tu fc r ise. If 1
I' :1 The cITcctivc tank cooli ng surface area AT Illust be surTicicnt to d issipa te 'lhe c"lI"t ion 2. 16, Ihe "'
\ , 'I , losses of the transfo rmer without temperature rises exceeding th ose given in eqllation 2.7 1, froJ
Y 1;1
Eqll::t li on 2. 16 I1li1
H,'.:
- , 11
s tun d ard spec ificat io ns. A relati ons hip is th erefo re /'I..:quircd be twee n ...11 an d the
t\lp o il tempera ture ri sc 00 , The pr(Jblcnl is cOlllplicated by th e fact thaI the lIndu ly rt.:s0·ictivc Oil
,. kmpcfaturc of the lank surface and, thereforC', its rate M (\ o f Ji ss ipat io n of heat we get
pe r unit ~lrca changes according to heigh t frolll th e bottom of the tank . A simple
:lp pro xillla l c so lutio n ma y , however. be ob t,lincd by assuming that th e average
Icmpcl'al ure rise of th e tank coo ling surrace is eq ual to the mea n duc t oil fro m which a val
temperature risc !lOu", where com patible wilh Ih
I. disclissed in Ch:lpt\
'I 'C (267)
·1' ,..:orrespond in g \,1 )1 1
••

"
II ca ll be sce n fro m figu re 2.3 (a) and fi gure 2.3(c) Ihal Ihis assll mplioll wi ll be be fOlilld direclly
,i W hen 3 value ha:> ,
approxima tely true in prac tice, When the t ran sformer occ upi es the ve rtical
POSilio ll or figu re 2. 3(e) wilh respeel to Ihe lallk eoolill g surfaces, Ihe average oil With this app roxima
tempaa turc ri se for th e t~nk as a whole is sli gh tly abovc 1\0(",(11 ' b ut this will t(.;nd to !-.urfaccs ill direct c,
r I! be compclI:-a led fo r by th e internal tempcrature drop a t th e oil to tank surface rhe overa ll dimeJ
, r 'I :-- hown in flgLlre 2.3 (3). Thu s th e accuracy of th t.! so lution d epends upo n the tank in ternal wiu lh ~t l l(..l
\" o nfi gu ratio n. T he me th od gives sa tisrac tory n::HJlt s when applied. in co njullL:tio n stanchlrdiscd a nd
\\ ith apprl,pria tc va lues o f cll lpiriL:a l 1,;011 S1<.\I\ I S, to tank s (If rcaso n:tbl y norma l insulation purpose
Jc ~ ig n . ' as for the leads. Tli
LeI the average va lue of M ~c over the cITceti vc lank coo ling surface be cha nge gea r moun! !"'.
slleh llialthe equip
Wm - 2
(2.68) lir..:sign procedure tv.
Substitu tin g th e average va lues in to equatio n 2.66. we obta in Experiellee has sh,
el1lpirical cOB slan
M"", = /;0 0 - tM, = K , M ~:~ C 12.69) calculated lempe'"
From equa lio n 2.14. tl.1i: "'''Y be replaced by k,tl.O". T hll s but this provid es a ~
S I~L:ci fi ca li0n.
M"I I - k, /2 ) , K,Af~ i R f{d'cn.: Il<':C " gi\,l

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I'I I EOI<Y OF 'I RANSI' ORM LR DLSI0N PIH N{,II ·Li.,s

)hin or equiplx:d or
I, re.; il rc \lsl'd, ;JIH.l
'C
it is sho\\'11 in
1ll\ where K r is equ,tllo K , /(1 - k. /2 ) alld is an ove rall eoenkien l ror Ihe lallk wh ich
IlHdved, I he hea l app lies o nly to a lilllitcu range of trallsfo l'll wrs o f si mil:lr c() ll.;; tru ction. Typica l
~ 1'0111 values of Kr lI sed in the de:sig n o f ON AN dbtributiOIl tl an ::. fo rlll crs range fro m
0.27 for plai n tank s to 0,7 fo r tanks lilted with radiat ors. Tilt.: !' ubs titutiull of A1eT
(2.65) rro;n eq llal io n 2.68 gives
'~ (I il ll
cmpir ical .!.. .0. +- 1', )/ AT loa
= KT{(!'F< C (2.7 1)
I c\, and cooling
hI.; r ~ I ationship·in S\! l11i-SlaIHJard jsall~'n is usually employed fur di~trib\Jlioll tranSfOfl1h.: r l:t nks;
thus th e CCl1cra l arrangeme nt o f a suit ab le tank will be know n, :IIHI appropr iate
values ca n be selec ted for the cmpir ic..1 1co nstants kw and K T , T he IIlcan low- a nd
(2.66) hi gh-voltage \\iod ing tempera ture gradi ent s call be (:ol11p;II'cd \\illl the v:liuc o f
u !'~) n the type of /\0 \,0 found from clju:l tio n 2. 16 to bc cO lll pali blc with the !-pl'I.:i ficd lim it s o f
tempera ture ri sco If nei th er windin g has a grad ien t exceeding th a t obta incd from
1. tu d issipa le th e equa tion 1.16, th e spccilicd limit for 1\0". lIsua ll y 55 (C, may be substituted in
19 those !iiVe~l in clJtlati o n :!: ' l. frOin whic h a mi nimu lll va lue ca ll thell he cal<,:ula tcd for;l r.
I . en AT and Ihe Equati o n 2. 16 may, however. give a value o f 60""0 \\!lit.:h is so luw that it is
~ <.: f~1C t that th e untl l/l y res tri cti ve 0 11 th e winding des ign, Fo r thi s c.:asc. rc:!rra ngillg the t.:qu: ltio n,
Ji .....;j pation DC-heat we gel
I
" 1 I ;r l1k .A silll-p le
!J.O. = ("'II. - lIlIw.) / ( 1 ' , / 2) (2.72 )
~ hHt t he average
Ie l]lean duel o il rrom whi ch a va lue may be round ro r 60. loss Ihan Ihe specified limit but
I com pa tibl t wit h the mca n tcmpcra lurc gradie nt of the ho tte::. t wi ndin g. which, as
discussed ill cha pler 9. sho uld no nnally be lillliletl 10 abo ul 2 1 ' CO T he
I (2.6'7) corres pond ing value of /l Ief C~ln thell bl.! ob taincu from eq ua ti o n 2.70, o r A r (;;111
..... !1 Iil plion wi ll be be round di reclly rro m eq ual ;"n 2.7 1.
Il' S the vcrti<~a l \V hcli a \'a illc has been obtained for;l r.the tank dimensio ns can be cakllbtcd.
Ihe a\'e ra ge o il Wit h Ill isappruxill1ate meth od IHHlIlal procedure is to rq;a lJ u nly Ih l)::'<': <.: .'l lcfnul j' '.
Ii rl1;::' will re nu to slIrfal..:cs in d irect contac t \." ith th e oi l ~s ('; Oll tribli lin g to Ihe d fcc li \'c I..:oo ling a !'ca.
1 1 I() ta nk surf:u,.:e The 0\'cra ll d imensio ns o f the trallsfo rl)1er core ;.IIlt! \', indings determin e the
; UP(l11 the tank interna l wid th and leng th o f th e tank. The clcaranl.'cs a ll owed arc usua ll y

I
I . . s l ;l r ltlal'di ~<,' d an d arc cl.) lI!'ilkr;Lbly L!rc:ilt.:1 Ihan !l Ll l\\: requ ire d pure ly for
!: d. lI l cOIlJu nctlun
"~\! I1:lbly norma l i nsu la t ion purposes to ellsure adeq ua tc ~racc fo r free l:il cliia t io n of th e oi l, as wt!ll
as ro r (he leads. The 10 lal heighl o r Ihe Iransrormer eO lc. int:iud illg any la p-
L ,I". ra ce be cha ngc t,"CtLf mo unted 011 top of it ,dclcrmine:<; a min illlum oillc\ cl. which Lllust be

(2.68)
such th a t th e equi pmcnt is cu\ercu ad cqllatdy by the oil " hen co ltl . Detai ls or th c
tlesit: n PH1Cl 'duI'c for a lank fi lted wi th I aliiat o r" :lfe giVl' 1L in SUb·Sl'clioll 9.12.3. .'
E).pcl'j c lL ~e kls shown th a llhc I I)erlLla l d ala oblail1 cu hy tiLe: u:-.c or appl op ri.a tc
cmpi rica l co nstan ts in the abo\'c equati ons arc rC:ls()l1nbly :I(.'( l.I ra lc. T he
c; l!culalcu tcmpera ture ri ses lend to bc ra tltcr hi ght.:/' tha n those Illca <; lI red 0 11 tcst,
but Ihi s pru\id es:t safety m;lI gin to r: n ~ urc that the ir,ln:-. forrn cr \\ill tl\e:ct th e
sIK'df'ka ti o ll .
Rcfc rclll'c 4 gi\'es marc exac t fo rm u lac for the Iilen n.d l,a kula li oll s. in which ,
r

..,
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... - ~ .. , .- "''1;'

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,I 60 M ODERN I'OW I R II( ,\ NS I ORM I: R I'RAl' l'IeE
; radia tio n :!nd co nvectio n arc trea ted SL:par:ltcly. In reference 3, iI method of tank
design is descrihed \",'hich takes ex pi j,j I :1 C<O:O 11 11 t o( t he di mensions and posit ion of
3
tile hC;l!ing Cll'llh.: nl s of thc.'corc
.~
al1d windin gs with . respect to. thc lal1k t.:ool ing
surfacc~ ; these: surf:.l cCS a f C div ided int o a number of sc p~lra t c zo nes, each wit h a
tcmpcr:lIu fc risc rclutcd ":lllpirica ll y 10 that of the hottest oil.

"
The Use
Digital (;~
AC[(NOW LEDGE~IEN!rs
,"
'.
"
Trans(or,
T he ~ll1thol' grater ully a,1 lw l..:tig~s th e su pply o f data by llrtlc~Pl!cbks Limi'tcd.
D i ~ lrj1Juti o n
Transformers Limit ed and Fe rranti Limited which made it possible 1<.. Rowe*
to complete this chapter.

REFEI1ENCES

(Rcrcrcnce n",nbcrs preceded by the leiter G a rc li sil'd.. in sec tion 1.14.)

I. Cromp ton, A. B., and Rowe, K. S., Principles orTra nsrormer Design, to be 3.1 I~
publi shed ,
2. \Val l.! rh oll sc, T.. D(" Ji~" of Trall.Vor;}/I'I",\·, Dr;w gllt slll;Jn Pub lishing. Lo nd on The ;1 1l\OJllati<.: ~ '
(1945 6) perform a llt om,
3. Dean. R. L. ('I 0/ .. J i '(I1I.iformcr s Jor rli<' 1::J('('{l'ic Power Indllstry, MeG nl\v-Hi II. in di gital fOf m at
Nell' York, Toro nto, London ( 1959 ) device nrc as fn1le
4. Illume. L. F . ('/ (1/" Tram/omll'" Ellgineering. \Viley. New Yo r k. London
( 195 1) (a) Input c(
5. Say, M. G .. Altem at;lIg Currl'lI' .\11/(''';11" , . Pitman, Lond on, 4th cd n. ( 1976) equipme nt
(b) O up ut c''''
cq uipll\ c
(c) A stun; fUi
or data. Th
o r di sk.
(eI) All il lib
(e) A cont rol
cont rolli l
Thc whole pr< _
is c.alled programn
accurately, expli
i" d ow n in to lhrc(
"IU :'I' (a) Systems an
, 11. or transr,
,W
with th e

I'!~'~I ~~ '.:\
:,1:, Fe rranti Engincclill j

.1 1n
ill"l I'
1If l'

i L •• ~
'}'I>i ,1
"
I ~!

1,
,, i~ I I

'i .
• •
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":.
"I

.' ..

.• _._-- ---; ~-

nCE
I~
I

; 'eJ,amcthouof
I
I
tank
lsio ns a nd pos itio n of
3 '1
.'
pel:t to the tank coo ling ' ..
I; ttl.: zones. (';tch with a
I.: o il. "

I The Use of the Automatic Electronic .;

Digital C9mputer as an Aid t o the Poyver
Transformer Designer - .' .
I ruce Peebles Limited,
.
."
I h;ic h Illade it possible 1(, Rowe*

In 1ee tion 1.1 4.)

.nsfi "ner Design, to be 3.1 INTROOUCflON

;1 .. ~ublis hin g, London The.:.1 ul onJa tic electronic d igila I com puter is a device t l1a t ca n be progrilllllllcd to
perroI'm automatically a sequ ence of mi thmctic operatio lls o n numbers presented
" ''f'II')', McGraw. llili . ill di gital rorm at very hi gh speeds. The bask d t.:I1ll:l1ts which cons tit ute such a
device arc as follows. • !,
y. New York. Lo nd o n
(a) Input equipment, s uch as pape r tape, card reader o r magnetic tape
, don, 4t h cdn, ( 1976) equipment. This allows tbe operator to cOlllll1unicate wi th the co mputer.
(b) Ouput eq uipment, such as pape r ta pe, ca ru punch o r printer. This
eq uipment ~t1l o\\'s lhe compu ler to (.'oll1nlllniCa lc with the ou tside world.
(c) A store for ho lding info rmatio n whicll c.1n be in th e form of instru cti o ns
o r data. The store, fo r example. cou ld be a II'Itlgnctic drum, magne tic tape
or disk.
(d) An arithmetic unit fo r opera tin g on the nUlIlty; rs.
iI
II
(e) /\ (.o ntrol un it for directin g the operations of th e computer, that is
controlling the sto ra ge und ex traction of 11 1I 111 bas.
ii
,

The whole process of prcpari ng info rm" tion and instructions for the computer
is ca lled programming. Th is is a skilled art since ono Illust formulat e th e problem
accurately, explicitly and ull ambiguous ly. The programm ing task can be broken
dO\\'11 into three d istinct parts as roll ows. .
(a) Syste ms anal ysis. This is the formulat ion of the proble m, which in the ,,'sc
of l(;lllsformer design is usually carried Ollt by so meone who is familiar
with the technical problems involved,
Ferranti Engineering l imi ted .

-- ...... -.......-----...-.-,,,-,.,---. "".""!'''''~.',-,, '''i . - , - - ---.- -- - - .. - - - -•...,---r--

.,';.,,!,r'¥f\.·If':·· '. '. ,\!. • 4 • ~. ,

;. "'I·~"~''.!'r\\l'lI;t,'I!'~.~I·'.''~
" 'I I,·" ~Ifl:r"r..,
"
j,""/i;,(
I I
 USI:
( 12 \H lI II I{ ~ 1'0\\1 It 1 I{\'<") 010 11 J{ I' JU { li t E

(h ) 111 ~
nC,li l <.. tagc is In int er pret th e "i),s ICIllS ~ t ll:JI) <; i <.. illtn .! fl 'llIl , le i, 11 is ,1.3 t) F';IGNI,:W"
,',uir" bk for Ihe t' t)IllPUlcJ being U"it,;d,
(e) 1"11(; lin a! s t:ll;c is to tran scribe the ahove illrOllila lill ll inln l 'Itl putcr
These ~ 1 >cc ir, c"li o " s
I:W gll;IgC. This part is usua lly c:ll lt.:d coding :lnd \\' il ~ \'<lry dCI' Vtld;P L' tll){)[l
p r:tc ticc Il r s (and:1r 1
th !.: , i/c and sr ccd or
th e cC' mru tcr Cl11plo) cd.
1.)i\, \: 11 hclnw.
(Jcneral :lrr;1
(a)
,1. 2 CLS I () ,\ II':rcS SI'I-: CIF I CATION (b) T ) pc of w
,;
! (e) '1') pc of \I
rit e tr:ll1" rlH lll t: r lh::-. iglll..:r has to ha'~I~ certain inform :lli
n l Hfllai :-.tl'III'
(d) '1') pc of CD."
i , It:a ll'd: Ihc Illiljo r il l"l lls :.Ire as fo ll o \\'s,
j('int s)"
,

(a) Ha ling o f Ihe Iran"rOIIllCr, (c) "1') pI; :lIltl t .. 1

(b) Plirn :try artd Sl' l'\lIHI:lt)' lill l: , 'olla l!!.:s, (1') 1') l'eul'l''',''
(e) Pri nlil ry a nd scC'o m!.u), windin g connec ti o ns (star, dclt:!. ,'11: I IHlI llr S, f: 11
(d) Ntllll!>c r of pll" scs, (g) t-.!.I ;.;iJllU Ill
(c) Frl'q lll'lH,,'Y. (il )' ~1:t x in H II Ill' l1
11'1 I') I'C' " I' "" ,dill (; (O N , O il, UI ' II, c' ,",), (i) f\ l ax illllll ll
(g) ' I :lppill !; I) pc, ":lllgc alll] SICPS, \\ i ll di",; (J
I
(Il ) I clIlpC .. ;lIl1rC .. isc lilil ilS, UJ ~ l :l\illl t li ll II lI
r (i) Tr,t L't' lldil ion s, (k) ~L.j"r i" , ,,I,,
Ul ~b,,~ ;tnLl d illll' ll!> io na l rc.: "trictioIlS, ",,1;1 [; \)11),
I (I) ~ li"(lr ill <lI ", 1
\\, i[11 this ill f"ofl1l :l ti o n a d c.:s igll call be produced \\'hich \\CHlld gi\e Ih, " ' " !ll:r
,.1 ; ! t:lw icl: 10 decide upo n Ihe react a nce, load l os~ :In d i ro n (corel It"". rl l 1i,c \\i dths in tlte
(Ill) T ypc or t:1I
th e l"ll' l lI r Ihe 11':1n Sr ll rlll L'1' he \qllJ Id i Il\ :tr ia bJ)' \\ llrk to th e Il t l ' i tIl U IL I ·Ie
Ill/\ ;ul L! ('tlrrell ! tlt:nsi ti cs i n J.. t..:t..: pill g \\ ith gl)od tk :-.ign p rac t iL'c for ' ; (II) r) pc " I' ""
I I) p\..' n r I I':t n ~ rn rm c r bd ng t..:() II ~ iJ e r c d , ThL I'l: S lIltill1t lk ~ i g Jl \\ o u Ill, IIll', \,,', \
"I
,c When a n order i"i p
11: 11 t il a! \: tlt l\:S ror th e rca l' I:llI l"C :ll1d 1t'l s"cs ill h\ " : l' i ll !~ \\1111 111,' ,. :wd til l" d o" il' nl"l I
1I1: III\l Ll~' IIH l'I':' d t.::d L!11 I l'\' [ llliqIl C.. , [ ht.: I'll ,bk lll' ill \\' h !.:d ill : lIl hil\ ~' " " 1 l' :-. lr il.: t i~)IIS i 1 1P ~ ) '~
dL'!'.ign alc.: t' (llt ~ idl:r abl y red ul't.:d \\ he n.: th e reacla nce an d losses arc ' I I by I C:-' Ult 'l lll , in :!Ild ;'1 ' 1
til t: C II ~t O IllL r ,
In p rat.: tiL'c it I!' fo und Iha t Ih !.: lllajorily u f' cu5Io IllCrSspcL'if) t he r Ch..' I nec
t his has tu cO ll1ply \\illl lilt; l' kl' l li<.: ~" s),ste m ill which th e t ramfo l IH- ' ' , In he
] ", FO:t~I UL A 1'1<"
j ll ~ t a l h:d , S\lI11c[i mcs Ihe l os:-.c~ a rc spc.:cifi cd. o r alt crn:lIi \'e ly th e L':l pi l ',r I l'psl
of th e Itl s~t.:s, In thc lall er GI:-'l' [he designer has the pro blem (,I f Illi ll il ,\' " " the
1('I lall.'o\ !. t ha t is till' jlrime cust or
Ihe Ira ns fo rm er pillS th e cost llf ': 'l: II' <~ s , rh e dc:-.igm:r lI :-;u " II .. ;,
111 I l'Cl'lI t yea rs Ih c.: m!n irlllllllllO isc ]{:\c l ufp WeI' tr ansfOfllll.: rs In..; I. ' : ';,: 11 sIal ti ng poillt Tlti s [ ~
~ p:,;d fkd by Ihe I.' lIsto mcr. a nd Ih iii has 0 C: I teo a furl her rC~1 ric ti OI1. ~ i 11" , , ! " 11' 1isc c:rll:ul'lt e.: th e most ' J
Ie \ \,: 1i::\ pr imari ly a fU tll' lio ll o f lite e~' re 1l1:!"S a lld flu x den!\it y, I hl'lc.:fl1l'l' I!, 1 '~re alld also 10 dedde '
f~ l lll I1 l1 l l e r: lI', lIll C l e l ~ \\ hidl l~ (I \Jld he.: :-' l'l'L'ilicd at th e lju\Ha ti l lll :-. 1 1)' " :-. 11 IIl'tUI't' I,f \\' illd ill t";;1
and sl:t lld al'l! in s u l ; "' ~
(1\ ) Rl·;!l'l ;lIll't.: 0 1' i lllpl~d a ll ll: "
O n(."c th i" 1j r nt.: lal ; ;!
(I) I lI ad loss Of c; tpil al i'l'd C('st o r Ihe loss p CI' kil o\\:l tl.
d l'l rac lel i-, Iio;s : o uch ,t'
(m ) (1 () 11 11l';S nr l':I pil itli , cd c \)s t or th c loo;;s pCI' J.. ilo\\;t ll.
(':I k' \ll al l' d .t Ill! t'Plll j ', 1I
(11) N\\i~e ! '\ l'1..
 , ... ".

USE OF T il E AUTOMATI C ELF.C'·f{ON IC DIG ITAL COMPUTER 63

form which is 3.3 DESIGNER'S SPECIFICATION

into computer
:11 upon These speci fica tions are governed by the particular manufacturer's code of
practice (If standards fOf the uesign being consiuered. A list ~f ~oJ11e of these is
given below. .~

(0) General orrang~ment o r t he windings with respect to ;I,c co re leg.

(b) Type of winding design (helical. layer, di sk, ctc.). :._!
(c) Type of winding c6nuuctor (copper, alum in ium, transposed c;lble or
fa a design can be normal strand). . ;
(d) Type of core (onc-, two-,thrce-, four- or five-limbed niiired pr no n-mitred
joints). : . ; .' .' !! .' .
(e) Type an~ grade of eore stee l. . ,
(f) Type of cooling arrangement (radiator; o n the ta'", or separat e bank,
etc.). pumps, 'fans, ctc.). :'; .
(g) Maximum thcrmal grad ien t in the \vindings.
(11) Maximum current densities in the windings.
(i) Maximum winding eddy current losses expressed as a pcrcelli age uf the
winding (I 'R) loss. .
(j) Maximum flux density in th e co re leg.
(k) Major insulation clearances (intcrwinuing and windings 10 core in~
su lation).
the designer (I) . Minor insulation thi ck ness (paper cove rin g on the conduct o r. radia l duct
To minimi se widths in the wind in gs, ctc.). I
permissible (m) Type of tap-chan ge gear and position of th e tapping winding.
for the size and (n) Type of materia l fo r the tank (steel or aluminium).
'101 '.1, thcrr.:forc .. have When an ortler is placed the impedance and losses become guaralllc.:.. : d \:dul.!s,
II J the partkular anu the designer has to ensure that all the !- pecificatio ns arc ud hclI.'d 10. rile
I arriving at such a restrictions imposed by the cus tomer and his own firm's code of prrt l. : tit:c lir llit the
sci are specified by resultant size and appearance of the transformer.
1
, ""c r.;:a clant'C Slll ce
,I
'an's formcr is to be
!
t capitalised' cost 3.4 FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM i!
:
I rminimising the
: cost o f the losses. "
The designer usually selects a core size (core leg area) from a standarJ table as his
'1 !Cs has a lso been starling point. This table ca n be derived by using a compu ter programme to
t '11, since the noise ca lcubte the most economica l number of steps to employ for a given core area
fhercforc, th ere are and also to decide on the change in tire;) required, from one core to lh~ IlCXt. A
1'; ')I1 stage. str ucture of windings and instJlation is then built up by using standaru ,+e ta bles
and standard insulation clearances depending upon the tcst""oitagc COJldi iiollS.
I. Once this general arrangement has been established, then the \,uriolls 'jnhcrcnt
characteristics sllch as load loss, iron loss, impedance :lnd temperature I (se GI ll be
ca 1culateu and COIll pa rl.!u wi th the ucsirl.!u results. A process of ll10d i n(':1 tion by

,,
".

"·1"
./. '
 1 "
't. '!"
.,"
u
,.
.- ~-.-: -'
I' .,~"

I. j :1 64 MOUIiI{N POW ER mA NS I O ItMLIt 1' ltACI ICE

I ,\1 trial and error now takes place which could change the winding proporti ons or
evcn the corc ::fize. This trial and error technique is innu enced by Ih e des igner's
obtai lied. If \hc
logi~ can be i Ir
, so as to deal '..tl
expericnce and intuition to ignore thosc things which arc·ob\,iously wrong. The
design so o btained to meet the specificati on may not prove to be the most 10 be uscd ca ll :
econom ical onc, but it ca n be used as the basis for restart in g Ihe dcsign cycle. Before th' r'
A cn lllpllterdocs no', llil ve intuilion,:lnd IIH:rcfure this p~ll'I lIrthc desigll is the CO lli pictc HIe! pi
mos l di llicu lt to ovcn;oll1c. The cOInputer ca n ca lcula te the din'crcncc in sequcllCC of Ope l
magnitude of two numbers and can then give the resultant magnitudc tlntl sign, decisions, l oo·~ t
This simple test gi\'es the ,Co!l1 pu ter the poss ibility of it for m of intuition since it vcrgence 10 t ' I(

L':ln anSwe r yes or no to a'1Jarticuiar limiting co nuitio n sc\,insidc the programme, form the Illl.:dl

Experience alld Oexibility can be bu ilt into the compu ter progra mme by carefu l programmc :l1!d
thought as to the input data and the va ri ous limiting co ndit ions. Where possible con trol pi o~ j,
the des igne r should usc his experience in deciding the genera l cOllligura tioll of the utilised. Th( \·t
design and shou ld employ the compu ter as a fa st slide rule. T his philoso phy may cah.: ulate a speer
not apply in the future whe n the cost of usin g high -speed digita l compu ters The who I ,J
I
becomes a morc eco !101nical proposition. programme It
The computer is exceptiona ll y fast a nd hcnce econom ical when so l"ing rndh od Qf COIlV'
mat hcmalit.:al equat ions, whe re large iterative processcs 'He rcdu<.:cu to a and deciues v ·ll i.
min imu m. Therefore, in pu rsuinga method ofappro[lch Ihi s fn ct should be borne in the I1lf.l stl' ,J!
in milld . There arc numero us methods of approach whic h t,;ou ld be ~Id o ptcd to The task 0 1 ,1 1'
arrive a t the dcsire~ charac teristics, bu t th ey fall int o thrl!e main t,;Ht cgori cs. 1\ de, ig ner or sy
and then sc v' \ 1
(a) A systema tic Illcchunisa lio n of the norma l hand calcula tions carried o ul co m pu ler In Ju
by tl," designer.
(b) A fUIl(bmcntal mathematica l mct hod of a pproach express ing all the
dc::;ign paralileters in the form of equations.
(c) 1\ hybrid of (a) and (b). 3.5 M";TH .' (

The flrst mc th od is a very difficult anu laborious ::lpproach fro III the cO lllputer I.
progr:lIl1ll1crs' po int of view ;Ind tend s to gi ve rather large :- pccia lised pro- 3.5.1 Tile t il<
grammcs. The lack ornc xibility mcan s that mure programmes ha\'e to be wri tten For :,implicilY i
to cove r ano ther type or ra nge of design. The rac t that they arc uf a :'pccialised computer, a "" \5.
r1aIlJrC Il1l:ans that the res trict in g limits in c;idc the programme t,:all be SCI, fairly tran sformer it
clOSt'. and this tenu s to red uce computer limc. lhe high-voiLllgt
Al first sight the seco nd met hod seems to be the most logical approac h since a windings.
high deg ree of flexibility can bc achieved. It also rnlio llaliscs Ihe wh ole design The basic Il
technique and gives a c!ci.j rcr pic tu re of where experience and iu tuition arc sizeofa tra l '0
required. Unfortunately, it is virtuall y impossible to cxp r'c ~s thc whole of the quan tity symbo
design lechniq uc in the form o f equations which can be solved simultaneously. basic cquali I i
The third meth od of approach is one whieh is likely to give the best overa ll i
solut ion to the problem, since it should give a hi gh deg ree of nexibi lity. toge ther (1'01,1)
with a tendency to reduce the programrning time. It is this l11etiwc.i of a pproaeh S
which is descri bed in the foll owin g text.
There are ot her fac tors which ca n modi fy one's ideas, apurt fro m those of • Ocl.lils uft hl " .;ri
econom ics. For CXiU11ple. Olle shou ld ta ke into :It,:cou nl the type uf perSOIl who is split Ct)nccntric . wi
going to be responsible for the runnin g of tile progra mme anu vrtting the results. I riUl s(o rlll cr d C~ ' '',n

Ii ------; - .~- ---.~

"
 --,.-,-- -- --
!IUI1 ,R J'RA( , 'ICE ,f
"
USE OF 'I li E A uTO MATIC EL ECT RQNI(" D IG ITAL CO M/'UTI: R 65
: lI~gc the willding pro port ions Or , d I f th e.: p rogn.l lll n1c is wri tt ell in a f 01 1ll vi herc min or modifications in
iYJ9 is in fluc llcc..:d by the dC:; igncr's , ,,b ta,ne
•
' d 'I I I fl 'b'l' r h
1 be introdu ce caSI y, t lcn t Ie eXI I Ity 0 t e programme IS Increased '
' ,
lo&,c c '" . " '
~s \,'hich arc obviously wro ng. The to deal with no n-sta nda rd type des,gns, T he sIze a nd speed or the co mp uter
I nby not pro ve to be t I~ c most I $() 'tx:' used can a lso modify the a pp roach' co nsiderab ly,

1 • ~or restarting the design cycle,

tv De fore the co mput er program mer ca n start to co d e tIlC IO ' stru cllons,
, the
,!i'
!!re~ore this parl o r the desig n is the "'~; _ lplete method or a pproac h has fir st to be expressed in de ta il, sta ti ng the logical
. 30 calc ul:t lc th e di rrerence in
:f I,.:~ nucncc of ope rat ions to be carried out. This will certainly in volve man y logica l
: Ie resultant l11 agnitude nnd sign. ,,
J!.~ 4 i s i o n s. togcther w -i! h t IlC necessary bOUIl d ary I'Inllt
" a lJ o nS to cnsu re eo n~
bility ora fOfm of intuition since it Hrgcnce to th e desired result s, A now diagra m is dra wn which shows in pictorial
ondi tion se t inside th e programme. ror m the met hod or approach, T his comp,;ses two parts: (I) the mas ter
( omputer progra mme by "a rerul pH'Igr~lJnm~· a)ld (2) the rout ines or s llb~ routill es, The master progra mme is the
ihuling cond il ions. Where possible
.- 1.'I.) ntrOI programJl'le which t1 ctermincs how the va rious ro utines have to be
ing the ge neral configurat ion or the uti lised, T he rou tin es (sub- routines) are se l r~ l.:onla ill c d programmes which
a ~I ide rul e, This phil osophy may Glku latc:1 specific va llie, slIch as iro n loss, load loss, reactance. etc,
;i ~ h ig h ~s r"'·l.:d di git al (Olll pn ll: rs The who le tksigll procl!ss can, Iherdorc.;, he wr itt en do wl1 as it ma ster
programme with seve ral s ub~ ro u tin es, The master programme deals with the
nee cco nomh.:al wh t.: n solving met hod of converge nce, that is it takes the results rrom the va rious sub·ro utines
.i processes :.l rc rcd uc.:cd [ 0 a :I nti decides which path to l:lkc when these res ult s arc tested agai nst th e li mits scyt
approach this rac t sho uld be borne in the master progr:un mc.
w·").ch which cou ld be adopt ed to The wsk o rarriving all he overall programme can be shared by several persons.
f II into three ma in ca tego ri es. ,\ des igner or system ana lyst deals with the dra wi ng up or all the fl ow diagra ms,
:Ind th en se vera l progra mmers ca n be employed 10 tra nscri be thcse diagrams int o
mal hand calcul:l lioll s carri ed OUI
, cOlllputer langllagc.

,
(, approach ex pressin g al l the
ll ions.
3,5 I\1 ET II OO O F CALCULATION
Ii
ISapproach from the co mpu ter .,,
ive ' rat he r la rge specia lised pro- 3,5,1 The basic equa tion
r~ Jrograni mcs ha \'c to be written
r t th~lI they :l rc o f a spccial be.:d Fo r simplicity in describing the method wh ich has been ~Id o p t e.: d for using the
C~H ll p litcr.
a basic equati on is empl o yed which pe rtains to a c o rc~t y pc three-phase
the pn1gram l11c '.:an hI.: Sl.: t rairly
tra nsfurmer with tw o loaded windings per leg. (lnc the low-voltagcallu the other
the high-volt age wind in g, Any tappings are "s, umed to be in the body of the
t ; most logic:d ~l p pro a c h since a
windi ngs,
L ... rati onalises th e wh ole design
:re cxp:.: rience and intui tio n are The bas ic equat ion interrelates the major ractors which govern the shape and
i e to ex press the whole or the siLe or a tra nsrormer. Wit h the nota ti on in fig ure 3,1 a nd if we rerer to the list of
quantit y symbols and associated dimensions ~1t !h e begin nin g of this boo k, th e
e f' 3n be solved simult aneously,
basic equati on is represe nted by the ex pression. .
I is li ke ly to give the best overall
Ii - degree or flex ib ilit y, together !.~h , = 0,02007 Sbok, x ( I + 36 000 %X Sk F k',7x kll k" ) 'I' (3,1)
r It is th is method of approach s %XJku pc"jn5k.,x
:)'u:'s id eas. ;IP~H I rro rn those of
• J)c l:lils orlhe deriva tion and fu rther devel opment orthe I1lc tll()J for morc cumplex design s, such as
,( ) unt the type of person wh o is split concent ric wi ndi ngs :ln J three ]o:ld('d windings re r leg. will be described in a boo ~ on
rvgramm c and ve ttin g the results tra nsrormer design (sec chapt er 2, re ference: I),

I
. . ! ~~_~
r-,.. _ _ __ .-Y~-",~--,-.----,., :--......,..,..~_-.-
"
''I~ ;II
j, I
 .jo. . •• •• •~ I \)}.1 I.1{ :-.I I 'U\\'11{ I I{.\:,\ SI OR \ !t R PRACT ICE
66
.-
, ~I
~i I'b •
\ t
'r f- b,.- -
~'"
b, + ,. bo ' "
I
h'ol

i b, b"
, • ,
}
! .J
I
I
,,
,
"

, h,
LV
h,
IW
h.
50 5,
" . ", ~.
~ . " I

j t-
ti
t

'.
v (

Winding arrangcrncil l fl,Jr I.'nl' I r'!lISrUf'l llcr leg (for cxpla nation of ~Yll1bo l s sec
list of quantity symtX'l~ al the beginlling of this book )

6
for which equa tion 1.4 gives 4>.., allJ .\'1 = S x 10 /4.44[,1.", with S = VI x 10 •
Equa ti on 3.1 is derived fro m tht.: n:actarl CC equatio n

.. X = ._ 5 .9:S /I ~loo .\o 1' /' , 1, + /,,'<, ) (3.2)

.'~
'" 4>", x 10'(/0. + O.32(1.u I, b , +h, )}
Th t.! f;\clor 5.94 applies Ihcon':liGllIy II.) nO -CllI C L: onCL:lllric wind in gs only. but it
I may assume a slightly higher \'aJuc: ill pr:,h.:ticc ror iron-core windings depending
I, upo n the way in which the \\ inJings an.: arranged with respect LO the core.
The various C;ctors in cqua ti , :Hl ) ,1 represent the following expressions.
I., (3.3 )
k,x = (31)0'0+1>, -, , +h,s, )f..(3b o +u, +b,)
khX = {h,+OJ~lho+ b, +b,)} /h, (3.4)

(this fac tor corrects the axia l winJi n.s height to a reacti ve heigh!)
kJ, = IS, +s,kjk, )/s (3.5)

kil = I + 0.01 ('uPIl (3.6)

 . ...,.

US E OF TilE AUTOMATIC EleCTRONI C DIG ITAL C9~ 1, 67

]
and
(3.7)

where
I k, = N, s,k" l b,iI, = N ,I,k" IJ , h, " (3.8)

k, = N,s , k,, / b,iI, = N,I,k,, / J,iI ,h (3.9)

The expre ssion for the winding load loss P Cu in cquatioll

fcu :::: Pcul + PCu2 (3.1 0)

where, consid ering Ihal Ihe resislance per millimelre lenglh of e~pPcr winding
cU IH.l uclor at 75 °C is 2.14 x 10 -.5~a l n. we obt:lin f
pc", = 2.14/, N ,J,s,k" x 10 - ' (3. 11)

and . ~.

'pC"' = 2.1 'II,N ,J,s,kll kJk, xJO-' (3. 12)

with k" giw n in equat ion 3.6 and

I (3. 13)
k, = k,,/kll = (I + 0.01 %P,,)/(I -I- O.Ql %1'/1)
1II Fro m equation 3.10 with equa ti o ns 3. 11 , 3.12 and 3.5 and wilh
j I, N, = I,N , = IN
t
I
10rS)'Olbolsscc
(3. 14)

, I All the lerms on the ri ghi-hand side of equa tion 3.1 can be specified by Ihe
designer from the custom er's specification or from design experience. The valu es
S,!. %X, p c;" and bo arc readily availab le, a nd Ihe o lher ler ms ca n be obta ined
from tables based on existing design ex perience. I
" I = VI X 10 - '.
The factor k, x (see equation 3.3) usua lly lies belween 0.95 and 1.05 and is
iniliall y set at 1.0. The facto r hhX (sec equalion 3.4) usually lies between 1.0 and I.)
and is initially set at 1.0. '
(3.2)
For minimum copper mass the va lue of k'J = J, I J, sho uld be almost u,;ity;
Iherefore, it is set at L.O, unless olherwisc staled by th e designer. Equation 3. 13
dillgs on ly, bU I il shows Ihat h, = 1.0 if %P i2 =
%PiI. Therefore, h,is initiall y se t at 1.0. Thus, fro ,il
1 19Sdepending
: 0 the co re.
equalion 3.5 wilh s = 1(s, +s,) and kJ = k, = L.O, kJ., = 2.0 is obtained. I
I . The facto r hll (sec equalio n 3.6) usually lies between 1.05 and 1.20 and is
e ·prcsslons.
inilially sot at 1.1. ;1
(3.3) For th e fac lor kdsee equa l io n 3.7) an in ilial va lue can be ob tained fairly casilr

13.4)
as follows. . II
I)
(I) The ra lio kh = h, I",
usually lies betwee n 0.90 and 1.0and is inilially Sci at,
L.O. ,I

"l
(3.5) (2) The val ues of k" a nd h" in eq ua lio ns 3.8 a nd 3.9 d epe nd upon the tapp ing
range and the posi ti on of lhe tapping windings. If no tappin gs arc
(3.6)
. ,,,",,. ",," '.. - '.. • ". H ""'"..." '''''''"''. • "" ""

,j
",
 ..
', ~

l ,.
;.

i
,1
1
1
i'
68 MODERN POWE R "RAN SI·()RM ER I' RAc n CE

voltage winding for high -voltage var ia tion, then the value of kl2 depends For ;
upon where the tapping turns arc situated. lrthe tappillgs are in thc body
of the high-voltage winding, then •
k" = 1 + 0:01 x (maximum positive per cent ta ppin g) TI
and, if the tappings.farc ill a separate lay c.: r. 1111:11 rln
~s t
k" = 1 - 0.01 x (min imum negative per cent tapping) rcs tr
The refore )t follows that k" and k" can be specified initially. If the Icc
tapping& arc in a separa te layer. then the value of %X.shouid be modified
to the vaillc on the min imum tapping positio n anti eq uation 3. 12 requires 3.5.3
modification to allow for the fact that the ta ppings will be wound on a
di fferent diameter from that of the ma in winding. Ie

(3) The initial values for the windi ng space factors k, and k, (sec equations
3.8 and 3.9) can be obtained from tables fann ed from historical design
records. Therefore, the initia l va lu e for kFcnn be ca lcul ated.
Since all the terms on the right-hand side of equatio n 3.1 can be spccifit.:d, then Th
rn
<P;''', / s = (SmAro)''', / s = K (3. I 5)
I(a
where J( = canst. It follow s that the radial widths of the wind ings arc 0
b, = 2. 14S'k"k ll k;, x 104/4.44 '/' Pc ,k,K (3.16) ~n t
an d
(3.17) 3.5.4

have fix ed values independen t of co re area, for specil1ed va lues of reacr~ince and (I
copper loss, provided k J • k2 • kl } ilnd k l 2 remain co nstant wi th change in core area, ·ti
In practice it is found thal they do remain almos t constan t with cha nges in core alloe
area - AFt; therefore the window width h... is a co nstant since all the radial I"
clc,!-r<}nccs hOI' bo alld b02 arc independent of core area. in
, 1_
part \
3.5.2 C;t1culafion of bl , b21 s, II ... :uld b.... fr
lsi!
(q,ia tions 3.16 and 3.17 with equation 3.15 give the c.'pressions for b l and b,. nd
The max imum value of 8 m either is specified by the customer or is fi xed by the wind
designer. From equati on 3.15 the quantity A~th l /s is thcn.:forc also a constant. b -,
AI',' can be specified by the designer or ca n be selected by the computer from u(
standard core area tab les. Onee it has been selected, then the value of s can be or tl'
""Iculated with the expression
s = "(2b,,o + 2bo I + "0 + 1. 5b , ·1 0.5",) (3. I 8)
n ed
where 2b Fe is the maximum core-plate width of th e corc area selectcd, Since s, A Fe I e ,I
and Bm arc now kn own, "I
can be caku latcd from c4u ation 3.15. I~
The core window height is en
(3.19) techl

"

1
!
 ,-
, ,
}

,
",
.
r-'"

USE 01' 'r liE /\UTOMA riC (l1;CrlWNIC I,JlGIIAt COMI'U ITH 69
cpcnds For
. a thrcc· phasc thrcc· limbcd corc-type transformer the corc wi nd l)W width is .
I Ie body ~ (3. 20)
I ..
• ,,
'~

-,,
Thus the windin g heig hts, radial wid ths anu (;1)1'(; UilllCIlS iull s :IIC knuwn.
The maximum and minimulll practica l va lues for hi Is for varying rated power r
is stored in side the computer from previous design cxpcricnc\!. Because of
restric tion ill thl! number of core sizes. th e computcr hilS to search through to
f

".
. , ' " J ', ••

,
lIy. If the ~,dl't:1 the most econom ical 'bile. I ,
, ,
: modified f I ( ~ ......

I
I
2 ;quir~s 3.5.3 Calc'llal ioll of J , Nand n J "
)L •. d on a •~ ~'I,
~
The expressions for J, and J, arc
, lations J, = 4.4414>" Pcu x 10' 12, 14S,k ll k" (3. 21)
., r esign
J ,=kJJ , (3.22)
if ~1. then The turns N I and N 2 can bccakulatcd from the leg voltages alld the vollagc per
(115) turn VI N (sec equation 1.4). The leg voltages arc calculated from the spccir,cd line
voltages and the connections of th e windings in the usual way. Th:.: leg currents
arc obtained from tlie: lille currr.: nt s. Thcrcforc, th c winoillg cross ~,,;c t iolla l areas
(3.16) can be ca lculated from the values of J, and J l si nce a, = J , /J, ""d
0 , = J,IJ ,.

I (3.17) 3.5.4 \Vinding formation

I
!ance and At this stage the winding height, radia l width, turns, currents and turn cross-
c 'c area, sect ional area are a ll known. The problem is to fit the turns into the space
C :11 core allol':tlcd to meet the voltage, eddy l:lJrl'Cnl loss and thenHal chanll..:tcristics
he Ir:tdial required, If the original Sp<lCC factors were exac tl y righI, then the \\-'jnuillgs should
fit into the space allocated, thus giving the required valucs of ~/u ,\ amJ Pcu' This
part ofthccomput'er ~rogral11l11c is 1110st cOlllpkx, but by lIsing the \al ues kl allt..i
k2 from prev ious c.ksign experience tllc computer has :lI rcady hnHlcd outo a
feasible design. This means that the li mits or bounuary conditions inside the
, nd h,. wi nding rormation. sub routiucs can be fixod fairly closely. To slrt.:amli nc the
4

e by the
winding formation , each type of winding (hcliceJ l, disk or layer) 113 5 an indivjdu ~!1
COl)Slnnt.
sub-routine which is selected by the designer. Each of the sub-ruutines uses add-
JI'~r from routines such as the looking up and select ion of standard wires from a wire.tablc
:an be or the ca klliation of cddy current losses, which arc commo l! to all the wi nding
formation !>iub·routincs.
1(3.18) The mc th od of approach in forming the wind in g is to aSSUl1le till: height to be
fixed and then to sec what the residual diffcrel1(,c in radial width iscompMcd with
1.~.'i.Ah: the desired va llie ~VhCll the winding is cu mplctcd. ",
Fat..:h 1lI;\ J1l1 fac.: tulc r wi ll llSC difrt.:lcJlt 1l:~ hl1iq\J t.:s to f\)rl1l Illc windings; ,t' l
tltcl"l.: r\,)f\,,, till: comptl!\:!" prograllllllcs will bc d dl'crcnt. Till.: o \,I.:LIII c.: nllvclgc nn: II I
I' .'\

(3,19) techni que. howe ver. c{\lJld be used by anyone.

I
I
, ,I
·1
I
' '
.'
t

r I
,
.-~
l I,
•

'I
- ,
 , I·
,, ,
},. ;
, ,
,I I
." ~~~.;,

1. ' /, '
'

f,·t i'. J
\
, "
,
,

.-.....".:. .. -
,
I
1 70 MODERN POWER TRAN SFORMER"PRACiICE

I BCC3U ,,"C

:. 3.6 EXAMPLE
"

,, SIlPPOSC the follow ing specification is given fo r a transfurmer .

therefore

Rated power 60 MV A
NltI llbcr or p!l:lses" 3 The maxil
Freq uency 501-Iz
Voltage ratio . 132 kV to 33 kV
Connections sta r - delta li enee
P!.:fccntagc reactance IS.5 %
Load loss . 40SkW
Iron loss 46kW
I' I , ~ f
," The designer ~c1ccts the followi ng criteria.

i 1"'II!1 "
i

J(I
I' \\'inding arrangemen t low-voltage winding noarest to the core Thus

.;. " I'11,.

,f 0.2875 m'
AFc
I. 1.54 T
/J",
Frorn ( J:
lJ ,:\l
til,',i
11'~'II'
ho
1) 0 1
64mm
30 mm
, !! ' /1 02 68mm
77.S mm Bccaus,
"'I' hOI

I :!, 4 I,
' \
1102
kJ
77.Smm
1
l ( hence
•• ~Io PII 13 %
, .,. i
P
/ U I2 13 %
0.36
"I,. k,
k, 0.36
., 'h I
Siroy loss ISkW
II.!
, i,!L! The cOlllpull:r would normally set
: k,-, - kH = k, = k, = k" = k" =I =2
,,
k" From C 13

Thncfore. 'II = k" = 1.13

I Pc, = (40S - 15)/3 = 130kW lienee
S = 60/3 = 20MVA
kF = Ilk, + Il k, = 5.SS
Suth litul ion in equa tion 3.1 gIves

"'<P~.Is = 0.116
At th ; 1.
Sub,tilu li on in equa tion 3.16 and 3.17 gives
$I" rt. TI,e r
bl = b1 ;: 72 111 III II1c.:l ti ll' I-d

I \ ~ I-
 ,.,1
•

-'.l..._~ __ • _
--_..
USE OF TilE AUTOMATIC 13LECI RON te DIG I fAL CO~II'II I rR 71

Because
¢m = A",B", = 0.44275 Wb

"

1
/', /s = 0.592
'"

~" "
The maximum plate width, for the co re selected is GGO 1111T1. Frol11 equa tion 3. 18
s =~ ,,(6GO + 60 + 64 + 1O~ + 36) = 2920 n1m
Iknee
", = 0.592 x 2920 = 1730 mm
II. = 1730+ 155 = 188501m
bw = 144+ 144+ 128 +60+ 68 = 54411\1n
;: core
f Thlls

I From equation 3.21

J, = 4.54 A mm - 2

Because
I, = 20000 000/33000 = 606 A

hence
n, = 606/4.54 = t:\ 3.R ,nm - 2
J, = 4.54 A 111111 ' I
"
I, = 20000000 x 3' /2/ 132000 = 262. 51'.
s, = 262.5/4.54 = 58 111m'
From cLj,ll:ltion L '
V/ N = 4.44 x 50 x 0.44275 = 98.3 V turn -,

Hence
N, = 33000/98.3 = 336turns
N, = 132000/98.3 x 3'12 = 775 turns
I
,
·1 "
i
A check on the calculations can be made by evaluating "} freJJ1 equation 3.8. \.:
k , = 336 x 606/ 4.54 x 1730 x 72 = lU6
II::. ,

.
I
At thi s ~I:lgc all lhc par~\lllc t crs arc kn ow n to ellable the winding form;ltioll to
SI:trt. The problem is to Jcsignlhc windings in the height allJ wi,h h calculated 10
meet the eddy cu rrent loss. \'o!tage and thermal charactcri .. ti\.s. If the windings ;

~--------- ~- - ----:-~--,-.---.-. - --...........---~-....--,.....- -

, ., 'I.
,
 , -" ~
\, ".
"

r---
,1,~~ , ~ "'t
..... --.~
"
___._-,,_
... .. .....
..
'..; ,
:"" . ;:.,. ...... ~:..... .. -,-.--:..-.~ ........:. ,. ' . ~i

72 MODERN POWER I Rt.' NS FOR M ER rR ACTICE

assu med t
c~ n be formed in ·the space "IIoca ted, this mea ns tha t the choice of winding space tllIl O U 111 or U
fac tors was correct, and inhel cll tly the rcacta Ilce and load loss will also be correct. upon the r -'
The iron loss c..'Hl be c:dculall,:d alld checked rt gainst thc spceilk d valuc. Cha nges The ro ll
ill A Fe a nd nn; c:\Ti no w be !\lade ir t ll(f Ctl kul a tcd value exceeds the spccilicd value.
( I) 1\1' 1'

3,7 GENERAL Fl.OW D1 AClt AM t il

Ii (2) C
3.7.1 Ge neral ' ,, '
(3) Nu
The now dia g~a ll1' (figure 3.2) shows the co nve rgence technique used to arrive at
(4) N '"
the internal des'ign of the tJ'n nsfollllcr usi ng a medium-range co mp uter. It is
15) r
(6) Lv\
(7) Lov
(8) U
(9) M
PO) Mill
( II ) N I
( 12) M :
( 13) M ill
, I r-_ _--LF",,,21,1-'.1,11 'Ec!!R",OU",G",H_-, ( 14) Nun
I ."~ ( 15) T)
( 16) T)I"
( 17) T)'J'l
(1 8) '1')
.w r NL[R~(, AnD I 10 °/oLCOUNf[~ _ _ _ _ . ( 19) ~f
(20) Max
(2 1) M ''''
(22) M
(23) Rail'
(24) "1'1'1'
111('
(25) Ap, :
rn Ci\S
IE,I IF Aft FIXED YES' j R[ m (26) M, I
INO (27) M:
rEST hre COUNTER SET (28) Maxi
l-.l'-O} SET R[DUCE Aft (29) f\hl' ;
,~~~~~II~~R~[~AS~[~~~
I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~ (30) T) ,
(3 1) COlt;
(32) Cun:
iJ3) P CI
(34) Lo:
(.15 ) Typo
,.
j ,.,
(36 ) fb e I
(37) Il"
1\ Ficurc 3.2 General now diagram (for cxplan:H1ol1 of sub-rolllnv."'> R, ~I.· e lext)
I,
j

.- ........... ..-~.- .......-- ---- ,-----_.-

. ~ .-.- - ~,-- --....-- ~
,.--_.-
I .. ,' • •
 I
'" ¥ ~IJ' ' '.t;.~
;i',,, '~I
, " ,n\"0, .", 0

~J\~ I' , (I
\, ,~,
~;'t ,
"
"r
,. .' ;.

~-
fI!, ~~

,
'.
"
•
..... t ~.
.. ,' . ~.' (. . ~
:\'

• -~ ... -~j,;,,; ....... ,

1.1"
~

,
,I
_..... ....
.,
__
. . "
•
~:.,,'1

,
-'
.~
"
r, ' , f .-
_Ji.!~_..
' I,
..~:.[.:
,
"

USIl OF 'I liE AUTOMATIC ELECTltON IC DIG ITAL COM I' U I LR 73

:ts~UI1lL.:d
that only one programme is compu{!,,;d ill a lime. Thcn.: ro rc a <..'crlain
, inciing space
amoun t o f dcsignc f' interfere nce to modify the input data is allo\\cd, depending
ill~O be correct.
upon the results that arc calculated.
value, ChanEes Tile full owing inronnalion is stat t.:d on the input dat a sh~L't ror th e co mpulc.:r.
cified value. :,
( I) Arrangement of the windings with respec t to Ihe ,'ore leg, including
tapping windings,
(:!) Co ntinu ous ll1:lxiU111111 ra ti ng of the trilllsformer.
(3) Number o f ph"ses:

I
•
ied to arrive at (4) Number or core logs with windings,
, puler. It is (5) Frequency,
fll) l.ow- :1111..1 high-vo ltage linc \'o ll agl:s,
I, (7) I l\\\'- and hi g h -vo ll:l g~ wimjing CU IlIl CL' liollS.
(R) Unloaded tert iary winding rating, ir any,
(9) Maximu m percentage low-vo ltage tapping, if any,
( 10) Minimulll percentage low- voltage t:lpping. if nny,
(J I) NUlllber o f low-vultage lappi llg steps, i f any.
(12) Maximum percenlage hig h-voltage lapping, ir any,
113) ~Iinimum percentage high-voltage lapping, if any,
(14) Number or high-voltage tapping sleps, if :.I ny,
115) Type o f low-vo llage wind ing, "

(16) Type o r high-voltage winding,

(17) Type or low-voltage winding conductor,
IGENl
(IT (18) Type of high-vo!t :lgc windin g
(19) Maxi mulll pcrc::cn tagc low-volt:'lgc winuing eddy
COIlt!m:IO f .
t.: U II\.'1l1 los$. "
!
(10)
(2l)
Max im um percen ta ge high-voltage wilH..ling eddy CllI'Il,.'ll t loss.
Maximum low-voltage currt!llt density.
I.
"1i1~illl!llJ1 hit!lt -\'l) ltt11.!c l' lIrH.' 1I1 dCII:-ity.
'~' lIio
01 . :urrc!!t lh:n sitks (high-\'o!tagc / low-\,ultagc).
! 1~ ·1J ,\ppro:\ im .ltc low-voltage windillg IClllpaatun: Ii ... c by resistance
InCilsun,:: [11 \! llt above the mean oi l tCll1pc r':.tltJrc.

I
(~5) AprH'o.xim<t lc high-vo ltage winding tCl11p!..:J':lluI'C ri se by rcsistance
Ill CJsurcmcn t <l bovc the mean oi l tcmpcrillu re.
f16} Max imum temperature ri sc by resistance Il1C~I S tlrCIlll!l1l,
r (17) Max imum temperature ri se of the oi l.
(28) Maximum core height.
(29) Ma ximum core leg fiux density,
(30) Type 'of core and malerial.
(3 1) Core leg area, if selec ted by th e dc~ igllcr; otherwise !old at 1ero.
(1) ("ore loss, if know n; otherwi se sci al 1(,1'0.
(3.1) Pacen tage rCaCI31H..:C at co nt inuous maxilllum r:lling.
(3-1) Load loss at continuous maximum rating.
(,5 ) Type of cool ing.
I}(') Radia l dist:lllec be tween the low- and high-\,o!t;t gc windin gs.
(37) J3rc:lk dO\\ n insul::J.tion levcl o f low-voltage willding.
k . ..cc tt xt)

r
. "
 ,,
,,'t
." " ,

j
r 74
(38)
(39)
(40)
MOIJI!RN POWhH. 'IRANSI O I'. MI'H I'f{J\CI II I:

Breakdown insula tion level or high.voltngc. Wllhill1g.

COS I of load loss pcr kilowall , if known: ollie,,';'" lero.
Cosl of iron loss pcr kil owatt, if known: olhel'wis" 'era.
3.7.5
sub-rouli
Sui

3.7.2 Sub-rouline I (IH)

T his is III
The lir~t step is to rC:ld, scale and :-.IL:IIC the input dala, t:k;lring:l1l th c Idc\'allt va lueS aa
wnrJ..ing and Oll IPll,t, ,locatio ns :dlt)c.~llcli to the prngrilJlW IC, Tlw:-.c data ;IIC also ~lIbscqn l' 1

l:1l~' c kcd rOf valiLlity by tcsting the IIldlg lliludcs of th e- llulJl" L:r~ \\ itll respect to nne (R17).
unother. This eliminates some errors which cou ld occur 011 the input data. When
nil the da ta ha ve been p rocessed a nd stored, the vari oLl~ sub- routines to bc lIsed 3.7,6 ~-)u
:uc now sc l('c lcti and stored ill th e applopri: ll c I f)C:lljl)lI~ hy \ral1sfl:lring them
, 't ram a m~lglll:lit,; tape libra ry of design sub-ro litillL:s 10 the intel'llal computer Sub- rollii
,I store.
,!
I ,I 3.7.3 Sub-rouline 2(R2) and sub-I
,
,j
! S'uborou lille 2 (R2) is used 10 cakulale
/1 ' I;!. V, and 1'1 (a)
I .:
I. .. l From the ratet! po.wcr. the number or legs \vound Hllti tile li ne vo ltages and II
winding connect ions. the leg currents and voltages t::tll now he calculated. This
11 routine is not included in the major i.:Olln;rgcncc toop si lll:L' the..: \'alucs cakl.l latcd (b)
"
arc independent or slIch quantities as l'llre si~e. nux tll.'IL.; II)' am] losses, r
.J
• 3.7.4 Sub-rouline 3(R3) (e)

,
II
,1 i S uh·routinc 3 (R3J is used 10 i.::l1clIl:l\e

1I "d' "II' "I~'

kll' kt:' kJ "
I! SC I
"
" ,
1, iI k ~,\ Tbe st.'
I•
"I All the const:1n ts pertaining to the type or d\!sign uJltkr ill\cstigatioll arc sct allhis
(a) ~
stage. They arc obtained rrol1l tables storcu imide the t:ompulcr or :Irc l)(.!t as pure
(b)
num bers, Variou:; coun ters arc abo ~t:: 1 a~ con tr ob to 11](; rnilslc.:r prograllllllc, For (
(e)
example. counters me sct \\ 11Ich ll'w l the number vi ilc.!rations in c:ldl (
I! (<1)
cOI1 \'crgc llcc loop. Ir dilliclIlty ari"cs ill cVIl\'crgillg. LI\\!J1g to 'hunting' ror a (
(e)
solu tion, a warning is printed oul so tllatlhe designer (.'~1I1 modify the inpllt data
',:~
~
.!
.:
•

orcan se t \l han d'\witc h on the COlllputl.!1 The sctl ing ol"h;llIdswite!lcs prnduees a
(f)
(g)
(
(
' print-i,lut bf th e major para mete l's gi\ ill!.,! Ihe designer Ihl! 11I.:(.'1.::..sal'), ill f'OIll1ilt ion
." I (h)
to decide upon \\'hidl (.'oursc orae liun hI take. rhis onl)' 11,·tllr" when the desigller
1
ha . . a .. kL'd the ClHlll11ller to fOJ IIllllate:t IK'L'lllial t ~ pc (If d L' ,i ~ n where tht.· \;t! iOlls l
(i)
, I 1 Ii III i Il il t! r:{ d~) 1 s afC being CIlt.:~HI nlereu ill t.' It.'il ~ '(lI\\l'1 ft.'lll C 11111 p. hll' l"ClilIplc, if
!nn illl/\ hISS and loal1loss lire I'cqu ircu \\ith l1irh Illlpcd:IJll'e, thl:11 t.. JJ y t:urrc nt Th" 1'1
Ill~S diflicuhics wi ll ari~c, anu the ucsign itselr Illiglll he irilj'lls .. iblc 10 adlic.:vc, the mil,j

, \
----
"
- -,."" ;--' . - -. " -- - - ----
 "'i:', il
.,
, f -
I"
'.; ~~ .. ,." I: <,
t "
.~'\ , ,
, ' ~:, l

.1_ ........... :1 ~
--
f·
•. • 1
~1 __ __ I
r ,.
\
,,
\
USE OF THE AU rOMATIC EU ,;CTRONIC nl C ITAl COMPU fiR 75 ,.
I'

3,7.5 :.;,,~ ·lo'lIil1e ~ (R4)

,Sub-routil1e 4 (1\4) is .used to calculate
kF' ~);nll , Is, b" 02 and b.
Th is is 1110.: IIr..;! routine to be lIsed in side the major CO l1\'CI'Gt,;l1CC loop. All the
(he reI '\ ;l nt .'va lul's arc initially calculated fr olll the1constants sc t ill sub-rouline 3 (l{3), but
C data arc also .,:sub S~·{PIClltly they arc derived from the values ca lculated in formillg the des ign
to one
·~.spcc t (R I 7).
dll(~1. \Vhl.:ll
tiles to be usc,:d "-
.1.7/, :. ', ,., ., "·s 5 "nd 6 IRS "lid R6)
""lifcrring thl!m
II computer ·Sub'rouli",.·.1 IllS) is used 10 calculale

nnJ , 1Ib-I<)u liIlC 6 (1\6) is .used to selcct

AFc

I la) If thl: core kg area. has been fix ct.! diller by the L!(,: ""glla or by the
l',H ll pu[Cr in the process of fOfming the design, then the L'Oll1plltC'r uocs
. wottages and
nul ha\'e to se lect un add-routine which c:.Ilculate:) th e core arca fo r
.lieul'lied. This
minimum cost of II clive materia ls.
s calculaled
:iscs.
Ib) I r A F' is n~cd. then B mis rounded 0 rr so I hil I I he lurn<; fa I io 011 alit:.! ppi ns
fH)siliorls is with in tolerance, and the values N \_ N ,. hi' IJ antl.\ arc
- . 1i
·1
. .·!lllula led.
Ie) If " ~I (.is 1,1(11 fix ed. thclllhc Ct'rnplltl'r ;1l1j(111I:\[ic:tlly !'n ~':, tlHOllgh the
optlJ!H:-.atlOI1 routine. This is d . .mc by !'idCClill g the IlliI Ih':!'il pl:lrlh.:al
\':tluc of A frolll tables of the ITIaXi1l1l1l11 and minimulIl \'alucs of hd~
fc Ii ,
•
iI
ar:!jIlS \ S stored in the computer from hi~lorical <.k"l!!fl rCI".'{lrd 5. II is
ill1lhHIa 11 ( 10 note I hal the COIll pliler In lI:-.t d i rrc/(.:n t ia I c h:! \\ I.!cn II f .: Ii \t:d
:1I111 Il le ~clcc ted. This is done by counters st.: t ill the prugrafllIlH.:. i

The Sl.: q '.fI.:IH:e of calculation in the oplimisntion rOll tine is the following.
rc sct at thi!; •
Me sct as pure In)
Ib)
Sekcl. f ",.
R, I1 11J ofT 8m .
II',.1
C''-'r:,m.me. For 1I
of In each (c) Cdeliiale -', " , and II •. I) ,
1Jl1 Iii ng ,for a (d) C.l!..:ulate the core mass, since Arc. Ir" and b... arc knowll. It , "
Ihe inpul data (e) CU!cu!J.h': the core cost of active materials. ,t •
• produces a (1') Ca'h.:;lIlatc winding cu rrent densities . Ir
, .nforll13tion (g) C:dclJlatc walts per ki logram fronl current den sities.
(11) C,'k:Uf.:il.: willding material mass from winding InssC'1\ and \\<.IlI!\ per
I
.!ll lhL: designer
tht: va rio us "dnel., Ill ,
. example, if Ii) Cdcld.llc windillg Illaterial cost. ,I'
)'

" eddy current Tilt..: pr ~I'.: ~S:-; is r('pea led by selec ting each larger ~wlldar<.l C(He area in lurJl until
. ,~ to :1chiL'VC.
th~ 11l:l1 illllJ:ll c..:ost condition is achieved.

0'
I
- -_.-- r, ; I '

·0

"
 j"
l
,I " •I
~ Ii.
;,
I"
,/
·c .' ' I,
~- . -
,
: t-
.:-------'-
~

,1! ~--. 76 MODI:.RN POWER TKI\NSfORMER PRA CTICE

j -, If the Capi talised cost of the losses is st ipulated, tl;en the cost of the losses can This"
i, form t~I'"
also be calcu lated and added to the ac tive material cos: since tlH': loa d loss is
known and since the iron loss can be quick ly obtainc~ jf.wc know thl.! iron mass winding:
and the watts per kilogram al ~ lhc' c urr c nt value of corr nux den sity . design
•
,I design
The opti misation routine ca n also be used for obtainir)g the minimum mass or
\ , '1 ' when th
minimum volume des ign, which is somet imes of more ilnporl a ncc with ve ry large
J
II ,I.I I,
power transror mers.. . i' roulin ' •
If t be core labotii ~ost is stored in the compute~' an ' Of a fUllction of how the the de
t! l~ ! winding la bour cos t varies wit h turns is stored, then til e major labour costs can At til
! ;. also be added to the above material va lues to give a better choice or
CO fC size. fOrl.nati!

,"
I It must be po inted ou t that b. . is onty a constant incl cpcmh.:nt or
core area '. assun'
• providc.:d that the winding radial depths remain constant as .111! \': lril's. Over a speciL-.
hi!
.' sma ll cha nge lhc wind illg space ractors ca n bc ass uilled tu n.:main (,;~\n s tan t since
the winding current densities do not vary grea tly, If, howcver. the co re size is
with (.;0'
ma xir
cll:rngcd ovcr a wide; rangc, then, as the core size incrca1)cs, the current dens ity calcul
increases for a fixed I O~ld loss, allo thercfo lc the winding ~pacc fact('lfs tend to wind in}
boJcolllc smaller. d ucts ",
From equat ion 3. I, as the space faclors decrease, kF incrcascs, alld If),~\h r Is also WI
,, increases sli ghtly. to sckc
From equation 3,1 6, the radial widths of the winding vary illversely as wire sp'
, >

kr ([>;\h r Is; thererore, as kr decrcascs, hI increases but at a slo wer rqtc thi.ln the sc1cc'
change in k" losl)c
Ilo\\'c\'cr, with high-\'ol tagc trallsfon'l1crs where bo o "01 HnL! bUl aI'\! quite progm
large, b . . Ciln be asslimed to be consta nt as AI e changes fur a fi xcd lu;!tI loss rind dept'
reactance. parti
The com puter docs no t sct the core area as Dcing fi xed in this nllttil1c ~il1ce bound
,, millor modifications to the va ri ous par'llllc(Cl:> may chilnge the i.I IlC ~1· 1c...:(ed cann"t
during· the nex t iterat ion. in til
I'
, ',
'\
,I ' '
3,7.7 Sub-routine 7 t1l7)
" _
d; Ii Sub·routine 7 (R7) is used 10 calculate
3.7.9

I"
i. J and "l Sub·"
i l • )2. fl l • Q 2

"
l I: The va lues cnlculatcu ill this routine arc derived from the equati uns 1'''JI' curr\!n!

l' ',I ' density. As the leg currents have been calculated in 1l2. the windinh co nductor
cross·sectional area ca n be derived, A co unter is tested to see whether R7 has been
Their
is witl
~\~ ~
• rJ 1i used for the first time, If so, the master programme directs the co""iuICf to R17. Rl~
The reason for thi s is to modify the constan ts which were set in R3 ~.s o that they
'., . ~ I will be more exact before starting to form the windings.
win"..
I

.,j!
:,1
I ,! 3.7,
I 1:
., : 3.7,8 Sn h· roul illc I' (Ra)
Sub·rout inc 8(R8) is used to calculate
SlIh · r

"

\,
__ -.:;......,...,_~·~T~ .. _ _
1 ~ ~ J, ... ~, r 1
• , '~."
 '.• '1 ,If.. .~
." , ...., .' f· ' Y";,I ;
,
~
n, •
I

,,:. " . . .~

. A,"f'k·(I.
I'

- ..-,-- "_~ ~~_,:~: /;::i' .~~_~~~~. ,~ ; <-A~~':'_ , ___

,
..
" "'~'~,i~

_
~
;
;
.
J
~

I.
USE OF Til E AUTOMAl l C E L [c"~R ON I C UIGI fA L CQ ~IP UI I ,R 77

f tile losses can

he load loss is
ll.:
s .. y.
i ro n mass

li m!J Ill mass or

I' h ve ry large
I
"
T his rou tine ca ll be in two fo rms; (I ) either a simplified rout ine which docs not
form the wind ings in detail or (2) a complex and detailed rOll ti ne for fo rming the
willdi ngs compleldy. Thc choice o f rOllt in e to be selected is decided by the
uL'5igl1l!r o n the input d~l l a shect. TrlC si mplil kd forma tio n is lI ~cd when the
designer wa nts to in vestigate th e change o f var ious paramcte rs on a design and
whtn the rcsults required need no t necessar ily be very :leCllm te. T he cOlllplex
I
rtHllinc !:1 kcs lip mos t OfU.lctO r11 p ut cr ti mc si nce it is in th is rOlltillc whcre mos t o f 'I
on of how the the ocsi~ 1l l og i ~ is rcqui lcd.
J - If c,,- ,sts ca n I\ { this :- Iagc all the necessa ry in format ion is known to enablc a wind ing
( d' ~~~ rc size. for ma tio n to co ml11ence, T he winding heights a re known , alld the initial ,
I u f core nrea ass l!l l1j1 ti() 11 i!i Iha t 110 r: td ial coolin g d uc ls wi ll be n;qui lcd unless othe rwise f ., ....
v~r j cs . O ver a specified owing 10 volta ge reaSOns. The who le of Ihe wi nding height is now til led .ti;
C lsla nt since \\'ith c.:o \ crt. : d ", inding conducto r, ensuring tlta l the strand sizes selccted mect the
h . core size is ma.\ im U'll eddy current loss co nd itions set. The thermal gradien t is now
ca li.:u l;lkd. If th is is too high, thc n radial ducts a rc int roduce d, Icaving less
I if:•
, .,
• •
J ITcnt dl!ns ily
I ~ r s tenil to
t wind il1LL height in 'which to fit thecond llctor. This pror.: css is repeated unti l all the f
i. ".,
d uelS for Ihermul and voltage reasons have bee n inlroduced .

I
When selecti ng strands from the standa rd wire table, the cOI"p uler always Iries ;.
to se kcl the largest possible conducto r size since thi s inh erently gives the highesl
IVf! rscij' as wire space factor .and hence th c hig hest win ding spac.:e fac tor. II is o lll y fon.:cd into
r:! lc than the
!
select ing smaller wire si7cs a nd morc strands by the fac t thil t the eddy current
Ins:-c", :I rc 10 0 high. All the norl11 ~1 1 d ~s i g n limit ing condit ions ;,rc bui lt in to t he
."
r ! a rc qui te pn)gra 111 1l1C. for cxa mp le t hc maxi I11 Um a nO mill illlU III ra tillS l,f t IIC ax ia t 10 rad ia t
luad loss a nd de pths o f the \v ire strands and the maximum 11umbcr of stra nds in parallel for a
par licuh r former size. Beca use there arc seve ra l mecha nica l as well as electrical
,
boun dar y l"OIH.l i ti ol1 s, \\·:trn ing pri nt-out s :lrc given whell a v,. inding formati on
I, 'I
IIt ine since ,h
~a n no t be ;l1,:hi cVL'd illsiol.: llt c Iim ilatio ns SI.: t. The \V i lit.! illg Ih: igh t s ha ve bcc n (hell
I. Ie sc lc!..: tccJ ,.'
in this rout i ne; there fore, if the windin gs ca nn ot be formed in the space allocated, I'
:.Ii;
\II"" Cl Ivi will ap pear in the rad~J I depths o r the windi ngs,

3.7.9 Sub·roul iOe 9 (1( 9 )

"t om,,",
. 'condllclor
I .7 has been
piller 10 R 17.
Sub· roul ine 9 (1(9) is used to calcula te

The ill e~ n turns arc formed, and the pe rcentage reacta nce is cait'u laled . I f the %X
is with in to lcrance, tlten the compu ter proceeds to RIO; otherwise it is diverted to
R I~ " f7:d ll1 n:at this stagc iscau seu bY\';lriillioll in winding spacc fa r.: tors :llld hcnce
I ) tha t they \\in dinc r~I!J ia l Jq) ths ro rmed as aga insl Ihosc ;"t l1ot.:atcd in R4.

3.7.10 S"b·rouli" e 10 (RIO)

j
. ;

Su h· rOl:tine III (R 10) is used to calcu late

I ~ ".'"

- --- _._----..--- - .... ~----

<
... -- ....... I
, ,
<. ~

I
I
I
Ii
~ I I 78
~ ! ,
I If Pc, is less Ihulllhc posilive lok rance, Ih ecOlllp~ler plocceds 10 R II: olherwise The Ii
" I , i it isJivcrtcd tq R I 5. failure is i.:auscd for the same reasons as given ill R9. together va I tiCS
,11 \\ ith t he fact t l1at t he values 0 f (1 \ ~Hl(J (I:!. formed j 11 RS will not be exactly tilt.: ~a me Olh" '(
, ", ;)S those c.ilc~llat cd in R 7 bCF:ltJs~ the wi re table has discrete steps. im.: r '
I
ate 11.:L
,
i I 3.7.11 Sub-'!?Ulinc 11 (H II) Cllf! CIl
(ailt ,
,
.Ii
" I

,
I,
Su b-rout im' 11 (RIl) i.'> u:-.cd 10 c:dl.:l d:tl ~_
IIIFc alltl liFe
( 1)

,
,j
'r ile core mass I1IFc for the t)PC ofc(1/"(; (.:onstrllctioll I("quin:d, (Ogctht.:f wit h the
"I !.
I I
I
<.:Ol'e dimc.nsiolls, arc L';lIcubll:tl. The 1.)~eralll·t)l'C hcigh ! hl-c is tested ;q.;:tinst the
maximum permissible for trnnsport purposes. Ir "Fe is accepta ble. the t:Olllputcr J (2)

proceeds 10 R12; oth e(wise it tes ts to sec 'whether Afc is flxeu. If SO, it igllOfl!S the
ii' height restriction, If AFc is not fix ed, the next lorger L"on.: is sclecteu, amJ a l"OUIIler
is set. T he rcason for setting a ~oulltcr is to ensure Ihnt the co mput er realises that 3.7.14
'., ,.
.. 'j:
AFc h:is been increased owing tO:1 hl:ight n.:!'> lrictioll ri!il nl ~ w!lI': JI It5 is IIsl,.:d ;I ga in,
J'h is CO U! llt..:r is al ~() du.:l'kcd i[ f:ti lurc l}Cl.'urs ill H 12.
Sid ,
I
'.' ..

r
,I
j
I
"
3.7.12 Sub-rouline 12 (ll Jl)
Sub- roliline 12 (IU 2) is lI sed 10 ",tlculatc
Tit.
d(,~' 11
J SlltlllL
!' PII"" ':

.. Pre '

iii'. I From cur\'es (elnting flu,\ \k n~it)' to th e watts pCI' l \ ih.)gr~tll1 [or clcctri<::al core
sleel. stored in side the <':\)l1lrlll(!,..~ r, the spcci fk walts j)l;r kilogram can be ca1cubtcd
cu :-.
PCI 1111
~
I

I:
1
for 1he gradc 0 [<.:Of'l: inJ!l !'> L' 1c1:l<.:d. TIH..:rc ;11 C t\\"o Ilwli wds () f ca !t'll b 1io 11. The n1"51
is to store an equation ill I~nn.s of nu,'( <.kflsi ly B", so lila l Pre C;1I1 be (.:ak:u la tcu,
high
10;\ I.

,I once Bm is fixed. The sccon'd mdhoLi is to store the p, c Ht liXt'd inl L'rv:rl s o f 11m and
3.'1.15
!I then 10 usc linear interpolalinn to select thc-<.:orrccl vallie for the givl.!l1 alii'
,j '[ The COf'e huilding r:l t:tllr is \, ht;,illL'd rrl11ll t:,hks rc!;l!ing the hlliJding f;lCtor 10
corC sizt'anu nux density. ril L' ilullluss 1\0: Gin now be c;rk u1aIL'U by Illldtiplying
C"
n.:;r l.ll~
11

.Ij the iron mass by the waU:-; pt: r kilogram nnd the builuing fal:tl)r. If the spt:ciflt:d pi i nl ··

.J.. iron loss value is set to ;lelO in the inrut data or if th\! iron loss is kss tha n the (," -(

maximum tolerant-C, I hCIl .1 he L'~ 'mpulL'r pro cccus to It 1.1. 1ft he iron loss is (00 en fl
).j high, then a check is made Ito SCI.! whe ther Ah - has bC\':11 fixed, If so. Bill is reduced, rcqUI(
and the computer procc cd~ to H 15. If A h: is not fixed. then the height restriction
I .. ;, counter is tes ted, If this CO'Ulllcr is sct,then the COl11rHltl~ r proceeds as if A/-t" h:ld 3.~ .. 6
I' UI,;I.!I1 set: olhl.!rwisl.! till.! Il~,\t Slll;tlkl' Co.J fC siJ'e is sL·kctl:d.
AJl l,h
I
' .j' h,' b,
I'
J_ 1 \ 7
I
T

--"i"r'"" -
 \
,'
'.

-- ~ --
J
I
US!! ( IF '1IlE AU I O M/I,TIC HEC'r RO N IC DICITAL ('01>11'1. II' R 79
vt hcrwisc The windi ng (>do)' currenl loss percentages arc now testcd aga ill st the ma ximum
h"logelher \ alues se l ly the designer. If Ihey nrc sma ller, then Ihe computer proceeds 10 R 14.
:lly Ihe same
I Olhcrwife Ih e only allernalive is 10 increase the in lcrwinding gap 00' Whe n bo is
increased, tile wind ing height is increased, and the radial dep ths of Ihe windings
I nrc reduced to l11uinl:1i1l thc sa me rcacuincc. Th is automat ically n.:dllccs the eddy
cu rrell t Iw'"cs sillL'e thc;y vary inversely as the sq u;lre of Ihe \\ indi ng hcig ht. 1\
f; ,illllC at 1ho.; :-;tauc ca ll onl y occur under the fol/owing L'Qntii tions.
( I) '1 hlo: 111 .1 xi 11 111111 \ ':1 lu-es i~re sct r;ir (0 0 k HV, r or 1; 11 gc pOWl" Ir:lHs rO I 1IH..:rs a
rcn:-;" Ilitblc sctting would be 20 % :.I t 75 1 C depellding upon the type of

I
wi I h I he v,.. il ~d ing cO llductor chosen by Ihe des igner. that is tr:\!Isposcd cable or
(\0 rnl:l I strano,
I dg:lill:-t the.:
II! <.:omputcr
(2) TI}I.: iliad loss is rar too luw or a l'olllbiJla tioll o r low IO:ld loss and high
I nores Ihe impeuance.
n_ a c;ountcr
re~lise" Ih 11 3.7.14 Sob roul ine 14 (R14)
I ,cd again.
Sub I'(>ut ille 14 (RI~) is used .to c" lcula te
I
J I and J 1
The L'UI rent dCIl :-iitil:s arc now tested against the l1la Xi lilUIll valucs se l by thc
dcsignt.:r (iftlh':SC III c inputted as lcro, the computer proceeds to R I R). I r they arc

I
sl11alla. then proceed to R 18; otherwise the load loss is leduced and Ihe design
pr\l . .:CS:- !'l";l.lrI L'd . This :lpprll;'H..:h is lI StU \\,1;cl1 the loa d I() ~s is 1101 spel'i fk d by the
Ct!:-tl'lIrcf hilt whcl1llu.: designCf d\!cidcs tll:rt:1 L'c ltaill l.:lI l JCllt tk' ll sity would be
::l.. lrkaJ core p("'rlllissibic in the windings. The u c ~ igncr ~ds the \';t!uc o f th c Jcla u loss on the
)e calculated high ~idc from experience. and then the comput er will <JtttoIl1Jti<:ally red uce the ,'
I ,The (irs! I~l;ld loss tl) a \:t1uc compatible with the ClIrient dcnsitics specified, r
; J iculated,
},\; 0 f Bm and
~ ' .!'n UlIl •
3.7.15 Sub·ro uline 15 :lUd 16 (IUS and lllG)
ract~.Ir to ('() \Inle r ~ ;u~ added to l'\'cry ti me lhis rou te io.; sckc:..:ILd, O ncL' tltcst.: L'Oll ntcrs h;l\'c
rnuhiplying rL';'cliL'd their ma ~i lllu m va lues, all clIlc rgt.:IlLY c~it from the IH0J.;lanllllc is lI ~ed, A
\.... spc("j(jcd print-out is gi\cll with cach iteration to show whic h sub-routine has caused thc
( ; II1:1 n the II ' f~l i111rc, It nlso shows the way in wh ich the com\:rgcllcc is proceed ing, The
il JOss IS 1(10
I (,.' lTh:rJjCIlCY ex it only occurs if thc input data is incol rC\.' 1 or the design
is rcdUl.:(.;J .
I

cs!riction
I r cquirC:llL' I1! S arc im possible to achieve,

".r ,1" had

I,
I
.1.7:16 Sub· rouline 17 (!l17)
All the constants which \\crc set in RJ arc no\\ t:;1h;u lilt eu [r.)lll (1)(.: desigll \\hid.
lw.l IJccn fa rm cu and arc used in calculating Ihe values ill R~,
,

3.7.17 Swu m" r)'

i
I
T I., i. to-o'" cc. nwrgence loop includes all tho ,ub·rou li nes 1\·1 10 R I7, with ,I
I

--.-....--..- .
 I
•J

,--,

!.
f: roo MODeRN row[J{ IIlANSI OR\l)' It I'Ri\l I Ill: l
i" 'l'ver:!! cmcrgL:ncy exits. At firs t .sight rlie ol'lkr ofcaklllatillt! Rt) tu R 1·1l'ollld he Withtl lc 'I
to Idthe t 111
n..'3 rr;lngcd withou t changing the cnd produl,.;l.
TI'c 1\'!H' lc cOl1vergence technique n.'li~s 011 the fnet tilal the Yo ind in[!s wi ll fit computer i:s ~tI
c:X;~t.:!!y into the s p:t~C allocat (;d ~))' w,illg the \\indill1,; \P:\I.:I,; r.,t.: t l} r~ (,:akl dall'l..1
a\'oid losill - ' I
during the prc\ious iteratio n, .sill·~c atlthc: other valtJl.!s such as k h. k~,. k J • etc., olh cr qllol. i(..
rC'lHlill almost cO llstant after the fini! itcrntion. Therefore. ;'111)' disacpHllcy ill the
I f. valu,;,s of k I lind "1, fron: one iteration to the nex t can only ca u~e errOl s in ~{,X or
I
I' Cu' Sill~"; ~{j'X a 110 fcu .'arc ~pcci ned \ ';I ! tiCS, i1 b imp!"'r... [i \01.: I h~1t these be C(lrrl~c t .1,9 ADV "
II
bo:.: fo rc proceeding further with the tlr..:~ i gn. ~'(lX "as chosell in prefercnce to I'('u
,
I.
bCC~HISC there is u:;ually a morc stringt:l1t InJcrancc 011 I t:i1CI" !H.:C cOl1lp<lrcu wilh

I
I
I""d loss, The order "rcoicliialing H II, I( 12, I( 13 and H t4 ic. less relevant, except
that i(' I should precede R 12. The rt.~ilS~lJl fo r det'iding upon the Jt.:scribcd Older
\"as lo calcula te the rout i nes j n onkr 0 f railu rc rat c so <IS to I cd LIce' he COllipul i [lg
The advan
S~\c r: 11
the
qll
lilost u \) 11
!J'

I
I
lime, Once Ihe coll\ergcnce loop R4 10 R 17 has been compleled, Ihen Ihe
(,;(,'illpuicr procl'cuS to RIB 10 calculale tank Illa ... st:s, oi l quantities, cIt.
C'.l~l ror
\'\)ltar,c, TI :(
\<1 ~!'"\t

'1
• iL I.: I i \ e Ill!! I ~ 11:1

i,;1Il\\! linn it '.'

,,!J COST OI'I'l:\II$A'1 (O:'l :-;im:c the I

quolatil11\ "
Jl1ethod or PI"
This process can be c:lrricd out in scver:il ways, but it i~ 11<..l·l· ...... :lI')' In eilsure tha t
i I
I~;\ch sub-rou line that is used is oricnted in stich a \\':1)' so as to produce sub-
more lime ,
bt.:~n tak el 11
llptimisation at CilCh step during compul.uion. I r the rcat..:li.IJJ.:.:C . iron loss and load
th e spcl!d :IIH
loss :' re fi:\-cd. which Ihey will br.: ~It th e or(kr stage. then tIll.: pnlbklll i~ to ~cI!.!r.;t Ihe
\\ ~'rk 1.::111 I~~
!llO;-;! ~C()llolJ1it:;j1 core sire. oncc the gClll,;r:d l.'tllllitllr~lIi01l \lr lhl.'"dcsign has bcell
I lowe\ I
sl'ttkd. This can be done as lkslTih<.'cJ in sub-sect ion J,7.6. J\ltcrnathcly, a
Ih~ specifh.di
I..'olllplctc cost programmc <:a n be \\ rittt.:11 \\ hit:h I,d.;cs into iH:COli nt the 1;lbnll r 3S
inr(lrmalilln r
f.' \\TII ~I'" 1hI..' co . . , 0 r I hI.: Ill:! Il.:I iii Is Th e: l;J t It.! Illl·tI1l1t! i-. lilt II\.' l".Il"t :-.i Il~e i I un VI s :ilJ
~lftllt: Ili ll
l'tI
till' a\I'I;I..·I\ of (he IransfOi !llcr cos t. I'll '.'llstJrl.: that I ill' IIlt ) . . 1 l't:O lllllllk:J1 ~It." it~ 11
hHlI1tiar) II
I., has heen achi.t.:\ctl. designs 0/1 it rangt,; l, f l'OIt: . . i/c~ n1lls1 bl: l·'lm pklt.'d and 1'f..l~;ll·(J.
finn l \,·I.lllll'ut
Vari:lliol1 in cost wilh ch~lngc in C(lle all.;a i:l 11.11: ·il r Ihe millimlJlll, prO\ltk:J
in:-p.::c.:titll lr
I I I hl! ra till l) f 1ht.: l 'l I PPC I to t:llJ'C' i r()!1I'(hl is Il''''s I 11:111 ~ l ~) I. \\'llI..11 I he l:t I ill is II ighcr
d. I"1 t l1a n I hi5 va Ille. the st..::icr.; 1it)1I of 1he ~t.)! t,; :J 11.',1 hl.'l.·tl ltlCS c,; I J! Ica I, ;11lt! a \\'c ll -ddi Ill'U
I'he w; II

I IC:'-'pCt:t to the
I milJimum appears. At this stage the lise nfalllllliniulll as ,.Ill .dtcrnativc 10 copper
is heavily II ·le
I must be considered.
" to it, Ihe hI.
If. aI the quota tion ~ !age, I he IOS5t:S a f'C IHII :-.p.:cified btl I va ! \I~5 i.I rc gi\ t.:n ror t iJt.:
,I C<lpilalisctl ':ost of ille lo s~cs , then Ihe problem nrachic\ing thL mosl ~c(lnol11ical op~I:l ti or!. rI
~Ch('(lli kt1 t Ii ..
" t •
dcsi~n overall becomes morc dif1iClJlt. I hb C,II1 be !'lol\cd in:J :-.imilai· \\:1)' 10 thnt
ctwironrr It.
I j,t
I de~cribc d al~o\' e by varying the IO:H.l loss lIlltil a cunCCan be dra\\ n 10 indicale the
Iflhcc n[
I' IllillinHlJ1l ~)\ . .·r;lll cosl. til Ihis l'i!SI' the dl,,'signcr \\l)ltld liSt: tht.: ',il nplificd winding
H L)f1ll<ll ion ,.;u\)· routine to narru\\ Ihe field of sl!a rch ror till: bcsI <..ksigll. Frum
cum
1.·lw b!c:J
I Ir:llt.f()rmcr th cory it i~ possible to "'l'il:ct the must cc()llulnical <.:orc area and
wcllc:lh: • te
therl. '\u li ro
\.· U (I" 'Ill d C'l1s i I)' \ 0 usc for Ihe mini III u m ('("IS! of :ll'\ i \ C Illill LI i;ds plus I hI,; cosl () f Ihe
l':lpabll.! 1'1 r
'I 'l
In ............·.... bill thi...: ~h)cs 1101 include lahtlUI l' \hIS :111\1 Ihl'l'l..fdl\· d()l'~ nnl Il l·l.:l' ...;...:tli ly
qllt>lalinll pi
L,j\'e the l1\1.;r:1I1 miuill1ulll ~t)St. II \\tlull!. IW\\ I.' \I:L Inllh 1..' thc :-,c;IIl'11 for the
To WI ;J
':"1: ,11101 to a nar rower bandwidth.
 •

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_ ._ . . . . . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ..u..;. ... - . . . - .. _ _ _
_.- - . .-:.

r~
t:S!: or 'I liE AUTOMA flC F..LECt RON IC blGI rAL cO,\tPU I FR 81

;ould be IV itl> tile " iel of alaI g" coillpu tcr it \\'ou Id be possible to sct a'range of losses and "
"

to let the computer only prillt out the overall minimulll cost dl..:sig n. If the <
$ \\'ill tit COlllfn;k r is a!~o allowed to print oul the other computed dcsi!.',n'\, this would .'
kublc.1 :1\'I,);t! h)~jng Ih~11l :llld would pl'ovidl.! additional reslii ts that t.:lll1l,! I);,: IlSl, r1l1 for •
"J. other qllot at iolls,
Kc.
jncy in tIle
~;,X
CIC .•

l)(
I
•
"
I I'
I
correct I ~
.1.9 .... DV,uHAGES AND LiMITATION OF US ING COJ\lPU'll-.ltS'

I
: u":

'nee to PCu
't,;d wi lh
L except
I! The ;!(han[a:,,:cs of llsing a digital cOlllplIIcr for tlcsign work arc r,tirly (')b\'ious,
I

'ilJcu
,
order
11jltJlillg
I
Sc\'cm l qllol;:tion designs ca n be produced fo r olle enqu iry in onl.'r 10 a rrive at
the mo!\t t.:co!wlllical solution, Trible:; call be made lip whidl sl! ~I\\' til..:: change in !
11
I i
t:o;.t for variation in loss. Icactancc :lIld nux lh.:nsity for a givc n loItcd power and Ii
I hel1 tile
;tc,i
I II
k
voltage, Thc~c l ab:C~ call be modified qu ick ly if a large change in till' cost of tile
active materLils or labour occurs, The va ria tion ill cost tenus to foll ow a smoother
curvc than it wo uld if scveml designers wcre employed toacllievc tile saIne resu lts,
since the programme follows the same technique for each uesign, Wilen several
J

• quotation designs are J'cquired in a short time, (hell the computer is the only
lure that
J_ .ICC sub~
I method 0[' providing the necessary information accura tely, It gives the designer
more time to rc~!d the specification and to ensure that aJllhc requiremen ts ha ve
ssa nd load been tab.:n in to ;;ICCOlillt. Most of the advan tages in using it comptlt~.'r arc based on
( eke! the the speed ilnd :Jccuraey of calculation which 'cnsures that a grcaICr yolume of
las been work can be uchicvcxl in a given time,
nati\cly. a I IOWCVCI\ there nrc limitations illllsing a compu ter, Tllc computel Gtll1l0t read
( • lbour as I he specifica! ion and is therefore dependent upon the de~igncr to i1\ pult lie correct
illr~lrfll:ltioll for the dcsign, The designer d(,'ddcs upon th e gCIll:rall'~111rigurali('l1l
0\'1::1"$ :111
ten) (k-;it!fl
\If til.: IraJl~rOrJlH..:r, and the l'OmpU ler obeys the llL'ccssary illstl uL'li (lll<:i inside the
IWl1lld;!l) I.:'o ndilions sc t. If the initial COIlL'l,:pt is iI1C~llIL·t:t in any way, tl1'.:11 the
~nd \,.'(htt:d.
1 )ro\'id~d
:ill,t/ I'n1Jlplll!;r df,;~igll will also have these faults, To (l\'Crl;lll:lI.,; !his, G\rcful
[,
illsl'CCli\Hl of' tilt: i11put data and the rc!'ults is lll'Ct'Ssary,
iv j:..l!it'.h~'r
dl·dc'lined Tile way in \\hil.: h the cOlllputer is u~cd <lnd its gL'()l'r;lphi\'all\,':atil>11, "ilh It,
. J <.:opp..:r
rc:-pC'cl to the dc')igl1 onice, can cause Lli~advant:.lges, For i !lst:! m:c, i1' i lH: COlli pUler
is hea\'ily loaded anu tbe designer has to wa it in:1 quelle bdorc h~ L',1I11nl\'c f\ccess
I

i\'cn for the tu it, then he feels th~lt he would be better employed carr) ing l)jll a manual
~) l}:.!ration , Tile situation could be ovcrL'ome to some c.o;;lent ir thl';' 'lcs ign olTice
loomic,d
\ )' to tilat scheduled tll\.:ir rcquirelllt.:Jlts and used the computer as an in lcgr;,\! part of their
IH..iicntc the
c:\\·ironmcnt,
t'l \\ inding lrthccolllputcr i:\ not sUmcic nlly large 10 store all the progr~lInllll'.s required to
,n, Frnm ell:tblc a c()mpk:tc th:sigll to be achieved. th en ;train the dcsiglll..:.r !ccls he may as
c ;\I'I.:~ and wdl c:iI('u!alt: b) lwnd the part done by the computer, sincf,; he wi~! ha\'f,; to finali."ic
• C~l~1 ~'f thL'
I he :1:q'lts fl)" "tls1 purposes by hand anyway, ThL'rcf'orc, the cOl1lputer should be
~I,'l' ~ ::! ! i!y ":,,,:'hk "C P~)\ idil1e :tll tht! inr()J rnatio ll n,.'lluircd 10 lill:ilisc.: !ll,' lh:~ ign rnr
l~tl"I:I:i, <!} pt:;'I',ISl'S.
I fur the
r ' ',' :".' Y,,!.._ ;1I1H lh,: to linn lise the design al tilt.: of/,k!" "liIt!C l~; J::l'~t cU lnp k'x.
 I
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I

,
,\IOOI.ItN POWER I [tANSI ORMtR I'll,\( r It . r:
iln d tan only be Ht.:hicvcd provided a hi [~h degree or ' ~1iion'a lisat jon and lhe compl lot
H:!nt.Ltr<..!i'.~~ li o n i::; built in to the programme., ll mu~ l be r~IIh"lIlbc rcd that all the empirical reI:
th::;i:":Ilt.'I''s l irnc is Iwl :ipcnl with slide rule c:ilculatiollS to J!!':disc a quotation or co:.urc tit;" 11
dt.!:-ign Jill ! tint the Illajority of his time is Spl..:'lIt in \kalill!.~ with queries fnlOl
". Jr:twir:g ofTkc, planning. wo rk s, test ami the CUsluHh.: r, ;i " we ll :1S readillg
wIiIlC Il or
Till! rc;t$OJJ J',
srh~cilkalio ns. Thl.!rdorc qwt part o f his lime in wh it:h tI L' C1II"!1u !o.!rt.:an help m ay llIajor r:l ctOi
0111) I.e 15 10 25%. , .

J.II on:
.1.10 .'.1. 1 :.:a:~A I'IVE METIIODS OF AI'I'I!O.\(,(I

I hI.! L' l l ll ipul

Th" IIJlllber of ways ill wh ieh lhed"sign problem call be ".I h"! by a compuler arc \\ here till'
\ il1ually unlimited. The method cvo hcd is dCpI.:IH.knllll't'l1 \~ h; t.: h paralllctcrs of cl!ua tion I:
J thc lk:. ign iHt' cunsitlc.:n;t11o be the mo~l important. FrCl IJllh..:.kwpoint ue~ crihcd for simp .... i
" in this <.: ha pt..:r, the fi.:ac l3JlCe has bCl!11 assllIlH.:t1 hJ lIt,; til;.: prime facto! which Cl'l1Scit l ll ;!y
) . " 1/
ddL:l'lnilll,,!s the filial physica l dimensions of the Irall Sru l 11" ' /, Tile iron (core) loss n,;:..cJ r~iJ H
11<I "i been i~ !)orc d in the bi.lsic equation and is Ircal cd :l'i a: r:l<.; itic loss, that is a
I f;!l: I()[" whic h hCl'OI1lCS a natural value om:c the n":;\L'!::I)(:l,' dW: It'ilu loss-havc been
rhcrc n

I, fixed, Ift lH..:c.:ore l o~s is~tipulalt:d as:! guaran teed \;slnl', 111, .1 1~Il 'ilns\Vcr given will
be k~:s o r t:qll:tl to th e guaran teed v:,tiuc, if we lISC ti,e.; "I,L\inHlIn vah,II': or [Jill
I,pH:~ IIOIl
n.:() 11 () 1111
Los l (If't!h
as
':

co mpatibk with the so lution, a nd tcslJng

Ira method wcrc cl11ploycd in which lile irOIl 1\1:., \\ II!.' pr imc fa ctor,lllal is a
fixed vnluc, then it is quite conceivable that lIll("\:~lnIH!lil ill tks igns could 'be
prot!ucl'd, For illsltlncc, if we ignore the iron loss gl':'r,!I:I.',', the optimum cost
,, Iksi t,,11 10 IlllT I tile l"t'al'laI1Cl' :1110 loa d lo!'s l'o ulu ~i, t' , '1 i, l 'rt \n~s 10 I'~ below lhe
,\CKNOW
t:uar;lllkl'u ",Ilue al maxilllulJ) ll'll' 'I hI,,' d C"i igJl t ~) li t' I ti'l' ·,. IJllt: n,::ILlaJl t.,:C ji lid
\.. lad loss, t<J!;L' lhcr wilh th t: g uari.llltccu ironlo$s, \\llul,; [1 ld'ort:: have 10 be 011 a
, ,, laq;e r core Si/C, ""his wu uld inci case the core IIlC1':S aile I ',\' '_Ilr..! n.:Juce th e winding
I he :1 01
Ih:r ml.,:-If '11
II

mass, ~lIHi h e l1l'<'~ this \\oultl cause dcvi:ltion rwm Ill!; upim ul1l cost solu ti on,
One or th e simpkst npprmlchcs is 10 store ill a St'l [I.:d OI Uc.:r ali the design
r..:corus or units ,vhich have been cOlllplctl!d, rh~ ," ,npulcr can usc this
inf(lrmation as a starting point to m(.:ct the rcquiiL'IJ":...:n!s ror the desiun in
qUl,~tion, This follows vcry closely the IIlcthou \\ ilk!! til": ,I ":i!1llcr employs. since
he I ms aCC¢$S to this information in thl..: dt:si!Pl ullict:. J ~l " " hl ary or inro rmation
wil! increase and be kep t up-to-date ';vith rc:.p(d III ,I,. 1 , .. illn modilic:.llions as
time paS ~,Cli . The computer prog ramme will tl!cr";/'tll-': 1:1 m, i!.t of IWO parts, The
Iii": : is to :.n rch the store to re trieve the n lTt:!>":n)~ ~,l, Ilirlg inforll1ation, The
~t:I'(,H~d 1':\ rl urthe pr~)gr;.J.lljfllc wil! Illod iry the.: \"arinu\ ph) aa l l.:h:II:1l:leri""ics. in
~Il':dl SkI'S. until the req lJired dl!sir n IS nch ic n.:o, Ihis 111 thud of apprvath call
e.xd:li l! l) h: employed in large mJllufactllrin~ 01 :;',,,i .. 'l~ n~i, whe re the lilJrary
",Il: Id h..: q uill" t.:xll'nsivc,
of ihl.! :q\pw;H".:h is to hr.: rnon:: fun ti:lll lcnwl. 111:11 i~ 11 " 1.:11 qUlItatiul1 is lu b~
II ' :d a<;:l =-q'ilratc cntity without n:lyins, lin PII.:\j' l'l ,C, d .. ~,ig n c,\pc.:lkllCC, th ell
!,i,i".1i ':!' linll:-. hips bctV.CI.:1l1h~ 1ll:ljor lk~i~11 J ',101 I~'IS must he fOllmllf
 "
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I
l..:-"[ 01 IIIE AU10:-'IAIIC Fll:CTRONIC D!(.ij f,\ 1. CO}'1l'U I PR 83 '
h111 and L:.C i..:o1npuler is givl!l1 a free hand to arriyc at tilt: reqllired clmnu.:tcristics,thcn the
that all the ~..'f1lp:rica l n.:lationsh ips must hold good even under exceptional dn.:umstanccs to

\
lalian or
·j ...·;1 rrom
,'I' J r,~ I Ita 1 [Ill' com pu lcr ca n ach icyc con VCrt~t:ncc. Sl!vcral papcrs rllllst have becn
\'. I j 1!l"1l I' ll III is :-u hjc!.:t. :111\.1 i lt v:! ri: rbly t hI.: Hll't li nd or apl'! lUl..'il In ~. hl..'t.:Jl d ifrcrcllt.
I
as "
r~a(l,n:.,; II ~ t.: n::ls01l ro r 111 is is t l!a t t.::t(':h IJ W11 Ur:II,;( 1I r ...T ha s d ilrci ~Il t \'it.:ws :1:-' 10 \\ Ita t :0 C the
1 tl help fll3.), Il':ljor f,lcwrs whidl govt..:rrl his type of tram.rorrllcr COllstl u!.:liull .

'.
) " .11 01 I I :':!l A~;pr:Crs OF THANSFOI(:\IEH DESIGN

I IllI: . .·lllllput ...·r . .'>111 hI.: us~d in n. . arl y all 111...: olher asp:;.;t" \If lI:lIlsl"tlrlllCr dc~,igll
~ lpulcr arc \\Ilcrc the funJ.c:illlclltal pril1l.:iplc is lllH.(C (" ~(o oJ ;lIHI whert' luatllL'IIl:tlit:al
~ .
1 jmclcrs of ;
...:quat ioo:; ha\c to be solvcu. In m:1l1)' caSC$ cmpirkal cqu:ltions ha\.c bt.:cn u5cli ,
1111dcs~lihcd r,n simplil.:il),. in design omce's for :1 number of years without Ihe Jt..:~iUIlc.:rs
',IAor which n' 1l ~L'i ( IH:-.!y realising 1he ir siglli Ih.:a IICC. rhe I.:l) m!,1! tt.:l I.:il ll, Ihn . .· \llJ c, hI.! \ISL'd ; IS a
I
, (core) loss rL':: . .'arL'h and development tool to solve these problems from lil:-.I pi illcipll!s.
(J~s. tha t is :\ rllcrc arc numerous ways in which the compulcr ca n bl! employed. The
:;s have b.!~n lJu.:~:tio l1 as to whethcr ~l particu l.tr routine sitt.)u ld be pr,)sntmmcd is an II
\ will
~ gi\'(;11 tC(lJlomkal one. ·'.krorc the cost oCrulllling the pfL)grall1 lllc is c:urnplltcd \\ith the ,
.luc of 8 n \ l0~( of the hand IIH"thod, the w;age shou ld be cq:liuatcd aga jJl ~ t tile cust of writing I
:11\<.1 tes ting the programmc, I
, Jr, tbat is J. I,
. c(luld be
ptirnum el'st
) 0), below the .1,('!("'o\YLEOGU\ IEN r
, .:Iancc :wd
IVe to be.: 011 a l !l~ autllt l! "j,hc:-. In l·.\jlH.::-:-; hi., Ih~IIIJ...S hI F"l'II;IIJ li FIl!'.i!l l·'·lilll~ '1lLl ilcd rllr
I.! the \\ inding p':l Jllis:-I(IJ1 to publi"h thc inrormation.
solution.
the dc"igll
~ln usc this
I ,design in
. ploys, since ,!
r inrormation
. J;!icalions as
, ) po rts. The
i
Ifmation, The !
r:!dcrj:-;Iics, in
>proaeh Ci!f1
.• ..: Ih~ library
II
lion is to h: "
;ricll~c, I hl'!1
,t bo r"und. I[
 -.. .-- --
, ;~ ,
limited t
" prod tH.:f!O S
The II
J i rcc t j('J I
high-telnIH
:I lign thl'I~1
"fi' ..:ns~\)nnor Cores IIg u rC 11
Ill;q;/lt.:t::
\! f rolli! II.
, Ill aterial
, I
I· rh l! l.:
\\ hid l I Ii,
N C""; ll!! I

incn:as!.:
l.tri~"llk 'l ",
:tI, d lh'.'1

·~ . I l., :, I)L UION

, I II';
in tilt. ~'

TI1:; Cf)r~s uf loday's power tr:l1Is for tnc.; fs sti ll r II :: IC esse ntial rl.::t lures
t AIIlI~)~,t

o r iclllc(
d\.!\ dupcU 0\ 'r ~;O years ago: they arC bui lt up frolll
iron.
L:ill Iht laminatiolls

t ' '\~I 11: 1. ..... orer the ycar~ the l11itt'.Ill.!lil.! pfuperll !,.· .. <'f thl.! il\lll ha\\.! h:cn
\.If ~o n
~ IIwh.:ri: 1
supp lk'.!
to It.·dll •
imp ron.:d \ ly l'uHsidcfnb ly, as have the ll1allllf:'ldLJ !"111L~ p n.H.cS~(!S u~cJ to r~dut.'l.:
pr~lt]w:c bl1th the basic muterial and til t: inui\'iLiuallamin:ditllls. Many t:ha ll gcs in figut t. : '
(0fi. d·...... it:.n h:'\'c :\ Iso bl'rn introduced to :tl low full ;lth !ntage to be tnkcll of t'ur r cnl ly
ili'I'r,l\ "III' His ill it tIll ql1:tiily, implt
I hi.1 h'li ',r i . . de\'oted to an ;u..:l'tHIIl! or 11(1\\ . .', trilll r' II Iller t.'{lres d\ th.:) ilfC f,
I , tt l d!)' , '.<,jlll '1\ ~)f,'l':I~iull;1i b;h,:~\\ard rliltH·c I n ~i.'l· ll.)\\" jl~l(lit.'lI l<1r jll;",lin.:s
1.2.2
dt.·\l·I"jll·d • ' ,":1 ;ll l l.'lll il lil i ... givl'1l 10 !ilr~'(>ph:\'.~ Ihr(\:,lilld, L'ort.':-> Ilf ll l ll'ifofm
('(\),s"( 'li11l1 , :-.illl\~ Ille lll:tj\lr it )' u f tr :lll~rOllll l"l S 11\1\\ l \" (\I I\:S of litis hind. 11';111 II
has h~'Cl' :
l11inlll ll 'll
core, ,'.
.1.2 ~l. " : 11.5 i 11 t(' 11:1 .\

.. ·' .2.1 ~I.:: ·it llIalerials

a rC~lIli
\lo ll a~,
mas .. " I
I)

.!

Only iron "ilinJil alloys of high purit), arc mco in r ( \',\',~r Irans forrnas at the by ft' 'I lci
rrl.':"(,lIt lij,' '. 11,'fllrc Ihe Second \VoriLi \Vm, lill..'))c a!h,)s ,',nc proJut:co in sheet II 11 prl "
fur.., (\,15 'hh.:k from ~ lab5 by SttCL'L'S' i\'c r() lIi llg:~ :1\ a lL'd hC;J t, follo\\'(.:d by m, t! , I I
;\111: !"Il ..~ " ,Illt 900 C, The ~Ilt.:c.:ts \~t:rL' fol11,:d c",;,;f bctwCl.!1l $~Ic;:ccssivc
1\'P:n!,'" , .' p 'he si tc managcabk, Sl) Ih.1t till.: fill::! H~~!:llg would II:->ually be
df'Ilt' 0:1:' ",'k uf ".-igilt sheets. '1 his I'rc,y;c\s rl.:qulll'u 11:,' silk'Hl t'(Jllkn l lu be
Il \\' I ~l

,wiltl il 1 i
pn\t'I'~
I

dU/ in '
 ... .,.

! TR "NSrOH~II:R COR~S
..85
,

I'
I 11miled to 4! %, in order 10 avoid an l",workable degree of briltleness, and it
prod uced sheets in which the eonst il uen t crysta Is were almost randomly o ri e~ t cd,
The magnetic properlies o f si ngle crys lals o f silieo n - iron vary with tllO
din.:ct ion of magncti sation. In 1935 GOS:i'J described n process of co lt! rolling 4-nd
il igh-(cmpcrat lJfe a nnC3 Iing which ind uces a subslanl ia l number of the cryst~li~ to
align Ihem selves relat ive 10 the direction of rolling, This alignme nt is sh ow~ in
figllre 4, 1(a), and the resuliing ,variation of hysteresis loss wilh the direction of
"wgne lisation is illustrated i)\'fi'gure4,I(b), The performane",a long the dic, on
of ro lling represents a co nsiderable improvclTIl!llt on th e rando mly oriented
material. '
The cold-reduction process limits the IlWXi llHl Ill si licon content to :lbo ul 3 %,
\\ hi\..'h r.liscs the S:lI Uraliol1 intensity ~Ijghlly ::tlld decreases lile resis tivity.
Nevertheless, the overa ll effect is Ihat co re operating nu x densities can be
increased and yet still give a substantial red ucti on in core loss over the non-
orienled hot·rolled material. Tile cold rolling also gives a smoot her surface fini sh
and th~rcby improves the space factor.
The improved material became available in commcrda l quan tit ies in the USA
in .he early 1940$ and in the UK about 10 years laler,
Almos t all po wer tra nsforme r cores are now c() n s t ~ uctcd from coldMfo llcd
features orienled silicon- iro", ali hough it is substant ially mo re expensive than the older
s of soft material ol'ing to the' more elabora te mel hod of manufacture, It is norma lly

, tCI been
supplied with a thickness o f 0.33 mm, bU I there is a tendency in the better grades
to retitle!! this to 0.3 or 0.28 mill in order to o ffse t ihc lower resis tivity and to
:chrlnges
ted into reduce tile tota l loss funher,
Figu re 4,2 silows the iro n losses of Ihe best grades of core material which arc
.,. !rken of clIrrent ly ~\\'ililable from UK and US sourccs, and table 4. t summarises the
improvemcnts in tOlal loss since 1890.
a, Ihey arc :1
r ~racliccs
4.2.2 Insulat ing lIl:lt (~ rials
'uciform
kind, Wilh thc reduc ti on in lhe hysteresis loss o f magnetic lI1·ttcri.lIs o\'cr the years, it
has become mo re important to ensure Ihat eddy currcn t losses arc kept to a

I
minimum by the provision o f adequate insu lat ion between th c laminations of the
core. I\s power transfo rm ers have incrcased in size, the duty imposcd on th is
inll.:rlaillinar insulat ion has becon1c morc onerous: higher voltages arc induced as
a rcsul t of larger core sections, and the areas of insulation stressed by ,lhese
voltages arc grcaler. Furthermore, Ihe limiting effect of Iransport res tricti ons on
mass and dimensions has forced designers to try and improve core space fact ors
lers at the by reducing (he insulatio n thickness. The on ly mitigating f<.Ictor has been the
I
, ,In sheet improvem"" t in su rface fini sh that J'esuli s frolll the li se o f cold-rolled core
, ',wed by material, which makes it practicable to use thinner insula ting coa tings.
successive \Vilh coldMrolled grain 0rien tcd sil icon - iron, some degrce of surface in-
4

I'"ually be sulation is provided by the applicati on o f 1l1~\gllcsia during the manufacturing

II 10 be
process. This is neccssary to avoid adjacent turns of the coi ls fusing together
d'lring the high- temperature annea l. It is usual to form a supplemcn tary coa t o f

. ,[ -,~ - -,,
M ___ _

..,.."---~..,..-,,.--~--- ------~­ ' ,

'I" . ", ~ t..
•
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UL~.<~·:·.\;'-"~-:~i~~~~ __~~~.~
! , . .- -~

. ' 86 MODERN pOWER TRANSFORMER PR ACTICE

A @O:o

I
"
c
I
rolling
[j IIJ
J't, " r-__
di reet ion 4;;:-::-:-=---------=-:..:;:~".( __-
--T--
\ I •
'j I

• I

•
54"
B

I " --- --t--- -- -O IOJ

,
I

~
II (0)

r
I ,I.{

400
I ~'

l
'I I
I ; " (: ;\'lIn: 1
I I." £i
OS,
u
I
i;(JiJ I
los} vI In
"

.o' M 300 f JirFclil)/1 C

I ' 'II '

" -E
...,
j.:..;ul:nioll
I, v>
~200
,,~
Pro \'it II
II. of the III
v>
" I 'Vi lip to a rat.
I "
I...
th e C(' ~ ' n
1 .! j
'~" 100
~
On ( Ie
", .c be requIre
and \ :Irni
wo rth ' iii

I , o
.- t:03 li n u in
, liBh<ly at
r ~si . . t ;~ I'

figure "
<"' testing 'iin
Figure 4, 1 I fystc rcsis loss in gr:lill <oricnt cd si li c('Ill -ir(lll: (.! I prdl: rrcd orien t.:IIioll or tO nla l-' af
cryq:t!s rcla tj\ e 10 the foil ing tli rc<:tiCl Il oCshcC I: (b) h) " I ~·IT .. i" I~l:-; S mcasll fed in the three
F lI I tL ~ 11 (
di rcl:lio ns relative 10 rolling din:('lio n

• I
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0',' I I f
.'
'.-
,
,,
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~

TRANSFOR1... WR CO RES' 87
.'

'1. 21-----~----:...-1
"

'"'" . '

~ O.B I----'-i--~

0.41- - - -+ --·

o
o 0 .5 1.0 1.5

I figure 4.2 Ir on l o~s o f core materia ls: curve a, ir on loss ofSilc<.: I I \lll W . ~X measured at
60 II I \)11 anncakLi !".unplcs 0.3 mn1 thick p:1rallcilO the directio n () ( rplling: curve h. iro n
loss (lr Ulli !'il 4 1 I1l cmu rcd OIl 50 Hz o n all nealed Sillllp ic s 0.28 !lltll Ihid; parallel to the
din':<.: li u ll of Illll ill1! (clln c a, by cOll rtesy of All cg hcny - LlldluOI Slt'l'l Cpl pnralion; curve
b. by cuurt esy of Steel Co mpan y o f Wale . . ,
,,,
,, ..
inslll;lI io n by tl'~ating the iro n with acid phosphat es pri ()~ In the final ann ea l.
Pn.w idcd lhal ca n; is tak e n to minimi se lht; pr oducti o n (\fbtill " dill ing th e r utting ,, • "
"
of th e lal1lina ti ons, this phosphate insulatio n alone G ill be ,};lti, f;l(tll ry for t: res I,
up 10 a rat ed va lli e o fabo llt 30 M VA . The co~tlingal so sef\'l.!S t ~) preve nt rustin g of ~
,
the co re ma terial during slor<"lge. i .•,.... .)
On core-plate fo r larger trans form ers, so me add itional insll !:J t iUIl wi ll no nlwl1y ,
be required. Traditional insulations are paper, mixtures o r\.:hin<l day and 11o ur,
and va rn is hes. The first two of the se suffer from the tli :-.. I(I\·;l lltage that a
worthwhile increase in insulation resistance is only achic\'cJ b) ::t rt.:lil tively thi ck
coa ting in excess of 0.0 125111111. Varnishes, though Ihinll~r, ar (" :t pt to so ften
2 slightly at co rc o perating tcmperatures, so that und er prcssHl c th e insulati o n
resistan ce betwee n la minati o ns is liable to fall. T hi s bcil it\i o lll' is illustrated in
fig ure 4.3, which ~ h o\\'s a typical distributi o n o f rcs istam:c \iduc~ o btained by ::~:>:
"
r ;1); t\'
.I '.
tc~ ting sin gle co re- pla tes coatcu wi th vi.lrni sh at 6 V <llId a r()Il:C u r 2.3 N on a I I·

!i
U
I Illia ti o n of
co nta ct area o f 6.45crn 2 ) that is a pressure of 3.58 kPa ) bu ilt hot and cold. 'of~
',,\',. ,.
J In the three
Furtherm ore. all o f th e Slibstnn ccs menti o ned arc nul parl icu l.ll l), hea t resistant, II ,
I
I'
,
,

I'
-r~'-:--' ---" - -... • __ ._ - __ ,,:,",W_"'_' __ --,. ......

.
~

~.
 I : '':.''1
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88 L

TA BLE 4. I
MODERN POWE R TRAN SFORM ER PRACTICE

ImprOVl'mefll ill (ra/l ,VOrma core ",au.'ria /.r since 1890 11

t
IVa.pQL
".Ii
,r
p~"
res ults o r :
\" " "

Year Type 0/ material Thick iii' 55 Tow/loss '; ..,with a c~

(fil m) ( W kg- ')
" I' or o.OO3i
5.9 . thi n ncr tl
1890 unall oyed steel 0.35
0.3 5 3.5 T he ad
1900 Swedish charcoa l iron
19 10 3!. % si licon- iro n 0.35 1.75 i n lcr1a ~jL
1925 4% silicon - .(Od 0.35 1.4 platc W I .
1940 4.2 % silicon - iro n • 0.35 1.2 per u ni ~ a
1945 4.3 %silicon ";""" iron 0.35 1.08
increase
3.2 % grain-oriented silicon - iron (USA) 0.33 0.57
2.9 % grain-orient ed silico n - iron (UK ) 0.33 0.46 the irol
1954
1970 3 % grai n·o ricnl cd silicon - iroll (UK ) 0.28 0.375 meas urel)'
J %gra in -oriented silicon - iron (USA ) 0.3 0.4 relate 1(' ''

val ues, i
TOlal losses sla ted rOf f= 50 li z lind D ~ 1.0 T. la rge: .J

wh ic h mea ns either they will slowly de terio ra te at no rll1a l co re ho i-s po t

tell1 pe ra tures o r 11 5 to 120 ' C o r th e core has to be e it he r undcIT un o r '.. 1
ovcrvcnti lated to co mpensate. T he tre nd o r curre nt practice is, therd orc, tOWHrds
(
the a pplica li o n o r so me kind o r ,,'d d itio na l p hospha te t realm ent 10 Ihe eo re-
plates. which can give a thi nner and more heat-resistant coati ng. I,"] ;

r I
~,
I

'"cv
B
'"
.~
~
10
7
I-- - -t---:::;....~
J U
c
.2
~

.Q
51 5
oS I 0 I--_~_I__-- - -1--
0>
.;C;
o
o
u
10L-____
3
[__~~~~~~~~.
J -______
~o~cn~5"m va rni s h coa t
C - -·0 03 m.. r~sln /phos phot~ coot
~ ______ ~----~
u
4.3
I 10 50 90 99
7o'of va lu es Ie:s s t hon or di naU 4.3. 1

Wilh S\j
Figure 4.3 ' I nsulation rcsis t:.tncc or inlCl'la mi na r insuhllion mC:l stll'cd lIn a COll1:ll'1area or are cyl
6.45cm 2 und er" press ure or 3,58 ~ POI ,II 6 V
 .I
1
I
J -
./
.)
TRANSFORMER CORES
. ' .
-
yario us kinds o f phosphate treatment are in use. Figure 4.3 also shows the
89

r.sV lls o f so ll1e single-plate tests on a coating formed by treating the iron surface
. wiih a combination o f aeid phospha tes a nd polyvinyl butyral resins. T hicknesses
. 'of: 0.003111111 nrc easily achieved with tljis material. It will be seen that wi th a
19~ nn er coating a superior performance to that o f the varnish is obtai ned .
. + f he additi onal loss in a laminated core ca used by leakage currents in the
. i'n'tcrlaOlill3f insulation can be.,shown1 'to be proportional 10 th e square of the
"t..ite widt h and inversely propqrtionalto the mean value of insulation resistance '
per unit arca thro ughout the core. Figu re 4.4 shows how tllis mea n value must
in'crea se as the co rc sile increases if this add iti onal loss is to be limited to 1 %o f
the iroll loss. Alth ough these values of re sistance afC low ill rcliltion to the
· J1\Cll s ur~H 'l.. nl displa yed in fi gu re 4.3, ill11l1st be relllcmbered thllllhc I c~ t va lues

I ,
'I
. relate to "n oleo.trode area o f 6.45 em'. Testing wi th larger arcas gives 10lycr
values. and the contact area between core-plates in a large transformer is very
large.
i, SOO
.c , hot-spot
I or
f . towards ~
400
I core-

'c"
u
0
~ 300

'1
•
..
.!!!
VI
L.
c
~~ 200 1------+-----1)!~-
.Q ' I

"C
VI
.- I

g, 1 0 01------I----::iI~-_II__-----__i
o
..o
L.

>
I

10 0 max. car~
25
- plat~ width
50
em
75

. I.
F".gure 4.4 Minimum in sul ati on requi rements for core l:lmimltions
I
4.3 FOR:' I
i
4.3.1 CfO S~-scc lion
Wi th so mc exceptio ns in sma ller ratings, the windings for core-fofm transfonners
","rl"'''''of arc cylindrica l in shape, so that the cross-section of the co rc limb inside the

I ' "" • •.. I

 •
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y
'0_.~'t.
"

'j
8m - I-
8n
;") ,
" " 4 , smOI'lest wO
.' ... wasted, Oy n
, ~

-,
82
8t
-), 3chiev~
\ .,
of difTere
I aD
J

,- :.. :!'

• d
1!
"", 'For
,"
the''g
solve a numl
I' I,~ >('J ' ~ to obta in n
• t~' _-.. ' ma~i'~Ul JJ
, ' ~ irclc area fi!
<.j'"
1\1
Idl, It is,dea r
Ihat ,I I
r-]
1
:11
' Ta l ':"2
"~,,: odd 11\, i"i
I')
, ,
l lA~I.E 4.U
I " 1~ • ,

- - h. '0, 0/
jlrpS
, !
P1O'
I.
100 -

.--
'
:' :' ' s -
.j~·, 1 J~l!
, 9 '
)
I-I!

5 II !

"
I
,
'I ..
'0
90
/ ,
'/' .T,h~ ~ iJ th' '1
I ' ,\Vilh A,sL
I ··
;: " sam?,;~num

a..
o !I: incrc'in cf
85 "I 111~~imtl'U
i
.. ,! , '!" (dths, Cev
',slighlly rrrr'
~u 80
I' plale W I' :
,,
..
L.
I
;,
,
sizes,'T u
pracl icc, II
8 75 an exaJ ,11
'f'! 14 slepd
: <p bySmm i
, ,
<~ =~
•'" s ~ ~
be seen. "7
widlhS! f
5 10 15 20 25 core area!
numbu 01 stops 'I ',i This so

I.) I " cons,,:

nu mb ~
IIc
Figu re 4,5 Stepped-core rclatioll! hi pS; (a) genera lised crucifo rm core SCC li Or
' (
th e incrcl'
I, ,I·
co re area - 0" L O sin 20" -sinOIl _ l co~ O,,)
. /1 . 1
:
'
, l oC mafj r
,(h) op timulll nil facto rs rur crucirorrn.sc\.:liun co res " " willlrL!'

I'
 ", TRANSFORMER CO RES 91
"
, ' smal/est winding luIS to be made as nearly circular as possible if space is not to be
wasted, Dy making a stepped pattern o f different widths o f strip, it is possible to
3chicvc; 3 cl ose <Jpproxima ti on 10 a circular co nt our, limited on ly by th e number
of Lliffcrcnl strip width s which th e mtllluf~I C lu,.cr is prepared to cut and bui ld.
For the generalised stepped ·core section shown in figure 4,5(a) it is poss ible to
solve a number o f partial di rTcrcn tial equations equa l to th e number o f steps and
to obt.in the propo rtions,Ilf..plate width and step thickness which result in the '
ma ximum area bei ng filled' , Figure 4,5 (b) shows how the. percentage of the unit
circle area filled with corc rrwtc ri al varies wit h Ill111lbcrs o f 51cps hctwecn 2 and 25.
It is clear fro III thi s that with 9 steps. fill fa cto r o f practically 95 %is achieved and
lhat it becomes dimcult to justify a greater number o f steps than th is.
Table 4.2 lists the plate width s for th ese corc secti ons of ma ximulll an:a, with
odd numbers of steps vary ing from 3 to 11. Most transformer designers work
TAIlLE 4 , 2 Plate \I'it/flls lor max imum areas

No . 0/ Puccntugt Plolr Widf/u (.si'1! JIglII{' 1.$ (0))

JUpS 0/ dr(it
lUro
jillt(/
", ", ", ", D, ", ", ". ", D" • Q
II

3 · 85,1 , 0,906 0,707 0.424

,i 5 90,.8 0.949 0.846 0.707 0.SJ4 0.3 14
7 93,4 0,967 0,901 0.8 14 0.707 0,58 1 0.4)4 0.2S4
9 94,8 0,976 0,929 0,868 0,796 0.707 0.605 0.49 70,)) 0.2 16
95,8 0,982 0.943 0,893 0,832 0,762 0,707 0,648 0,555 O.H . o.m 0. 19
"
The widths a.te stated us rractions or a cote circle dia meter or unity,
, , '

with a scries of core sections of fi xed circumscribing circle diameters, all with the
sa me number o f packets. The steps of diameter arc chose n to give suitable
I, increment s o f eross·scctional area. In these cirCulllstalll;es it is dinicult to usc the
maximum area propo rti ons of table 4,2 without a large nu",ber of dirrerent plate
wid ths, few of them recurring throughout the range, It is therefore nsualto depart
slightly fr om the optimum proportions and to wo rk with a series o f standard
platc widths, so that each width can be used in a number o f different co re ci rcle '"
sizes. This is particularly convenient for the manufacturer wh..:n, as is COOllllon
practice, the first operation on the rolls of core mat erial i<to slit them to width, As
an example, table 4.3 gives a short extract from a series of core sections based on
14 steps, 10 mill incrcnlen ts o f core circle diameter and plate widths that increase
by 5 mm increment s up to 200 mm and by 10 mm illcrements beyond;Dat. It ca n
be seen that, altho ugh the four cores tabulated req uire a total of 56 different plate
widths, becau se o f the sta ndardised widths o nly 29 arc actually needed, The gross
core areas obtained nrc hardly distinguishable fro m the thcoretical maxima.
Th is so rt o f achievement is only poss ible wi th particular forms o f mechanical
construction, as will be exa mincd furth er in sub·scction 4.4 .5. By red ucin g the
number o f steps, by adjusting the actual corc circle diameters and by increasing ,,
the increment of plat e width, it is poss ible to nchievc an even gl'ea tcr simplification
o f manufacture. The core cross-sectional area for any given co rc circle diameter
wi ll then be correspondingly less, '

"
.~

i •.

t
. I, ;,
I
jT
~

J . I,
92
TABl.E 4.3
..
I
MODERN' POWER TH.ANS I O RMER' PRA C n CE

Practical cort sec1;ons

<
....

,- , I'
Core circle dia""'lt!r (mm) . .! 375 385 395 405
Percentage of <:ircle (lrea fillt!u' 'f 96,37 - 96,33 96,33 96,33 \
'I
t.,., ',I

PlaIt! wiclths (set! figure .4.511'1) (mm) (II 370 380 390 400
,', ." I
. ' . ," .t~ 1
(I, 360 _ 370 380 390
•
• .;. <0

li~r '
OJ
a4
llS
350 ~ . 360
340 .:~ 350
330 . ' 340
370
360
350
380
370
360
G
li::I' °6 320 330 330 340
· ! ~r 07 300 310 310 320
0,: ' (18 280 '- 290 290 300
I, :)
Il
(19
a ,o
260
240
270
250
270
250
280
260 m
nil
<1 , 2
aD
210
180
145
220 ,
185
150
220
190
150
230
195
155
100
J
95 95 100
""
4,3.2 r.llern
Figure 4.6 summarises in diagralllllliltil.: fOfm the most usual core patterns
currenlly in use: the palleros shown in fi gure 4,6(a), (b) and (c) apply to single-
phase trans formers, and those in figu re ~ , G (d) and (c) to thrte-phase transformers,
The commonesl is the three-phase th ree-limb design offigure 4,6(d), Other three-
phase patterns arc only used in special ci l cull1s tan ces, since. generally speaking.
1 .
l'il,'lJrp
\I,
4.1 F
1
ilh ~ IJC ) kt
the th ree-limb pattern gives the millillllllll mass and the lowest iron loss. // sid
When hot-rolled non-oriented COl C material was in usc, it was cO lllmon
practice to make the eross-sc<:tion"1 arc:< o f the yoke greater Ihan that of the limbs
by increas ing its plate widths, nnd th elefo le its vertical height. It can be shown'
/ fl·
tl.'tis. thc'o C
limbs, /llIot l
that the reduction in effective nu x dCI;!' iIY is not proportional to the increase in
aoss-secl io n 1J.c4.::llIse 0 f t he nOli - II II i i"vi lili Iy 0 f nux di st rihllt iOIl. The clllIngcs of wi tho ut I P'
also :l1 lu ~ t
cross-sc<:tion atlhcjoints between lill1bs :lnd yokes we' C"ptl! lso to cause fiux to
undue com)
transfer from step to step across the plalle of the lamil l :tions, thus increasing the
eddy current losses, i plcll1cntl t
core ma {Ii
With the advent of cold-rolled grailj.o rienled core material the ralher doubtful
The nux d
gains to be made by increasing the yoke cross-section were entirely out weighed by
the relative
the greater expense of the extra mal f ria l required. Furthermore, l~ incrt.;1sed
detcrmi, III
conductivity of the core material increased the magnitude of any eddy current
easy pm.,JJj
losses due to cross-nuxing, For these \'casons, it is now norma l practice in three-
distortion iJ
phase three-limb cores to make the j ok e cross-section and plate widths ex"cily
equal to those of the limbs, I '
pallero, 1 "
'I'
has sho p.
For very large three-phase power transformers the five -limb paltern of figure
the lotal w<.
4.6(e) is commonly adopted, since this 'rcdlU'; cs the yoke uepth and thus the overall
40 ano ,('l~
height :> f the transformer, This is particularly useful if raillransport is specified, equal, ', ~ :
since heights arc usually restricted eonsidclably by tunnel!' and bridges, To oITset ;,J.'"

,
J
 t "t .. t i 1.', .,
.. ,..
~ l.
, r"\.,

T RANSFORMER CORES 93

[I
i 'OJl
L. .
'r

(a) . ". (b)

~

.. - -. T -
rr-'-~D - -m r "1! " -:I
,i II II
W-..U1LW L , 1-' JiL . _...J"L . _J.

(c) (d)

,i '1,' -l l "

I.'I i
c ) t ttcrns
,
L. ..JL. .JL. f- ...J
, to r ingle-
r "orm ers.
Co)
I
t :\ three- Fig ure 4.6 Fo rms of co re built fro m nat laminati ons: (a) one-ph ase. one li mb wound
, s ~a king, wilh side yo ke s: (b) o ne-phase . two limbs wo und: (e ) o ne-phase, Iwo limbs wo und wi th
Inst side yo kes: (tI) th ree -phase three- lim b: ie) th ree -phase th ree- lim b
; dmmon
'I dlblimbs
4 this, the ove ra ll length is increased ma rked ly by the presence of the un wo und
be l hown
limbs. Another adva ntage is that the coo ling o f the yo kes is grea tly improved

:u J;~~ ~1 with o ut providing ,specia l ducts. Wh ere th e co rc circle di ame ter is ove r 750 fllm, it
also allows the limb plate wid ths to be split in two with a cent ra l duci without
undue complica lio n of the joints with the yo ke. T his aga in provides SllP-
r jing the
plemenla ry limb cool in g and avo id s any lim itati on o r core circle diame ter by the
" doubtful core l11at eria l roll widths.
I' ''ighed by Th e nux de nsities in lhc var ious parts o fa fi ve- limb th ree-phase core depe nd on
~ lcreased the relati ve reluctances of the vari ous pa th s in the iron, so it is dillTcu lt to
lay Ic urrent determine their proper relati ve cross-secti onal areas. The ull wo und limbs o ITer an
ce ,I h
10 t rec- easy pa th for thi rd- harmonic flu xes, so there is a grea ter degree o f harm onic
II ;lexactlY distortion in the nu xes in this pa ttern o f core than in the three-li mb three-phase
pa ttern , Thi s aga in ma kes it difficult to assess the proper propo rtio ns. Ex per ience
rn o f fig ure has show n, however, th at, if the main port ion o f th e yoke is made abo ut 58 %of
: Jovera ll the tota l wou nd lim b cross-secti on and if the un wo und limb comprises be l wccn
i 'PcciOcd, 40 and 50% o f it, tljen the nu x densities in t h ~ various part s wi ll be substantially
:s, To orTset equa l, ::lIld a rcasollab ly low iron loss will be achieved.
 :, ,; ~l " ,
Jo,. .4

94 MOOERN POWE R TRAN SFORME R PRACTI CE

4.3.3 Joinls
!fl al. ;" i, [,l
plalcS o r,hc
The d iag rams in fi gure 4.6 d o not indica te :\ ny joint s bctw~cn limb and yoke; it is Hp ruP" r[ ),
implied tha t the hHnin atio l1 s arc represen ted in plan view. This need not be so ror the re is :JI
the singlc-plwsc cores, wllc rc the lami na tio ns Gi ll be at riBill ;: In gles to the plane o f Ol.J lluractli r
Ihe pape r, aJid th e corcs de w lap into single loo ps lapped aro und rec ta ngul ar
IH:llld rds as ifl fi gure 4.::}~t) ilnd (b). This arran gemen t gives the lowes t possible '\ /11 nufad "I
I:! !.,;C cun
iro n loss and IS widely lIsed in sma ll distributioll transr"Jllllcrs. It has also been I the co re
app lied to la rger pO\~' c r tran srorme rs up to 3.3 MVA in th e USA'. but, since th e II.. .. crc.:d f""iV(
ent i re core rcqll ircs annea lin g aftcr fon lli ng. expe nsi ve malluracturin g plant is corcs a rc ~
I l" lu ired . Ill' very sma ll Irans rOl"mcrs thc principle has OI.:CII cx tcnded to three· .•ml yok~j.
ph"," Ihrce ·lil11b cores by usin g th ree intcrwound loops. as shown in figu,e 4.7 (c). Ll lllinalio n.
rhi s pa ttern is nol Ii:;L, ib lc 0 11 large cores. since. alth ough th l.:l'c arc nO co rn er or rhal or )1
joint losses, nux c;wnot readily transrcr rrom onc loop to anothe r a nd since the unh'crsa .
illci ividua llo,Op nu xes develop large th ird-har lllonicco nt cnls in order to produce material an
a nell sinuso ida·) flu x within each winding. This res ult s in an increase in the iron Jirccti ol . ,
I"" o f Ihe ell li re core o f approxil11alcly 33 %. To ot ,
T he majorjty o f power tra ns rormer corcs arc built up rro m lam ina ti ons la id tl\cfl.:rOrC n
O th er mor
j
i,1
,
I'
.I
.

i,
, I
L
,
, winding s
(0) (b)

,1
'l ,
I
_I

1-- •
I
~~f-}t'~~:J-j)-t-j

(e)
I
,
r"igurc 4.7 Forms o r core bu ilt rrom wound loo ps: (:1) ~ltl c- Jlhasc o ll c-lul)P: (b ) OIlC- I
pha se two-loop: (e) three · pha se thrcc-hJo p Figl.lLI.· ,
 "
TRANSFORMER. CORES 95 •

Oat, as indica ted in fi gure 4.6, and some kind o r joint must be ~1ade bct wec n the
•
I··
plates o rthe limbs a nd th ose o r the yoke which lie a t right-a ngles to ,' ne an other.
nd yokc; it is to
Hpropc r ~rc is take n to min imise the result ing air ga ps an d prevent vibra ti ons,
n .jbe so ror there is lillie rCH son why bUll j o inl~ should not be employed, and so me
lPla nco r man ufactu rers have in fac lu Scli them. 1t is usuall y co n s id c r~d . however, that the
rcc tang ula r manu facturing complicatio ns o f grindi ng the joint faces Ca;l,llot IJc justified on
/' t; poss iblc I'lrgc corcs. This is despite th e ;~ ttrac ti vc possibility th at to assemble th e willd ings
" ~ I so becn on the co re only req uires the blllt -jointed yoke to be lirted , the windings to be
ut, since the lowered ove r the limbs a nd the yoke to be lowered back in place. The majol ity o r
· i"~ pla nt is cores arc there fore assembled with some kind of interleaved j oint h.:1 WCC Il lilllbs
c to thrcc- :t nd yo kes. ronned by :t n alt ernatin g dis positio n o r dirrerent !cnglhs o r
r' gu.. e 4.7 (c). lam inati on. The th rcc CO lllm unes t for ms in currcnt lI SC arc show ll in li ~lI rc Il.S,
10 c.orn cr or Tha t o r fi gure 4.8(0) requires only plain recta ngular lamin at ions :I nri was
r since th e universall y uscd for h O l~ ro ll cd n on~o r ic nt cd core material. Wit h gr'-lin.o r i~ ll tcd
• \<oj produce ma teri al an extra loss is incu rred wherc the nu x traverses th e pl:ltcs at tlu.: j oi nt in
: inllhC iron L1il'c..:t ions other (h ah para llel to the ro lling di rec tion.
To obtai n th e max imum benefi t fro lll cold·rolled grai n· oril: ll tcd ma tcl i:l1, it is
n Ions laid there rore necessa ry to design some kind of mit red joint. as in Iigure 4.8(b) and (c).
O ther more co mpl ica ted ro rms o r mitred join t ha ve been devised, bu t the slight
i
I

(a)

/
,.. /
-L__ -+____ ,~------~/ ' \-______~.--_+---J- ,I
I:
( b)
_l
,

45 ' I,
I

(c)

(b) o ne-
Figure 4.8 Forms o r inte rl ea.ved joint: (a) sq uare; (b ) 35"/S S" mi l re ; (e) 45" mitre

-
, ~
.....
t'
~.~
 , ,,
96 MODE RN POWE R T RA NSFOR~ I E R PRA CTI CE

gain in per formance over Ihal o f Ih e forllls shown'd ocs nol usually juslify Ihe ;
exira eos l o f manufaelure. There is lillie c1irrerenee in Ihe performance o f Ihe i 4.4.; A nlICH
r]
milred joinlS iliu sl raled, and Ihe choice bel wee n Ihem is usually made according ., I. 7

to t he designer's prdcrcllcc and I he na t u rc 0 r the m<'i n II fa ct u rer's co rc-cult i ng

Inevi labIY--j'
l1I al hin ccy. 'f
1I1ater ialll p'
These S lr~li ns
With any kind o f interleaved joint it is im porta nt to minimise the gaps betwee n
Ihe besl p,,,f,
relievin g ~ ~
abu lling plates; o therwise excessive sideways transfer of flux int o adjacent plales
wi ll cause ex tra eddy c urren t losses i~'11hc iro n. This fa ctor a lso limit s the number
ra ising lhc- J l
o ri dcn t ica l plnlcs thai~~<;n be stacked toge th e r befo re ,;h :lllgin g to the overlappi ng
thi s tempcra1
pia Ie; Ihis will be q amined fUriher in sub-secli on 4.5. 1.
Ii is ne JS:
small; otl·.... v
at tempts arc
4.4 CONSTIWC nON AND MANUFA C ruRE space fa el" 1'
oblain il l II
nnncaling pr,
4.4.1 CUlllug vici nil y of Ih
Cold -ro lled grain-or ien led core malerial is norma ll y slip plied fro m Ihe sleelmill The III II
c0 1l1inu o~..,; ::
in rolls seve ra llonnes in mass and 750 10 850 mm wide, according 10 how much
edge trimming has been done at the mill. The transformer ma nufac turer ei ther special hea rt 1
l11usl nrsl slil illo widlh over ils fuillengih . o r l1111 sl crop ilia lenglh ove r il s full ove rit.T! )(
widlh, before lamina lions can be made. M oslmallU fael urers a lid Ihe sleelmake rs a S\1Iall pi ~,
themselves, if the trans fo rmer manufacturer has asked th~ 1l1 to supply fini shed un load Iheel
laminations, prefcr to slit to wid th first. . ThC SCf 'T '
Iftllc production prog ra mme fo r the cores is sufficien tl y orill, as, for exa mple. and'c,?oli r I
wh en making trans formers for stock, it is possible to analy<;c th e cores to be made by a1. cnlllC~
a nd Ihe roll widlhs ava ilable and 10 calcula le exa cll y how Iile rolls should be slillo s~l cc~ ssio n 0
minimi se scm I'. Th e s littin g opera ti o n is gc nc r:dl y Gtrr iL'd o ut o n 3 lo tary slill cr, Ill gl}-tc.: m 1r;
the strip bei ng pulled thro ugh the machin e a nd the cutters so me times drive n as coul ln g I._ ~e
well . Perh aps Ihe 111 0s1 di01cu li pari of Ihe o l>" r:lli on is 10 ell< \Jre freedo l11 frol11 \Vith Ihe b
edge bow, since, if the strip is not slit str:Jight, it will be diITi...:u lt to ensure acc ura cy arc ;)assc . (II
in th e s ubsequ ent clllling processes. Burrs on th e slit 1,;(,lgcs must also be gas be rc In
cOllt ro lkd cardu ll y to avoid il1lcrlaminar con lnets in the Iil1ishcd co re; com- des ign or II
d evel~p "' TI
monly, when the maxi mum burr exceeds 0.035 111m , the: too ls are regrollnd.
Ex perience has shown that it is better to do this lh:ll11 0 allo w excess burrs to ro rm plan lma
and because
e
a nd Ihen 10 grind Ihem o ff.
The slil rolls can be cui 10 lenglh in seve ral wa ys, depend ing upo n Ihe beIi as well a
eo mplex ily of Ihe machinery which Ihe manufaelurer is prepared 10 insla ll. laminatil 1s
Genera lly speaki ng, Ihe fasler Ihe lam ina lions arc produced and Ihe lighler Ihe Ihal wil l pr
dimcnsional tolera nccs, the morc I,;xpe llsive the plant \\ ill bc. T he simplest be llcncio l en
Illr.:t hoq is to install o ne o r morc guill utines co nt ro lled by h'lIlll. T heseca n be used rCdllCill!_ r
for either s tra i g ht ~ c ut or allgle ~ c ul la minatio ns. The l1l ust da bora le machines
take the roll o f slit strip in at (I IiC end and eject co mpl e tely f!nis hcd la minations 4.4.3 Insu"
fro m the oth~e r at the rate ofsc\'era l per minut e, a ll clilling, fcedi ng and notching I
operat ions being carried o ut au tomatica lly und er elt!clroil yd ra ulic con trol. The wid Ivr
J

'.,
,!

, ,
,1 " 1

h' )J ~.'
I'
,. ~I
 .., 97
i
<
4.4.2 Annc:lling -,j
! rdi ng
_J rc ~c ll ll j n g
Inevitably the va ri. ou!:t, cUlling opaatio l\S d~ scribcd above st rai n parts o f the
I materia l above the elatt ie limi t, and at the edges grai ns may be shea red thro ugh.
: )s bel wee n These strains have ~n ~dverse effect 0 11 the ma gne tic properties, so that to obtai n
I :cnt 1)la les the bcst performa nce' fr olll tlie:,l'lIllinaliO ll s they must be subj ec ted to a s trcss~
. I
S the number
relievi ng operation ' forc b'C:I/l'g bu ilt into cores.'~T hi s is carried out by slowly
: . vc'rlapping raisin g the Inminalions to a temperature o f about 800 °c, by fna illta in illg them at
a
this temperature for short tillle an d then by slowly cooling thern again.
It is necessa ry to kee p the variatio n ill tempe rature ac ross each la mination
small; o therwise the sh eets wi ll ,IeI'e!op edge wa ves instea d o f emergi ng nat. If
attelll pts arc made' to build cures ",ith wavy lamina tions, then either the proper
space fa ctor will not be achieved or the co mpression applied to the laminations to
obtain it wi ll iilduce strains tInd will spoil the Illag netic properties, Should the
;1I1Jl~a ling process be pro l o ll g~d , it \\ ill be l1 eces~a rl' to exclude oxyge n fr ol11 the
vidn ity o f the plat es; otherw ise.: u,\ idat io n o f the iron wi ll occur,
I'
,,
the stee l mi ll The two basic annea ling meth ods employed are the batch annea l and the
(" 110W much co ntinuous a nnea l. In the fir st o f these, a load o f la minations is bu ill up on a
( Iter eit her specia l hearth, and a cover co nta ini ng radia nt electric hea tin g clemen ts is lowered
1 oVfI r Its
. f ull over it. This covcr also serves to con tain II protective atmos phere o r nitrogen with

"1 slee l makcrs

fini shed
a sma ll propo rtio n of hydroge n. Ike" ",e of Ihe length o f time take n to ' tack and
unload the cha rge, severa l hcart hs ~'fe needed to ac hieve a reasonablc th roughput.
Th e second method, the co nt inu ous annea ling process, allows lIllifonll hea ti ng
for Iexample, and cooling to be more easil y ;!ehic\'cd and is now the co mmonest met hod, Ei ther
, 0, be n,"ele by :Ill cnd less belt or by a se ri e.:s o f rolle rs, lami natio ns arc ca rried through a
) d be slit to sUI,: I.:CSSiOIl o f controlled tempe ratule tu nes usuall y co mprisin g prc· heating a nd
. "
ro tary s litt e r, high-te.:m pcra ture soa king zone.:s'lin 'he ac tual furn ace, followcd by a series o f
11 ; driven as cooling ZOlles. The last ofth esc a i'e "sua lly ar ti ficially cooled by water o r air bias!.
:'1 dO Ill from Wit h the belt furn aces, where ",'ade ts of lnminntiolls stacked several pla tes high
iure accuracy are.: passed thr ough iJl 5U,ccssio ll',' lhc specd o f trave rse relJui res [hat a pro tecli ve
n n ~ t also be gas be fed into the furnace, agil il; consistillg o f nitrogen and h),tIragen. Cardul
d ore; co rn· design of 'the pre-heating and ' c001ing secti ons is necessary to avoi d the
rc regro und . developmen t of edge waves in )"ide lamina ti ons. and the overa ll length of Ihe
btlrlS to for m plan t may be as much as 30 Il l. Because.: o f the di fll cu lty o f obt ::d ning long be lt Ii fe
and because o f tile limit to the :;pbcu t " o ftru vcl se t by ha vin g to hen t a nd to
__cool
, thc

no pon the belt as well as the charge, the trend I

IS towards USIil S roller-hearth furn aces. Single
, d 0 ins tall. laminations arc passed through th e.:se in success io n at a rela ti vely high speed, sO
" 'Ighter the that \\'ith proper design the prbkc th'e gas may be dispenst!d wi th, This has a
f , sim plest be neficia l dfect on, the phosphale I
coa tin g, which ca n be adversely a ffecled by a
;c ca 11 be used reduci ng atmosp here, '
al,. machines
I minatioJ1 s , I.

allJ no tching
4.4_3 Insulaling " . ~ ; "l'
: co'n lro l. The wide variety o f coa tings L'un1Jllon ly employed to providt! supplement ary
, ':
i
. ",

.... ~,~J"1lrr-- ":'::-T' "i ~ ~ ,

, " I;. {
, I
 , '....

98 MODE RN I'OWE R TRANS F OR~ I c It PllAC /'I ( 'H

r
ins ul ati o n o n Ihe fini shed co rc-plate is Illatched by an cejlJ:J I va ri ety o f meth ods o f t l ll'l:c. Ml
applica ti on. \\ rung J;
Spray o r ro ller app licat o rs arC co mlllo nly used, togethe r with so me kind o f in:lrJ c Q1l9 1
ovcn to d ry or cure th e coatin g. Chcmica l dcgrc;1.si ll g be fo re applica ti on o f the \\ hich PI
coa ti ng i s no t norma ll y nccessa ry jf' he proccss iml11ediatcly fo llows an annea ling I n my·...
furnace. Ca re llIust be take n that the lami nations a rc not be nt o r subjected to fl Jl I!1 ingcl
unduc mec han ica l strain in the phillt . fo r ex.a mp le by pi nch ro llers, since 1110s,t. :-. 1;1 . illg
coa lin gs will prt.:vc nt allY furth er stress rc lid by heat trca tl llcnt bcin g,ca rri cd O tlt. :1 Ji' i Il S 1t
\Vhatevcr th e nntllrc~o fth c co~ltin g, or its meth od o f nppl i\, :a ti o n, it is necessa ry ~I h u Ildpf
to kecp a close check on its quality. To check the thickness o f the thin coa tings a 'I he Cl
magne tic gauge o r similar instnl1l1ent is co mmo nly employed, The insulating hl: th..'r 0 '
v:llue o f t he coating is lIslJal1y meas ured by applying a low voltage 10 One o r 1110rc i l ,~ .\d ; 1 t i OI1
plat es held unde r press ure betwce n elec trod es and by conve rting the res ult a nt l :ll lgC ;),9:
curren t to o hms per unil area o f coa ting. The lower limi t fo r this insulatio n rho r
res istance is r,xed by taking acco unt o f the fac to rs described in sub-section 4.2.2. L' I' 1111.'I'S, , I

An up per limit of thi ckness is necessary to preve nt the fini shed co re fro m being tht: inkr l
o versize, o r sho rt of secti o n, accordi ng t o th e meth od o f b uildin g, A minimum t \ '1~- l'li\
thick ness need no t be specified, since thc res istance tcst will detcct coatings of t~ I \ '~ ' ~ 111

inadequate thi ckness. It is usually suffi cie nt to mtl kc th ese chec ks at int erva ls on th e ;;;IPS
selected sa mples ra ther than on every pla te. scdi Lltl I'"
v f \\ ind'
, \ ~:- l)Cl~
4.4.4 Bui lding
r , lIl be 1 ~li
T he assembl y o f th e cut, an nealed a nd in sul a ted laJJ1ination's into th e spec ified size !, 'Jl j ~ l l;\ t l
o f CO re is the sta ge at which the acc uracy o f a ll the preeedi Ilg operations will be (' dd \, '11.
revea led and' the perfo rman ce o f th e fini shed core made o r marred. l' " ( ' !lIel

T he sup ply . ~) r Ihe co rc mate rial fro m th e slce l rn i ll to th e tl ilns fo rm cr lIlaka is

usually governed by a nati onal standard o f the co untr y co nce rn ed, These I

d oc umc nt s prc.scribc standard thi ck ncsses and to lr:ra llcC's o n thcse thi cknesses, I'ir
I h,;
,'.
for ex ample G2 ,7 fa tolerance o f 0.05 mm o n th e stalldard nomi na l th ick ness of h U I il.ont:1

0,3 3 111111, alth o ugh in rLlC l it is ul1usmll ro r th e ITlUtcrinl to \ ' 011')' to thi s ex lent. The bill i na l
thickness o f the insul atin g coa ting will v:u y, and th e na tn css o f the fini shed 4, II) dhJ ~ 1
lam inatio ns may a lso va ry, depend in g upon th e wor k put into th e mat erial and i!1 Ih is In:
th e e mcie ncy of the Sl ress- relie f ann eal. CO llscq tle ntly, the :t ""lJ
fll plio ll wh ieh the 'f
:
designer ",a de as to the space fac tor or stackin g f'lctol' Iha t wo uld be ac hieved in
th e fini shcd cure may be wrong, T he building prncess mu st he chose n to tnkc this JI.S CI
in to acco unt. !
Bas ica lly, th e I;,l minat io ns a re la id d o wn nat 0 11 a buildin g j ig whic h acc urately li' hell JI
locates them to form the des ired pat tern (sec r,g ure 4.6). If the core ha s bo lt holes, it \'.; \'1 !JIll
J,y II ,,:a 11:
this ma kes thc c1'es ign o f th e ji g simpler. There a rc three ways o f judging when to
l"IIll'1.
stop 1,lyi llg dow IlI(lmin,lti ons o fa pa rti cula r width : (I) when a $u rTicic nt mflss ha s ' !

ILl: ";,
!xcn add ed, (2) when it suffi cient num ber have been ad d('d o r (3) whcll a givc n
stack d iI11cnsio n has becn rcac hed, Meth od (1) g llara 11 tees t hn t the sp<'ci fi L' ~ I cross- roo
sec ti o na l a rca is :lchicvcd but may rC1' ult in :t il UlHc:l ,S ol1ahly large-diameter
winding being necessary to ullo w for build-up, It is also th e I1lO s1 dink ult o r th c

-. .,..-...,....... ~-

'. Ih!
"
 r-
)
~ TRA NSFORM ER CO RES 99
., I'

rOd~O f f three. Method (2) is very easy but Illay result in either inadeq uat el:l'oss-scction or
wrong dimensions. Method (3) is qu ite com mo n but can eas ily result in
me kind /Of
on o f the
f inadequate cross·scc ti ollal arca. Each tran sform er manufactu rer ha s to decide
which procedure, or combi nation of p~occ ou rc~. suit s hi s fn ctory best.

I
L" aAneali
I ., ng In my experience it is <Illi te fea sible to bui ld by nlLmbers o f plates so long as a
' ubjected to funn ing check 0 roi mensions is used to adj list CO llt in uously (h e design vo Ill e 0 f I he
I . .'

r" I
stacking .factor and so long :ls,adequale conlrol is maintained over Ihe an nealing
r ie' ut. and ins uiu,ting processes, Ali bccasionu l accurat e check o f fini shed CO rC , Il1 ~l SS is
IS n c~ssa ry ,Liso help ful. •
: 3t Lngsa The core materia l is potentially capable of giving a stackin g fae tur o f 0.97 or
Il sulating
j
betler on slllali samples, but pra ctical po wer trall sforlller co res with additional
one or morc inslilation applied to th e co re·plates arc 1Il0re likely 10 give st;lcking fac.: tors in the
I I' resu ltant
nsulaliol1
.1
cc" pn 4.2.2.
II ran ge 0.95 to 0.97. '
The precision wi th which the plates have been cut , particularl y the mitred
(,.'OI'I1CrS, wi ll be revea led by the size of the air ga ps be twcc n bu tt ing laminati ons in
. from being
,
mnllnum
!
(
the int~rlc11ved joints. The building ji g is preferably .manged to loca te the
(lHe-pia les firmly ~ll Ihe joints and to allow any deviation frolll pa tte m dilllcilsions
I
.. JtH ings of to occ ur at the centres o f legs and yokes, Thi s red uces tile ex tra iro n losses due to
f
intervals on the ga ps to a minimum, bu t the resulting small disto rti ns u f the limb eross-
seclion have to be taken int o accou nt wh en decidin g upon th e mi nimulIl diameter
o f windin g which cn n be acc: ommodated on a given co re circle,
Associa ted with thcj oint iron loss is tile nUllI bcr o fid cllticallam inali olls which
can be laid down on lOp of one anoth er before changing to the co mpleme ntary
I oified size lami nati ons which form th e interleav ing, Th e smaller the number, the lowe r is th e
tions will be c.:ddy c ur r~n t loss due to cross· nu x;ng a t th e j oint s, as ca n be ~cc n fr om some
I. I expe rimen tal res ults plotted in figure 4,9, bUllhc longer it tak es to bu ild the core,
1' /nakc r is CO llllllo nly. a cO ll1proll1 i ~ c is 1ll,ldc, and corcs ,I rc btl iIt by i nl erl c:! "ing two o r even
" ....d. Th ese thr..:e lami nati ons at a tim e,
th ick nesses, The fin nl. duty of a bu ilding jig is to al low th e t'orc to be laiscd frolll the
;; ;kncss of horizo ntal po sition to its fili al vertical posi ti on with out U IHJUl! strai n 0 11 the
~Cllt. The lam in ati ons and withou t al lm·vi ll g th c joint ga ps tu cn largl: tlll:lllsl!lvcs, Figure
the l finished 4. 10 illustrates this; it shows the eoreofa ISO M V/I a ut o- transforme r being rai sed
t 'erial and in th is manner with th e aid of an o\'crhca d crane,
1 ~·hich the
: achieved in
L' e take this 4.4.5 Clumpi ng
i I When power transforlllcrcorcs were built from hot· ro llcd non-o rien ted mat erial,
h accurately
LS bo lt holes, it was universa l practice to cl amp th e limbs and yokes o f tile hu"gcr sizes toge th er
i ~ when to by means of bolts passin g through holes punched in the laminat io ns. T his
! ... mass has arrangement, although giving excellen t clamping. surfcrs frolll sl've ral disadva n·
then a given ta ges,
;c ied
, . cross-
~ mmelcr (a) T he bolts arc potcnti"1 sources of core faults.
me 1.Lit of the (b) Eithe r th e bolt insulati on has to be expensive tcmpcra t ure- resislH nl

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With t
u
.E disad vaT"
th e extr;
lo wer rcs t
o source of
2 4 B 10 longer r
Numb.r o f Plat.s ~r Po t tun cost o ft
II has bee
Figure 4.9 Erfect on core loss or bui lding with Illorc than one la mination al :I lime ij3 % is ;
co re de
Thus t
d:unpirH
,,". . q:1 o!in !
.. .. '- Il\a~c C. v
Tllh I~a,
t"dnds '
I
\Jccn It
I o uler p

. inlrou'
1 clamp
"1 T he.

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cl::J.lnpc(
vert iCf
cross-...

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1.,J •
" cradle·,
'(l tCll sic
outsir
rcwer c
to thr"
to lh!
;-'...... )
ill CrCa!)
~ ' . '~ ...
use n OI
eddy
Fi gure 4.10 Usc or building jig to rai se tl core to \'(' [ Iil'al position as at
, :.

, ,
., TRANSFORM!;I( CORES 101
. , .
materia l or tl'i.lll svcrsc cooling slots ha ve to be provided .
. The boll holes and coolin g slols (if a ny) ca use local increases in flu x
, density :1110 iro n loss ..... i' ;
.'
(d); The punching of holes and slols cC!lmplicales Ihe cUlling of Ihe co re.
(e) I' The unequa l reduclion ofsec lion in Ih e plal e widlhs makin g up Ihe core
seclion cau,es cross-flu xin g bel wee n packcts al Ihe localion o f each bo ll
and rc~u lt s jll ex ira cd9y;:Currcnt losses.
T he room lake n up by Iii;' bolt head, insulali on and ';; lifTcning pIa Ie (if
filk d) Ilwk(,:s it lIimc,ulL to achieve the optimu lll cross-section;] 1 areas
c Il~idl.!f'l·d in sub-secti on 4.3. 1.

,With th l! ilill \tdlK l io n of co ld-rolled grain -oriented core mat erial these
disadvanla gc.:s bcc..:o lllc mo rc seri ous. .Bc,cause of the higher working nux density,
Ihe cxlra Illsses of (e) and (e) become grealer in rclalionlo Ihe 10lal iron loss. The
lower resistivity u f the m ~ll c ria l ;t1so increases the loss in (e). FurthcI mo rc, a new
source o fcxlt'a 1o>, appears because Ihe nu x diverging round Ihe bolt holes is no
longer pa ra IIell 0 Ihe low- loss direclion of Ihe I"mina lions. lJeca usc o f Ihe grea Icr
(n
cos t o ft hc core: IIw tcrial , thc COilSCq UCI1CCS o f above ~li so bt:corne ma rCserio us,
II has been sligges le" ' lh" l lVi lh.14 Sleps on a bolted core a circle Ii II fac lor o f onl y
83 ~. is praclicable, in co nlraS I wi lh Ihe 96.3 %,d isplayed in lable 4.3 for a boil -less
' ,
corc d eSlgn,
Thus th c tClldtlH.;y has been no t o nly to red uce th e number and size o f th e
cI,ul1ping b()1ts, for I.',x:llnplc by th e usc o f high-tensile stee l, :\111.1 10 eliminate
I
coo ling slo ts by the usc of newer forms o f hi gh· tempe rat lire insulating tube but to

l
...,
make co res with o ut a ny bolt s wha leve r passing through the active iron secti on,
This has bl.'c il :!\.'(.'I)l lIp lishcd by th e development o f hit!h-slrl.'ngth resin -gla ss
bands' applil.'d tl) lhl.' p\.'I'iphc ry uft he core scc.; tiun, t\ fll/ llll'!' iIIlPIP\'l.' lIll' llt has
been to dilllinat ,L'!la rale meta llic lim b clamping plates by bOllding logl.'t hcr thc
out er packl.'ls f laminatio ns with- epoxy resin , This not ()Illy allows the
I

inl rod lIcti o ll II r n 1\)11.' a\,:t ivc co re materia I bu t eli minates eddy cun cn t losses in I he
clamping plates,
The rcmajl1(h.: r of the co re clampin g str ucture usually com.lllis or beam.;
clamped along Ihe ,ides of Ihe lOP and bOllom yokes and inl<rcon l1eeled by
vcrtica l tcnsio n ' membe rs, These arc also connccted, dircctly or ind irc<.: liy, to
cross-mc,mbers ,I udl:r th e bottom ~oke. so th at t~le n~a ss ~r th e ,iro n is. suppe r,ted
crad iC-WIse nnd so tlla t unduc stn ull o n the laminat ions IS .lvoI<Jcd, 1 he vsr tl ca l
tension I11crnbc,)s lIlay be hig h-tensile o r sta in less steel bolts, poc; ilioned cither

!
o utside or insid9 the winllings, The inside positio n wastes space hut ca n rcsull in
fewer cicCI ric pr'l)hlt.' I '" than ex ternal bol ts. T he latter arc, howevcc, bctter suitcd
to the applil:atk'l1 of 'di ng clalllPing pressures by thrust sc rcws or block s fi xed
to the lOp yoke d Ullq ):' :tlld r('r withs ti.lIH.l in g axial short-circuit rlilces, Wit h the
incrcasi n£ size o'r 1'0\\ l: r t ra ns for mers t here has been a correspflild i ng tenuency to
lise nOIl -I11:1glll'lic.: lIlatcrir\ls for the top and bottom dal11ps, ill \,lr\kr to rl'dllce
eddy currcnl l o~sc.:s due to the leakage field o r the windings', r-.lalc.: rials as di vcrse
as alumilliul1l ilild IiIlllil1;J led wood have bee n lI sed for Ihis l'"rp()C;e,

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102 ,\ 10DE RN !'O WER 'rRAN S rO It~I FR J'RA C li CE

Figu re 4.11 shows a compleled cOre for a 180MVA a ulo-Ira nsformer, the stl:cl III
fealurin g limbs a nd yokes wilhou l Ihrough boils. iron loss o r
samples UI"
"
annea led a
kilogram a
is. howevcr
grade, so I '
[t IlY co re b',
is usually I

Irans fonl l l

:,- ped lk 10 :
furth l: r ;till
the illl:Olll i
which Ihe
.. , 1 The la rb
1\- 10 the co re
, a nd suppl
" rrom pla le
t mel hod 01
[. interleave'
o f corcs \\
for cacll gl
tes ts U II II~
c;\ paicIH. '1
res ufl s'de
l11i.ltcr1.d a
Ihal Ii c b
C( Illlp etc
,, I " Fi gure 4, I J COl1lpklCd bolt -less co re for a 180 M Vi\ 275 to 1:\2 k V :Iuto-tran srormer joi rts ull d
II (Jdler~J '
!. co res I ha ,
4.5 J>ERFOltMAN C E
the jo int s ,
I ca n also b
Ii 4.5.1 Losses
mel hods
Ii Id ea ll y, to obl'rdn thl! iron loss o falran sfOfm cr co rc tile th.:sign cr wo uld only ha ve yield Sill '
10 l11ultiply Ihe specific loss o f Ihe core lI1alerial (figure 4.2 ) "I Ihe opera lin g nu x I r boilS
I'.1, densilY and frequency by Ihe 10lal mass o f Ihe co rc. Il owever, bec';use or Ihe l11elhods'
I,
imperfections introd uced by th e design and manufac ture o f the core, Ihis ideal from no r
rema ins 1'r:u.:1i•.:a lIy una ttaina blc. T Il e ra I io 0 r I he ac lu a l l1l l..':IS11 n.:d corc k lSS to I II is Ihl! d c~ig l
idea lly ca ku latctl loss is SO m l.! limes ca lled t he btl ill.! ing fa cto r. T he object i vc 0 r Ihe holes is In
tra nsformer ma nufac turer is to make this :IS IIcar Ullil y a~ he C;IIl poss ibly :Ichi cvc Wilh I
withou t unduly co mplica t ing d esign or 111~lI1uf;H; tllrc o f the co rc, t1imin i::. h. .
The firs t uncertainly to bCl:o ntended with is that o fkn ~)\\illg the mean specific predkliOi
loss of lhc ITliJ tcria l in ;lny corc, The va ri ous n:lli u na l st:w clards r~ fcrrcd to in sub· made i l r
sect ion 4.4.4,h;wc sct se vera I grad es 0 f q ua lity fur gra in·o r iL' nh.:u tO r C ilia lerial. At rmln l/fae

.. - •. ~ . -r-' - --; - - ~ ~ . .. ,.... ,';-:: ., ,~..,;. ,~;~,.". I ..

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"
 TRANSI~OR ,\ I E R C()IU':S . 103
"
" the steel mill, the grade 'of e,;ch coil ·pr part coil is e' tablishcd oy meas uring the '
iron loss of 25 cm double- lap Epsteir: sCluarc specime ns taken ·from each end . The
s,,,,,ples arc cut wi th their length pa rallel to the directio n o f ro lling and a rc
annealed afl er cu t lin g. Gradin g i( usua lly O!l the bas is o f meas ured watts per
ki logra m at L5 T and 50 or 60 Hz, ~ nd the coils arc sold by gwdc number. There
is. however, approxilll::tlcly IO %' qiffcrcJ1cc between the best and worst o f any
grade, so th at th ere ca n be a ~9 rrcsp'ol1dil1g IItll.;cll:tinly as to ,il1C specific loss for
:lny con: bui It frolll supplies of ar~' " -Sne grade 0 rilia teria l. lI owG,.vcr. I he steel mill .
is usua ll y obli ged to su pply tes t certificates for l':t,,:h cO I1 ~igJlment. so tha t the
Ir:lIls fo rill I;r ma nu fact UI CI ca n: i f lie 'so
Jc s ir c.:~ , kI'CP a I'll !lui ng check 011 t he ac t ual
spcciric IO:-is of material being cui.fol' ~n y gi\ ~ n cor·c. SO I11~ Illallufacture rs go
fu rth er alld take thl:ir 0\\'11 Epstein samp les as ;1 l' Il..:ck. nut only of Ihl: qua lity of
tile incoming lllatcri[11 but of the'· functi on ing of th e ann ealing plan t through
I which th e sa mples arc passed. t, . .
.J The Iargl!s t si ngle com ponent of th e building facto r is usual ly that attributable
I to til e co re joi nts. Here the nux crosses th e l ow ~ h)ss direct ion o rthe lam inations,
and supplemen tary eddy current losses wi ll ari se owi ng to th e-pa ssage o f nux
from plate to plate at the butt joint s within th e interleavi ng. The most sa tis fac tory
met hod o f deduc in g the relative con tri but ions of limbs or -yokes and o f the
interleaved CO rners to the total core loss is to llIa~e and test a represen ta ti veseries
o f cores wi th di ffering proportions o f cor ner n.,ass. I f req uired, this can be done
fo r eac h grade o f core mat erial, but it is usually sulTicic ntly accura te to makc· the
tes ts on th e wo rst grade which the manufacturer normally uses and th en to apply
experi ence f,ictors to the results to allow for' uthcr gra des. Figure 4. 12 shows
results deduced rrom a typical series o f tests, fo r 56 grade (British Sland,,,d 60 1)
materia l and a th rec~ liJl1 b three-phase p<lltcrn witho ut bolts. It will be observed
th.lt the builtli ng faclor for limbs and yokes is ;I ppruxi mal ely 1.07, w hereas for a
, complete co re wilh 2,0 %of its mass in th e l,;o r;llcrs it \\'ouILl be 1.17 with mitred
ns(o me r joints and 1.29 with square-cut interleav in g. Ij . '
Ge nerally speaking: building fa ctors tend tf> be " little large r for three-p hase
co res th an for single.phase cores. Provided th at care is taken with the design of
the joi nts tll1d the propo J'tioningoflhe yoke sCd ions, the sa me basic des ign curve
can also be used for five- limb three-phase co res·. IJuilt dilTcrently, with d ilTerent
met hods of cullin g, annea lin g and insu latin g.' th l! sarn e grad e o f material might
Ily have yield smaller or larger building fac tors. I
i",! nux If bolts arc used, building facto rs incrcasf. ~Iorr i s' has compared various
e 'f! the met hods of calculating the effect o f bol t holes ill rectangula r-section cores matle
liS iiical from non-orien ted mat erial, but thi s killd o f Jalcu lati on is of little direct help to
.s to thi s the designer. Agai n, the Illost s;lti sfac tory Jll ~ thnd o f jud ging th e d fl:c t of bolt
I , ( the holes is to compa re lhe results o f tests ma ck or, nll'es wit h rind without the holes.
__h!"ve \Vith the trend towa rd s th e omission of I;n lt". this last-mentioned problem
dimin ishes in importance. Once basic dat :'1 have been establi shed for the
Icci fi c predic ti on of co re iro n losses, a runnin g ,hel: k o f bui ldin g factors ll S corcs arc
) lS ub- made find tested serves as the ultimate cnntrol 0 11 th e who le process of co re
. At manufac ture.

, ,I
 l
104 M OO ERN /'OW I~ 1t TRANSFO R~I E R PRA CTICE

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::::

0 )~--------~---------~-------~
0 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8
Bmax Wb/m 2 0 '
C
Figure 4. 12 Core iron losses il l 50 Hz; cu rve a, lim bs and yokes; Curve b, CO m f,; rS wilh
mitred joints; ClIl've c, co rners with squ nrc joint s
r: g"rc 4. 13 C

4.5.2 I\1ngnclising currents , ,

To some ex ten t, the calculation of magncli sing current rro m th e dWI'Hctcristics o f the adj Plc nt I'
th e rn:ttc rialm ca surcd with th e Epstein square i!) ana logo us to th:lt of iro n lo ss. 1(' 1 "
the cor 1· ".
Il owcvcr, with grain -o riclll cLl co re material th cc hallgc ill pCl'lIlc<lbility wit h <Ingle part o t th~ c
of deviation fro lll th e rolling d irection is Illuch grea ter than th e ch:1 ngc in loss, pa rts.. tj V\\c,/1
Furth erm o re, th e perm eabi lity is apt to vary far more from bal ch to ba tch o f core in sul ati on , o:
material and is more se nsitive to treatment durin g th e manufacture o f th e co re. the tempr..:ra l
Also, the errect or air gaps inevitably introduced during buildi ng has a much Since it is I
greater effect o n th ~! magneti si ng current o f the co re than 0 11 th e iron loss. Thus tc·
at..:~c ptan c l:
the predicti o n of l1lagncliSing curren ts is co nsiderably more din1l.u lt tI,a n th e \\ itha fair ,lt
pred icti o n o firo Lllu ~scs . For this reason it is no t custom ary fo r thisils pc('t o fcorc the lhenna l .
performance to be th e subject of a guaran tee. dir ec tion s o f
Figu re 4.13 shows typi ca l figures deri ved fro m actua l tests on co res, \~ I\ich ca n low at ri ght
be lIsed to calculate approximate magnet ising e ll rrellts fo r th rcc- phase t hrcc-Ii III b co mpl k ali u
co rcS bu ilt from 56 grndc I1l:Hcrial. th e larges t [J i.
diss ipatcJ aI '
laminati o ns
4.5.3 TC'mpcrnlure rise
F igure ·L I
Th e vario lls natio nal stallu;lflis co vering powe r tr~lIl S fO rlll C r s ~i lh cr set nO limits silico n - i ro ll
locore temperature risc o r limit the temperature risc o fth cco rc slIrf:IC;C to that o f lel11pCra lUIt

.,-,. r -- ~-"' r-' - ..,.- -- ~- -r···....- ~r-r:rr:r,.,...

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 TRANSFORMER CORES 105
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24~ \-~------1-------1---~- 1
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E
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ou

00 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8

fi g ure 4. 13 Core magnc ti sing \'o ltalllpcrcs ;H 50 Hz: curve a, co rcs with sq ua re j oints:
curve b, cores wilh mitred join ts
,I

of the 3djaccn t winoing but do not attempt to limit the internal temperature risc'of
: ~ ,is. the core. The lEC G1.7, for example. co ntents itself wit h rccOllllnclll.ling that:ho I,
IIlgle part of the co re should become ho t enoug h to damage either itself or a dja ~~ ll t
) $. parts. However. because of the ri sk of damage to any suppl emental int cr!a mi;na r
\e i nsu ia t ion, or to core bolt i nSlIl a t ion (i r hol ts a rc lI ~cd). a sa fc proccdw c i ~ [ 1.1 1inl it
:orc. th e temperat ure o f th e inlcmul co rc ho t spo t to 120 te. 11
1 ;h
, Since it is impracticable to mea sure th is corc tcmpcnHurc as part o f Il urina l
r .IS nccc pta ncc tes ts, as is do ne for the windings, it is necessary to be able to ca lcula te it-
the with a fairdl..!t;n.:c Ofa SS lI l': ilH:c. O ne.: dini l: ult y in ma king sUl: h a l:: t1 cul:Lli(HI is l'ha l
('ore the thermal co nductivi ty o f a lam illtltcd core is quite d ifferc nt for diffeA:1l1
I
directions of heat fl ow: it is re lative ly high a lo ng the lamina tio ns and rcia ti Jci y
....... n low a t ri ghl· anglcs to tbe ll,}. The cr uc iro rm shape o f the sec ti on a lso ::ldds! its
imb complica tions. The simplest method ofcalculatioll is 10 ass ume tha t all the hea'! in
I
the brgest packe t o f a cure travcis across the wid th o f th e lam inali ol1s :111(1 is
dissipa ted at their edges, wit h I1v hl:a tt f'avc ll ing at riglll · ang ics to th e plillle o(L he
laminations, or up and dow n lhe limb. I
figure 4. 14 shows th e relatio n betwee n the therma l co nducti vity I o f
silicon - iro n corc materia l and its silicon co nt ent. fi g ure 4. 15 s how .. how the
temperature ri se o f the hottest int e ri o r pa rt of the co re limb OVl.,! r th l! oil

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'I Figure 4. 14 Th ermal co nducli vi ty or sili co n ir on alloys 8, 9

jt
1 70 r---------r---------r----
I,
•
v calculated for tho
.. 60 - l arg.~t plat. width - - -
.~ neg lec ting heat fl ow
across t~e laminati o ns
~ 50 ---------~~~-------V~--
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t5
~ 4ol-----------~------~~_+_7~------- 4--~

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~ · 301-----~1--~-~~--~~-~~
o
c
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20 ----- -----cA' ';<-.---_1 eo leu lu ted for
c a cir n Jlor section
acco"l ing t o Weh
x l ol----~~~I-~-----_1~~~~~~,~
a
E
o 25 0 750
o
co re: circle d iamczter 111m
,I Figure 4, 15 Int erna l tcmperalure ri se o f co rcs with olJ t ducl ~, C<lk'ul"lcd 1 0 ru r 56 gradc
nwtCl'ia l al 1.55 T and SOli z

\. 1
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1 -,-r -;-; - 'r; - --'- •.•. ,"1
, .... -·.· . . .. ·-71" ~~:"'., ·~:
.-. 0' ~. ~··· ~-:-~;--.: 'J/~

'~,': t')~:·~I .. ·:.; t' , ~ i

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/ " It ,\N s r OR MER CO RES .I 07

.1
surcoll nci ing it vari es with co ,:c diameter fo r corcs with o l't cool ing ducts,
ca lculated in the si;nplc n1:1I111er just described . From the graph it wo uld appea r
unwise to usc corcs witho ut ducts above a core circle d iameter of 500 mill . This is,
howe ver, a n Ulldujy pessim istic approach :lS ca ll be see ll fro m the second cur ve in
,
figure 4.15, which shows the res ults o f.'lJsi ng a more co mplicated form of
calcula tion due ·to Weh' ·. Thi s takes into account heat now in a core o f circular
sec ti o n without d~ct s. if we allow fo r co nducti o n across the laminations and if we
ass ume cq u',}1 IV·~ 't tra ns fer l'o'Zme:icllts and~ oiJ lc rnpc raturcs ill all po ints on the
ouler surface." oil ' calcu la tions o f this kind "the req ui red .yaluc o f thei'mal
conduct ivity norip~1 to I he pl"IlC o f the laminations either can be calcillated from
the component conducti \"i tks u f iro n, insulat ion and o il wh ich appea r in se ries o r
ca n be measured 1J . 'Ei t her wa y, the v;l )ues a'rc sensit ive to t he inti lIlacy a f contact
betwee n adjacent lamina ti ons ;In tl the fa cto rs such as (b mping press ure which
affect this.
The calculation of the maxillllll ll internal tempera ture o f dueled co rcs is even
mo re co mpli c~lted, b ut cxac t so lutio ns ha ve .been a tt cmp ted by Cockcro ft 1 2 and
Iliggi ns ' J for rectangula r Clircs. Th e adve nt o'f the high-speed digital computer
has allowed nUlllerical anal),is to be applied to the calculation of internal co re
tempera tures", and figure ~ . 16 shows some i50thermals for pa rt o f it dueted core
ob ta ined by thi s mC:lns.
The assessme nt of the h c~1I tra ilSfer coefficien ts at the surface of th e limbs and
yokes is no more dinlcult th nll the estimation o f similar coe ffi cients for the
windings, as con sidered in chapter 5. Those fo r the lim.bs will be subject to most
variation, since the duel bctWI'Clll'Ofe a nd winding will va ry and since the vertica l
oi l /low up the dllct wiil also be afrected by the temperature difference maintain ed
betwee n th e inlet a nd oU llet o f the cooler. In designs with sho rt lim b lengths there
is OftC Il consid cmbh: hea l ll' : ~n s re r ve rtica ll y up anti d o wn th e limbs into the
cooler yokes, which has th..: crf!.:ct of reduci ng the internal limb tc.: l1lpt.'raturcs.
However, the tcmperatu res 'i l the jUllclion bet\~I?Cll limb and lup yoke may bc
increased on this accou nt , and, si nce this is surround ed by thc hulkst oil, they
may well be the highest in tllC ent ire co re.
It is not easy to co nfirm Gdcu la ti o ll s o f interna l core h: ll1pcratur~s by d i r~d
measuremen t, since this mu st 'il1\·olvc an assessment o f the lik ely position of the
hot spo t, the insertion o f th ~r ll1oeoup l cs or other tempera ttlre detectors and an
unusual kind o f heal run wit I the co re excit ed. Il olI'el'er, occasiunal tes ts of th is
kind are ca rried out by llI ost nantlfacturers, particu la rl y when extend ing a range
of co res 10 larger di:lIllCIt.:I'S ,

4.5.4 Noise and ";"ral;" n ,

I
The so urce o f transformer .' noise is the co re, cau sed mostl y by longitudinal
ma gnclos lricti vc vibra tions o f the iron, This will be exa mined in morc detai l in
chap ter 8. Here it is sufficic llt:to say that th c ma g ll l! tost ric li vc beha vio ur o f gr:d n-
, 6 grade ori ~ nled silicon - iro n is cO IlSitlCI';I bly affec teu by mecha nica l strain a nd the stn.:ss-
re lief anncal. Fla tn ess o f laminations is des irab le so thnt bend ing strains are not

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l'RANSFOR~j E R C(j~ES 109
induced whe n the co re is clumped. as well as (or the rea so ns explained ca rl ie r in
Ihis dwpt c r. The meth od of dalllP in g is als; irn pO rl ant. as is c\'i~l c l1ccd by fi gure
4. 1 ~ ~
l - --
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85 " o- f---- -
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-
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!l 10 20
A bolll<2ss COl <2 S built
wilh Sil<2c l cor.......
...1... ",,-.-'
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_
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core mass t 1
,I
Figure 4.17 Tra nsformer noise levels measured al 50 I II ,wi.! cl\r rtc lCd 10 8 !::II 1.55 T
I'
,i I -
One steel compa ny in USA has had so me ~\lcec..:s s \\ i,tll a ~ pct.:i al grndc grai n- or
I oricnlcu ~i l ico n iro n mated,, ) whic h is slit 10 widt h ;111l1 j ,: ~ lIbjcc lcti l O a special
process o f an neali ng a nd insu lat in g, T his 111 :11 L: liaI. ~lll l\\, 11 as Silcl.:tco(
(Allegheny _ Ludl ulll Stcel Corpora tion). not o nly I"" " basica ll y low magne to-

I slricti vc COIlSlUl1l bu t gives ve ry nat lam inat ioll s and is nol so sensit ive to core
clam ping prcssu res. So me res ults o f no ise tests o n t r;111 'i fOI !11l: rs \",llose co res we re
m'loe frolll th is mate rial are also give n in fi gure ~.17. Eve n \\'ith low basic
ma gllctos triction, it is possible that an unsui table I.'ho kc o r core d imensions wi ll
lead to mechan ical rt;sona ncc a nd to an increase i 11 COJ'~ \'ibra t ion and tra nsrOrtnc r
noise level I 5. 16, I
.,
4.6 FUTUHE Uli\'ELOI'MENTS ,.. ~

:"J.. II

I ',,;'
rl lC most ce ftai n th ing nbout th e rU lure o r the tlan ~ rormcr corc is lhal. any .....,
.,' .....
l:hanges will be cVlJi ulionary in nature ra ther tl wll Ic"u\u tiO IlCiry.
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. Soc :. ~
13. I n .'--
• tram,; II
Tra"s,
14. Rele.
ACKNOWLEOGE~IENTS
POlI'er I

15. Mn tt!l;(
The author acknowledges with tha nks the val uable assis tance o f severa l Oalik
COlllP:lIlics and individuals in the prepara ti on of thi s c1wplcr. Parlicular thank s 16. I h:n slu;
an; du e to Bruce Peebles Limit ed (now pari o f the Rcy ro llc.; Parso ns Gro up as fn:qu en
Parsons Peebles Limited), the Steel Co mpany of Wales Lim ited (now part o f the Dew
Orit ish Steel Corporation) and the Allegheny - i.lIdlunl Steel Corpora ti on for
per mi ssion \ 0 quo te frolll data relating 10 th ei r products.

REfEHt::NCES

(Reference nllmbers preceded by th e lettcr G arc listed in section 1.1 4.)

I. Goss, N. P., ;ISM TraIlS. Q.. 23 ( 1935) 215
2. l1 a l'l OIl , J. P., Inl crl :1min:ltion res ista nce, 7"1'(1/ /'<;, Am. /11.\1 . I~/('(· I ". F:lIg .. 63
(IN1) 670
3. Morris. A. L., SICPPCU ro re sectio ns for power transforlilers. Engillcel', 18·'
( 1947) 58 1
4. M orris. 1\ . L.. Calc ulati on of losses in tr;Jn ~ rormc r C~lI'C S. Engineer, 191
(1~54) ~37
5. Gordy, T. D., a nd Somerville, G. G., Single-pha se power transformer
formcu cores, Tl"<IlIs. Alii. 111.<1. Dec/,.. ElIg .. 69 ( 1950) 1384
6. Ph illips. M.. and Th oma s, J. M., Optico re- a compu ter progrillll to
calcula te ('lptimll lll cross-sec tiona l nrcas of tran sform er cores. II 1::1 Eng.,
January - February ( 1966) 40
7. Kerr, 1-1 . W., and Palme r, S., Development s in the design of large power
transfo rm"rs. Proc. IIIS/ . £Il'c /" . ElIg .. III (1964) 823
8, Go tt er. G .. !I('(lfill,!!. lIl/(/ Cooling f /n 'lricu/ "llldlil/('1 y. Sprill'gc r- V...:rlag.
Derlin. ( 1954)
9. Powell. R. \V ., Therma l cond ucti vities of metall ic con(\u(,:t\)I's :llld their
c.:s l im ati oll . 1'1'0('. C I 'II . Oi,\'(·,I ....... (I II 1/('/1 1 7)·/III .Ve,l', In stituti on 0 1' I\In'h: l nica l
Engin"cr, . L.,,"lon ( 195 1) 290

, I
 TRANSFORMER CORES .Ill
icnt etl .'
IO.,.,\Vch, I-i., Die zwc idimcnsionale W;irmestromung illl gcschich tt.: lcn Tr;.Ins~
Ie in . format orkcrn, A,ch. E/i!kf,ofech. (Be,/ill) , 41 (1953) 122

li nJ of
IJ: Robe rts, T. J., and Allen, P. H. G., The thermal conduc ti vi ty of so me
. : .: electrica l engineering rnqteria ls, Proc., 9th Therma/ C01ld. C01lJ.lowa Slate
th ; Unive rsity Press, Iowa (1969) 7 19 I

. I ~l. Cockcrort, J. D .. Tcmpe rature di strib ution in tra nsformer o r othcr

tio, of .#.i: lam inuted core of rectangular cross-sec ti on, etc., Proc. Cambridge Phi/os.
r- . Soc .. 22 ( 1925) 759 '_ . . ..
I-liggi ns. T. J., f ormulaS- ' for ca lcu lati ng t cmpcr~lttlrC distributio n' in
tfall sfonn cr cores alld othc~ electric appara tus of fcctan guia r cfoss#scc tio n,
" Tl'lllIs. Allf. II/Sf. ""/('Cf,. Ellg .. 64 (1945) 190
14: Rele. /\., :l nd r a lr lll r, 5:, Coo ling of large transformer cores, fLEE Tml/s.
/'""..., ..1"""", Spt:, 9 1 (1972) 1527
'15: Matthieu, P., Ca lcula ting the na tu ra l vi brations o ftra nsfonner cores, BfI/I.
cr;1i Oe,./ikall, No. 36 1, February (1965) 1
.... '~ ks 16, \I ensldl, R. D ., fl enne!! , P. J., McCallion, II., and Milner, M .. Nat ural
ollil as frequ C: llI..: ics :lIld Ill ode S h~lPCS of vibrati on of trans for mer corcs, Proc. !lIst.
' \he DeCf'. Elfg .. 112 (1965) 2 133
or

. 63

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about the ~sc
The 111 os 1c
Windings "
, In cer tain 1- hI
I One common

H. W. Kerr *
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cond uct or i
otlier i n ~ u l.
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I

so 1l1e rc ~pcc l

surrOUW'i f'
liquid insu 1
bet ween p... , ~
cOlllmon sllch
The lI1a , h
5. 1 Il EQU IR E\ IENTS WIlI CIl CONTIlOL WINDI NG DESIGN necessa ry 1 ~
of - 31. rC i,
The design o f a ny transformer winding I"ll ust fuHiI ce rtain basic rC4uircl11cll ts. It lClllpcralU 1 r
mus t \\'ithstand the electric st resses imposed o n it duri ng les l. These I c~ I " ;Ire T he nl el> 1
intellded to ensure that a trans forme r pa ssi ng th em wi ll give troub lc-fn.:c ',l: 1 vice 0.05 mg KUr
fo r lIlany years 1IIHkr th e co nditi o ns it is likd y to Il H,'c t after il ~ ;llsl ,lIl alillll. Il l!.;Y bet weell sphc
:lrc th ere foro o f three so rt s: (t) :.I l cs t at po\\.'cr fr equency for abou t I min to plOVC ""~Ill'facl.u I,:
ils morgin over il s opo raling vu lla ge. (2) a sllrge lesl and (3) a sw ilchi" g ', lIrge ro mall, ,,L I
lesl- bol h (2) and (3) arc 10 provo il s abi lily lowi lhsland vollage Slirges , ' IIe 10 moisture. A VI

almospher ic dislur ba"ce and 10 swi lchin g. ,' ! ~lC Ic~.e l 01 111
The trans former loss ll1u st not be higher than the quoted li gurc. and this loss kee pi",,' Ih ."
Illllst include no t only the loss in the conductor it self but also allY l os ~cs ill (11 11CI' Ih rollg a bre
stru ctures whic h are a fUll cti o n o f Cllrrcn l. The Ica ka ge impedal1ce must be llf th e air .in
1
cur ' l e
requircd \'a lue, a nd the wi ndin g dimensions Illust be such tha t th e quot ed l'nre .sat lsf:J('tor .
loss is nol exceeded. i . . Tl ilOi l '.; I
The winuing tCllIpcraturc Illll St no t rise above a n ;lccc pt ~lbl c len;!.'1 ~ incc altcrill lIve IS t
(H'c rh eating c() tlld damage the insul:lt io l1 anu ('o uld shorten its life. : is 60% he. l
Inevi lab ly .cit.:clro magnct k fl)l ~..:s I,) f con sidera bte magni l ud ..: ca n bc prod uccd O I \C pr e; . ~ I
in large tf<llls fo rmcrs under fault co nditio ns. and the \\' inding must be dc:'Oigpcd to Ihal il should
withstand th ese fo rc e s . ' : The pc< II'
Fi na ll y the who le tran s fnr1ll l!r !lIIl S! bc cnpablcofbci ng bui lt :1I1d so ld at ;\ pri(c " Ibscqu cn bl
;Il'CC pl;lblc to th e purl"ll;1 scr IIlld II1 t1 st still provide a lI1;u'!.! in o f prc.J IiI thefl'f , hUlI ld IHlve I
tnanufaC lurcr, va ri at ion (1" ' 0
,
!
field al th,
While tOl d
f'
S.2 MATEIUAI.S t r;llisform crs,
T hcsc urc, ts
5.2. 1 Gelleral th em, :1 Ill: 11
infl)IIII:1 1io ll ~
In :-> pilc ofdevcloplnClIlS ill 111C producti on o f~ y 'llh ctk Illai cria ls Ille rc h;l~ l)cCIl A morc M"C

• Parsons Peebles Limited . (SF.)is lir, I"

 WI ND ING S 113
little Ch3Il gc in the raw materials used in windin gs of oil-fill ed trans rorm ers. The
co ndu c to r is ge nerally co pper, alth o ugh in some cases eco no mi cs has bro ught
abo ut th e lise o f alulI1inium.
T he m ost CO JlIIll O Il insulati o n is paper o r paperboard k ll a Wll as prcssboa nl G2 .4,
In ce rtain places wood, o ften laminated and varn is h imprcgrwlcd, is cillpl oycd.
One commo n departure from th ese ma terials is the usc o f synthetic e!la lllel as
L:O IH.luctOf in sula tio n when the vo lta1:ic between cOIH..Iucl ors is ll ot too hig h. Ma ny
o th er insulating ma terial s ha ve been tried but either ha ve bee n fo und w<lrlting in
some respect or ha ve proved too expensive for general usc. ..
Sur ro unding the windin gs a nd in sulati o n of most po wer trans rormers is a
liq uid insulanl. This se rves th e do uble purpose of pro viding good insula ti o n
between parts a nd o f remo vin g the heat resulting fro m the losses, The Inos t
comm o n such ma terial is oil GI.I 8, 02. 1.
The mnx imll lll viscosit y permitted is 37 mm1s - 1 at 2 1.1 oC. This low \'aluc is
nc.:ccssary to allo w oil ci n.: ula tioll und er th crm osy pholl co nd itio ns. /\ po ur point
o f - 3 1. 7°C is specified, bu t where ex trcme cold may be cx pcril.! ll<.:cd I.! VCII lo wcr ,.
Is. Ii temperatures Illay bc rcquired.
s afe The maximum pe rmiltcd ilc idi ly o f new oil is that which CCln be neutrali sed by
I!"Y 0.05 Illg KO H pcr g. The oil lIlust withstand fo r I min a voltage of 40 kV
-t
) 1'0 C
'e
betwcen spheres 1311'l1TI in di a meter a nd 4111111 apart , but many tra nsformcr
manu facture rs demand hig hcr tcst leve ls than this.
!'! T o ma intain th e oil in good co nditio n in servi ce it is esse ntial to kee p o ut
I to mo isture. A vcry comm o n pra ctice is to have a co n sel'V~lt o r t ~ 1I 1 k 1110 un teu abo ve
!. the level o f th e ma in tank . T his <llIo ws changes o f volume with tempera tu r" while
~ ' OS5 keeping the main tank full o f oil. The conservat o r is co nnected to a lmos phere
her thro ugh a brea ther u ~s i g ll c tl to remove moisture fro m th e a ir enteri ng. Thus the
o l lhe ai r in contac t with the o il is kept dry p ro vidin g the hrcil th cr is wo rk ing
J 1'0 fC sa tis ractoril y.
Thi s o il is flammable. Where the usc or such a ma teri a l is 11 0 t accc ptable, an .. ,. '1, ,
,). t.:c altcl'l1 f1 li vc is the liqu id kn o wn in Brilain as Pyrochlo r. Its chemica l com positio n I "'" '. \ • f.. . •f
is 60 % hc,achlo rodiphcnyl and 40 % trichlo ro bcnl cne. , .' ' ; ,'1< :il, . . ,t" f , ,t
I ·cd O lle prope rt y o f an y so lid insulating material in a hi gh ~ \'o ltage trans fo rmcr is
I
I
I I!"
,:'\~ir 1 ..:
. 'f:.,1 ' ~--"f'
r.(l
.....,' 1 "', • ',:'
10 Iha l il sho uld be fair ly casily impregnated by the liquid insula n!. It I./ ".: ,"'.' .''"I,t:".);). .,
The presence o f cavit ies rull of gn s co uld ca use int ernal di sc..: hargcs and 1 ", '. rl .' t 'iL _" ~ ", ,.. •
j, ,JI ~/.. :t
ice subsequent breakdo wn . II is also dcsira ble tha t the vario us insul ulirl g ma teria ls
I
r,l i I,. ,;J. '/' .•~~
"'.!t'
sho uld have as nea rl y as possible the same valu cs o f perm itti vit y, since w!~..e , ,j.' ': ~i1
var ia lio n thr ows high stress o n th e ma teri al 0 n owes t pcrmi tti vit y anti d isto rts the
fie ld at th e intcrface between the two materi a ls. ..;.,,(;~ ..~,.,' ;~ ...
, .~: .
\Vhile this com pl etes the basic raw mat eri a ls in oil · or o tliel' l iq llid ~ lill e d \',.

transformcrs, there is a very wide ran ge of l11ateri als in d ry -type Ira!Js fo rmcrs.
These arc classcd in acco rdan ce with the tempera ture at whic h it is Sil rc 10 o perate
thern, Dnd in this fi eld new malcria ls have becn tried with success. Mo re
in for matio n abo ut this type of tra nsfo rmer is given in chapter 11 .
li S ce n
A mo re rcccnt dcve,l opmc nl is the usc o f gases, o f wh k h sul phu r hcxa nuoridc
(SF ()) is thc most co mmo n. Unde r press ure this gas has very good electr ic strength .!

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,

114
" no al so goo ul: oolin g pro pe rti es. Whik g a s- lill c ~ Ir'anSro rnl crs I! : IVC been st utlh.: u
' in some detail in the UK,~ there is much 1110 rc experience ill th e USA where
numbers of quite large UI)iI S have been made1.2,
,,
5.2.2 CundlH.:tors
J .,
~]
·1
Whi le the bl.lsic materjal s lIsed as co nductors arc Iimit ctl to co ppe r and
alum inium, these c~i n he cglploycd in vario ll S roni,s: dcp!: nd in g 011 th e currcnt
. HIll voltage I'cqu ircrn cl. "rn CO 11 usc arc wires arid strj ps, a nd reCc nt years
llHll tl i ll
'J
there has been il l) increaseQ usc o f foi l a nd sheel. \Vircs 3 r c suita ble o nl y where the
currents arc fairly tow, as in the high. voltage windin gs o f distrib uti o n tra ns fe r·
1I1c rs. Str ips. either singli or ill groups in parallcl, d ill be fOlilld o ve r a vc ry wid e
ra nge o f cuncnl fron,l about lO A tu the highes t t; Ur rC lll s in the low-voltn ge
I
.'
wi ndings o r I ~.lrgc generator tra ns rorlll t.! rs.'
There is a co nsidera ble overl ap bet wee n wire a nd strip. Foi l ca ll replace wire or
strip where the currents arc not too la rge, and, bcyqnd the thickn ess limit of the
foil. sheel ca n be used. T here is a limi ll o Iho widlh in .v hich foil or sheel can be
oblained, a nd clearly windin g wilh Ihick , hee l would be qui le illlproclicable. •
Cond uctor insulati on ror oil · ir ll l1lerscd tra nsforni,!r is either paper or synthetic
el1amel. The latter is suitable ror \\ire a nd strip \y herc it s clct·tr ie strength is
sufficie nt to withsta nd the vo ltages :'I'Pl.:ilfillg d ur in g test a nd ill service. For
higher vollages paper insulalio n is ;1I1I1l)SI un iversally used. Where necessary a
Ilu mber o f strips in parallel, c.: :H.:h in ,- ul'lt(.·O by sY1lthetic cnamel , a re co vered
uve r'tIli by paper wping. The illd h idu al strips a rc t ra ll !' lw~ed evcry fl!w
centimetres so that there is cornpll!h.: 11:I I1 :-. posit ion every rew metres (fi gure 5. 1). ' -' , J
Thc req uirement ror tra nspositi on is c,~ p l a in cd in secti on 5.6,
The insulati on o r ro il. cspccinll y :11 Illl: rdge. P' !.:St: IlI S $O l11e prob lems. [ fro rts
have been amJ a n.: bein g 11l :11.J c In t. l :lt roils " ilh insulal io l1 , but int crlul'll
1

inslI l:ltion is more CO III 11l t.1 Jl Iy I' t' l l\ idl. d ' . ' ind ing in thi n. p:lpcr or plastic d uri ng
Ihe manufac lure o f Ihe co il.
" ' ''" <• •;/ I, I. •
~)clc; (b ) ,J . ,. , .
.,
5,2.3 InsulatiOn l\ithin a ninding
)
I

With in a wi!1 din g (he insul at ion 1ll\l ~ 1 he ~l rra n gcd not ollly to provide su fTi ck llt
l!1 t'clric !i trength to preve nt brcakdn\\ 11 under an y condit iol1s likely to be me t in
st.!!' vic..\; but a lso to allow adcq uil tl: c.:,' l·ul:t tio n of lhe coo ling IIl l~d iull1 so that 11 0 Tile majo(
pa rt 0 r t he wind ing ge ts excessively ho t. Va fiou s wind ing arrange ments rnlVe been \'e f )' o rt en (/.1.' /;
developed 10 meel Ihese rClJlJircI1\CI\IS. So me are described lalcr ill Ihis chapler. lna ny ca se,;, '[
C'nm 1l10 1l to all :In: :-o p:tccrs to m:li lll:l in ducts, eit her hori /o ll tal or ve rtical. from p ~I PC( ,
I
These spal..·crs ;l rc usua ll y cut r!l)1I1 ullal ds o r p '-I pcr- I )' p ~ rn ;,tc.: ria l witho llt :lny nlld cle<.:tr i(', ;/
i l1lprcgll ~lIi o n by ";u ll ish or ;Hlh l:" h c. They a re sim ilar to c;lrCl boanl, nltho llgh o r
which ra ill. . ,
rnll ch higher electric strengt h, i1 nL! til l: Ill ost sl ringclIt prr.;cau t io ns arc ncccssa ry to the pCI'Jl1 ifr
prcvent conductin g 1ll(lller or any thlug which could ::t.t"cclcra tc ageing o r th e oil poil1 l 10 v> f·
the possibd" /
rCflchi ng the ri nal product. T he sa l ll ~ 11la ll:ria l ( (Ill be cut int o was hers or C:III be
for11led int o cy linders. .1I'e no t tht".... r

~'-" - "-
 WIND I NGS

stu ied
ere

'.' j'

lind
1(,; 1

cu rrcnt
yca rs "
,\

h e the
·~IIl:! ro r.
" jl' ide

,t
. ""rc or
,se

i )fthe
t9" be
ie"9 le " •
) ,~e tle ,
;: " b1h is "",. ,."" I'
'""i"l
"IT
18 "
" ,,•
•
,"", ,,
ice] For
~ ry "
II
1020
.9
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t

~cred
a
,.
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,S "II
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I

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crY I few
""" "" "" ""
"
1'- 5, 1), " ~_

, "
2~

"" ",,' ," "

" ""
-;;;
" "

",I,: forts "

nr~

\' I ring
turn 10 1 101 lei
'"'
f'i gll rc 5. 1
Co nI in lI ously tr!ln :-; posed multi . strip CO IH.I ud or: (a) :I I !o ra rt uf I ra nc; pos il iUIl
cyde; (b) aftc r lirst tr:Lll !l posi ti un; (c) after Ihin ccn lh lran spo:; ili\) u; (L1) aftc r twe nty·
seve nth I f:J Il Spo sitio n

uflicicnt S.2A ;\)ajuf i ll~lI taliol1

net in
lat 110 T he major insu lat ion is that b CL\\'CC I1 windings or from windings In ea rth . ~I; hi s
vcry o rt en co nsis ts o rtll e same board os lI SCU for in sulati on within th e wi nding. In
ave been
1
"" liIp tcr. many ca ses. howevc r, more I1l cchanica l strength is req uired. Cy lill d ~ 1 s arc wou nd .
,.
/,
'aJ. from P;Ij)l!( ami arc bonded with sY llthetic resi n. Th c~c huvc good IIlcchnnical i! '
lo~ t a ny and elcc tr ic properti es. T he punc ture streng th is vcry good. but th e volt age at I.!
10l~g h o f which railure occurs over the surrace is lowe r Ihan ror the unhanded board. Al so
. wry 10 I he perm iIt iv il y is higher, re sult iIl g in ;l less u ni ror lll vo ltage di s! dUll I iO Il . A nother Ii
the oi l
)r co n be
POi ll11 0 be remembered is l hat impregnat ion with oi l is much marc dirJh.:ull wi th
I he possibility 0 f so me pa rts bei ng {;onsitkra bly Wei1 ker 1han other!', LH.'GllIS'-.! I hey
arc no t thoroughly oi l sl);Jkcd.
..,
, ,
'. 1

"
,
.. ~""""-~ ,,---..,---.. -.--..,--_.- -... .,.. . -.~ -
...., ~-. ,

'
.... ..
 • 1

_J

11 6 t.I ODLRN I'OWI :R TitAN S] OJ{ I\ II ' I{ PIC\ .. r Jt I;

, •,
5.3 cO~ l r I ON TYP ES OF \\'I N Il I N G

5.3. 1 G CIl t' l' lIl "

. t 'fh e type of wi ndill g designed for :ltl y appiiGllit"' " (Ic'/" I! d~ o n it s CUll el1 t :lIld
•,. ' J: vo ltage requ ireme nt s. It d ocs no t fo llo\\'. ho\\c\c l', Ihill ' here is a uniqu e lksig n 1 •

l \\'11 :( 1\ Ill l'c l s :\11 rcq,vili·rncnls. The re is o f \,.' O UI :'C ;t1l (\\ ! hp bc lwC't: 1l til e l allt;CS
cove red by any t wo fQrm s, bu t in ~ld d itil) 1l C\ (c l l1 <1 1 f5L'tors Illay h,\\'cl.:unsidcraulc
i nil lienee. Ob "i ously t he manu fa ct uri II g faei 1it ics 11Il1'i 1 he t liken i III 0 :1(1..:011 rH , a nd
Lhe training and experience in the m:IIHlf;H:turc r's t1 I U:t lli sati o n ( ;1ll1lU I be
Ileglected. '1'
Certain winuing forms may be cove red by p<l\l;nI S \\ li il:h. e\Jell if licences to
maJl ufacture co uld be o btained, wou ld "rfect th e ccoll o nliL:s whi ch fin :ll1y <lccidc
wh ic h winding 10 choose,

5.3.2 J Id ka l nill dillgs

,,
For IOw. vll lla t:c hc;t \'Y' L: lII'rcnt coils th e J1HI ~ 1 f,,' 1' lllfl H'11 winding ro rlll is hcl il': d, As "
il s n:tlllC i'lllpli es thi s is \\'OHm.l 0 11 a fUllll e( i ll a IIdi,x IIf (,,:/l llst:t nt d i:IIIH.: h.:r.
progressi ng III rn by t u I'll fro l11 o ne end to t hL: 0 1ireI'. II <:i. I n he \\ (' lind d i rcell y 011 it
cyli nder o r ca n be scp. rr:ll cd fr o rn it hy s Jlnl ' l' l ~ to provide ;1 11 ~ I il luc1. A 11l tll' ll lc, s
l"I,.)11 1111 0 11 pr :H: t kc is 10 wind it 0 11 a (Olll ll'r \\ hi c h is liI( f' " 1 (' III ~1\ c d , SJl : lt.'\.'I' ~ \.':111
~,J,.·I I' I
it Iso be a rra ngc c..l t o provide ducts oct \\ 1.:\.' 1\ I II IllS if t he (Pil I i ti L\. ~'ol1d i I io ns \', itll ,a nt
it. rhe ,!iSkcu
The wind ing 1I13Y ha ve o lle o r morc 1;\) 1; 1'':: . , ayc rs 111 11'. 1 h i! l'1)ll lll 'Cl cd ill ~\." Ii cs bl! e\ 1110111 1
as par.lllel CO l1ll cc t i o n wo uld re sult ill hi gh I. it U I1:t1 in g UlIl l lll '. Since (h i.. 1), I'c uf Ii lIl i t, t,) r \ I
coi lllsll ally ca l rics qui lc h C;1\,y Cli 1'1'l: lit .:: , 'l;e\'(." :t 11:olldli \.' l nr '. 'HC wO!lll d ill jlill i" k: 1. Iwilli la !
Th L"!-c 1~"IlI S I be I ran!-posl: o 10 kee p do ,', III hl: sl I ay I ll\!-I:~, : i,'."11 \' 5, ~ ..; Ih)\'. , I III; lo w- rlll .J • a Iii IIi
vo lta gc wi nd in g o f a large gcncra lor [ran !- fl.n fli er JlIl'i llll rn' lI n lf" r.; tu ,'c, if t:\ C f Il: I
Tll o d
o l1l 'iitit.: ;til t.!
5..1.3 J\ lulti-l:t ) cr hi ~ ll-\ tl l t::r,c Ililldillg madc as" '(
lillish. SI
A rOl'II1 l Jf winding siluilar to Ihe lh:lk'a l bu t \'\: ' )' di rrCl'l' lIt ill !l; r l1lS o f the \ I II /a g e
\\'OtlIl J i ll U
nt;1.! cu \'cr'cJ is th e lIlult i-laye r high-\'nll :t gc winding. I' ,is \\ indin g j" in fail ly
othcr terln;
u llllllll> J1 115C for \'ult" gcs abo\'e 1.12 kY a nd l ; r ll bl.! de5i.g llcd fL1r a \ci'y \\ide lan ge
dcsign, I ;1
or ctl rrcnt. E.ach laye r is wound illl hc :-:;IIllC \\'a)' as a hel k:t1 l'lli l. hu t insul:lti (l ll :lIJd
Spc<.: i:
arc a rra nged a ~ S lhl\ \'11 ill JiL~ lIl l· " ,.' I~) 111 ;t ~ L" it .. ,til; r!l!c fur rll\.'
!'c r ct.: l1in g hi e h \.'~ 1
illlpl'o"c \'ll
vo l ta ges. Thc l:b.:tric ucs ig1\ is di \\.' II :-'~l: d i ll ~ 'L' tin n 5.5,
! ',(,' ('1 i t,) II ' -
One pOin t w hich must be rCllh: 1l1 ht.: l l'd ",jill (hi s t) r '- tl f l Oil is Ih :ltlhc Ia p.:r
OUI.!
l1 \.'arcs t the du ct bct\\cc n hi gh- ;II1U low-, nlla r,c \' iIH l i ll L!' I', in a Itir h in k nsity f ;I I1 Q'1 rc I II
\

ma r,nc l i..: fi eld , Th is gi vc s h ighn I,: dd y t'Ur I l' lI I II, IS',l" fI ll' rh i'i 1I,),e l' I hal\ fo r [h e rest
or lir e wi Ild i I1 g :Ind l '\l llld l:\lll [111 1[ lr l ' I hr.: I. U l ;,) d l..·~ it'll ,'\ 1,, 0 I; !' I jill rur1' 1'''; n I c.: It ighcs i
1 i\ ... wil ll ,' l'
1 ''I I ..j It
llll I hi!' layer,
dc,i:: rl '; '.,
 ..
., WI ND INGS
.r
:.) 'I

d.

'.
and
T~·lt
".
.1 drsign
IC rangcs
" ..
siderable
) I/'and
1
.1" . t be

," a l. As
i ne ter, Fig ure 5.2 Ln rgc helical co il be in g wo und
I
otly on 3
I" " h less
( IS ca n
5.3.4 Disk coils
Wlt rran t
I The d isk ,'o il is cOllll11o nl y employed for a winding where the helica l coi l ceases to
i series he eco nom ica l as the vo ltagc increases a nd curre nt decreases. Il o\\\! v\' r. its uppe r
i ... · c o f limi t o f voltage has not been reac hed, It has been used up to the sa ill': I, \ d as the
pa ;" Iel. m u l ti ~ l a)'er h igh ~vo l tngc windi ng, Since it is only suitable for coml II"':! ' II i ll strip
t : Iow- form, a li mit is rcached where the cur ren t is so low thal wire is used. 'I !Ii s j, rarely
if ever renchcd in power tra nsformers, as the rated value tends to rise wllh \·v ll age.
The disk co il co nsists o f a num ber o f disks wo und altl:rnntely fn.'l li ins ide to
o utside and out side to inside a nd con nected in series. The series con nl ~,. ti l"1 ca n be
made :ls a sepa rate operatio n, o r the coil ca n be wo und con ti nllousl y f W Ill :-. ta rt to
voltage
fin ish. Someti llles th e co U has olle 1\, :
I\! rllli nal at th e cent re, il ml til\! h·d\cs arc
wou nd in opposi tc d iH.. <.: tiolls so that LOp and bottom can be joilH.:d in lllnn the
iI fairly
I oth er termi nal. T his reduces the current in each disk and may help the electric
11 ngc
~In d
design. Figure 5,4 shows a con tilluous-d isk coi l bei llg wo und . I
Special des ig ns with :\cl'cc ns or illlcrwound co ils have been th \ do pcd to
imp rove vo lt age distri buti on under s urge CO IHJ iti o ll SJ , T hese wi lll)L: , ; i ~ l..u:-.scd in
sectio n 5.5.
O ne advantage cla imed for this type o f windi ng is the case 's ilh whi ch
ampere - turn ba lance be twee n prima ry and seco nda ry windings ca ll b~ :I~ h ie\'ed,
As will be explained in sectio n 5,9, this keeps to a mini mum the axial' f01 l'CS a nd ,
coupled with the inherent st rength o f th is rorm o f windi ng, mnkes it a H.: ry good
desig n unde r s h o rt ~c irc u i t fa ult cond it ions. '

!.

"i
i
" •
1
 ~, ,. ~ . ·r'
,~ :
,:

"'I
o
11 8 MODERN POWE R TRAN!' ! O RM ER PRACTI CE

eor lh

nmnlOiN end
Ullli1 poc kinQ
I

I!of rh
·.(I ('e n
J
~/
~
'"~ §•
' _ i>
~
~
'"~ 1•
~
'S
I '" '" '"
!2
z
I
1
"
"
~ ,I'

eO rlh

Figure 5.3 Section or multi. layer high· yo ltage windin g

1\ specia l :rpplica tiull o f the disk winding is for vc ry hig h currcnts sUI.:h as a f e
met in th~ design of furnace tra nsformers. Then a largc 1l1l 111ba of disks a re
co nnccted ill parallel. The low·vo!t<lgc windin g wi ll be 0 11 the olltside a lld so
co nve nient to the co nllccti ons to the term ina ls,
Tbe arran
requ in \ I
5.3.5 Co ils Il1 :1de rro ll1 Hire give n 1 Jl
Power transfo rmers ra re ly have currell ts low enough to Icq uire the usc u f wire Sma ll II
instcad o f strip. \Vire has a poorer space fac tor tha n a reLla ngulart:onduc tor so be bui!' r
that it is not employed whcrc str ip is avn ila blc. It is, thereforc. found oJl ly irl the sub-SCI )0
co ils of dis tr ib ut io n trans fe r rn crs, which arC co nsidcl cd in chaptcr 9. :lIld in tra nsfo rm
instrument tran sfo rlllcrs which form a :,pccia l Ik ld. l h rCC-Qua.
On the rare occasio ns when a high yoll. rgc co mbined \\ il h a rcl:rlh'dy low rated arc co Ie
value is rcquircd, the hig h-vol ta ge wind ing o fa power transforrn cr must be wire As l. ., it:
wound . For high-volta ge \\ indings the Illulli-Iayt.:r t ) pI:! ca ll be used, while for with sccti,
lower Yullages siln ilar wi ndi ngs to th ose found Orr distriblltion transfor mers ca n occu p; ~ t
be employed . mai nl ; ~c
!;
\
;,•

.. r
.I ..-~---,. .. ~~
( .. '~; ,' . ,
J "f;;~ ' ....., ' j ............. . . ~

, ·,.t .. '
'K~ ~';'I ~ ~'.;'~.
~r
;~.
, , .",
"" t, ...·.,
,0. •.
.1 .. ~ •
I ' ,
',I ,~,...
" ..
.1,1,·',
, .. \', \'
~, ••
 11 9
1
i WIND INGS

I"
I

I
1Fieurc 5.4 Continuous-disk coil being wound

5.3.6 Coils IIl adc fnJIl1 foil or stu,'ct

Coils have been IIWllufacturcd from copper or aluminium foi l or sheet for
distri bu ti on tran s rormers and fairly small power trans formers. O ne of the claims
made is th a I it s sp~u.:~ facto r is be tt er than o th er form s o f co il :l lld lhat it s coolin g
properties arc good. Oot h properties arc depe ndent to St'I1lC I.! xlc lil 0 11 the
,1Ich as are intcrturn i n s ul;. lli~ l1 . -
( isks are I!
i ... ...l and so
5.3.7 Toppings II'1
The nrrangcn1cIlt ll ( Ihl: vario us coils is la rgely dependent on the charac teris tics
req u ired. th e n ': :I..:'I:11 h': C bl:i ng cspcciillly i III porIa nL Spec ial c.:O ll sidi.:ra t io n must be
give n to the tap.~ lJruvidt:d to adjus t Ihe voll;'tge ratio.
.I of wire Sma ll trunsforlners or medium -size units with small tapping la nge 1l1ay'ja fely
r uctar 50 be bu ilt wit h t ap~ loca ted at th e mechan ica l cen tre of the coi l. bu t. as shown in
on ly in the sub-section 5,g,4:a xiai forces increase rapidly as the out o f balancc increases, for
. 0 and in tr~ln s formers up 'to a bou t 30 MVA t:lpS arc usually lora ted at olle-quarte r ilnd
three-quarters of, I he disl:.lnce frolll the top of the coil; the lop:1l1d butto m halvcs
YI W raled arc connected in pa ralle l to makc this th e elec tric centre,
ust be wire As units beconic ];lrgcr even this is not satis factory, and se parate tapping cll ils
hile for with sections wO ~lIld in para lle l bu t co nnec ted in sc ri l!s must bc lI sc.:. d. Eac.:. h sec ti o n
) crs can occupies th e full .\\inding length, and balance betwc:en pr imary and scc01lliary is
maintained wh:1tc,,'cr the tap position. The int cn,:ollllc:(: tiull bdwCt:1l secti ons is

I,,' ' 1'·1

t,' '.

I~ :~ ,'r~~'
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 "

120 MUDERN POWER J RAN SI' QI{Mt R I'lt,\l riCE

;\fI'I/l gcd SO tholt the I1l.1xillllllll vll lta gt.: b ~ I \\ct.:n ad J'lI.:~r l t CO I1lJw..: t O [' ~ ' ..... , of Wh '
Iwo lap seclions, '( wil1d i,~i
The ;:u-rangcmcnt o f laps innucnccs the va riat ion o f ill1pc~uanct: ':" ",' (' the rund ap"
l apping ran ge. Any unbalance be twee n wil1dings in<.:n.:ascs rcact:1I1CC b: , ", \ ' \ Inc~ r cac;ta ~
ing raui al nu x. Norma ll y win dings arc (h;siUllcJ lO balance 0 11 (i.le mea !' -', l~ w il h rdcrrcl..
nn increasing out o f ba lance as the c:xtremi ties o f the range arc
oppr\'"" " 1'..1.
With se para te tapping coils, reactance must be calc ulatc~ j o n 11 \"' : ' 0 .1 and
ex t (erne t n~s. Thi.s~.f1l ~ s t tnke int o acco un t al l windings (:;,\ r ryin~ c.u rrcn t ,,', .. : h. .• 1;1p
u ndcr consl(.I crat Io n. I II1111 s 1 be rCIIlCIll bcrcd Iha t a.-Ja ppl ng COl , the h.'.\ ';" . :' 1.' nIIX , 5.5 EI
will hayc losses even when it is Il ut ca rrying currenl,
Fi gur~ 5.5 illustrates three lapping arr:lJ1 g~ me lll s. bulmn ny 1l1orc ar\.' ".'" ,lilt;,
5.5, I
The In'
scrvic
HV LV L~ co nn t:.~
..\ ~ .,
> ,'.'> vary ill!l
~ ~ ,'.
L - Ihall

~
~~ o f Ih i
J
~
The

r Ir= i
~

~
~
can bi '
ins uk
prove I.
lIi gh
des ig l
sume
wijldi n.
tr;,t t'
j .'i s'ut;
A va l
,.) ,.) ,, , ~ih iche
, so me
Figu rc 5.5 Somc tapping a r ra Jlg~mc ll l s: (:1) t:1 pS in bot h physica l and clcclril'. " : lll!' or
10 be -,.
hi gIH 't,)' ilgc wi nd illg; (b) laps al lH1C-Qtill rt er :111 <1 Ihrcc-qua rlers of di stan ce fn li ll 1' 11 , 1hu t
in clcl;l I.'ClIlrC ofh igh-..,olt ilglo: \\ ;'IU;lIg: (c) separate 1;11'(,;0;1 con nel'ICd:11 ncu l l .d. nd of freq uet'
voila ;
high-voltage willd ing
f jilsut;
turn sil
many"
5.4 \\'I ~O I NG AIlHANGE~IENTS norm
dried, ,
The siIII plcst possi ble arrallgt: me 11 1 0 r wi nd ings has IwO conecn! ric coils, 111 1 I, II,\'- this pal
vo lta ge wi nuing nex t to the core a nd the high-vo ltage \\inding otJ tsid l' q It is Vo ,
o rten necessa ry. howeve r. to lISC a marc complex design. Tappings i11tH Hlw.:c a di, 1 I
some complica ti ons, as descr ibed in sub-seclion 5.3.7. Special requircmc lll 'J 1'11 '1he cond uc
sys tem wherc the tr:l ll . . rOfmCr will he u.;;t:d (11' limilation s ill sizeor mass m:1Y) , ', li lt In p c I

in other va ri atio ns in the winding ilrftlll gcme nlo 'he h

.-,.-.~. ,
'."';-"'" '........... ,..,.. "
~" ::".... ~ 'r:~),~ , ,
•
. ~' ~,,:.~. ?
 1 ,"
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..
c. ' ~
II
.
,,,,0
'
,
,.
i.I~" ,.

,: . - '

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,- WINOINGS 12 1

hat f \Vhi lc morc complica ted a rran ge ments such as do uble concentr ic, where onc
winu ing is split int o two par ts o lle 0 11 cit her sid e or the other wind in g, prese nt no
t Ie fUll ua ment a l di Oicull y. (;lfe Illust be take n in t he ca lc ula tio n o f stray loss a nd
l'oJuc- rcncla ncc. Cnlc ula tio n of surge-vo ltage distrib utio n requi res speda l C:1J'C, as
r ' n th " refe rred to in sub-sec ti on 5,5,2,
"- .
, .,
I d,
:11 an d
the l:lp ELEcrlll C D£S IGN
•
5.5

5.5. 1 Puwc r-frcqul'II CY ro ll.lge

T he tra nsformer windi ngs must be designed to withsta nd voltages appea ring in
service wi th $OIllC margi n in ha nd. Tests arc dev ised clcco rdi ngly. Alllhc time it is
" cOllncc tt.:u to Ihc system a Ira ll s rormcr is subject to power- rreq ucllcy vol lnge.
varying toa s mall exten l with load condit io ns. A lest is therefore applit.:u to l: llsure
th a i the tra nsformer has adequate st rength to withsta nd indefin itely (Ill Y vo ltagc
~I o f this type to which it is subjected.
T he vo ltages to be applied du ring this test are given in chapter 7. fro m th is it
ca n be seen th a t lower-volt age windings have a separa te so un.:e les t 10 prove their
insulatio n to ot her windin gs a nd to ea rth a nd nn ind uced ove r~voltagc test to
prove the insulat io n within the wind in gs.
Higher-vo ltage s t a r ~co llll ec t cd wi ndi ngs have th ei r nc ut ra l po in t insu latio n
desig ned for effec tive ea rthin g in serl' ice. These ca nnot be subjectcd to a
su fficie ntly high se para te so urce tes t to prove the stre ngt h beiwee n all pa rt s o f the
windings ami ea rth . Tile ind uced ove r-volt age test mu st, th erdore, lh.' III di ned to
tes t the major insula tion as well as that \\Iithin the windi ngs. The 11I.:ul ra l
insulatio n on ly is proved by a separate so urce test.
A varie ty o f con nections can be employcd to qbtain the voltages req uired, bu t
whichever is adop ted it is essential to c;:llc ulat c the voltages bet ween all parts s ill ~e
f; so md imes vo lt ~ges in c:~ ccss o f those spec ified ma y Hp pca r. O nce the l:o llllccti o n
" "\l l re of to be lIsed has been se ttled, calc ul a ti o n o f all voltages is easy since, a t a give n
'r
I lld 011 \
end of
rreq uc ncy, vo lt age is. a J ~,'ays proporti ollal to the product o r turns alld nux . The
voltage appearin g be twee n 'ldjacc nt turns m llst be wi thstood by th e conductor
iilsu latio n. It must be remembered that this may be rar in excess or the vo lts pe r
tu rn since co ils such as int erleavcd d isk coils or intcrwoulld tapping coils ha.ve
Illany electric tu rns 'be tween physica ll y adjace nt co nductors. As a roug h guide
II norma l cond uctor paper 1Il1111 1h ick wi ll break dow n at abo ut 30 kV if tho roughly
dr ied. It is o f course necessary to alloll' a co nsiderab le sa fety factoI', I;lI t ge nera lly
" t lie lo\\' ~ this pnnicuiar cond it io n is 1I0 t one rous.
h;! it. It is VOlt age appearing between parts o r wind ings, ror exa mple betwee n st.:ctio ns of
i j!I..H,1 u~c a di sk (,:'o il or bl: twel: 1l la yers or a multi -b yer hel icHI coi l, must be w i (h ~ ll)od by the
I '
[ o n the co nd llcto r iIIsu la Iio n, ~lll y cool ing tI uets prov ided a lid ba rriers 0 rsolid ins ulat io n.
nay n:s ul t In r owe r tra ns ro rlll ers the o il is always th e wc~kcst insula tion, and it is subj C(,:'lt o
th e hit:hl.:s t stll:SS bt.:I;~ llI S ': it II :!" thl: lowl:st pe rmi tt ivity. rUle oi l \\ ill \vithst:lIH.1

-' .. -.....
,
 .~"I' i..'-"'~ , 1";,
..,,~~, ~ ", ,'fr:' ~~ ", L
i. \'4i'~ '" .~ . :i'~. ,:.01. 'I~'
..
•

, . t ' ~,I ~t:'i. ..J

'. .' ,~ \., .,,'
t
.. ..... ;
_ " .....
'(,
•
~ )- ,
.• ~.~!:.> ::;J ' ~; /':.' ~l\i~'~>h.l.·Vli~I ~'....J.
'I .'1,-;:1·,',· ,~, ~":1't'-}l'-;' :,.'1:"( 0' "t~·H,,! ~!.;1'.'~'
#'
~!>.l/\d""'~" ~;J .J:;-';')l, !,:l" . t;"~, ~'~',~ ';1r'~"'1/11'f,'\( ~
.' .'t."
>:.,'~I
"
J'

,.', I
.j 'tt - ' , ;. '~"Il;'Io'~lir::_~, ~.1·4
~" . : \ ;" '~\;l' ';,I'.IL
r. · ...

r " I'! /:" , " , ~ ";"r" rlr..•1;;.~:;~~.

,! , .' >L, "'I " • • "": " ')', ,.,\: '. • 1·''I:~·.'\ '. ,
'f '.~ "~tl \' h" 1 'f',.j ' .. , ~". :"", L ;f'- i,jr' /\.\I' "~\'i"I' +')'f~~ ~
;~·;,~~:f'!~!lt~l ·lf '··---··:·- -... _- ,,~- --- ~.,~~=,""."
~
t, I 122 'lODERN j>{)WFR rR Af'.~ 1 OIU,JFR I'RACIICIl
aJ
" ;-!.
~ ~
'I j
'~, t \ Ii '
'I !!
I t
I ,"
VC IY high stress, but this vallic IS o f no pl.ILli('al signi fi cance since it ca nnot be
nclw.!vcd in any transformer. Also the stl~llg lh of oil varies With the size of duct ' '
, ·C

:t Ill! it uccrca ses as thc dUCI t:SCCOIllCS \\ jd~' r. Til t.! inclusion of any solid insulatio~ , •
+ ., nn d Ihere
terminals. The:
Jisturbanccs J
'1;,: \., ' . 1 a long which gas cOIH,hKtiou (';I n Ii~~t.: 1,!a\.'C fliith er rL'dlices the st rcngth. t~s t vo lt age t
i ,~:!.' I I Ii In o il dllcls up 10 20 '~l11ll and wi,hOlil :111)' crl'e p Ihe wilhsland slress is aboul 11Icrdorc ~ t Hit.:
~~ "'~
~ "
J I
ill
II Gk VlIlIn - I , Small sampl c(o fprcss hn: ll'd tc.:s tcd in a laborato ry give II1l1ch the
'
with the ' 'It:, )
. • I l! ~ same va lu c, but, with la.rg~ clu cl S alH.1 hl gt; :lle;I S o fprcss poa rd providing a creep For th" 1"
;1 l! ~ path. failurc has been kii o ' I at str cs"cs ;1"; I.) w ; IS 2 k VJllm - I , It is ililpossib lc to su rgt.: voltuge II
:

I
~ I

,
I':I form ulaic rlllcscoveril~g thc wide ,'allgl: of cn llrii ti ons <lnd materials which may be
CIH,:oullle red, .
~l b r ll~)tly rise"J'
infinIty ,
\) . '1 1; '\ '.
Cornillo n practice has beeil to 111'0\ idc ~ 11I ' h :1 11 amo unt of solid insulation that /\ny trail s ..
;~I; Ii,' ', ' : . l:\'cn wi th all the ducts brokcl1 dln\l1 ,ullif..h.' Il ' puncture strengt h remained to and L'ap;l..:ilan<:
',,1 ,!~
' ).'
,::
•
: !,'I, II I
,
I'{II I wilhsland Ihe vollilgesapplied 10 il. This l' ,aCl icc is nOI rcall y sa lisfaclory beca use
g;tS conduction in the oil damages ti lt.! so lid in sululion,and failure will occu r if the
voltage is maintained for a long tillle, In a ll Y case, it.is bad prHclicc to leave
be igno:cd, I'
prcd0Il1 I11:.t11 .1
whole strlldll r
) t, ~ !.! Ij d;lIllagcd insulation in a transform !.! !' s i lH.:~ it ca n give Ihc"'"L:rfcc t o f slwrp points o f such a III • t
',e:: 1~ [; I I '1 whil:h produce very high stresses evcn at work ing vo l,tages, The de:, igner l11ust ,
~·n
t~ I'n j'!\! : ; I Ih~rerore aim to have no gas co ndu ction ul\dcr powcr.freqUl..:nc)' tl'st condi ti o ns.
M;II\)' :-.pcd Jkations nc"'v c.111 for meaS\II CI11C nt of parti;i/ gas (;o llductiol1 and sct
'I' j I,·1 1" I acceillable lill1il s.

.'~
I,

"'\: "1,! , I
~,',r! I': ,~,
4
Major insulation, that betwecn win dings ur frolll windings to earth, is lIsu: tl ly
'. made up in the Slimc way as th at desc ribcd :Iho\'c ror insula tit.Hl between pari s or
'~i' ,1 !j I \\ in din gs. The vo ltagcs arc much hi ghcr. :1111 1 I herdorc the is greater, but ~pacillg
;,,":j"
.
,:~,.'<,~,:..".l~:, '/'\' J.:" l"' ~" ~',~ oi l spaces ca n still be broken up by suitilhlc harrier arrangcmen ts, Il wo uld be
ideal to ha vc on ly solid in sulati on bc t\\ I.!~n \'. indi ngs, but, whi lc it is possible to
dcvise cooling arrangemen ts to "How t hi ", il II.· . . so far provct.l impossible to make
,r ~ 11 1, ',I :, u ~c of the intrinsic strength or I hI.! solid i , 11.l li on. Il is c:\tr~mcl )' dinkult to
~'I,"';
I II ' dimin:lte all oil S IKICl~S. anu these woult.l ! ." Iljl'l:t to I11lll: h hi Uhcl' stress thall Ihe
r., 'I . I

~ ..
I,
so lid, G"s c.:omlu..:tion in these spaCC$ +,;'()u ld lin: IJly lead to fa ilure. An even worse
.

11~ ~ !bl l.l sit uati o n \\'01111..1 dl!\'clo p ir tl1l;:sc spa...:cs \\ ~ H': ~u ~ lJl' I'OlllllIcJ 111:1( oi l cou ld not ge l
, 'I \ I ' ill . Gas COfllhl l: li o n wo uld occ ur at quilL' a low vol l;lgC. alld fai lure in serv icc
1 'I I WQuid be very prob"ble. Ii
II t For this n;asoll a barrier Hnd oil duci a l' ~:~lleCt11e l1t is usua ll y elllployed with Ih e
1 i);ll l C 5.6 f.:jl

;
• '1
J.

·~1' " I"~

Ij II11
Ii t

:- i/c o f the illdi\ Idual du clS kCIJt to a minimum to give tilt.: bcnefi t of higher
hrcakdow n strcs::cs ill the bilfl'icr. I
rl'( ("

I~ j ,I It t.::\ n be sh<

.:~i :!i Ii 'I

applied Sic IV
5.5.2 Surge \oliage I
" I
i""t ' ,I : The su rgc volt~gc is ;111 attempt to si mul tl t~: Ii 1111 h;1I1CC Oil ;l II jj lI"lnission Ii Ill' d lie
to lightning, Any lra nsformer whk h is .11 1\ I' ll1y :-.lruc/': b) li ghtning wi ll li ufrcr
~ t:'; damage. The lightning wi ll str ikl.! the bu ' hi :.;:- ". ilk:!! \\ III ht: hn)kl' n, and firc may
; \'/ 11 1
I~,
.,.
;,. i .
res ult from oil leaks. For this rcasoll l' t. 1\',' lil ' lI ;lg;lin '-l Jit.:hlllillg strok es is
pro \' idcd . Il owt.:\'cr. a lightnings\rokc ('lllll Ill' :!J ; 1 t I' ;! lI .... l1l k . ioll linc will gi\c rise
10 a \'oltagc \\ave alnug the li ne, and this '.\ 11 1 C\L' lll u,t1 1), h .' aL'il the transfor lller
;!!; I terminals, The \alue o rthis voltage is limilc:d I.) llie ill:-u lat i~' 11 to ear th of the line,
" ,
,, :. I ,, I I'
, '

, .II\ ;!:\ I I ,
1.
r
.... --"- ""'Z'"'......,..-i~,
~
/-......~·-;?;W .~, · "'(.,'·-·
.. If ~ .. ~,' ~.'..t. . .:.6\
 WI Nl)INGS 123

:a be and t'here arc rod gaps or li ghtning arresters loca ted nca r the tra nsformer
termina ls. Th ese must not co nduct at a vo lt age produced by norma l system
t
size

J'
'nsulat ion
,Ih.
dUC l.
d is turb;'l1 t'CS such :15 sw itch inG b ut must cond uct a t a vo lt:l gc sO lllCwil nl belo w th e
tes t vo lta llc o f the tran s fo rmer. The prac licai design of sti ch pro tc<.: ti \'c ucv il.:cs
ess i ~ :lbo lll th erefo re scttl cs th e su rge level req uircd o f th e tran s formcr. The Ic\'cls assoc iatcd
'("\lluch the wi th th e var io us systcm vo lt:.1 gcs and th e wavcs hapcs a rc give n ill c.:haph.:: r 7.
for th e purpose of calc lli a lin ~ .the initial vo ltage di stri b uti o n ill a windi ng a
I
lJJvS
gt'iblc
creep
to surge voltagc ill th e shape ora Il ctlV iside unit step is i.lss lJll\cd, that,js a wave w:lit.:: h
IliCh may be abrupt ly rises at ~c r o timc fro rn, lc ro to its full va lue a nd remain s a l that l,,:vl.: 110
in Jini ly.
u tl 11 tha t AllY trans formc r wind ing fo nns a co mpl ex. network o f resistance, ill ducta ncc
cma111cd to and I.: apa ci tan ce. For calculating the surgc·vo llagc d istribu ti o n th e rc:sis talK'c can
: I Deca use be ignored, a nd al the sta rt of th e wave, when ve ry hi gh freque ncies are
c c~ r if the predo mina nt, th e illduct i\'c clements becomc crfccti ve ly infinite impcda nces. T he :,
cc to Icave wh o le struc ture th crefo re rcd uccs to n capac iti ve network . A ve ry simpt iricd form
I .
~"'~PI pOInt s of slH.: h a nct wor k is shown in fi gure 5.6. ,
,J lc r Illust
1
C0 l1 j lilions.
iO Il wd set

,', .S ~'SlIaIlY
'en ,~ar l s of
~ uje r. but
t 'lj uld be
possible to
I
) I ~ l? make
~ fjc ulL 10
ss ttan th e
!::V~ wo rse
I I 0 1 ge l
... ~ c l'\l i cc

Figurc 5,6 Simplified eapacitan l.:c nClwork rcpre~e ntin g tran sfor mcr wiLlding at hig h
I ith the
freque ll cy: C" i o t:d , :a padlarKc to ea rth; C, . tolal series c:rpaci l:lIl(1!
r highe r
'.
It ca n be shown that Ihe vo lt age Vx a t any distance x fro m Ihe neutral end aUUl
"pplied step voltage V is gil'en by Ihe express ion
V = V (C,C, )I/'cos h( .x ) + ~~!:lhl 'x) I~ I)
) 11 li, nc due
x (C, C, )' !2cosh( . ) + Co sin h( . )
I I suffer
III II~C may where
st l" 9I k' cs .IS (5.21
il ~ Iv l.: rise
.I ;forrncr wi th C, is th e lo ta l earth capacitance, C, th e to tnl se ri es C,l p i ldtall ~L :llld Co th e
Jrqlclinc, cnpn cil ;\I1 ce to earth at the end remo te fro m lhe i1lp ut.

I ;- ,. .
~~. -----~ .-. ~"'~~ ;-'::"r.:r, ~;...;r'l-:;;~r.r.:rw'T.J,-'
of , . ~

.~ti ""h·l. '" • ,,. , '.~ ... \' ,.~

'. ·1.0 ,'''!. '~"
":',
\ :
-:,-~ ......
~'
,
-'
"

.1
" ,
'! .124 M U OERN POW~l{ T RA NSFO RME R I'RAC II Cr.
<
Fur winciings wi th the untested end directl y earthed this expressio.'n simplir,es
10 , ..

r
,
v
x
= ji sinh (ox)
sinh(a )
(5.3)
I
Fo r windings with -t'he un)e ~l ed end noating il beco mes
. ..;," ~ ~. I .
~

V = V cosh( ax ) • (5.4) Be
x cosh(a )

Whe n a willJin g is made up o r a num ber o f pa rt s wilh dirrl.! n.:nt v~I. LI''': S o f scries
alld ~ hlJll t cJ pac it;'IJ1 CC, the ca lcula ti on must be done fo r each pa rl . rh ~ :. va lue ufCo
for "ach pa rt is t,ike n as Ihe e rrective c;lpacitance to carth o f Ihe '.. ho le o f the
\\ illdillg betwee n th a t po int anei th e unt es ted e nd.
1he :-'11l:lIh.: r th e v:lI~I C o r a th e mo re unifo rm bCl'o mcs th e in ili: tl tij . . trib utio n; a
",'all be rcdlH.:cd e ither by reducing C. o r by illcreas in g C,. T he illla l vn lla ge
di, tribu tio n is co ntro lled by the lower- rreq uency compo ncnt s o f the. .tpplieciwave
and is there ro re proporti onal to the tu rns. When a winding has onte end held at
"'11th po tential while th e o ther is tested, the fin al "o hage distrib uti .: ·n is un irorm
frolll the applied voltage to zero.
I3d\\\.!cn the ini tia l and fi na l dist ri bu ti o n will occ ur a n oscilla lion wh ic h may
1"1..',> ,11 1 ill vo llagl!5 in C,\;CCSS o f th e app lied voltagl,,! apPc;lring on ~a r' s of Ihe
\\inl.ling (see figu re 5.7), The resull so o bta ined is pL' ssim istic rur ' ~ e ro ll ow ing
n:: :I ,l) IlS,

(I) r ile vo lt ~l gc rise d ocs no t la ke p lace i n rero l ime,

rir; ls,7
I .: )
l.')
\V "ilc ', ile.! VOI I:lgc is o!'l'i ll ali ng t he appl ied Voll :q;e i s fl!d _,:.i ng,
T he re is sO lllc.'Jltellu:tt ion o f vo ltilgc \\it h in til " \\ini.lil1 ;J 'I el f.
u

.
pi u\'il.k/J II
,

ihL'n~ , ~lvcs, 'I

C'ki.l rl y th e desire o f th e ucs ig ll cr is to ob t.dl1 an in itial lIblr :'·, '.: liol1 as 1lL':lr
tllli/urm as po s~i b l c to red uce th e oscilla ti o n, !\ISll Ih L' more UI1I: ') TIIl the initia l illtc rbyc r c"
di ~ !l ibulion th c less is th e:: voltage bel\\Cc ll parts, p<lr tl l'u lal l), a l r :H: l!llds of th e
tl ,,:rcfo rc I!
1.:apacitallC:\,; I
\\'\ndiJl~, \ Vhcn ,i t has ~ro,vcd necessa ry ,10 U,SC a high-\ oltage wi nu 1;- f. d i ~' idL' J ill to
two CO ils, th e dlSCO llllll u ll Y ca n resu lt In high h1 ltagcs 10 l'art h a;~ ;x:a l'l llg at t he
Jayer ends q l
res pon se II
ju1nc lion, This must be ci.dcula h:d as a \\illtiing wi th IWO pa ri S ·,.I; ilh 4.lirrcrell l
\,:a1pacilallce networks, a nd all owa nce must be made for the oscil:~ljO ll :Ibout its
the \oltag
i nsulati on ((
fi n:I1 \ ' ;1 l!Je,
laye r :,110(1
II i:- 11\)\\' lksirahle to l'('Illsider how Ih L' \';,rinlls Iy pes of windi n g ' land lip in
1I\'>\ilalitJlJ
I II !,1 ~ ll r the sll rge l'equi rell ll.'ll l. Thl! Ill' til-:Il , : oi l i . . P"iOI' hl,.'l'il l l ~l,: it:- l ':LPiI \.' il :Il II,.'C
k: fl tl) :dI0\
1l ~'I\'.l'l k results ill high stress, bu t t hi s is nu t illlporl:lnt silll:c it b IV)I used (HI hig h-
T he COJl\
\tlliage \\in di ngs, A t the vOIt~lgC k \c l where it is empluyed, fl J\.:L ila nka l and
havc a rei
~(\ l l li ll g con . . id cr:llioll s con tro l th e illsula ti o n arrangements so t hat suc h coi ls
<.; ilC o f II.,
~Plllr\H· t:tb l ) \\lI h ~ la n d t he non-u ni form surgc "oltagcs, Whc JI l/lo re t hl' n onc
l..'al1acit<lIlC(
!,I) Cr i ~ l'll1pll,ycd, illsulatio n c.:a pab tc o f withs t;lIlllil1g th e fu ll s ur ge levc.: 1 IIlI I"t be
\I gl.'
I he '
j '[ ~)\ idL'u b l..'t wcen layers,
m'tde lip _
,\ Idu llj · la)'l' l' high- \'o l l ;1.!;c wind ing is illll ~ lnllcd in Ii.!.' urc 5,) , The ~nl'I..'JlS

'7
 ;
;1 ".

., WIND INGS . 125

_ _0 _ ..',
j01 sim plifies ~\~ ,,"" .... ,
.{
I .. <
,,:, I "
i
/I '
'..,.
(5.3) I \ . .:
100,j. \ ' CI'l'o'CIPPC 0 1, mp1~ nv rn
\ ~ volloqc 10 eorlll
\ .........- ··1
90 -,\ ." ..~
.' ,finol vpll0gc \
(5.4) Y d i!ol, ibulion \
\

\
70
lues or series \

e \'il ille orco '"' \

\
f 60 -
\

\
Ie wli ole o r the ~
~ \
I .¥ 50
\
\
\
striblltio n; a
"
Q
o
\
\
c finnl volt ngc
• Inlllol voltpge •\ \
" - I' plied wave \ d;\I"b, ';O. \
end held nt 30 \
\
.Ion is tlllirOf l11
20 .", \

•
\
\
.'-....
which may
.• IXlrt s o r th e
the Iroll ow ing
'0 -

o
j

10 20
I I
30 ~O
I
.---.---
I_ _ L
50 &0
1- ,
fO 80
~
90
\

. 0
\
\

10 0
\

urin Figure 5,7 In itial surge-vol tage distribut ion and oscillation envelo pe wit h :x .:1 5
cl .
provided inside and outside tend to produce equipotent ia l lill~ s paraUd 10
)ulio n as ncar themsel ves. They also ca ncel the int ertllfll capacita nce o r the coi l so tha i onl;· the
) n th e ini tial inh.:r1ayc r capaci la lH..Ts have to be tak en into acco llnt. The series ta pac.:ilall~·c is
1 ends or the thererore high, alld , <ince oilly the layer ends arc ex posed to eart h, the e~"th
1£ d iyided into t:apacita ncc is low. 130lh factors lead to a uniform voltage distrib uti on although at
r lrll1 g at the layer enos quite h ;gh in lert urn volta ges appear wi th pract ierl 1arra Ilgt.: ill cnts. II ; it s
It dirre rent response to S\lrgl.! voltages this type o f winding CJ Il be said to bl..' \ cry goud. Sillt ..:
tioll abou t its th e vo ltage to ea rth is grad ed Ilcarl y unifo rmly fro m line 10 ear th (.' lId } th e
insulation to earth can be grad ed in proportion. This is ac hieved by making fad!
1 il 3nd up in byer shorter than the olle in side it. T headditional space at the ends is occuljlt:d by
~ \..' a ~aciti1ncc insulation barriers fOfmed by nan gi ng ove r th e intcrl:l),c r paper wraps. Duct S;t're
used 011 high- ldt to allow cn tr y anu egress o r o il. !
:.
I. I
~ p l Cti ~.IIld
The conventi o nal type of di sk winding is illustrated in fi gure 5.8. II tends to
s uch coils have a rela ti vely low series capacitance and hi gh capacitJ llce to carlh, btl! . as the
orc ,th en Olle size o f tra ns rorm er increases. th e change in dimensions Illakt.:s the s~r i l;s
: oct must be capaci l;1llcc increase fa Sler tha n th e earth cap:lci tancc. Thus for a givcn volt :Igc
the larger the unit the bt.:ltcr is its surge respon se. The total se ri es capacilalll'e is
T he screens made up no t o nly o f the capacit ance be twecn sectio ns bu t also o f th at bct\\ ec n

.......1' t· ·.. · ~... .

 ,"",..,
I'. ' ,
"
"
", '.,
.' ","
~

:' -:• ~.. • '~. '>, • ,J. ,

[
126 MO DE RN I~WER TRANSFORMER PRAc n CE

SiC tic ' tr>e;l The stati'

, I
I the ""pacll'
the stress ac
line end voltnge dis'
rings bu t r
sect ions Ilea
. end thnn 1)11
area. 'This
scc li ons.all ~
spite o f its i
satisfa Clol'
/\ Il lOdil
5,9, Two CO l
parallel all I
eor .h_ in opposit
I I so that ti lC t
I I
I I arrangcll1en

I I sidcrably
nor mal SI..
I ] Sl.:reens J ,

o I I I I I II I ]
I- ITTTJJ:J_ I -T~ -,
~ .-
((
talk linQ
J
~,
,
I
Figure 5.8 Secti on o f cunve nti onal Jisk ind ing
II
'/
conductors. For lar ge unit s where OIlC cO lld l ll.: l llr i~ 11\1 1 :-. ullkic nl 10 carry the
curren t it is COllllllo n to arrange the wind ing with the li nc cnd a llhc ce nt re o f the
co il , the two ha lves bein g co nn ec led in parallel. Th is rl.:uuces the clearance ,
necessary a t th e end or graded windings. . ,\ n ex I
W!If.:rc 111 0 1'1: Ihall o ne cOl1 du...: tu r is t l..'ljuil c d in CilCh it:dl'l l lc usc ofol'dinary 111 1": 1 lea , " I

pape r-cove red strip res ults in a reduc tion in the sc rics cap;lcitancc sillec each stri p the main I
h"d to be fully insulalcd. This difficulty is overco me by tile usc of co ntinuously
transposed rcc! ;'lIlgu la r 51ra ndcd co nd ul:lor which makes a cOllsidcra ble i III prove-
mcnt in the vo ltage distribu ti on, Un d o ubt ed ly, however, the 511rgc· vo ltn ge 5.6 LOS
distr ibuti on in th is type o f willdillg is far fr III uniform , :lml it is CO lll111 0n pral:tice
to hu\'c greate r in sulati o n at the line end than tl s~ whcre in th~ windin g, T his C~lI1 5,6.1
be uOlle cit ilt!r by increasin g the co nd IIl'l ul' i IlslIl"lt io n 10e<l 11)' or by i nscr l i I1g ext ril
pressboa ru iJl ~ I dal i o n in Ihe fOI' l)) o f \\'H )' hers, T his may :l1 so be I ',: quircd a t lhc AlIlllc los
neut ra l end w: L're there is a do ubl ing efrect due 10 n.' ncclil>n, or c' 'pr I
I

-,- ,..- .- -.-:-- -

" t_..
"
'. '
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.,,.,
.f
• WINDI NGS
.' 127"
The sIalic rings show". al Ihe lOp and bouom o f Ihe coil in figure 5.8 increase
I he ca pacilance fron\ !Iiecnd 10 Ihe inside o flhe firsl seclion, Ihu s greal Iy red ueing
the st .. c ~s ac ross th e s~c ti o n , Additi o nal sc ree ns may be used to im prove the
volwgc uistribution nea r the linc cnd . These nift y be s imilar to the lillc end s tatic
ri ngs bUI fiued funhc( down Ihe wind ing, or Ihey may be IOcaled oU lside' lhe
seclions nca r Ihe linc 'end. Thcse screc llS are con~ieeled 10 poinls nea rer Ihe line
end tha n their phy~ 1 . I, positioJ1,)hus increas ing U1C series cnpacit31lcc in that
a rea . This res ult s , in ,a high volt,;gc n ppca ring betwee n screens a nd adjacen t
.,
sections, and cat:c mus,t be tak en to provide adcqua t,c insulation a t these points. In
spil e o f ils inherenlly poo r volta~e uistribul ion this winding ha s been proved
!>al isf;u.:t, !I'Y up to the highes t vo lt ages so rar n;ill1Ufacturcd.
1\ mod ification 10 the disk winding is the interleaved disk illuslrut ed in figure
5.9. Two conductors starting from I alld 9, respectively. in figure 5.9 a n:: wo und in
parallcl and are connected as shu wn ill the illustrat ion. CiJpaci tallce cu rrent s fl ow
. ill opposite directions in adjace llt ~ t) I1(.I w..: tors, almost eli m inal ill g ind ucti ve effects
so th a i the apparen t effect is to ill cn.:ast.: considerably the series Cc1p'lcilallce. This
armngcmcnt und oubtedly improves the initial .surgc-volLage distribution CO Il -
siderably at the expense of a mud l hi gher volt age between adjace nt turns in
normal service, This fo rlll o f winding d oes no t require any specia l electric
screens J . I

torl h -

.... r..a ry the

• Irdo fthe Fi&lIrc,S.9 Secti on ti r , '.\I·l of intcrl cilvcd disk winding
" cI r ra nee I
An extension of this windi nJ has graded interleaving in Wllich there is full
, Jrdinary interleaving a t the line end whicll dec reases in steps further down the wi nding till
_ ""eil strip the main part is a convcntial d j~k. --
:)ntinuously
, I
111: prove-
C- vo llil gc
no n practice
P'~ This can
5.6 LOSSES I
•I
tlllg ex tra 5.6.1 I' R losses I\

.I
I.Ill'cd at th e 1\11 tile loss associa ted wilh the II illdillg is classed togdiler and a llied the load 1055
orcoppcr loss, bu t in ra ct some o rtilis, whil st ca useu by th t.:c urrcnt in th e wintlin g,

., I
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.'
128 MODERN F'OWER TRANSFORr.1ER PRItC I1 (.'E .' clamp:; 0 '1 J.
docs nol appear in lhe wind ing ilself. The J' R loss is very easily ealculaled (R i's
the de resistance o f the winuing and Ilhe current in it). In a \\ell-des igned coi l th~is mos t \."'OrnnH
s ho uld for lll the major part of ~\thc' copper loss, but ot h ~ r losses arc qui'le
1l13snetil ~r.
h.)$S :I n'd iVl
significa nt and Illllst be cn kulatcd. 1' The flux (
'/ t: . .,iI3nd 1 r
5.6.2 Eddy cUffc1l1Io'\S;,in
, lhe condue lor ':! 1} 1l the C ~(

Wlll:rc allc.:rnating cu rrent passes, all alt ernatin g lI1agJlcli<: 11c IJ is ·crcakd. d, L QW dinf
whereve r nux traverses a conductor orallY SO l t, ed dy ul J'l \.:n ts exis t wi tll rcsulla nt Ill;tk;ng 1.1111
losses. Clca rl y t he conductors 0 r the windi ngs Illlls t t hcrcfOl c carry eddy ell rrCll ls I.'l'III plct i;!
1
as well as lhe load currenl and will conseque nll y have a loss produccd by lhese n~n · mab· l c

units.
curren ts.
The specific eddy currenll oss in lhin sh eels in a sinuso idal neld al lhe maximum It is i IP
Dill of nux density. frequency fa nd sheet thick ness D wi th resistiv ity p and mass (\'1 mul<! ~
!O~ I VA il
dc nsity Pd is .

p = -n'- x B'f'J' Wkg -

I

I 6p P4J IU

c Y/J'f'J'x lO' Wkg -

I (5.5) \\ h~ rc 11 "IS ,

'" 1Il';\fCS l 01
fo r copper allhe reference lempera lure 75 ' CO The magllelie nux dens ily veclo r is
assuillcd to be pe rpe ndicular to the shee t thickness, thaI i... para llci to the sheet
surfaces.
This formu la call be a pplied 10 lhe axia l alld radial kakage nux lh roug h the
.!.~I ..I in
cond uclors, It is an app roximali o n since il takes 11 0 "cco lln l of lhe erfcct o f lhe nUl talt ... al
eddy currenl on lhe nux, Also the calcu la lio n orl he leakage lield is inaec urale. The IH" f l1l :l gn <
usc of CO ~1pu l e rs has greatly im proved Ihe at:curm;y of this t:alcu latio n. 1.1' /cr n Y
1\5 the copper increases in section, Ih ~ eddy t: ur1 C1 11 k) ..;I., . \\ hic h is propor tiona l I' 'v: 'l1e r0

to the square o f the conductor thickness. incH. .'!l SCS quj ~ k l y until it forllls a ril e nux
Slibstanli;11 part o f the tOlall oad loss, 1'0 rc.:ducc the dilllc.:nsiu ll s it is necessa ry to II'V I11 I I C
wind more tha n oneco ndu<.: lor in paralkl. III orde r 10 pre\ t ilt circ lIlat in gc urrcn ts
between parallel conductors it is csscllliaitil at the colltJuctors be tra nsposed so
lhal volla'ges induced by leakage nu x callcel OUI. This ca n be achieved by
arrangi ng for eadl conducto r to (ll..' t:u py 1..:\'l..:ry poss ib\o.! positi on f lU eq \lal "\!C I C Ii
t1istant:cs ill eadl laye r. lI owcvc r, rur ,"clta ill Il 11Jllbc rs vI' ,"v nduclu rs dfct: ti vc }II th e dis ta
arrangeme nts involvi ng fewer changl..:s in the !..:on<.iu<.:tor position~9.11l be dl!vi scd. \\ indil'" i i
For example il is possible 10 l11ake a perfecl lransposili on for eighl co nducl ors tu lal u pc
wilh only lhree cha nges 10 lheir positi olls rela li ve 10 each olher. It is lll CI
fo r lar ge transformers it is L'Ollllno nto lise the rectangula r strano transposed :<~ rcc ll s or
conductor iUuslrated in fl gurc 5. t. Since th e indi vidual strips are small a nd the n:duci :11
tra nsposition good, the eddy currCI1 tlos5CS ca ll be kept dow n to abo ul 20% even <'10 11: .•1 l
in very largl: trans forme rs. It must
local I Oli
5.6.3 Losses in c1nmps hl!a tir co
l'C la ke ll t
The kak ;lge nu x is not t: nnlil ,I 10 Ihe windings and I\lay tra ve rse thl: meta l o f

1\' " ..... . . ._ • •.." ••

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.i'
• ~ I ... I';fO -,
" . ",·[ 't . ,
.. ,. ,. • ',_l!I / l

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' 'I • • I

... _ •" .J~', " ," ' , . ')

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.,
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I
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.. '1: .1 .,
..,

WINDIN GS 129
; : ~ is 'clamps or tank s and so cnuse rurther loss. This loss is increased by th e radlha t the
J il th is most common materia l for the structural parts o rthe tran sformer is mild stee l. It s
rlu ilC magne tic properties result in a concentration o f flu x in it, and this results in high
J
loss and over hea tiJl g.
The flux densi ty in illlY part o utside the coiis depends 0 11 the distance frolll the
coil and on the magnetic properties o f the nwt cri il l. The loss depends on th e flux,
011 the dimensions of the clamp al}d on the resisti vity o f the materi a l used.
~ ind. Lo\~ clump losses on la rge hi!"ob '. r:Cact:.1nce transforlllers ha ve been nchieved by
iU ltan t
Illilk ing cla mps o f insulating ma teri al, but this is not praclica l"lill oligholll the
1" " e I1I S
I comp lete range o f Iran sfo r mer sizes. Another fairly expensive method is the lise o f
Y lese no n-magne tic steel clamps. These costly exped ients arc only justified in very large
lIllits. ,
(in lim
It is ill1possible to detail methods o f calculating this loss, a nd a n empirica l
j ass formula is determined. Ovcr a number o f trans formers ranging fr om 18 to
30 MVA it has been rOllnd that a reaso nable app rox imation to the cbmp loss is

(5. 6)

(5.5) where fJ, is the flux density at the ro ot o r the clamp in tesla s a nd I the di stance o r
!,.)r is ncarest hori zo ntal part o f nangc fro m the end o f winding in metres.
: heet

! . I1t I1e 5.6.4 '('ank losses

' the
The ta nk also can be tra ve rsed by leakage nux wit h res llitillg loss. The lise o r the
te.(T he non-magnetic steels is very expensive. as also is the use o falumini ulll, th ough the
latter may be used where reductio n o f mass is very imporLant. Screens o f either
r nal
)r n ~ s a '.
:1
llla gne tic or conductive ma terial will redu ce the tank losses.
The nu ~ density B, in teslas in a tank with wa ll s 12.5 nlill thick ca n he c·.,Jcula ted
s~ ryto I rr olll th e expression
1 cnts
"-f so (5.7)
'edtlIalby
r 'tive I where N I is the to ta l ampcre - turn s in winding," the height o rwi ndillg illl11e trcs,
: v+ed.
1 .ors
I b, the di stance rrom core to tank in metres, bOj the distance from core to ce lltre o r
windingj in metres, bi the radial depth ofwilldingj in ",etrcs and kj the rrac t i o~~o r
total ampere - turn s in windingj, ir we take int o account the sign.
sptscd
nclthe
II.
I
It is then poss ible to read o rr the tank w~ 11 loss rrOll' the clIrve in fi gure 5. 10. If
screens o f thin J1'Hl gnclic sheet Stich as lIsed for transformer co res :tI C IItted, the
} ;VC Il reductio n in tank nllx density ca n be read o rr rro lllligure 5.1I. The new wall loss
can then be round rrolll figure 5.10" .
It l11ust be remembered that loca l high nu x co ncelltra ti o ns ma y ca use cx<.:cssivc
loca l hea ting a lthough the loss is small co mpared wit h the tota l load loss. Loca l
hea tin g co uld damage the o il and so reduce tran sfo nnc r Ii fe. Ca re mu st there fore
eta l o r,, be takc n to design the tank so tllnt thi s docs not occur.

._--t", .......... _ •.•

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.,
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t J, r
i ~. . ~ t
" , I' , " ~'.f (:1 L
.. . ', .
, ;
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,.-
.
.', "
.... .~
':"

,, ~. ;.:-.---........ ...-......_.
'''.i I
~'

I JO
.,
I. ~ - .; tCIIIpc ral U! I
I.. <
1, 3 I
• hotter thali l
frolll pali1 1 I

N 1.0

!
E
0.9
LZ -
1.1

. ~.
;,' j

," '1:
j

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•
/ Th e 1013
oil cn lcrin Ci
\\ hich it 11:1$
iJ1 tc l fa ces "

!
direc tl y I.;X
§ O.B
'.'., to now to t:
0 0.7 - o III ph.""
.•
~ 0.60 -
I.:olllplcx, :
~ 0 howc\'{'r,lu
0 ,5
whidl tr:lll ~
0 .•
0.3 oj oi l \ ,try \\
tlll:se pro ,

.........--../
0.2 1I 0 1 oi l
0, 1 t.:i rctl l:l 1io
• I I I ' _ --11.2 - Ju cl S fv r
a 0.2 0 .· 0.6 0." 1.0 improve till
f lu. den sity in lanl>. II J
1.lirc!..: tion v/
for oi l 10
f.igurc 5. 10 Loss in ullscrccllcd mild -s led "lll k wa ll , 12.5 11111l1hick

0. 7

0.6 ".yO x/
0/ 0
0" Ax 16/
>-
~
0,3 -
/:/'0/
•
o

~ 0.1
0.2

k;:;;,::::::L
/ / -<
.~x~/ !~
-? ---'_
o 0.2 OA 0.6 i 0.8 1.0 1,2
Ihi' d ensi ly wiU>Oul ~C'( ells I T l

Figure 5. 11 I _"
Errec t o f mag netic scree n on tan k fl ux dell.;i l), with ". th e num ber of plates
Illuliiplicd by screen wid th divid ed b)' lal lk pailllc l cr
!
5,' COO LIN G

I'll e w ind il\ gs arc coo lcd by th l: <.: i /'(': III;lI il)l) (If
I
\I iI o\'c r llicir su r r' II.:cs . Til t.: o il
temperature is kept to an accep table level by cook rs o f\ari o us sorts out side Ihe
lank . The oil is l'irc ul alcd ei the r by th crnlOl\)pbllll ad io ll or by pllmps. lI S

'\ ... , "" ..

 WINO INGS 131

tempe rature increases as it passes ove r the winding surface. At point s it may be
ho ller th an th e oi l a t the lap o rille tank, since here it may have bcc lllll ixcd wit h o il
fWIll pat hs prod Ht.:i ng less hL: ilt.
Th e Iota I wi nL! i ng l CII1PI.:f:lt u fc iI t all)' part is lII;klc II po r I he tClll pcra t \l ['t,: 0 r the
oi l ent ering the tran sforl11er, increased by the heat losi frol11 the su rface over
wh ich it 11:1S passed, plu s the tell1pe ra ture drop thr o ugh th e insul ation ami at the
inh.:rf:u.:cs betwee n co pper, paper <lIlSJ bil. 1n additio n, allY parts which a rc no t
din.:..:!!y exposed to o il will have nil extra tempera ture sunicicnt to C:\JI SC the heat
to now to cooling sur faces.
COlllpktc a nti act:ura lc cak ulation o f winding lClllpcralul'c ri sc is vc ry
(OIl1PIo.<. "no" Illiinbe r o f papers have bee n wri tten On the subject. 11 is possible.
11 0 \\'(;\'c 1", to Inake so me simplif1cation whic h is justi fied by the condi tiolls unde r
wh it:h I r~I I1 S formers opCr;-11c. For ex::! 111 pic, all hough t he physica l properlies u r the
o il \'a ry wi th lc.' l1lpcr:lIurc. it is sufficien tly accura te in many ca ses to assume tha t
th ese prnpcrtics arc co ns tant at va l li es corrcspondings to GO cC.
I {o t oil natu rally tends to risc so thaL vertical duc ts provide a nalural
cin.:ulatiol1 p<llh . Many ort lle win dings described. however, depe nd on ho rilo nta i
dm;lS rllr th eir coeding. T hi s would be a di sad\'nntagc if 11 0 s teps we re taken to
I impro\'e the situation. Figure 5. 12Ia) ~ h u ws a di sk -type co il wi th nO IlH; an S of oil

I direction. \Vith eq ual uu Cls o n inside a nd o utsid e there is practically no tendency

ro r o il to now along th e hori.lont :ll duel s. U ll cq ll~1 vert ical du cts wou ld tend to

II
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101

~ =::J
=~

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rr'"
I =-:JJ
ltcs , (j-
I =-::J
I 1
I
~
- '1I1
%
lG ~
%

I
+
Ibl

Fi gure 5. 12 Oi l now in di sk co il; (a) wilhou t o il tlir~t; lil,.lI\: (0) \\i lh oi l direc tio n

\
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:.. ~
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'I ",
',I
... :, :,
'), ';it' l I ~','r ,~. I'
,f '" ........'.~". ,'~ ii , ;I,~
~ ~1
.r-
.... 'f , \ I' L
,,,
~ ,'~l
.,,',
~ ",.
.. r ~, "
~ ",:~.ir
ll'"

·t " ,,' ,
,',
." . I. , ,
' . {. . ,.',::;- t
',,1 \ .' l ~ • I *'

. . r· :~~ f
~ .'
• . ,' ,' I •
" ....1.
t-
,:.. ....i;~_2.::..:.::.....:~.:...-'_ • ._! ...o-~ _ _ ... ) .
I
...
'( ; '
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,I
. _.4
f

;;,;---- ........ ,

1.l2 ~ I O I H. lt N I'OW I It I ltANS I tlJ('\ lllt J'JC"C W L .'

,
ca use some ho ri /O llial Il ow, but it wou ld be rairl)' sma ll. Figure 5. 12(b) :-. h(ms a ., wil t. ,
sim ilar coi l fill ed with wa shers to ro rce th e o il 10 rollow i.t /,ig-!;tg path bl.:(,;III!:e i ts tltc rll
natural \' crlk',ll pa th is blocked :lill:rlli1tcly in., idc and out silk. Tit us th \.' , ti l nnws (3) I"h(
on: r all the c.:ull lillg surfa c.:es. givill[! grea tly improved coo ~ilill. ".
Gent rally s pc~ tkillg t wo me th ods o r co ntro lling k n)})cra tlJrc rise t '; l tt be
adopted. The d es igner cn n sci limits to the hen t dissipatio n per uni t !) UI r.I' '!.' ;I/,ca
ror d j rrcrcll t co i I d esig ns,. \tarying i Il sula t ion t hickness ~ll1(f di ITerent Illcllwd n ro il rI ll,
circ.: ula ti o n. For exa lllpfc a limit o r o, 125 W CII1 - 2 mightl et ror disk coils" jth K;j II
nal llraIIlOIl -dirr..:tcd o il cirelll;.,tiO/l , \Vith d ir('c tcd oil now. lhis cO llld illl'f''';'' C 10 cffeci
O.1 9IVcm - '. k: n
For mall)'" Ihe :ll'c~p l cd Ill t't l1 nd o r calculatio n, hut it dIll'''; 1101
)ca rs Ihis W:l !- ':\CI.: •• •
allow SUml'iCfllly fo r a ll I lH~ \'aridti o ns \\ hich ca n be prc$t.: llt in \\ jll d i ng fJ'lHIl
t.:o n ~ truction. The aCl:ur:1CY is. th crero re, no t \'cry good, a nd the 1ll : ! q~i IlS left (4) fi"
between calcu lat ed Icmpcra lll rl.:s and th ose gUilr;lIlt ccd h:-t h.' to be et' ll . I. ';lb lc. th e
T he second appro ac.: h is 10 ( In), o ul (he c.:olllp lic;1I cd calcu latio ll s tll'lI ,':IIY to ad dil
;!llow for nwny \ariablcs. T his is too l'ulllbc.:rsorne:l n Opcl';'Il i o n to (,': 111)' p u t by '.
using o nly ;1 sli de rule, and so compu ters arc employed .
Wh cn oi l circu kllion is known, th e fl) IIO\\in £ meth od o r ctlkul ;t' i, 'I Ui\'cs wiler
IL:I",ollab ly :In 'uratc res ult s ro r:l disk \\ inliing. ilci,,J
(I) Obtai n rro m fig ure 5. 13{a) and (h) th e \'a lues K;, in \\ :tlls pl' r 'I j! J: II'C hu
cc ntim l'l rc pcr kel vin o r th e hea t tran s rer coc.: llicieli lS ro r \ C I til ~ t1 . 111 1.1 011, ."

IH)I' i70 111 ;" !'- urral'es. (5) AdJ

. 1\l thOllgh
;; d UC I ~ ; d l h Im~x ;; du< l ... i(jl/'1lU'm !
still Strffi elcI
" 0.014 l X / e F. 0.0111 -
/ 0 3 A cbnlllll

,~- 0. 010 /' / 0 c,!I'; lI l} tc I

Xy_ ;;"-
0, 01~ ~

/.:;::::-.
O.OIZ -
~lI • • 6 w ith i n an
~ ~~~:..- ~
0.01 0 9
.,
!illaU~ dceic
j 0.008 • :::;.:-0 ~ O.OOB /~.
8v
•
f0
0 .0 0 6
0.00<:1
-:;0 19
;;
8 0 .0 06 1/
• ...•• 5.B l\IEM
., f 0.00" •
0.002 g 0 .002
E
<• L J __1_ -'_ 1- - ' ~ _....L--.l--'_ I I j
III m os t Cil ':"
0 0. 1 0 .2 0 ..3 0.4 0.5 0.& C 0,05 0, 1 0 .•5 CI.? 1).i?5 C..!.
0,1 "'rH \ veloci.,
- - ; - - - (Io.q/h ,m 3
1 all ",II~) veloc iTy (~g / ~ c m~1 durin g lests
" " ,j'/IQ "e-qht ~'Qhl
... ",d,n<;l
(sec chap I
101 101 In sen
Figu re 5. 13 1I c~,t I I · I\ .. fcr I.: ll \.·nil.:iCIl IS: (a) fur vC rlical Sur r:Ll' CS: (b) fur l. / llli la I
llt lll
impossible
surfaces ln strum!.! "
lJ ~ i llg til(
th crmoll1c t.
(2) \Vith a valli\! (\ r K;, d ct ..'l lI1 illl.: I he aSSOl:ia tl.'J \ alllc 1\ ';. () r t he drl\.1jl, !.I,' a t instrul1le nl .
trans rer coctlic icn l rr ulIl Ihe n p ressioll current I I
inst rul11c ...

, ,
(" , '.1. I· ~ r· r '
"'" .'

..•
."" . _... . .,. ,., .' ...:;; .... ,
1 •
- ":~ ''T'

., , . l
 ' .....'?:'~ ....
•
" . ;

"
:!;:;

r- ""
........j.~J.:...;. \..." ~ ...... __ _ .
,I, L"· ,', 'I. . .._ -
--'-_._----._---
)
" ,
......
~" L

·~flL ~_.:~ _.~ ~ .~ _.~.::

"

,
I
J
WIND INGS 133

I Lib sl10ll's a where J in me tres is the va lue o f the thick ness o f papc r insula tion whose
th bfcause its thermal cond uctivity is included in Ihe fac tor 10 6 / 15.
(3) The nvcragc temperature ri sc o f a d isk sec tion over the loca l oil is
I .'1o il noli's
" M_~__X 10 - ' _ _

t
nsr can
Irfacc an.: a
be
M
wo
= ___ ---,--,
K~ h + 2(K~i + K ';.u )hw/ bw
(5.9)

11 l od.ofoi l where Ki h is the crrc~ t.i~c hea t tra nsfer cOc.:: nicicll l [u r hOI i l.Ollta l s u rfa ces,
isk oils \\lit h K~ the crTccth ~ hca tl ransfcr coefficient for in lier vl!flka l surfa ces, K~o the
I ' i crease to efTcctive hea t t r~ln s f~ r coefficient for oull.: r vertital surr;II.:cS, IIw the axia l
length in ,metres o f covered disk sec tion, b w the nl(Ji ll 1 v,:idth in metres o f
Jt i docs 11 0t sc, tio ll winding amI Af t the rat e Or ll t'a t tran sfcr in walts per ~ quart.! IlH.: lre
,win ding rrom unit 's urface a rea of wi nding sl:l:ti on co nsidered ill Lu ll lacl wilh oil.
. rgin s left (4 ) Find t he a veragc oil tcmpcra tu rc i 11 t he windi ng, It ma y Il ul be Ihe sallie as
(;u l~s idcra ble. the average temperature of the bu lk oil and shou kl be calcula ted by
, necessa ry to add ing to Ihe in let oi l temperature (\ rise givc lI by
trry O-U I by
(5. 10)
I
ula t i{m gives where P, is the power in wa lts d issipa ted in the co il sl;lck," the ve rti ca l

b Rer square
I height in me tres o f coil stac k, Vm the oil I1Ii1 SS \'c locil)' ill kilogra ms per
hou r per cubic me tre in ou tside ver tical du el il nd h(l the widl h in metrcs of
ou tside vertical duct.
It tic" l and
(5) Add the results o f (3) and (4) to get the il\crage winding tl' l11pcra turc rise.
i\ IIhough til is (':I k ula t ion i nel tldes a 11 um bcr 0 f siIII pli rying ;1 PI" ll Xi1Il;11 ions. it is
widl'" (mm J
still su mcientl y t:o ll1plicaled to jusliry the usc o r a compuler.
A common method o f tackling the calculati on o f windin g ICll1pC ril lurc is 10
c;llculalc first o f a ll I he average watts pcr ullil :m.:a to be di s~ ip: lI c t.l and, if th is is
6 with in nn accc:ptablc value. to carry o ut the Ill ore deta iled c:lh,: ulatio ll berore
9
finally decid ing on the design.

5.8 1\,I EASUHE~IENT OF WI ND ING T"~II'EIlATUIlE

III 1Il 0st ca!'cs it is ra irly simple 10 calcu la te the avcrngc temperat ure ofa winding
during tests in qlC ra ctory. Th is is carried out by the change in re:-,istmlcc lIlethod
I' (sec chapter 7). --
In sc r\'icc, ho wcver, it is quite impractica ble 10 usc th is method. It is :llso
ho rilOnta l imposs ible to fi x., thermocouples ill the coils becallse or th!.: vo ltage to ea rth.
Instruments ha\'c there fore bee n devised to inJica te winding tCllIpl.! raturc by
u~illg the Ihcrllla l illl:l gc prin ciple. T he 111I.! rrn: 1I irn;lge cO Il "iSIS o r 3 type o r
tl1 erlllOIlH:tcl' inllllt.:rseu ill the oil ;1I the top of Ihe tilnk ("'O I1IH:Ctl.:(iIO a di:1I · typc
r\.'~( i \' c II l!al ins trUIllI.!Ilt. II ~ I O this system is injcl' lcd hl'at dCli\'cd flOlli the transrormcr l!lad
current through a curren t tnll1SrO f mCr, The telllpcralun: ilillicah.:d by the
in \ lrlnl1cll! is the sum o f the top oil tcmpera ture O.,and kl x t\O~, where 60 t is the
(5.S)
,", .,, ".

I
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Ii:
1
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--
. - ,. . ....,..,.•• --r,-- . .~~ '.
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o
". t, .'t .... ', •. ~ \!.'
.' '" '.: 11
'.
, (. i
, ,.1
'/ I.
., ,
; ~- , " .~
I. l
•. 1'

I .1': ~t ;
. ' lj· . "I;
.·:. ~·~1'~._, . . ~~j! ~_~~.,. ..

134 .' fo,IOO t: I{N l 'uW EI~ TRA NSFORMER I'I{A C"II CE
.'
tempera ture differe nce ;Icr05$ the insulatio n of the coil il nd kl is a f:l ctor that 5.9.2
allows for local hot spo ts dlll..'ln t h ~ f:ll:t that th e spacers keep oil away fro lll part
Thl! int cf;Ic..: li n'i
Df th e surf"ee, ·r;; hrilain it i ~ 11" 11:11 10 tak e k, = 1.1.
A Ilum ber o f lliffcrcnt d\" ~ ibll$ have 'been clIlpl oyc J" 10 indica te winding whk:h tcud t( r'
o n th c dir ec..: li u,'
telllpcrature. For: exa mple. ill olle dcsign th e tC lllpc ralurc differen ce t1.0 e is
11lO VC il1\'mrds a
simulated by heat. fr o m U (:o il wo und ro und the therm o met er bulb, In an ot her
design lhe extra. iica t is supplied di rect ly to th e ilistrulllent by pJ;.Icing the heal illg l1ur1lb~r o f \ r'
tlir cc..: tl on ;IIH. ~I
co it over a bell i I whidl expands when hea ted; th e m ~'lVc lll e nt is added to th e
poil1 ler movement due 10 e.' pa l1sio l1 of Ihe liquid in Ihe Ill"i n bu lb. 1\ differe nl
mc thod of convcttin g lht.:: hea l in to moveme nt uses an clemen t, with a positive
temperat ure coefficient 0 r resistallce, inside:r lube o f insu lating Inalcrin l in whic h
sOlllclirnc..: s in II
'1 lie ",elia ' r
is embedded Ihe heuter coil; Ihe rcs islance of Ihe clement is measurcd wil h a
wliL': rc I is the I..·l
bridge ar rangeinellt, and a sui! <lble detector is ca librated in temperature,
axi;ti le\\ ~t h f
In HII cases ~djustm c nt can be prov ided by CO lllicctin g a va riable resistan cc in
Mure ~c ... 'I"
parallcl \"ith Ihe heal er coi l. IIII IS Y;lrying the Clirrent pa ssing th ro ugh il. Thcsc
II N) , x II N), .
in strumcnts arc ll sually 1'1 udd cd wit h sw ilcllcs. wh ich call sw itch o n plllllpS o r
r,IIlSor call operate a larm o r trip ci rclIit s if the temperaturc beco mes too hi gh. t..ol1 s id.~rali~
Wh,k :;,
I:
a
\Vit h the increa sin g desire.: to nbt:l in \.IS much a~ possible fr om in sta lled eq uipill ent
ill ~ig ll i rit.:il nl in
the illlpn rt ancc o f th e windi ng Ir lll peratu rc , indi ca tor has great ly incrC::I."cd in
rece nt ycars.
i ~ sllrncic..: nt ,p
:,\)I;-.:ia l :-\.11 )/ jf
alloy to I Il l ' H.: a

5.9 FOlKES 9 J "" ,.'). ... i: 1<

.'..
'rhe Jc~~agc n·
5,9.1 Genera l
t O lh :~ ~ lthc r
Any cllrrcnt ·ca rrying l'O nd 'ICI ~1I It,( <l lcd in and perpendicular to a ma g lleti c fi eld ffl rt..· l.' ~ ~\ l' ( It.
is subject to a. force calntJ. .hk. rr'tl 'n the forlll ula, . tcll~ : lr t.he d is
•
F = 811 (5. 11 )
f! vtll CO I~ In Fl
,:;\ uses dis! t r
with Fin U inlt.:slas :l lld I in tll clrcs. In thi s ex prcs!'> ion thc ~IJI rent :I[ld
nCW((H1 S, An ap pf\/ ., j
nux density are ta kell aI Ihe i Il sl:\ 1\ t \IIHJcr co nsid er-at io n, Wit h :Ie. pea k Vii iUI.:S o f IJ t wo ·winding
and I give I'l1:1ximunl fo rce in llllY cyc le. Since th e nux ck nsity i$ prop!)rl io ll:J l to
th e current in th e windings, tI l<: fo rcc is proportiona l to Ihe sl}thlre o f the current.
I
At fu ll load th ese forces ar c $1~l; dl, but under shor t·c ircuit cUlld ilioll s vc ry large wherc dU\\.,j is
forces can occur to clamping slructnres, insulati o n :l IlL! th e conJ uctotit sclf. Not wiJth fl ll e' \ ..
o nly must the peak va lue o f tli l.! s llOr l·circuit current be lI SCU in th c c:1 lc uJal io n;
but i lm us t be assllllled Iha t Ihe',i Il sta [} t 0 f occurrence 0 f t he f~t ult is such th at th ere
I
5.9.4 Ax ial
is co mplete aSYllll11ctrY, lh us d!Hri lin g the peak va lue. In fac l. the res istance oflhe .. )
wiJ1di ngs prevcnts complctc d ~ li! I JiIlU, :l ilt! it is co mlnon pi <leI ice to a SS Ulll C tha t A ddiIIO II : II.
the fa clor will be 1.8 in stea d of 2. h tl l'IIH:c:J , II
Wit h a r Cac.t ;lIlCC of I O ~<, Ih { ~ (PIt.'I,· lI l! Slll) rl c i l .... lIi l L'mlld be .L~ lllilll L'S th ~,t (Ill Ill1h; l1 ance~' ~

fulll o'ld. Alth o ugh this Ol 'l ' Ilrs 11 1. 1)' o n th e half.c)'clc. wi th max i lllul11 ,lsyrl ll11dry 1 L'; \cb \\ 1 II
it fi xes the strc ngth for \\ ili L: h ! 11i1s must he..: d L'signed , J OW II W ;'i1 )

: ._. , ,... ~,
ro~ _; :~~
• 1•. o,IJ
;1 ".I.' t:t : ~ )i ~ "'7'-; "- "
1,to I' '.'
+.,1
"~ ·-- - ~",:, rn ;-·'

.", I,;. , •••

,...... _ ..... .
I-- -
;,
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.'

,i1
i"
135
WI N DINGS ,
11..\0 that
5,9.2 [t:ldial forces
,I ,'>~H
':j

rro l part , ,
'j"
Tlte inl l.: laL'tio ll· o f th e main k:J~ : lge nu x ~IHJ till; wintlin g current res ults in fo rces
whidl lcnd to llIove th e wil1di l1 g radially ei th}!r tllltwrlrus or inward s, tkpcllding
i Iding
011 the d irec ti o n o f current relative to nu x. Thc illllcrlll0st windi ng al ways tends to
;c Otis
I move inwards and the outermost winding o ut wards, but in lransfl1rIllC rS with a
not her
Illllnbcr o f co ncentric windin gs q,n each lililb thc forces co uld be iII either
\ ,cat ing
direct ion and . whac tap wil1llints :He involved, sometimes in o nc dilcc.: ti un nnd
cd to the
different somdimcs in th c uther.
I ositive The r~ldial fo rce in a t \\'o ~ wilidi ll g tra ns fo rm cr is , Ii: \
II I which F, = 2n'(/ N)' " x 10 - 11>
1 ( 5. t 2)
'J \~ith a
where I is th e \.:u rr en t, N the n U III ber 0 f turn s, d th e me;l n diaJ1leter 0 f coi I a IIU II its
I ./
~...I ~ce in axi;.d len gth. wit h cI and Ii bo th in metres.
Mure ~eneratly. this exp ression can be nloJilied by replacin g (I N)' by
)
it. The"e
Il jlS or
(I N ), x" N),. where (I N), represents the anlpere turns o r the willJ ing under
t )Ihigh.
. I
Illl plllc ni
con sidera ti on a nd (I N), the ampere turn s producing the magnetic Ii eld ,
While radial forces arc prese nt in all tr""srornlers. they arc ge nerally
ill Sig lljlic~lllt ill Silla ll uilit s. but for la rge tran sfo rmers it is vilal to chcl.:k thatlhere
..,
I
I .• .
r ~ l:u III
is sullicicllt strength to withstand th ese forces. It Inay bt.: lll·ccs:-.:lI}' 10 provide
spcda l suppo rt fo r the inn er wi nding o r to lise wo rk·hardencd coppa o r co pper
all oy to increase the tensile str eng th o f the condu cto rs in either wi nding. ,,

5.9.3 Axia l cOnlprcssh'c forces ,.:; ~ ,

The It:uk;,gc flux d ocs no l r un slrai ghllll1d parallel fro lll one e nd o f the windings
to th e o th er. fringing occ urs towards the lOp and bottol1l o ftllc coi ls. lesu lting in
,ell r,eld furces whk h Icml to L'ompress the \\'ind ingaxia ll y. This fo rce depend s un thc coil
len gth . th e di!'l t:lllce'hdwcc n coil s. the distance fro m (;oillO ,o rc and I hI.! di -; tan ce
fro m coil to tank . II varies in di [fercnt IXlI'ls of th e same wi nding bC(.';l\ lse Ihl.!.yokc , /..
(5. 11 ) , ":1" 'j, !
I,;:lU SCS di s torti o n to th e flux pattern.
rent and
~s of B
An ;,pproxil11atc vnlu ..: o fthC COl11prcssive fo rce 0 11 both windings ill aua lanced
two . winding trans fo rm er is given by the exp ressio n
'f .,

I 'Ilall o ' (5.13)

: cur rent.
t ' large whl.! rL' rl ... ,.,J is I hc mea n diameter o f coi ls. r I and ' 1 Ihe coi l radii. I'd th L: du ct radial
r. Not width and Iw the lI'illJing length. "II in metres.
:;ullition,
I,,· t there
5.9.4 A:'I.: ial forces due to ulIlmlallC'c bC[\l ('c l1 Himlings
of the
Ime that Addit io nal axial fo rces nrise when th e wind ings o fa tran sfollilcr ar c nut perfectly
b:ilal1t'c d thro ugho llt th ei r lengt h ullder all t'll IHli tio lls. Where th l.: re is ;IIlY
. hat un unbalallct.: a eross ~ nll x . pl..'rpclllJiclilar to the lI1aio h,·..lkagt: nu x, c.xi .. t,..:: Ihis, ill turn,
.... metry rcacts with th e wind ing curren t to produ ce forces. upward s in o lle winding and

I <.h,1wllw;lrd s in the o ther.

..
.'
-.......--_ . ~----- _ .. _._." _. ...
, ~.' 11'
;1 ~
• t,• •.;.". ;,
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,
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136
To C;l ku Ia Ie th e rorce a I'c.')id u:1I :1I11J'~ rc t I n'l1 d i.tl,; t a11\ is d rn W il l as indica tcd in WhiCh J ,
fi gure 5. 14 fo r two examples. More co mplica ted winding arrange ment s res ult in large tral'
res idual ampere - turn dia grmlls with mo re triang les. but the fo rce cnkul;lI ion is over II' \1
simila r in principle.
oll"" ' }
Eac h [l'iangle in a dia gram gives risc to a force t t is illl
Fo = k ,2nk j (NI)(N I)' x 10 - 7
(5. 14) bCl.' a usI' f
, where kl is :l co n ~tant whic h varies frolll 5.5 to 6.9. dcpcnd.ing 0 11 the windi ng
norm:! 1
cak ukh l,;
'~ ~l il11 c l1 s i o n s alHf ~trrnn gc lll c l1t4 . k J th e frac tional oul o f balance at poi llt (k sig11l.'d
co nsidered (in figure 5.1 4(a), k, = II :lIlel , ill Iig",.c 5. I,I(b), k, = 10), N I th e to tal
[Il11p~rc - tllrn s' of windin g and (NJ)' the ~ll1lpC rC
' . length cove red by part of diagram und er co nsidera tio n.
[lIrn s in cith l.: l' windin g in I
o
5, 10
I I
- -< Tho dcsig
wi t h. . I;· .. (.
"
Icakag i1
Illust be a
use co rc.
I
bt.:t.: 11 C
lot IOc:IlCL J

SF H
I (i s ill (.
:,. r.~ Il !'J iJc rc
,
tes t al' ,111
+ 0
thi s Ie I
cxpc r h. IIC
It is 'I I
kn o'" II
t) l'o, '1
lot
yea rs, Vc
Fig ure 5. 14 Residual ampere- turn diagrams: (a) ror t wo - \\'indi ng· ~an s ro rl1lcr with proJ u 'il
\ straigh t wi ndings; (b) for two-w indi ng trans rormer wi lh nne srlit -c:olll.:c: lIric wind ing tosts I Il

\
T il e 1I 1clltod 0 r ......'kulalio n givc n in this secti o n is a pploxi rn:lI c an d II s ll.1 11y
tcnds to be pess imistic. Tit \! co mputer pr0t;r<lIllJllcs II ~t: d to c:akt d,lI c r('!Il.' lan ce
ca ll also be used toca lculat c forces, since lw tll depend \) 11 th e 1ca ~,; I!.·C I'atl ~ rll , The
ro rces ~o caku lat cd arc rC:1 SO /l:\ hl y :in:III'a t c. T he" Ih
, I
As trall srormer ra tin gs :tn d short \'i r( lIll \,' ll l' l l '" l s itl!'l'c: I'Oc [he 0 111 o f h;l1;1 ncc pc r!l11.. ~: (

, , ,,- .,
",

;.\. /0'
 WIN[) I NG S 137
I

. Jica!ed in whic h <.:.1n be to lerat ed beco/l1cs less '.IIlU less. For this I'C~I SO I~ ·t he 1. 1ppi 1I t.: III I ns 0 r .
nts ~CS lllt in b rge tra nsrormcrs arc iirranged in separate coil s with each t.~ P secti on cX h:nding
'e,,\,,
Iion is O\'c r the rull winding Icngt h. \Vi th this arrangement good· b.a lance is IIwinta illcd
t)l1 allt :l!' pos it ions, ~llld a xia l ror cs arc redu ced to 3 ·mil{i1l1uITI.
I tis iU1J1ossiblc to gu arant !.:c that 110 ullb..il:ilH.:C wi ll occl{r durin g. Itl:tlw rac lurc
because o f th e Jillll.: nsil) lwl cllanges which Illay occur in (.'f!iulosc 01<1 1\,,', ials. It is
(5.14)
I
norma l pract i<.:c to ~I SS IlIll C somc di splacement between: <.:oil l'C lllll;S a nd to ,. ~.

calculate rorces al'con lin gly. Gna cla lllps. windin g a"~1 insula tic..Hl lIlust be
r'l(i
; winding
I • \ r:
·e at pOi nt
.. th e tOlal
designed to wi lh sl:tnd th e forces ",dculated. .... I','

indillg ill ,..

5.10 C LMIl' [)E$ I GN

T he Jcsign o r winding clamps varies very widely. T hey must be strollg \,,'110 ug h to
withstand the short-circli it forces. They must not have excessive l os~c" due to the
kakagc nu x, a nd they Illust not increasc the possibilit y ~ r clectl ic railure. There
must be a tic rro m lOP to bO llu m o r the windin gs. bu t it is sometime!'. possible to
use l·U I'C. <.:o n: L'1:1111 ps or 1.111 k for Ihis pu rpose. Tic rods a u lside t Ii!.: \~ i nd i Ilgs ha vc
been (;0 111111 0 11Iy l'mploycd. a nd lics. ge nera ll y strips o r stainic:o::s . . I.·c l, may be
loca ted between th e inner wind ing and the core.

5. 11 ECO NOM ICS OF WINDING DESIGN

I t is illlport:l lll to relllember Ihil t many rac tors ot her than mat L" iid Ct;h t Illu st be
co nsiucfcd when choosi 1l g the llIost eco nomical winding to usc. It lil'h l pass its
lest ~nd must rU I1<.: ti un sati sfactor ily in serv ice, but wide ly \ :11 ) :1; ...:" ·. iLns rulfil
this req uireme nt. The raci lities ava ila ble a t the II1JIWrac tul'cr's ",i 'I ' , S :1 111.1 the
expe rience and skill or the o pera tors Illu st be tak en in to con ~ jd . 1;'1 ;,1 11 .
It is qu il l! possibk tha t changes in the price o r raw l11i1terial \ '1 ,'l haIlCCS in
k noW led ge in Ihe design depart men IS could cila nge the rel;1 t jn,' , ,t ' I ', 1rd Irrc l'l.: III
l)'Pl:S l)r windi ngs. M:l lly ncw mat cri;lls ha ve bt:co llic :I\ail:lhk: ill th,; l:b t few
yea rs. Vt: ry o rten w h ~ n ilrst proc..luccd their price prevents tl lt': ;1 11't.:, hut as
productio n increases price o flen rall s so that it is nccessar y to C~;tl1til"e rrequc ntly
; rplc r wilh
V"inding
costs o r usi ng ncw materials which arc technica lly sui wblc. I~-
Inc
!
I
,...( usua lly
I
ACKNOWLEDG ~~I ENT
!
te r 'acta nce i
r . crn . The I
The alltho r cxp rc.5S!.:s his thanks 10 Pa rso ns Pt.:ebles Li lll itl:d, ,·,'lil1hui'gll . for
t of balance perm iss io n 10 pllbl i:-. Il th is chOl pl cr alld fo~ proviu ill g th e illll :-.. ll :llili Il S lIl'cd.

I ' I
I I
,
'I'
.' i;;,
I ,.

I i"
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~ ~. .... I .
I I I I ,
.t .\ : ( 'II ir,
 "
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~-

138
(.
J
f', 'I OI)E RN I 'OWER rHA NSI OltMER "RA e I ICI.:

ll£f£IlENC£S
J
( ItcfCI'CIlCC numbers preceded by th e lette r G arc listed in :-;cc tioll 1.14.)
l. Cam ill i, G .. Gas~ in s llia t ed power tran SrOl'lllc rs, PrOf. InSf . E/('('I r . r:ng., ('arr
A. 107 (1960) 375 on.-I('I
2. Goodma n, E. A., 3,nd Posner, G. C., Trends in g:ls· in <; lIl:itcd tr:tIl SrOllllc rs,
IlImlwiOIl (1 965139 •
3. Chadwick. II . T .. Ferguson. J . M., Rydc r. D. H.. and Stearn. G. F., Design of B. C. Sa
po wer trnnsrOrll1C rS to with stand surges UtlC 10 lightning, with spcci,, 1
refere nce to a new type o f wind in g. I'roc. 111.<1. £/eOr . Ellg .. 97, Part 2 ( 1950)
I
737
4. Waters, M., [h e Short'firmit Slr(,1I8,h o/I'o wer 7i·{JII.VormCfS. MacDona ld,
Londo n ( 1966) .
5. Kerr, 1-1 , W., and Pa lmer, S., Devclopments ill th e des ign o r large pov,lcr
transformers, ('roc. IlIsl . Electr. Ellg .. III (19M) 823 6.1 INTIl
6. I)roll'n, W. J .. Kerr, H. W., Si nge r, D. C , and Wal ' he. 1.. c., ACfl'.fSorieSllll d I
I'arts lor Tralls/ormers. ClG RE Rep., No. 101 (1 966) O n-load ..
tnlll :- fOll1l C
lOamI I
fac ilit y (I
\ c) II:1ge.
. III gcr 'i
, t"PPOU
locatiu a t t
is uSj, ally '\
clll1Jro l , 1
·J· all .~ .,,:
2, " an d I .
I",,,e ful I,
1,;c llcra ll. '
tap ch<lng,
lInit s, d(' ~,
intCi't.:O li ~
tap··cllangl
Tral1 sfo
o r delta
16 S ( C P~ I

6. 2 n.'
Elcdricall
eila ~
l;l P

,.. '·of·.,...·o.:-:'I"I'f"""'I·-...."1·""'";' - r'···· · " ,

I..;! ;,;.; ,": ·~~r ,':'1' ~~.. "
,,' . " ... ~ .. ~ 'I'
 ,.
..
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!.
.'
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6·
'.
· . i.)
" ,
L:' lIg . . [>(lrf On-load Tap-changin!J Equipment
I
I fo rll ~(' rs
I ' B. C. Sa vage*
•
I "csign of
· I . I
f,pcc la
rl 21' 1950)

/ ),, ". dd,

- 6.1 INTRODucn ON

, . ,'/ 's (l IIrI On-load tap-changi ng equipment is requ ired as a necessary il ccessory to a
l r~lIl s fOrln er norma lI y employed in an clcctric power SII pply system (~cc chapl ers
10 ;l nd 12), By chan gin g th e tapping 0 11 i1 winuing. th e cquipml.: llt pruvides the
facility to va ry the tu rns ratio o f the tran sformer and thli S the level or its ou tput
voltage.
In genera to r trans formers where the ge nerator voltage o f about 20k V is
stepped up to a voltage in the range of hundreds of kilovolts, the tap changer is
loca ted at the neutral end of the hi gh·voltage wind in g. The lapping rallge covered
is usually about20 %., fro m + 5 to - 15 %. Tap changers arc used here fo r a coa rse
co nlrol o f the power stat io n o ut put vo lta ge.
Transmi ssion aulo-transfonl1crs. fo r exa mpl e,
ill Grl:at Britain lin k tlH': 400,
. 275 and 132 kV networks. 400 to 132 kV and 275 to 132 k V allto -trans form ers
have fully insulated tap cha ngers wh ich work at a volt age of I J:' k V to ear th.
g~ller:l ll y with a 30 %tapping ra nge. Th ere arc, howcver, a Dumber o rlll:utra l-c1ld
tap changers in usc, bu t, in gcneral, thcre nrc vari ous Huvantagc~ for linc-cnu
un ilS, dependent o n th e voltage rati o. Some 0 f the a uto· t fa nsformers in serv ice to
interco nnect 400 and 275 kV systems arc provided wit h full y inslliated 275 k V
tap-chall ge units.
Transform ers on di str ibu tion sub-stati ons may have tap chan ge rs o n thc star-
o r delta-co nnected high. yoll:lgc wind in gs. Gellcr'ally a tapping ran ge of 20'% in
16 steps of 1.25% or in 14 steps of 1.43 % is covered.

6.2 BASIC CONDITIONS OF OPERATI ON

Elcdl'h.~a lly, two b<l sic cOlluitio ns have to be met ill th e opl.: l'a tioll o ran Oll - In" d
lap challgcr.
f ormerly Ferra nti Limit ed.

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(I) The load cunci'll in the transforme'r winding lIlust fl o t be int errupted Th ere .
d ur ing a lop cbnge. c llrr c nt ~ tr ;

(2) The t~,p c1wngc must he ~;llTi cd ou t without short -circuiting a lapped ::; wiIt.:hin
sCL,t io n of the ~~vinding, ucrivcu
" ; " o ut pu t VI
These cond itions .rlcccssitatc th e in troduction o f some form o f transition next Gl.I4,(
illlped;lIlc: during I!l,d t'transitio ll st age. Such a l~a~l sjlion impedance is provided A lap
ei th er with a rcsi!ilO'c!or with ;1 11 in du cto". The al11 0 llnl o f impedan ce lind the CO lllbilH.-,)
IllcthoJ o f irs con~c: )11 in the circ.:u it arc dClcrrnmcd by a number o f co nnh;tiJlg re s i ~ l (J r is
require ments. The ,mai n ones ilrc as foll o ws.
. ,: 1Il00'cnll
(I) T here mu st b'e 110 CXCCS S; \C voltage nuctll:llio ns during the swi tchi ng illt crrur
cycle. ., a t:in..: ulati
(2) The circu lati~lg Current bdwcCIl lilpS in the transition position lIlust lIot /J. Ia P
be excessive. ' a se pa l:'
(3) Tile duration of th e arc, \\"11(' 11 t: urrcnt interrllpt io n tak es plilce, IllU!; t be Wi lh IIIIS
kept to a minimum so as to minimise c'oll!aCI crosion and to redu ce t: irculal in
co ntamination o fill e oi l. l"lIlllat: t erosion is cau!;cd whe n the surface o fa 111 ~c
con tact piece is a ffec led by I he ; II'C as the CO n tac t brcCl ks 10 open t he circuit. on lO II. .
IranSrO/'ll'
The lap <: hangc r wit h res i s l o r ~ l ypc IrflJl sition illlpctla ncc ha s inherelllly the It is 11 0
advantage tha t the current in te rrupted and the restr iking vo ltage across the
sw itchc
con tac t arc in phase. This mea ns Ih" l the arc ex tin guishes at a ClIl'f'en! zero and In n CIl(
th a i Ihe res triking voltage docs no t build up to a ma xim ulIl for ano th er qllarl c r ~
tile 11;11 1
cyc le:. 'nic lIlodern high.speeLi rc:, j"'tll' !:lj1 'change r opera les so fa st Ihal wi th tn P S l~\.' t
transitio n rcsis tor the arc pcrsi!' ls f(1 1" 1\ll1 y abo ut half a cycle. lIence there is a
swi\th, .1.'
m inimum o f contact erosion and minimuill o il co nt a mination,
sel<bl1o r It
The lap change r with induct or-I) p~ Ir ;Ulsiti oll impL'd:lIlcc has the ildv:lll lilgC o f o f J..: a gL .'
a b~c ll c(, 0 f high-s peed switch I11 cdw 11 iq IlS bu t the dis-ad van tage t !HlI I hI.! ell I fen t 'j I
On interruption and the restri kin g \'o !t;lge across the co ntact a t the instHnt o r .(
opening a rc in phase quadrature. e r ll lilct breaking in lilis co ndit ion rosters arc
fOl'rlla lio n whi ch Icads to 1IIldUel'Ollt;tct e ro~ i o ll lind Ihus toco nt31llinat io n o flh e 6.4 G
oil as tin arc, on average, lasts for lhr~~ 10 fOllr ha lf~cyclcs, This type o f gea r is now
lilile used in Eu rope bUI slill find s , d ille f,,,'our in Ihe USA, in spile o fils sile alld
The"' , :
,
COSI, probobly because high-spccd ;\\ il ch mec hnnisms arc no l necessary for it
arid pl ,
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O lher
6.3 HI GII-SPEE D RESISTO t! ' r.~:' ( '''ANGER
I fo ll o"': " ~
I
(1)
In lI10de rn Ir ig h-speed resiSior lap JII:II1"" 1' Ihe currell l Irallsfcr lak es place in (2) S
abnll! 40 to 70 ms, depending 0 11 tht: I) I~C o f I11ce hani~1ll lIsed for swit chi ng. (3) 1
The hi gh transfer ~ pccd is oblaillctl hy using a s l orcd · c n~ rt:y systcm , gt; llc r(llIy
in the ft lrt n o f a bank o f sprin gs, T ire 1I11.:C h;1I1is rn is '\I ~ 1l I~HlI , o nce tll c slnrcu (4)
'I
encrgy is l'l'! t;:rscLl, Ihe tap change is (.,I~Hl lpl ~ k d regardless o r an y cx tel'lll.l l power (5)
supply fai lure, It is, ill crrect, a posilive '[;0 no gO'Il1~cl1 ;IIIi S I1l with a very low risk
o f fa ilure, (6)

, -",-
 UN .I.OAD ·' I\P· C II ANG ING EQ U II'MEN r
141

There arc two types of resistor tap chan ger in co mmon usc; both usc different
erruplcd
I c unc l1t ~ tran s fcr switchin g at'wngcmenls. These call bc classincu as the pennant
switching cycle and the n:lg switching cycle. The terms nag ~nd pennan t arc
f 1 tapped
I lkrived from the nppca r:Hlcc o f the phasoF, di :lgratnS that show the cha nge o f
output voll agc o f the transformer in moving fr olll o nC lapping to the
, tr:lIl sition HeX I G 1. 1;1, G2.11.
'~ lI'Qvidcd A tap Ch:lll gc r o f the pennant S ~'litchin g cycle type uses :1 selector switch that
co mbincs the functi o ns o f tap shfccti on and currcnt tn.\l\sfer. Gem:r;dly, a singlc
( l "d the
C~ I Oicti ng res istor is used which gives an asymme trical swi tchin g cycle. In"'O ll e din,:c li on o f
movement, a circulating CUI:relil is pn ss ing before the throu gh ~currcn t is
i ntcrru pled. whereas i 1\ t he reverse d j rccti oll Ihe t hrough-currell t is broke n hefore
~ lil C hing
a circulating curren t start s to pass.
A tap changer o f the Ol.1g-switching-cyclc uses a tap selector in co nj unctio n wit h
lust not
I a separate diverlcr swil ch. Two resistors arc used to give symmetr1c:1 1switchin g.
With Ihis seq\lcllce. thl: thro ugh-curn:nt is broken by the main CO II'tnc t bt.:fo rc a
be
:: , I1)II SI
reduce
r ....
cirClI1 i1l ing cur rent start s to pass.
I III ge llc",,1 Oriti sh prac tice, the tap changer is Illetal clad and eit her is bolted
I lceo fa
onto the tran sformer or is integral with it. Tap changers for large power
he f ircuit, t nl ns fll! mel's generally have scpara tc pockets for lap selector n nd tl ivc rtcr swi teh .
r Itl y the It is now com mon prac ticc to fit sin gle-compartment combinations aT di ver ter
t )SS the switches and selectors to 33 and 66 kV transformers.
In ge neral European pr:lc ticc, the tap cha nge r is Sll spended fr olll thc cove r o f
zc{o
r n :lr t cr ~
""d Ihe tr"nsforlll er tank. the whole being immersed in the main transfOflm:r oil. The
t I wit h tap secti on ge nerall y comprises a bakelised paper tube which hOll ses th e divcrtcr
t"cre is a swi tch. nnd th e o il o r th is is separtlte rro m that in the main tr:lIlsfOflll cr. 'fhe tap
selecto r is mounted di rec tly below the divcrter tube hOllsing and is ;l n upe n fo rm
geo f u f cage con structi o n,
" tr
( uncll t
I
·,sta nt of
, )rs arc
6.4 G"NE R"L DES IG N CONS IDEItATI() f'S FOIt "TAl' ClIA i'\I.;EIl
( .f fthe
If.l~ now
c , ~c a nd
T he tap I.·hallger of a ,tr:lllsformer has to be capable of mecting th t.: "atllC nOl llla l
or it. a nd peak ra tin g ove rload co nditions as the IranSrO rll\cr it selr.
Other design co nsidcrations that have to be taken into account incl ude the
~l lowill~ .-
(I) The max imum systcm voltage on which the transformcr has to work.
(2) Step voltage a nd the number o r sleps.
r 1 CC
(3) The ma xi mum rlns test volt~lge to ea rth a nd across the tappin g
1
in
: ng.
:ll cra ll y ran ge.
(4) T he max imulIl surge \'oltage to ear th and ac ross thc tappil1g la nge.
: siored
l ower
I (5) The I1I;IXil1\ul11 p owcr~ frc lJth': I1l;Y ami S llrgc ~ tc s t \'o ll ; I ~~S h\: t \\\:~ 11 pi1a!'ocs
L risk .j whcre a pplicable. .
(6) Cu rrellt ratin g, bo th for nor mal full ~ l o;\ d ami peak ratin g culldili ons.

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MOO I!RN POWE ll TnAN~/'ORME R l'IV\CfI 'c

(7) Typc tests nccessary to dcterm ine the da ta ·fo r it pa rticu lar tap chan ge r to -.1
~' A typic,
aseert a i n whether it is cnpable 0 f mce ting supply aut ho rity sped fi t .11 io ns uile fi nc secI
while co nformi ng to intcrna lio rw l :1I1d nationa l requirements. !,!clccto rs, (" ,.
ta p sch:.:t:ll
co\c rin g th\
6,5 TAPP IN G WIND I NG AHRANGE~ I ENTS
other wit h i
SOIllC I;
linca r !'! WI
6.5, I GClleral sc..;tioJ1s. Th
by rllca li S '
Therc~lrc i-I numbe r of ways in which leads call be taken u rfthe willding to provide
o ul. I 2 '
the required tapping r::lllge. T hese are gCller:lll y rlrnlll gcd to suit a p;lI·ticu Ja r
inJcxcd, ' j I
c.ksign o r me th od o f co nstru ctio n, Considerable elec trica l and mecha nica l
s..:ction 1111"
pro blems are involved with tappin g lead , trllettl res Oil high-vo ltnge power
With II
transfo rm ers 6wing 10 th e Jargc cross·."cc tioll o f co ndu clo rs and th e va lta gc.:s tha t
changer a.
ap pear ,lcross the tapp in g range. T he Icads sho uld be tak en off the winding in
sti ch a w:'\y ~s to provide a neat conncctio n ei ther to a barrier pa nel betwee n Ihe
swi lch and tra ns ror mcr or directly to t ilt.: switch co nta ct term in als. T hrec 6.5,3 Hl I

meth ods. in common usc ror providing tappings at th e nClI tr:1I end of a high- Figure 6, I (
\'ol tlJge windi ng, arc shoWJl in fi gure 6. 1 ;lIld a rc cxpJailll:d be low. ran ged : .
:\1
hoost th e I
6.5.2 Coarse/ fine-taJlP ing \\" illlJing ~lrrrlllg(,llIc llt the main W I
bl: a I:'ppin,
The arrangemcnt s huwn ill figure 6. I(a) has a coa rse tapping 'icc.: li(' 11 as a n
uuJ'allu l t'
e,'( tellsioll or the m;li n winding a nd is indcxed bY:1 cha llgc -o\,cr selecto r. The IlW in w{HiI!) be
tapping wind ing constitutes the fi nc secti o ns.
rurtl,h tiP'
/1
LI NE LINE LI NE A .:· ~ pa II
O r l. '~ p pl.! ~
lil l I/j ug,

6.5.4 L'
A typical Ii
brou ght i
two scp:\ I
even nUl nb,

~
ro tary 0 1 I'
This i, (
it al'io rne,lI
o \'l!r "cll'l"I '
I
(0.) (b) (C)
J'ig tLfC 6, 1 Typica ll:lp-chan gl!f windin g arrangemcnt s in COllllll(1 n II SC: (a) t:oa f'ic/ finc The thll II
l appin g; (b) rc"cr~c t;lpring; (c) linenr lap ping :!d \ ;1 • I '~

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ON · LOAD T AI'.C II ANG I NG CQU II'ML N 143 ,I . 'IlLi!1j)ttj~·~.:!.!~;'';'''l''
~~;t~~,~I,jli
' Cllarge r to A typica l example wou ld have a coarse sectio n with ten limes as man y turns as ~~ ,l !~'i" \~t~ ';~~it;i~)
o ne Cinc secti o n. The finc. tappin g lead s would be brought O Ul to (wo ro tnry t;lp ~: f. \,o,;~·,"iI.t,\1
sl.! k~l()rs, ',il· .;~ l'l!~j~W·?·;~
('ci ri c:lI io ns I

n ne illllc;-:in g the odd tnp numbers ,\lHJ th e other th e c"c"Il,lllllll bc.: rs. The
tap sc1ct.: tOf'S. gan gcd fo r s~ qll c l11ia l o pera ti un, w(lll lt! II Jilkc t wo.. fc vollitillll S ill I , ~ )~:f, ~"',}~>:' ,' "
coveri ng th e ran ge: OIlC re vo luti o n with th e coarse sCI.: Li o n o u l o( scrviLc ami the l .~~ t '.
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SOllie 1:1/ gc 20 to 400 k V gL'ncra~~~. lrallsforlilcr
ulil er with it in after th e opc-ra lion o f the change-oyer se leclor.! ,'
have a modirica' ve rsio n wit h a
linear swil Ch arr a ngclIl t. : nt ro r fo lir coarse section s, each cqui v Il t 10 ftlll r linc
..... . I! II' .,"Il~i" . i't
'<1:1 " : t,
sections. Th ree separate fin c scc t i~ n s arc illllcxcd in nnd out o r series I,.' O I1!1 i'..:t i~ j n
,I d~ ~)ff1~ f~,;,;:t"
,
by Inca ns o f t\\'o change-over selec tors. So, stal'lin g with all th e tappin g \\i nd ings .,
provide o 1I t. 1- 2 -J ri Ilt.! Sl!di o ns arc adl. kd ill seq lienee, ano t he fir st coa rsCs..:d iV ll is 1" : II '( ~ 'i ;r f 1 I'.'
\lli!~lt·(i.
p~rtic ular indcx..:d, Tht.! lin t. : st;di o lls arc again added in scquCIl<': C, ano a fUJ'lh l.: J' i,.· l,:!l';t. : fll"~I,lI . ~~~.,.7,.!,,: .'
;hanical
: power
section then bro ught in, ano 50 o n until the full ran ge is 5pa'IlIlCd, I
~.!t~ ;~~:t~M~t~~rf1~::
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,ltagl:s that
With th e coa rse/ ri ne ar range ment, high surge voltage can occ ur Ull lh t,; t:qJ
I.: h:lll gc r at tran sit io n. ~~ I;'*. . ..[.'tt~'t,'.·~'l, ~
1I ':'lcl in g in
, {cell the
'I! ,;~Wri';"
~ll s. Three 6,5.3 Rcn ' rsl'- tapping willding arr~lI\gclJ1cllt ~ :rt
~~' .~ ""i;' •
',; !Ir:{ .';'::
o f, high- Fig ure 6.1(b) shows a typi cal _urran gerllcnl. 1\ se parate lapping win ding is I~ i; J,>,;,·~~~,:.l~··
'!

'~. ~,-.¥,.r..)I{~;~' t

': .
arra nged in co njuncti on with a chnngc-ovc r sekctor so that it wi ll cill1 l! I' b u<.:k or
boost tile main wind ing. tharis the tap secti ons arc subtracted from, o r ;'\(.Ilkd 10, , ~ ·t1'::~;I\ij.
the 111;lin wind ing po l:1I ily to var y th e vo ltage rati o, I\. typi cal arran gement \\'(\ ultl ' l ~; !"I!. ~~.~f- .' ;~I\~~
be a t"pping windin g o f 1t. : 11 ~ct,;tiolls bro ught o ut to t wo ro tary t. IIl s~kl'tl. lI s fo r l,i ,.,'y'j:; ~. \..':" ,
1 as an odd am.! eve n la p num bc rs, One revolution o f the do ublc·tap·selcclul' llll:c lwl1i' lll <,. ;;jr, t ~
I! j.; ;~.:'1':,1}.:.'J. ,+:fH,rf.'.:~(,,~
i

T he maIn wo uld bc foll owed by an operLili on of the change·ovcr reversin g sck.. : tor an d 3
1
fu rth er tap -selec to r muvement. ! ~:'r ,l,(;rt~J
I,j!I\:. ~'" ~ >:;,
I .....

A Sl'pal':l tc la pp ing \\ indin g o f th is type genera lly mean s an add itio lla l :11 11 1' 111lt \"%'ff :~:6},>~
.1 o f Cnp l\cr ill the tralls for mer wi th co nst. : qll cn l hi gh copper loss 0 11 th t; 11I i n illlnr ll
tn ppin g.
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6.5.4 Li ll(,<lr-l:1ppilll,! ninding arr.ll1gelllcnt I.''Itt'l '.~;'\"i~.

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1\ lypi calli ncar. lapping windin g is shmvn in fi gure 6.1(c). 1\11 the !;I pp;n t;>; tl rc >J',~~~'~iJ
brought lit in potcnt io mcter fas hi o n fr o lll the winding, Se lection is by Il H': :I Il~ u f ~:
r I,t~~, ',' :\: ' :., •
'< (;•• J. ' ,~ " ,
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two separate selcctors. one cOlltro lllll g the odd tap numbers :lIId the Plht,; f the "'d 'iV', .
I''I!} '~:~,j~~k7;o~:'J:
evcn numbers. Thc mecha nic,,1 arra nge ment o f thesc tap sc lectors can be CI"'ller
rowry or in line, ~;';';' i,,\~
Thi s i ~ possibly th e simplest arra llgement and the one in most co mmon ll 'iC, as
it also me:l Il S a simp le mec hani ca l dri ve systelll for the 1:1\) chall gt..: r as no ch:i ll ge-
ovc r selcc to rs tire in vo lved, I
.!
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'oa c/ linc
6.5.5 Discussion of lapping \\ illlli ll)J arr :1I1 gc llH' nl S
The th rec Illclh oc! s' o r l;l p-wil1d ing a IT;ll1gclllcnt. rdt..: rrn l to aho \ c, hn\ c th·:ir ib :~(,.:,;
ad \:1 IlI :lgcs accordin'g to the tl';1ns fo l lllcr d cs iglll: r's ap prua ..:h 10 1111.: q uc~ l h II ~' f
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MODI:RN POW ~ R TIlA ;-.Is r O RM t: R PRA CT llE

brin gin g ou t the (apping leads, and in res pect o f th e sur ge voltages which ca n ~~ 6.6.1
deve lop particlJ larly across the tapping range. \Vit!1 the linea r arrangement there ":;
is :\ much silllpk r IllCciWllic:1I d c~ i g n o f tap t: hall J;c r :15 IIll l.' h:Ill gc-ovc r sc it:(,: lor is Tilc switch' 1,1
requ ired. . " 1l1(;t.: liani L'ul "
d~scripti t) I' a
As a ge neral rule,linenr arran gc ll1 l.: nl s arc used 0 11 star or de lla windin gs o f 33
windin g. wi ll
ilnd 66 kV system trnnsformcrs. Thi s meth od is ;lIso clIlploYl'llt o a I;lrgc ex ten t on
132 and 275 kV two -whldi llg transforlllers with th e lap l'hanga In,cated :Il th e p o t..:nth,'l I11' r
earth ed ne utral eml o rille high-vo lta ge wind ing. Thcr(t.arc OI;(:; I Siol1s whclllhcrc
arc lIl orc than t 6 steps, where it is Ill o rc eco nOlll ka l to usc a revcrsing
<I rr:ll1gCI11CIlt. 0 n h iglicr ra t i ngs. i nvolving Ira ns fon ll ers 0 f ~1 00 k Y :l nd iI bovc. Ihe

lapping Ica ds arc o f slIch dimensions that it is sO /l1 c tirn ~s Ilct;cssary to n;sort to
<.:oarsc/ finc o r reversing arrangcments with the lesse r f1l1lJlb~ r o f I('ads.
O n 275 to 13 2 kV and 400 to 13 2 kV tmnsmission au to· trans rormers, the
choke o f winding arran gc ment and thc positi oning o f the trip sectio n a t the
132kY po int or Ihe neutral end is in flu t.! l1ccd by SHch aspects as the follo wing.
(a) IVhether the vo lt age to be controlled is the high ,·" Ita ge or mediulll
vo ltage.
(b) The ratio o r tran s ro rmation.
(e) Consideration or the usc or the tertiary winding, tha t is poss ible usc for
power factor improvement.
I t is i III porlfln t 10 rea lise Iha t pro blcllIs c:a 11 :J ri 'ie when lIsing t:1p ..: hang.; rs wh icll
in".-orporal c a ..:hallge ~o \' c r sckl:tor; this is cs pe<:i:tlly so on tra llsforl11ers above
IIOkY, When thc change-o ve r sc lcctor'opcra tcs,thc t;\pping winding is momcn-
tari ly disco nn ectcd. Recovery vo ll ages appea r as the conlacts se parate, and Ihc
tnpping winding nssumcs a vo lt age dct cflnin cd by th e windin g cH pa c it:tl1 ~c , In
GC llcra l, if ' th e rc<.:overy voltages cx(;ccd that ncross til e tappi ng windi ng.
dimcultics wit h rega rd to elec tric stress :l ntl formation of ga<;cs ca n arisc. and
I'i!;U1,lili,2 1;:('11
~ pct: ia ll)fCl·alltiI.JllS Illust 1.>(: taken to lil11it these rc:cove ry \·olt agc,\. Lim ita tio n o f
!-dccto rs; I I J ~
recovery \'o lt ~gc is ac hieved by the fo llo\\'i ng llIeans. S\~ itching In
(a) Cap~lcitive control bCI\\'" cc n the lI1a in winding and the lapping winding.
(b) 1\ lic- ill co ntrol resistor to l o~atc th e COnl lllon of the I.' ha nge-ove r SC Ic(' IOr The tap p' 'g
to;\ defini te volta ge, The ra ltlc '-I1lJ r.1ting of thesc rc"j\(o rs depcnd Oil the selct.: tor eOIl k
Ira 1" fol'l l1cr d es ign nJld grc.at c:m; !\ltlst be take n \\ hl.: rl SclC( ling t hem, sl id ing t tp-:,c!c
(c) A do uble change,o\,cr selector arrangement \\'hich prevenlS the tap dri ve n by Plll 11
winding fro ll1 becomin g iso lntcd, through bu il
con t<lcts S I ... It.
shown indexcd
6.6 n ES IST Oit SW ITCIIINC SE Q UENCE The S(O I\ C 1

di\ cr!cr s\\' h

For the pu rpo :-iC () r (k ~c l'iptil.'l1 it is nC'cc~":l ry to c0 1l sidcr high· :-. p{'cd res i stor tap (t) The nHl
• I
chnllgcrs of two d istinct types, both o f whil'h arc: operat ed from so me fo rm of " lIh 11£
'\Io rcd energy ncculllll lator: (I) th c con\'t.: nliolla l !lng-cycle doub le-resistor ta p t 1'[11 \ Iit
( h:lIlgcr :tnd (2) the pt; tlll:l1lt -cycle si nglc,rc.:si:-. tl lr tap ch:tIlga,
t..• h can
,nt tlhcre
~ ;t1
or IS

Igs of33
y ' ~ nl , on
I \l the
en there
I. t 'I"
cvcrsll1 g
c, th e
.l. ... ~') l 10
,,
I, ), the
:1 theIt
i1owing. 52
6
r Jiu lO 0 '- "
5
I o-
t\-
3
I 2
iC for
I
'swh ich
~ ,hove
'··ITIcn.
a nd the
.1 ; . III
M7, I Mt
\ il1 g. :1 N
isc, and
, ':0 1 0 f
Figure 6.2 Schematic diagram ror lj~l! car.tYJ>c
doublc-rcs isior tap chan g<.' r; SI. S2. lap
selec tors: 1 to 19, lilP selector main CO lltacts: R I, R2, transi tio n resistors; M I , M2. main
switching co nlaclS o f di"cr ler sw itch; T I , T2. tra nsi ti on co nl <l(; 15 of din:rlcr switch

lindi ng.
t 'cc tor
Ii
The tappi ngs, in this casc, arc brou~h t out to two pa"" i1cl rows of lixed tap·
j n the selector co ntacts, the odd num be rs ~) J1 ollC side and the even on the o lher. The two
~ them. sliding tap.scfe~ t o r contacts S t '''Id
S2 are indexed by ge ncva whccls all d are
t'·, lap dri ve n by multi-sta rt Icad sc rell's'l CU ITent is transferred via coilector busbars
th ro ugh bu shings to the sides or th e divcrtcr switch. The moving tnp·sclcc tor
contacts 5 1 and S2 ::lrc shown on t:i ps 1 :lnd 2, respectively. The divcrter ~ witch is
show n indexed ill th e funnin g r o~ iliol\ rOT tap t.
The stored-encrgy mechanism o[x:ratcs, and the moving con tact system or the
di vcrtcr'swi tch comlilences it s tr:n c! ;'15 ro llows,
I
;Io r ''' P (1) The ma in swikhill g !.:on t :l~ t [>, 11 orc ns. and th e 10:11.1 el le n.: n! rl'O I11 Ill !.! OJ' f; ,.',
I 111 of winding fl ows th rotlJ;l, th i,! mo\'i ng contact 5 1, the resis tor R 1 anu lite I , j'

,v rl ta p transi tio n cOnIne! Tl tu th e Il cutrai. ,,',

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.
"10 111 KN I'OWI: H Il lA'.;S I em ,'11 It P it ,\(. I/('I ~ ./
,
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(2) The 1lI0ving diverter co nta ct then llIakes on the opposite transitio n"
:.. :11.
co ntact T 2. Roth resistors R 1 and R2 arc now connected in series across ~I
(I
j "f
th e lap secti o n wilh the mid -po int fOfm ing th e nelltral. The load currrn t is:
split hctwccll the two rc si~ l or~, an d a ci rcuhdillg Cllf'I'c nt , limited by th e
,,,
ohmic value o f th e resis tors. passes rou nd the loop. In O ll e resistor 1116, , • - I.

I
phaso rs of ha lf the load current anti o f the circu lating curre nt will bb '
subtracti ve and in the ol her ,\(,Idith·c. . ' " f! I' "~
(3) As the tla vcl O'ni~c Illoving co lltact co ntinues, it break s with 'the lra nsiti l ,.,.t
con tact Tl; the load current IIiell pa sses th rOl~g" the tap-selector co ntact ··
S2. rt.:sistor R2 :.tnd tran sition contact '1' 2. .1
(4) Finally, the movin g co nt ac t do"cs o nlhL' Illai n ,m,: in gi,;\l nl:li,; t M2, ant.! th e '
resi~tor R2 is shor\c.:u uul. This is the fU ll lling ptl..; itioll for tap 2, r
..
The whole seq uence frOI11 tap I to tap 2 involves no movement of the tap
selec tors. I f we carry a lit a furth er In p Ch:lllgC in Ihe sa me d i reel iOIl fro m posit io n
2 to 3, thi s in vo lves a tap-selcc lo r 1ll0wm cllI as foll ows.
( I) The lap selec tor S I mOves frOI11 pos itio n I to 3, Hull. as soo n as 3 has been
selec ted, the divertcr switch o perates to con nect it to the neutral.
(2) Continuing in sequence. the tap selector S2 mOves up frolll posti oll 2to 4,
and the divert er swit ch opera tes to index tap 4 to the neutral.
When ever a tap chan ge is made in the sa me directio n. th e lap selector moves
!
first, followed by :"\ chan ge-o ver o f the divertl!.' S\\ ill'll.
,i On reve rsal u f dircf.,: lio n, all thai is necessa ry is fu r llll! divcrtcr switch to
"
tra nsfer to the oth er side. for example fro m tap 4 to J . Dnring thi s reversal tap
change, th e tap -se lecto r drive mechanism is held Slflli o nary. This is ac hieved by a
180 0 mecha nicn. 1'lost 1I1 0ti on' device inco rporatcu in the dri\ c to Ihe tap sclectors. J.,'r--;,
t ,
T he ~t..:q\l c n ~c of t;:lJ> selecti o n foll owcd by divcrl cr sw itch tra nsfer will th ell bt..: I.
picked lip, The Il1c(,: l l:Ini~at los t mo ti o n device ~i lll y np,: I .I I.::, o n u rc vcrs:d o f ,,) ,V
directio n, r
A lap change r of this type co mpletes a tap change in an 0\ cra ll time of 3 to 8 s. I
I
The transfer o f the hi gh ·speed d ive;·tcr switch takes place in 45 to 70 ill S
depe ndent upo n type.
The na g-cyd c switchin g proviues a uni \'e rsal I ) pc o f ta p cha nge r for
tmns(ormcrs in which bo th rorward and rC\'crse power no w directi ons cuuld
arisc. The contact burden is eq ual. figure 6.3 shows a typica l se lector and figure
6.4 a typical di ve rl er switch. ..-
'.

6.6.2 S ill gk-rl'~ i'lor (pC IIII:lIII -{') de) lap rh:lll gt' r

"
Th e single-transi ti on rcs istor used in ,hi s !) !ll! o f tap LlI:lllgl,' l' is carried on the
11\0\ i ng s\vitch arm . Vcry-high-s pccd IIll' I.: ha n i.. III , . 11(' ('Ill pi n) ~'d Il) give ra pit! arc
clearance,
A typical switchi ng sequence diagrnm is shown ill ;.gur c (,,5. ril e fi xcd tap ping
l'o nt ac ts I to 17 IIr'C sp:lced ro und tli e pt.! ri p ll t' l'y nf :1 "in·h' :l lld ;n'C illdext.!d by:1.

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J ON · LOA D TAP·CII AN(iI NG tQUIPMENT ' 147

ilion
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ilio n
(.J,J 11 tact

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1
f igu re 6.3 Typical selector
; m ves

, :h 10
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cr78:r
70 111 5

.I ror
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i
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I ... 11 the
Ipid arc
I
pping
;ed 1by a f7 igtlrc 6.4 Typ ic;\I di\'l.:flcr swit ch

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10 1 101

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lei 101

Fi gure 6.S S\\ilChin g ~CqllC Il CC di:t gralll ror sin gle-resisto r w p <:han ger: (:\ ) nlll n jn ~
posi tio n IHll1lba I: Ib) transition posit ion, R bridging wp !\~c l i o n 1- 2 an d \: arry in g
('i rl'ulal in g \,.' UI r~ nl ; ( ~) tran sitio n positi on. R in series wilh tap 2 carryi ng load i..: \lrrc nl ;
(d ) runn ing pos i tio n nu mber 2: I to 17, fi xed selecto r COIl t:\(;I S; S, main mov in g scic('; W(
" '
co nt act; M . ma in swit chi ng con tact; T , tra nsitio n co nt act; C, swit ch COlll lll o n to neut ra l or
"
co nliqllalion of wind ing

sin gle r Ola r y co ntact S. li S insul:H cd support a rm a lso t,;ar ri cs the 11':l l1 s1l10 11
resisto r R a nd two lIla in swi tchin g co ntacts. The main switchin g co nt ac t M ;:1
bo nded to the mai n c u rre nt -ca rrying co nt act. The trilllsilio n co nlact T is in series
with the resisto r R.
The swit chin g seq uence from positi on 1 to 2 is as foll ows.
(I) The storeo-cncl'gy mecha ni sm is re leased, a nti th e JJloving co n tad
a ss~lll b l y begins to move. T he mai n selecto r l'O Il I:tc t S tl PCII S Oil the fixed
se lec to r co ntact 1, the circuit being Jllili nta iJlcd by the JIl :1i n swilchi ll l,-!
co ntac.t or 1 and the main switching contact M. T he Irnnsili on cO llcld
then makes with the main switching contac t o f 2, th e resistor brid gillg lilt:
l<1. p sectio n Cl lld ca rrying th e lirCll latin g cur re nt.
( 2) The lIla in switdlin g CO ntrlc t M no w brc~l k s with th e cU lll ncl o r I. ka \' in~
Ihe resistor III 0 1111': n ta riI) co 11I1\.:clcO ill sc ri c3 \\ it h : hc Ir,JIl ~ rOIIl Il..: r wi IIJi ll ~
" nel ca rr ying the IOi'ld curre nt. The co nlal.: l M Ihl! l1 l!la kes \\i lh 11ll! lI1al n
swi!l:hing (.'o n l ild or 2, while th e Ir:Illsitio n <:o nlil1.: t r !'tIll s r Otll1 d it bcfl'll'
brl'a l.. inl:! o n the li lla l sta ges. T he tr:1J1 <; il io n rc,i"lt) r is no\\' sli Ll JII· d (1 11 1.
an o th e l'i n; uit is ll1a intn incd th ro ugh Ihe <: llJlI ac t /\'1 li nd th t,; s\\ i l Ch ill ~ A IYI I" ,'
usc I '
co nt ac t til' 2,

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(a ) f unning
'1 ' (carryi ng
, d;current;
,v ine selector
10 deu tral or

'r~I1 Sit ion

I
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il
) l1t'lct Mis
I ~ n series I;
,I
II

!!
, ICOlltact
( the fi xed
n S~ ilchin g
n.l contact
: d[ il1g the

-; '1 leaving
1 r vindlllg
til the main
6,7 I;, I)U CI 'OR SWITCHIN G SEQUENCE
Ind it bdore I
i :lrlcd Ollt,
" T 'itChil1 g A Iypka l SChClllrttic dia gram for an inductor-tran sition lap Ch:lJlgr.: f suitab le fOf
lISC 0 11 a 33 k V slnr or delta wi nding is show n in fi gure 6.7. II is ,trraugcd' for 15
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150 ~1! Jl)E RN POWER I ]{I\NS I ' O I{~'ER PR Ae li CE

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6.8 1\

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In t 11
f " flhe
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• The
CO llli
rn l Xit. .
TAP :i
',' CO III pll
SELECTOnS i~
,"
, F'u
CO il fc

(" )
DIVERTER (b)
[lR ID GING IN DUCTOR 5WITCII£S (el
(tI)
2L--~~~----~3 (e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
NE UT RAL
fi gure 6.7 Schematic dia gra m ror a rotll ry· lypc itllllu': lor tar " Ilgc.: r , D,' I
J
1TI;1 nu fa

positions. 14 steps. Ce rt ai n other methods o r winding co nstl l t' / ,n Inay be II i<"

cmployctl. but the basi...: principle o r opera tio n remains the ~ : 1I)1I;.'
rhe r:q l pillgS on the I rfln Sro rm cr winding arc selected b)' 1 1I l]l l '~ " lr twu l o lafY
k:. o be I
"i) ~ t C I"
I
tHP ~dl!C I OrS ,\.'hich u e 11 0 t make o r break <lny curre n t. The 1..: 11rr('111 1- . Ih'lllIp l CU IJio"oCrtco
by two divcr tcr swi tches. Olle connec ted to eac h end o r the !H id Ilc l int lapped .' I
indlll;tor. This indu c tor is lat l'd ro rl:olltilluOUS openlti t)I1.lt liOl il." t!t \,.' \ il 'ul<l tilll;
cu rrent in the transiti on position. Orten, as in this case, th t: brid l t d j'os iti on is 6.9 1'[
used as a running posit io n to give a voltage ha lfM way betwee n tll :lt nr two lll C1 in
tappings, the inductor scrving as a n auto-transformer. ~ Wher
\Vhcn a tap chall ge is in itiated, aile of the divcrler s\\itchcs o'l'l.' m, :111 <.1 Ihe (f}uchh(
correspondi ng se lector cO lltact is moved rou nd Ol1t o the nex t fh.:c~l..co l1t :J.c (, The tr I' :
d ive rtcr swilch Ihen recioses, and Ihe lap change is comp lele. 1\" fUriher lap sha ul !
chan ge is ca lled ror in the same directio n, the seq uence wi ll be repea ted by the hi gh sur
other divcrtcr sw itch and its corresponding tap selector. I orgas rj
The' operat ion o f the dive rtcr swi tches and tap seleclors in' their correct Pre :
sequence is ~nsu rcd by :1 single nc tw\ling ca m, which npe ratcs ' a t(1gglc link siJll il ;:: . I
l1l ~c h :\ 11 is m fo f' th e d i \'CI' I Cf' -" wi tdll.'S lIud a ge ncva ind exi Il g wheel II) 1\ 1(;1 H' t hc I aJ1 It wo
!'c,; ll'dof'!" Til t: usc 0 r I h is gl'1!C\ iI wlu,:cl I I'll i n ell~ nr~ s I ha I IIle I a p st: h ~ d ( q" :u co nly
moved one slep at a t ime anJ arc Illc..: ked ill positi on cxc~pt Ju ring :1....t![ ~Jlll ) t .lIion ( I)
(2)
of Ihe dr ive sha fl.
r ,". ON-LOAO T AP·C HA NG ING l:QU II'MEN T 151

6.8 ~ I OTon IJIUVE ~IECIIANI S MS

III thc maj ority o f in stallccs either Ihre~l pha sc or sill g h:-pha sc inducti on motors
o f the capacito r 51<1rt and run type arc used for on-load lap-( hallge r drive unit s,
It will be readily :q'p rct ialed Ih:1I this molor dri ve lllechani "llllllllSI be capable
I" or llpcratillg in bo th dircC!~o't1 s or rotation to sa tisfy thc nOIIll:II fUll cti o ning
cl)llLlitiollS of the. tap cha nge r, '"
The esse ntia l re qllire l11 c n~ s for th e co ntr o l o f th l:sC motors arc the initiating
j
com ponc nts slich as push buttons or swi lchcs and I he ma in ta iII i IIg contacts in the
," :'Ilixi lia ry eq uipmcnt in order to make ce rlai n thai a fulil ap-c hangc sequcnce is
completed once in itiated; limit sw itches a rc provitlt:d to preve nt overrun.
J7u r1hcr it elTIs o f au xi lia ry eq uipment may ha ve to be inclu de d in ord er to
co nform to spec ilicn tio ll s. These it ems co uld be nn y or all o f the foll owing.
(a) Slep· by-s lep cO niaCls.
(b) T(l p <: han gc in progress con lncts,
(c) Tap cJwngc incom plet e (.;011 1:lctS.
(d) J{ rl:I Y n:sc t c()1l 1ac l s.
(e) SC411c ncc co ntact.
(f) Tap-positi on ind icatio n contact.
Ig) Directiona l co nlacts.
(h) Cert:t in Cllll t:lc ts ror ra ra l1 cl co ntrol.
j~ I

Details o r th e 1Il0 tor dr ive mecha ni sm a rc lI ~ lIalJy described in the

r
.•gc r
I
may be
manu fac turer's maintenance manua l or spccili(.; drawing.
II is usual ror the l1lo tordri vc IlIcchanis ml o ilH:luuc th e fa ci lit y lo allow th e unit
III
;1
1 to be opera ted Inanually. I (this fa cility is pro\'id ed, it iscs$e ntialthat the cll.:ctrieal
\
Iwo lrotary syslem is isola led aUlo malically cilher bdore or a l Ihe li me 11i .11 lite It a ndle is
in ' Cfr uptcd ~ inscrted.
I lop ped
.rqJia ting
pos~li o l1 .is 6.9 PROTECTIVE DEVICES
wo m il 111 .
. I , Whcrc se parate tap sclcClOrs :'Ire inst. l1lcd, it is uS\lal to employ gaS·::I(.:tuatcd
the
lS, iq l d (l3 ucll holz) relay- Iype eq uiplllcill for Ihe Irallsfor mer. ill order 10 prolc~!.l he m .
larl. The If the di ve rt er switches arc to be pro tected, then the necessary protec tion
'Iher la p should be Ihal of a low-oil -Ievel sensin g device and a device which res pond s 10 a
cd by Ihe high surge oroi l o r g~s . Sin': gas is produccd at c:lch lap(h:tn g~.:\11 ordinary type
o r gas detec tor clement i· 'l t $::Itis ra clo ry.
Ofrect Pro tec ti o n for th c sill ) 'lliI lll bcr-lypc t:\ p cha ngt.:r is lIStJ all y pro\' ided ill a
Igg e link
sim ilar manner to that fOI the di\ crl Cr swilt.:h,
tate he lap It wou ld scclIl ,re:1sonablc to 1llt.: lllioll th e rldl o\\ ill g 1\\0 dc\il.'cs.
i.\ con ly
f( ta lio n (I) P ress ure re lid dev ice.
(2) Drycol or sil ka -gel-brca llter Isec ligures 10. 1R :lIld 10. 19) dev ice.

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15],

iltC Idl /icctio n de vices.

r r-. IOD I. !{ N i' O \\, I~ R TRANSFORMER PRACTI CE

Urll/! o f these items C'111 bCHnd 3rc fitted.,when required and 'in their Own rights
' o.
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1\1I1;"liol1 ~ 1~ o ~l!d :lI so be draw n to ce rt a in o th e r pr o tecti on eq u ipment which

,•. ~ ., I
,r
(;(,IJI(J lIe fitl ed ill associated with 't be ' la p-changing equipment. These 3rc as
r(JII(I 'II ~, 1
'I ·
(J) Ovc r -(f utrc nt cquil?J1lcnls. T hese sense th e lo ad currellt and prevent Itlp
I.:hangi ng if cx cossj~c. .' •.
Tru r' ,
(2) Tap-ci .ge incomplete protectio n oevices,
P) f'ara ll e l :,~on tro l S) StCIllS o ut-of-step protection, H. Ja('l~
.' .
MAINTENANCE ASI'E:Crs
. , (\
I'
11 wlIH ld be wro ng to be peda nt ic in a ny way regard in g tap-changer maintenance.
I
" he 1,\.::-. 1 advice that can be o ffered regarding this is to insist on refe rence to
/lI:.iIlI(;/lanCC manuals that LIre usua ll y provided by the manufacturer. 7. 1
If Illese arc not avai labk, thell c{) ntact ~ h oy ld be Inadc with the manu fac tu rc r in I

olliel 10 obtain advice.

'1"" only advice which cn nld be o rrered is th at considcmble care sho uld be
lakcll when the work is be ili u ' arried ou t, with co nsiderable Htl Clltion being pa id
Testing
the sati ' (
I'
equi p m e nt
to cJL:1I II Ii nes s. H all), fVI'jL I j) r , ' Ill i Il IJ dol hcs are uscd, it is es sl' 111 ia llhat they be of
lksig ll lJlr. .. :
the JJIII~rrcc type. Pallic1Jlill ;, ltc nli on lIlust be paiJ 10 the rcplat,;cIlH': 1I1 of
fuW-!re d i;
t (11 111; (orme( oil.
S7,' ' CC I II"

A(.'KNOWLEDGE:M ENT !
I
wor '
set I'
th,. . LIL.
Ir
I ' ,
. I"

Tho IIlIthor is indebted to. >erranti Limited for permi ssIon to publish the
".~::; IC ' • .',

illrOllllHlion and IIlustra tiOlis contained in the text. (b) ~I

. II
I',I arrang(occa,'" ,
H1,;VEllENCE 'their 0\ II

i -.. Whi lstn

Itave .Ix.
numbers preccd, d by the letter G arc listed '" section 1.14,)
(l(d"r l (IlCC ptacttcll
I ..
SlIvnge, B. ,
C .. Testing or ,)Il-Illad tap change rs. COli/. 011 Dio&"O.U/C T('J /illg of
II/o" -vultage P01l'er Apl)(/~'allls ill Service, [,i St. flectr. Eng. CO li/. Publ., No. 94,
1' ,,1t 1 (1973) 99 !
7.2

Cerla ill s
• FCII .1I111

I
!." rights
I
II \~h k: h "
~ arc as

n top Transforme r Proc~ssing

.. and Testing ~

I
H. Jackson'* and K. Ripley'x.

ll cnancc.
nee to
I
7.1 I NTRODucnON
I '
IClll icl'ln
Testing is a very impo rt a nt stage in the manufac tu re o f any prod ucl. No t only is
I JI~
be the sa tisfac tory outcome o f the tests a guara nt ee to the custome r that the
:ing lpaid equipment will meet the required spec ificatio n. bu t it is also a co nfirmatio n to the
I y of be design 0 mcc 0 f their calc uli.! lio lls as well as pro viti ing lhem wit h \';lIu<I ble data for

"T of
futu re des igns.
Si nce the testing o f tra nsformers must be carricd out in co-o rd inatio n with the
work ~ pro<! UI.: lio n program me, it is d c~ ira bl c. wh erever poss ible, fo r it standa rd
se t o f t L'~ I S to be car ri ed o ut. T hese must be acce ptable to bo th th e t; IIS!OlllCr nJ1d
thc rna nUractlirc r, and a n l Ee publica ti on 76GI.1 i$ in te nd ed !O Gove r this
requirement. The tes ts ca n bc classified as rollows.

:I! the (a) Routine tests"A II transformers arc subjec ted to these,
Type tests. These are ca rried out on the fir st un it only o f a new uesign.
I (b)
Occasiona ll y. the customer may requ ire so mc non-sta ndard tests which will be
a rra nged when placing the order, or the design o mcc may ask rOf spcciallcsts ror
thei r ow n in rormalion. .',
Whi lst no pa rticular order is specified offic ia ll y, the tests detailed in this chaptcr
havc been set ou t in the order in which the)' wo uld gene rall y be ca rried out in
,J
practice.
eSfif'g of
.. I ,94,

7.2 I'REI.IMINARY Tt:;STS

Certai n tes ts arc carried o u t in the shops be ro re t he trans rOflllC r is ~lSSl.! llIblcd in its
• f"crranli Engi nee ring Lim; led.

.........~.,...-.,~.-
\I .i
..'".
), ~ .... t !
. ' '...
'
 ,. ,.' .1•
, I " , , :1 '"
r' .'
, ,
i; '0
I
I •

;---. ......~ . .... :....--... ....

' .'.- . _.. ........
..... ~ .-

I
154
. .
"'OOr: ltN PUWER IRA i'o'srO I(r-. I' :H PRA C rlCE

tan k, in orLl t.: r to ensure tha t allY fault s whil:h lII ay be u etected at thi s :-; Ia gc C:III be Fi U
rectified be rore work is co ntin llcd. tran srul'
IOg"ll~
7.2.1 Core insulatio'n (subl l
than 1
As SOO I1 as the core has been assembled, all :t l tcrn ~ltil1g vo ltage tes t a t 2k V is
.....nppli cd be tween CO I'C bQlts, side plat es :lIld core, in o rd er 10 prove I he im: ul:l lioll o f
,lhc ma gnetic c irc uit.·~· .,' I
7.2.2 Ra lio

T he lo ba"ee ," lowed ro r ra li o is ± 0.5 %o r I he declared ral io o r ± 0. 1 %o r I he

percentage impeda nce voltage, whicherer is the sma ller. In o rd er 10 obtain the
. acc uracy necessary for th is meas urement it is usua l to crllploy a ratioll1ctcr; th e
basic co nn ecti o n is show n in fi g ure 7. 1. It co nsists o f \':triablc decade res islors I
. whi<.: h <lrc ' adjll s t ~'d durin g Ihe tes t unlil a b<lla llcc is o lJI:lincd 0 11 th e vi brn tio n
galva nOI1ll'lc r VG. The ra ti o 0 f t he 1'01 Ii(Hnc tcf a rms is th en t hc' samc as Iha l o r t he
. Irans rprm cr under test. and th is va lue ca n be rcad di rec lly On the ra liol11ctcr.

SIN GLE-PHA SE SUPPLY

, _R ___. _________ - - - -----,
02 A2 , ,,
,----,
,,
I

:
> :
;~~ :; ij IR~{.- I

,,,
,
I

,
.~'I iI'
} Fo r I

~L {/ I
LV

./
,,' I
,
I

,
I
'liolt:1
" 'IJ) pilu
.. wilh I'hl
sho\\
01 Al
,iPHASE
1
ANGLE
\ ADJUSTMENT
refer (
r 11 ;' lIth.: r

I,
"t '/.1,.1 /1
,
:I.. _____________ I' ER ___ _ J-'.
RATIOME_____ '1hog
' c:
vol ll Ie
brca !:i ir
rig urc 7. t Ratio tcs t
dllrilll

7.2.:' Pol:trit y
7.3 I'll(
Pu1:Jrity 1 ~:\ Ls arc carr ied o uL to d dCfllli nc th e pha~c rdlli {ltl';h ip bt.:I\\ L'l: fl the
itIsla nl;, tl CO US ilH Iuccd vo lta ges ill th e prillla ry ;1uti SCI.:U 11 (1:1t)' \ \ ' j IH I i ll J.;s f l' la I i \ t..! 10
th e terminal markings. 1)1111.,

. , ..
 1
J
.'.
/
/

r
'" '
.~:.... .
" :~~f' ,
.. .!
/

/
"RANs r O I{~ ' E I{ I' ROCESS ING ANI) TE~T I NG

:an be
I '/
f ig ure 7.2 shows the co nnectio ns fo r carry ing o ut f1lls lest 011 a sin glc· phase
II';U1 SrOl'lllc r . It wi ll be see ll that, i r l ikc ~ numbc rc d termina ls 1\ I ' n I ;1II.: <,:0 ]1 neeted
t ogc lh ~r:l llu a vo lla gl! VI is appli ed ac ross A. alld i\2,'lil l.!ll rll!' :-. 1;tllti:ll'd polarj ty
J
(subtrac ti ve) the vo ltage V2. l1lcasurcu between t crlll~ nal s "z!!ml <l 1.\\i ll be less
Ihan VI' ',Ii
V2

Cr the
i' Ihe
/
or; Ihe
HV LV
;"'9fS
: 0 11
lJlhe
etc.

AI al

figure 7,2 Po brity lest

For th ree-p ha se trnn srOfm crs it is m o re u sual to ca rry out a 1'1, '("'01' rere rence
test in whk h the high· volt 'lge line term inal o f phase A is CU llI l L'1. (,·d 10 the lo w-
voltage line ICl' mina l o r plwse a, and a Ihree-phase supply "I' tI ,, "I 400 V is
applied to the llighcr·vo lta gc windings, Voltages :l rc II1Cil \ul i' .j d c(lIn paf'cd , -
wilh Ihe co rrespollu in g pha sor sums as inuica leu in Ii ~ tlr c 7..1(.') tid (b) which
show the cO lld iIionsJo r Slar - Slar (phasor rdcrcnce Y)'O) a Ild , In/ dd la (phasor
rderence Yd 1). The co nnections for any other groups (all bl: I.:l ll,, 1 • II in a similar
manner,

7,2.4 Resislance ' I ,'", ,

T he resistance o f all windings are measured at th is <;. I d gc ' 'by th e

vo ilm eler/a ll1ll1eter method in o rd er to check that th e re arc 111..: r.lLdty jo ints or
breaks in Illulti·strnnucd co nd uctors, The o mc ia ll11c<lsl1 rcl11cl1l~ ;[I"e <.:anjed out
dur in g the filia l tcSIS and arc dea lt wi th morc full y in a lat er ~(d i u ll ,

7,3 rnOCESS ING

Ihe
:ivc to
During storage and bujld in g the mate rials used in tran sformer ill ... n1:l lion ~[bsu rb

-, .'..,.
i
 1 0:,"" , ,,
t ,~.

, "
", ,," I• •
,'I:.!
'.

, .',
'. ;',;\ '
.,.' r~ ,\{"
.,
.' ,t·
" . "
J
.•
"'" '.
, , --'--'...J
:..J - -

156 ,\ Il)D I; ltN , '()W U t IltA NS l ()l{I\ IUt PltAC II ~ E

A2 A2
tanks or~J
02 02 blown inlo .
c2
Illaxi 1l11"" 'r'
" In ordt.:(" i
c2/ b2 b2
b" 'nadc 0
.:uld
pro(
'1'
~

,,' . \blH ...

C2 82 C2 • 82 I he s t uv ~

(0) YyO (b) Yd I 1"I.:1110\,C 1 f

rdati ve I !.

Figure 7,3 Ph:lsor rcfacllcc tcs t (COIlIH.'c t A2 to nl . supply A2 Ul e2, measu re B2- b2. IOO ' C a nd
02 C2, C2;-d , C2- b2 ): reaches !'~ 'I\'
:I nd aWi\
(a) stnr - "a r (Y)'O) 0 2- b2 = C2- c2 (i) B2-C2 = C2 b2 > (i) wi lh a b1ccu
\.h~mic(l l dr
(b) stor - delta (Ydl) 112 b2 = C2-<:2 = C2 b2 < 02 c2
lIId hou
" scaled .h
i'1>wllcd,
ll10 ist u rc, lhe amo unt dcpcnu i ng o n the rela live h lImid i ty 0 rI he at mospil cre. This All ot! r J
mois tu re, which may be as much as 6 to 8 % by Illass for a re lati ve hUlll idi ly o f \"olall'1c . 1u
50 %. is rair ly uni ror mly dist ribut ed thr oughollt the insul:II ;O Il ilild h;ls 10 be tl:tlls for l1lCI
drawn 10 th e surfill.'c :111<1 to be rClllO\"cd be fore th e 11,II1SflH 111(.; / i, li lk d \\jl ll (Ii i. , ·t'llt kJ1 " -'" t

Table 7. 1 gives somc idea u f I he am Oll n t absor bed a Illi rC lllo \ cd d 1I ri ng pro!.:t.'ss ing pr6JU(''-' 11
fo r dirre rcnt sizes o f tra ns fo rm ers, o n the asslIT1'Ip"io n th at abo ut 0.5 %is rc t;li nl: u. I,;O Il\ C IlII V Il ;
T~c wa t.
, ,~,,~ ro l (,:1
I ' h.: ~ I !t
.\1 (/.(5 of AI fl.t<; of I)ry ,\ 1oi~/lIl'l' t',~iJlt \!1 ria l
(MVA ) (kil) i'WIf/l f iofi moil /lire 6% .\(1)' 0.5~-:; fL'm Ot't'fJ turr),
(k g) (kg) (kg ) (kg)
Ouri,. tl
-------- hC~ll or\'i.lp<
I II 54.4 3.27 0.27 3.0
5 l3 272 16.3 1.3 t5 to the s jrl "~
60 1J2 ) 180 191 15.9 t }5 a ir is d i ~ t
180 Z'l5 I(xXlO 59 1 ' 0.0 5·1t A f\ll UI+.!I
600
- --- - - -
400 22700 1363 II J
.. 1250
inwiati o n ::
Tr:IIl( \1'
and Ihe
The 1I1 0si l:OlllllhHl pnxcdII I'C. whk h may V; IIY in dri ;nl, i..; 1(; Ill'a t "l' (hl! \o llagc \\il
insulatio ll to 85 10 120 C, 10 c.:irl.'tJial c ho t dry nil' round it, th c ll to apply I!~".,d·; t\lr :t
cvacua Iio n to cOlllp letl! the d ryi Il g a Ilel to rCI11O\ C1he ~I if rrom t h,,' i llte rs l il.'cs 0 f Ihc i ll ~U 1;"1 t i (
paper and finally 10 ~o :lk in lr:tllSrOfrncr o il. !llO; • III t.: is
Sma ll tran srOI I1lL'I'S, cilhcr ill their tanks o r as cnrc am.! wind ill gs,l'Hll be pla!.:cd \, olWlI:lt'r \\
in an enclosed chaillba healed with ho t wa te r o r slc:lm · hea (. :d I..:o ils (whi ch may insulati. Ir
be aro und I SO to 160 ' ). for large transro l mcr s. IJ l'occssl:d ei th er ill thdr 0\\ n o r dryn ... .>.;.
 '. '"
, t' ol '

,
,
"
'
:.:r"
\',

,,
ILl ,
"

r
PfJ",
',,' . . '. ,.., ,
',"
,

--,~,"'-,
"
"
,
" ,

TltA NS FO ltM Ert PROCESS ING A ND iCsrlNG 157

I

(,iilk s or ill nn ~lU tocla vc, thi s me th od is too slow; so hOl air or a bo ut ItO IlC is
b,' oW I1 int o the tan k t o circula te a rou nd the core, wind ings a nd insula tio n, the
. max imum heat bf.!ing extrac ted frol11 the ai r a nd intr oduced int o the tra nsformer.
. ' 1~ 1 urd l: f to pn:\'t.: l1 t Qvc rhC<l li ng a nd agei ng o rl lle insul:i ti o n, carefu l chec ks must
. be made o f windi ng temperature which enn uc deter mined by cO lllp:u iso l'; a rh a t
·ri nd cul d I'l: sista ll cc va lues. If the temperat ure is maintained at 95 QC th roughout
:the p roccs~illg, \1 good Compromise is o btain ed betwee n - rasldry ing nnd
,
\voi d:! I1cC o f :lgc inS o f thc ' I!\l) t~l a t io n .
. The stO\'(: ilea l fi nd hot a ir blowin g is main tained for sc\'crul da ys in ord er to
' remove the b' dk oCIhe moi,sture, usua lly 70 to 90 %, Ai r, which norm ally has a
' ~c l a(i".~ htllll idit y o f 40 to 70 %, has a relati ve humidity o f I to 2 %whe n hea ted to
, ' U2- b2 I UO ' C I!H I i. . [ he ll capHblc o f nbsorbi ng 50 ti llies as much l!loi..; tUl'c bl.: forc it
I ' rca c h c~ l'HtlIf'a tiOI1 , T his heated a ir either is blown ro und th e tral1 ~ fO I mer ami out
and away ur, 1110 re cco nolil ica ll y, is co ntinua ll y circulated round the windin gs
wi th a bk<d-ofC, usua ll y around 10 %, which is coo led and d ried by pass ing ove r a
<.: ilcmi r HI dr i ~ f', is rehea ted ,a nd is then passed back illto circulatio n, The la tl er
Illeth od is \l:J) LTDllo mical in hea t energy a nd is p~lrt il.: u l a r l y suit:lbll: for usc with
<l sca led d 1<l!l1oer o r a u(? clave sin <.: c the pipcwo rk ca n be kft permanently
installed.
her e. T his ;\ no t her IIll: I h ~) d 0 f uryill g ou (uscs the vapu u r· plntsc Ilea 1i ng ~)!-I it.: II I in wh idl a
: idity oC volatile liq!J id, sllc h as whi te spir it, is heat ed t.llld introdu ced into:!I1 aut oclave or
1...5 to be I r~lIl s for ll1 C f t;lI1 k which has been partia ll y evac ua ted. The rC~ tlltant vapo ur
J wi th oil. eO l1 dc l1!'c", \' 11 the tfllns rorm cr w i rH.lings <"\ Ilt.! insulation, :ll1d th l: hea t exchan ge
ccssing pro du l.:es :I 1l10fc fn pid a nd more evenl y Ll istr ib utcd hl.:i1t ing tha ll t hat obtai ned by
j ·ta incd. convc ntioll:! 1 lIH:t hods.
T he wH ta \npo ur is pum ped orr, and this process co nli nues unti l the
transfor mer t ~r llpL'fa I U re has renched the required level o f abo II I 120 ' C. T he hot
white sp irit is t!u. Il I'i': llIovcd, an d the fi na l d rying phase CO lllll1ellL'eS during whic h
\10; l ure the illtefll:l l i' I":'" ul'e is redu ced t9 a va lue o Cabout 13 ,) to 2(', 6 N III ' (O, t to 0,2
'''111 ,,-('d torr), t1 •
k )
Durin g Ihls pll;l sc the tcmperature o f lhe trans ror mer drops ll\\ illg to the la tcnt
3.0 hea t o f \':,p o[ i ~:lI i o ll , In order to mai nt ai n th e temperat ure. hC:l tin g L'ui ls arc lilkd
15 to the sides nlld to th l.! bo lt om o f the autocla ve, or. for the tr:IJ\ ,. rO I IIlc r I;\tlk. hOI
175 air is d i t ed ~,d (11110 the o utside o f the I:wk.
541
1250 J\ furth ~ r ~ILh all!agc o f th is method o f drying is 1":11 any ill1pl1ri lies ill th e
insulatio n a:~ was hed out by the nuid d urin g the hea ling prol'\'ss,
T ra nsfol nllc r ins ula tio n pa ra metcrs, such as illsulat ioll rcsist.ll1Ce, po wer·factor
I
I a nd the sO·Glllcd di spersion \ :il ue, when mcnsured be l ween the high· and low·
t lip th e
\'o lta ge \\' i ll ~l ings :111(\ betwee n wind ings ::m d tank , all vary wil h the d eg ree o f
10 a pply
I moisture conte nt. In th e J ispcrsio ll illcth od a 200 V .'00 ill S pu bc i ~ ap plied lO the
, j, Clhe insula tio n rt,dlo\\'cd by a 3 111S discha rgi ng pu l",e. a ft er which it is iso bt ed: if
I moisture is prCSl: llt , so me charge will be re ta ined anti ma y be mea sured 0 11 a
)e p{aced vo lt meter \1.11 idl is L'a libra ted to i nd iea Ic moisture co n tcn l. T\.10 11 ilori ng a ny 0 f t he
. ,I, m ay insulat io n Il,U';\ll1c tcrs dur in g p rocess in g will give a good in d ica lic.1 1l Ll r th e..: tkg rcc
,dow n
o f d ryness, 111 I'lactice it is lI sua l to I11 Ca~lI r e at Icast I wo of I h L'~C p:u:l tllctcrs, It

~, .... ..•• ~ I'"' '-"i- •

',J .... ,
.'" .
J'
J ( i' " of" ,
.r'~.~ , ,~
 , ,
,,",. I
•• ," ',.,-
'.;
'\1
,
."
."t'\"
.~ .
" tJ:"

.' ,~ ,f
"
,f
'J
'....... ... '" • :.-!.-'<- -
... ~~
"Ir
I ;, 11'
" ':' ;In 1.18 III Q DEI{ N POWER I Ri\1"S I ()I{~ II H I'HA C III"E

I I :.F' ::. hou ld be no ted, howe\,er, tliat , SiIKC th ey va ry wi th differe nt Iran sfu rl ll1 'l'!", it is , , prcfcra bl II
not the actua l values which arc importan t but the way in which th ey (,: ila ngc , !illwn g ~ ..
'I' [.l ii j11)1,
I' ,
during the processing. For this reason results arc ploued for compariso ll . Figure
7.4(:1) a nd (0) show t ~ t, ical g raph ~ or insulatio n resistan ce measul ed by 111" ;111'; o r
.' lank slowly
nefor"' }
:til electronic Illcgaoh d1 1l1C 1Cr , and p~wcr nlctor Ill L~a s ur('d by mea nS or" s' f" lillg s~ n; ra l <I : }
I, ",:: ,I
, , l:'I''/
),/! I •
bridgc. D ry in g o ut is cOll tinll ed u nd e r a tm os ph eri c conui lio,ls \lll lil th e lll ': :' lis
show signs o r levelli ng ofT, arter which a vacuum is "Iiplied, whil _1 "Ii II
soak ill to 11
"bsol'bCL' '[
I ) 'I ! i,

Ii II',
main tai nin g the hea t. ThC;, plolt cd characteristics then show a chall J;c, .1 ,\1 1 Ihe
I , processing is co nl i nll cc.t~llll t i l the res ult s become stable aga .. At this.,1 'ul; 1he
t
'i r'I' .:,,Ii tr ansfo rm er, still Und!!f vacuum, is fi lled with firstgrndC, lr:llI S fOII!1 L r !.iI,
7.4 Fir' r
, '
"I " 7.,1.\ Inll'l
'I I ~"

:'': -'1'I)1
I
:q 10' - I
J:
,- - - - _U These Ie

1t
i~
:11 ,
05"10
@
~
4

7=- - HV!LV
whic h
1:011lprisc II
0 1 ...

III1 4 _..... -- -LV!1ANK ,

ii ' jtI, ' I ltl 10 - ;;:-- ..- ,
(I)
"
~ 5xl0'
17--- 2 - --
!,
(2) Su
, _-c /
,- )
~
, u.J
,,
~ )
ex:
z 10
Qsx lO3
~
::J
,
ItII
I
I
,,
,, ,
, ,,,
.'
7' -
, n.
«
::;
::J
::J
U
-
- ~
tx: -

~
. (3)
(~)
(5)
(6
Sc
fil e

. :<
I
C

IJl ~ (0 N,
;S

( 0)
10'
2 3 4
DMS
5 6 7 B 9
-10
I,
r~) 'e
'c
0 '2 - -, - -, ( 10) Tc

,,
,
I
frl
I - HV ! LV (I I) , 'j1:

, I
:::; --- LV! TANK
0 ,15 \
on. Thes< r
, I
allJ (9) wh
,,, ~
I
ex:
12 I
\
~ -
:5U - --
I
~ 0' 1 ,
-'-- , 7,4.2 L .. li
ex: ,,, ,,
,
u.J ,, ~ -~-. , Thesc t c~ ' S

6n. 005I-V' ,
-- -
r-- arc rClx I;

2
I'" r--..
3 4 5 6
,

7
-
_J_
B 9 10
tap-ch al ,dc

7/\.3 : q
(b) DAYS I)\,ring scf
riBurc 7.4 In::'\lla li o l1 c.: ha rac\crislics Ill CaSllfl.!d d uring pro(c~" i ng ' (a l iI1 S111:lti ll l1 rc· by" sw" II
siS lancc: (b) power raclor iscapa l :{

• "1".,.... ..-

'.
 i ~~,
\I~. '.
" 1"
••"
" ~"

i, it is
° 1g b
Irb
Ins gr
~nng

: _Ii I
'I)'S
d IIf
.Jl c
"ii, 7.4 FINAL tESTS

7.4.1 Introduction
These tests arc carried 'out complete with all cx tcfnal compon ent s and fillings
whil:1! arc likely to affec t the performance of thc transformer and generally
comprise Ihe following.

(I) Ralio and po lar ily.

(2) Surge-vo Hage wilhstand les l.
(a) Full-wave lesl.
(b) C hopped -wave lesl.
(3) cpa fat e-SOli rcc -voltage \vit hst;! nl! test.
(4) Induced-aver-voltage witli stalll.l lest and internal disc harge lest.
(5) Re sistance of windings,
(6) No-load loss and no- load curre nl.
•
(7) Noise tes t.
(g) Load loss and impedance lll ea :-.u r~ lIlcnts.
(9) Z ero-sequence impedance lest. i:
( 10) Temperature risc tests. r

(I I) Insulation resistance. :I
"
These arc all rouline leslsexcep l (2)(a) and (10) whic h arc Iype leslS a nd (2)(b)
a nd (9) which arc special lesls. i!

7.4.2 1l"lio and polarilY I .

_
These leslS arc carried Oul exaclly as dc' -ibcd in sub-sccli o ns 7.2.2 an d 7.2.3 a nd
arc rcpeated at this stage in order to c h ~~k that all connect ions to the terminals,
tnp-challgc gcar, etc., have becn made Lorrcctly during final as~c m bly ,
1

7.4.3 S urge- mirage n'irhs illud les t

,I
During se rvi ce th e lransror mcr may be subjci,; h.:u to surges C<-lUseJ by lightning or
.ion rc- by a swi tching operation, The surge tcsls arc designed to prove th at its insulation
is capable o f w ith s t ~lI1ding tlll:se condition s, The equipmcnt tC' gcncrilte the surge

~. ;~; ..\',
, •"
~ ""-;·'· ---"-m""- -- ·
' ,',
 '>I J ........
, '! 1 .: r !', j!i,"i" r
"<I .1'
' \ 1;..';" 'j' ~
~" ,I' ','l .. I
,,
, !
'.. f i', \. ,
... , '·····r
,
~ . ~'1
}. .F.::f.;';;·f
i •
"J','
I.'
r
I ,,'
• ~
"
. 1..
I
.. ' .. ~ ""
~

.. .' . , .. ~(,';:,~ '-

, ,!~'.;~~ ;.'
'; . . Ai..... - -".'
t-'' ':'1r'
I
I GO MOUERN rowl: l{ I RA NS I·ORMI:1t Pit \( r rCf: "."

voltages uses a voltage mUltiplier ci rcuit that prouuces it high-vo lta ge surge with a ') ',! :. talldan '
.1
number o f ca pacit ors whic h arc charged in pa rallcl f W IIl it tic source va riable from ~t1 (1 11 l' tlrrl' ll
o to 200 kV :lnd flrc subsequelltl y di scharged ill ~t' rh:s l.'0 1l 1l CC li o ll obtai neu via ' \ , ,
;lpp ropri at c hi g h- vo lt agl! spaf,k gap s·, I
..r ,
,:: ,:,~ f ,\ 1t l E 7,
Two types of test arc carri Jd out: fu ll -wave tests ,IIHI ~ hoppcd - \Vavc test. r·,'
FII!f' H'lII ' (' t es ts .t!if,'Ij S)" 51
A surge fr olll th e hjgrl-voltagc surge ge nerator simulates it travelling W;IVC <.:all ~Cl' Iii!l~

by a lightning di s~ila rgc somc distance from the tran sforll1er. For (cst purposcs, ~ j •• "
I Hill:g
! ~ l' (1111
all IEC Publica liollG!.l specir,es a waveshape of 1.2/ 50 I' s.l hal is Ihe voll age wave ::';1.;'
r
has a frOnllil11e of 1.2 its and a lime 10 half-va lue of SOl's. /I wave o f Ihis Iype is ..
shown ill figurc 7,5. ~~ .~
i
'.
Il
12
1i S

' ,0 " '6

",.' 5
0· 9
B l~
1~ I

w
"
~
0'5 ._--------- ---.- .. _. _. ---------- - - - ---------- -- ----------. ----_.
~
o !' ,', I ii "'
> 0·3
SJ.
hig h
j ,., I • .

o " ', 1',

t
T IME
11

0,
tz
05 2
,5is
.~

IS 5
Fi gure 7,S S tandard 1,2/ 50ps rull -wave surge vo lt age: I, :::0 1. 2 P8; 12 .... 50 " s
~~ ~
~~ , O
In fig ure 7.5, O J is the start of the wavl! and iSH poillt o n the limcax is which is .'X. }
inlerseeled by a slraighl lin" drawn Ihrough Ihe poi nl s /I al 0.3 V-:'nd 0 al 0.9 V, i1 5
where V is Ihe peak va lu e o flhe wave. Th e frOlill illle is " ; 1.67 x , ; 1.2 ps and
'.1.'",1: ,
(2 = SO ps is the timc to half-va lue, A to lerance o f ± JU c: u is a llowed for I and
J
± 20% for ' ,.
('!: 1(/
T nc peak voltage app lied for Ihis les t tlqll.: ntls UP"J1 II'e " Y" ' I.' lll h i~ h (,'\ t \ olla!;C
and al so O il Ih e in s ulati o n leve l. Valll c~ s pcci rh:d by the I Fe rO I' ~ 1 ; IIHlartJ I ilnd '1 i" :,
I' I ';

• For:!. IllClI.h:rn ' } J"'C o rh i&" -\ (lll:181: sp:lrk ~,IP lIlllJ il$ :tpr l i ~'a t itl n in hI t 11 ,\'C"lta1.:c ~H l g1! generators, I'"
~c c rcrl: r~' n cc I. I I'h'

- ..... ~.. I:~,~ ',~7"f! "",""' ''''''--;'':;- ' ~' ··----.-r ····
~', "
" ., I,!,; Si.' ~
 'j '. "., , .
, .. ','
l ' ,',
.
), '(

-,l'Ot"", ;

'4'. "
,',
(~. i ~ .. ' ',' ,
_,!: ... J II.,. ... ,r.
'!!I' ;~ ';.," .~~~:.:'~~:.~~~,,-
"/'>-4...
!t

'161
..,
" TRANSI;ORMbR I'RQCESSINli ANU I ES ri NG

g wilha 5ta n(jard 2 insulalion levcls are givcn in lables 7,2(a) and (b) (Iable 7.2(b) is based
.riab c from 0 11 curren I pmclicc in North America; sec references G 1.7 and G2,2),
! Ii ;ccl via
., TABLE ' 7.2(a) II1SII((ltiOll Icre/s for I\'/mlillgs IIII!I cOllllcc /(Jd I'lIrts
avc \~kl. d('siglred for :mrg(!-L'ofwge lesB serieS I (bosl'd 011 ,"lrr(' 111
pr(lctice OIlicr ,hall ill N orth AIIIl'ric(I)
Of ,Ii
I•• , C
"
used
.~J"" " ~
111.,h , "~f ~ .
.
-- .....-_._---
; ~.

m/w9 1 SlIr,,<' it'S/ lohll/lt

I purposes, (.I. II (mil)
(kV(ji.'ak" StandlJrd 2 (.I. I' (1IFl,\ 11 Sfu mJ!,rd 2
19cwave
s,)lype is 3.6 ,15 16

. I
,
) ,2
12
60
)5 "28
17.5
2.
95
125 "so
36 170 )0
52 250 95
72.S m 140
,SO
'00 4SO 380
'"
lJO
'"
123
145
170
550
650
7SO
450
550
650
l7S
~ Z.s
no
m
i,
245 1050 900 460 395
300 1050 460
\425 6~O
'20
.... ~r-
TABLE 7,2 (b) St'l';o' ll (h a,l·j·t! 011 (' 111"1'('111/11'11('/;('(' ill NOIIII AIIII'f';cu j

System 'nslllat ion /en' l

, highest
POIl'('r.jn'I/ lh 'flCjI test
t'ullage Surge t eS I I'OII age
rollag e
I kV I/'ms)) . 500 kVA I k V Il'<uk)) Abo!'£' I k V I rm.<) )
and bdow 500kVA
~

2,75 45 60 15
5,5 60 75 19
9,52 75 95 26
)5.5 95 ) 10 34
) I" 25,g 150 50
I 38,0 200 70
Ilich is 'lg, 3 250 95
1,0,9 V, 72,5 350 140
,2 ,1S and
I\bI,)V( 72 ,5 kV the values o r scdcs I arc applica ble,
'"
• / 'J an d

" voltage Chopped-wal'e res t (special res/)

Ird I and This tes t simulates th e condi ti o n whell a O'l shovcr occ urs at .111 insu lator. The
ch op is ob taincd by adjusting the se lling o f a rod gap or a co nt rolkd chopp ing
erators, ga p so Ihallhe nashovc r occurs on Ihe lail o flh e wave bel ween 2 anti 6 ps from Ihe
nom inal s tart of the wave,
I
 ~ . . =.. ~ · ."'*"'i~Mr-_ - --'":"=- ",, ' ... ·?'·~·-'-a.~·;.e;,;l""' ...'-:-.,;.. ...~;;;;;..:··· -- .................... , . : : " "'4 ,-- - .....;. ' .. - k~·~"':-~
.~~:~:~~,~::::~~~-. ~~~~~;~~~~:~~=:~~.~- ~~"2'-: ,.~. :-~~ ~K2~~' , )MU~~~~" ~ ~r-:- ~~.'~,?~~ .~~~:~J-;$o·
~

- .•

- -.
, ,_"_~~~::_,_ .,-~',-
''''..... " . ....:.• _~:--... _ _ ...,,_ . 4~.~'.:;>! IU .....·_o~ - <S. ---~~::---.~- " ",""_. , - ~.'~.;~. r~
....,. - -,
7 -·-.. . ::~="=~~
.. -'~ -~-~----.

~=-:'"~'- =' 7:~~~ -::- :::,~ ~ ~;2~~--~-~;:::,~<5:--;. "

_ _""'__.'· ' "",_ o _.....
~,

---. -------,

,
,j•
'j.

~,
, .~..:!'~

I!N:;~!£'~
1 " 'rr~
0-
t--.>

.~

/:;
j , ,
," " '------------------
t ..:.~.~ _.~
~1
.'i
i ...::::;
f~:.iff.,-
r:iO-;; .;\.o· '.~· -- .,;.,'-.... ,~,
-J.

, i

·~tf~~f~
-:4 1- 7
1 !" <5
~1

'~
/'V"VV'/VVVVVVVvvvvvvv VVVI/I/WWWI! JWvV<Nift!W-.t./!NIN '"'"z"
F'-'~ {- --'~ , "
(a )

& (b)

[f:"~;\",.
(5
.-
J."j '""
1':":
-c!""

;--', - -----"-
~
;!
':
'n --' ~-
~

1 g
~ (\
/ , , '-.
I
"
'" 1

\.. \,
'">-
r
/\ /"', ;=

.... ... -... .. .. .........

......... ... ................
........,
.. ............ .... . . . .. ...... ..- , .. ..
ri
.. . -.... ..""
," . ,
~:'>-o
(e)
(d) .. ! ....

Figutc 7.6 Typical surge tes l Osciilograms ( a)- (d) healthy condiuons: (e)- (h) fau lty ~~~~:-•. -".

j
condi tions,: (a) full·wave voj[~.;r.::: (liming wave, 250kH z): (b) full -wave neut ral current
(timing wave. 100 kHz); (c )ch o PiXd·\;,·ave voltage (t iming wave. 5 MHz); {d)chopped. wave
:\:. -
!:t,.~ ". ~
-- , .
neulral current (timmg wave, ; MHz);
1

___________ ___________________________________________________. .__. . . .. . . . . .. .. .____. .__. . . . . . ~~. .. . . . . .. .__. .____. .______. . . . . . . .~. .~. . . . . . . . . .4S
. . ...~-.....he.-'\f:i~~, :;,~~, ~
\ .. ....
i
:,
\ '• • ~- __

.
,
~
- ,'r
'~ '-'~
• __
.
-
,•
1,
!
-'
--
--,---
v\r-~
.f' _ _ ____ - ,
t~::. .", "'
.'.
~~
;~ .•

'--- c:.:: L:= C~

"
 " RA NS I OH M Elt I'IWCESS ING ANt) II:S ri NG 163

"

'.

("".

,,
~:o
.-
j -:-:- /
(.
<~
(

' -
f ,-
v
~.§ ~
I ..::!. ='

:j ..:..::
::r::
.-

;1,
 o
:j
i
./ 164 MOOERN POWER TRAN~FORMEn rM C ll CE
,.>
-/ Slirge les lin g differs from ae power lesling in a num ber of ways, Allhough Ihe
,- ,j
<j '
inlensity of curren I is several kiloamperes.lhe duralion ofclIrre nt is so shorl that I
'"
the thcrm:t I ra ling 0 rcon ncc tion s need not be con sid ered . S ll1all ~ dj<ll1lct c r flexible
" ': co nnection s will suffice. - I, .
l Th e cOllllec ti ons must be as short and straight as pos~ ibl c ill order to keep the
/. ind uctance to a, minimum. Care is necessary to ensure that all c..:onncclions arc \\'cll
.'
'f! made. since a loose CO i;ll~Olion would resull in sparking and wou ld proollce fa lse
n:sults on the rccordiifg apparatus. Care shou ld also be taken· with earth
II ., co nnections lvhich shauld have a large width-la-th ickness ratia in ord er ta keep
( to
the surge impeda nce a min im um. They should be con ll ected to a special ca nh
I ," gr id which usually consis ts o f co pper strips installed under th e tes t noa r alld
:~,~
:1 ,i co nnec ted to earthing rods at intervals.
, i " I I
;-. Precautions must be takcn to cnsure that surges trans ferred to oth er windings
not un der les t do not cause any·dama ge to th ese windings. This ai m is achieved by
ea rthin g their terminals citlH!f direc tly or thro ugh ll ofl -il1duelancc res isto rs in
order to limit the Iransfcncd vo ltage to not more than 7S %o f the test va lue.
Bofol'0 Ihe o meial lesl, 'il is necessary 10 carry oUI preliminary les ls for
cal ib rali on purposes at voltages between 50 and 75 % o f Ihe full -wave vallie.
The final ICSIS are o-f negalive polarily. unless agreed o lherwise, They arc
applied i,n Ihe ,follow ing order.
I
(I) Olle fu ll wave,
(2) "l' wo chopped waves. les l volt a''':
(3) Olle full wave, millilllun:' ~I

Durin g Ihese lesls. peak value and shapeoflhe wave arc recorded by means ofa
Thp ~ pL" !: il
W:lVCror;;, I!'.
hi gh- specd Gl lh ode- my oscillograph . Th e wave to be rCl:o :·d t,:d is supplil.:d rro m II i, ladli 'b
Ihe l ow-v~ l t "tle arm ofa capacil or uividcr, An oscillalion of abo lll I M li z is also hig~r\·ol! L ....!1!
reco rdedI O il Ihc phol ographic -
pia
•
Ie for timing purposes. aJ!Jw rur an
In addition
., surge currcnts arc recorded as voltagcs obtained with a shullt
l
possible 'I
i ' inserted ,uetwee ll the neutral point and earth for a star-co lllIGctcd transrorm er, or In oroe I·
betwec ll ,\hc ol il<.!r two lines joined toge th er and ea rth for a delta connectio n. Ilot grca lr.;r I
llisul at ion r:ti iure will be indicated by a var iati o n in the wavcs hape o f any o f smoo lhly" s
these os;;illogrnrns,
I
As a final check Ihey arc compa red wil h. and shoulo be which it j Ie
iflcntic.a)With. those obtained at a reduced vol tage during the prelimi nary tests.
TypiC<ll ccordings are show n in figure 7,6. __
, l
; ;::r"c ;: • (
, , 7.4.4 ~l' I' !\r:\tc-so u r ce ~ \' oltl1gc withstand tes t
higher 1'011
This
I
tes t checks the major insulation between windings am.! Ga rth. The line trans rOri ;1
1' : t crmil1al ~ o r the windings under test arc connec ted tog.,;thcr, anu thc nppropriate For h.: !\
'j test vo!t:;gc is applied to them; the ot her windings ;.\fC shorted and ca rthctl durin g direc t rrom
th is peri6d. as shown in figure 7,7, The va lue of the lest vo lta ge is approximalely low-voltrlO,C
twice the'sys tem highest vo lt.age ror rully insulated wi nd ings, as indica ted in table Inord rt
7,2 (0) and (b), Windings wilh graded insulation arc subjC<Oled 10 a re latively low sllpply G. a
 .;
,\
,. ,>;
,
'" ~ , '. ' J (- .

v 3hort th at
the ', ..;
TRANSFOR MER PROCESS ING AND TESTI NG

"r
.' _, I
<"
165
' .. ..
.. ~

.,
"
."
" .f
.~·T
oterlOex ible
, ,.
"

keep the ' ,

;
?ns frc well r 'l~, " 1':1
I" .
Illee raise . "', ,. f
.,
til eart h ' ,.;
der a keep ' SINGLE -
" I.I 11\
·"'~ i . I earth PHAS E I :I~'I
VARIABLE I "
ala r and SUPPLY

r wi ndings ,~
ieved by
I... ... is lors in
test IIv,tl
' uc , HV T EST
ests ror EQUIPMENT
, vbluc. TRANSFORMER
Thby are UNDER TEST

Figu re 7.1 Connectio ns rOT scpa ratc·so urcc· voltage withstand test
.
test vo ltage depending on the type o f earth ing arra ng'c mcnt s. The va lue is a
minimum o r 38 kY.
The spccificJ test voltages are given as rms va lues o n the ass umptio n that the "

neans of a wa veform is sinusoidal, thu s prod ucing peak volt:l gcs of 2 1/2 times tlll: rillS value. ,I
';od rrom
l
, i,s also
It is advisa ble. therero re, when carrying a lit these tests to m eas u r~ the applied I
high vo lt age by mea ns o f a sphere ga p or other peak. mcasuring dev ice ill order to I
~ a f hunt
I allow for any discrepancy in the relationship between rms and peak vn lucs due to
possible waveform errors introduced by the genera tor or reg ulat ing device.
. )\~r. or In order to prevent damage due to transients, the tcst is commenced il.t:l voltage
l ef lon. not greater than o n ~- third o rthc req uired va lue. This vo ltage is th ~ 1I increased as
, r alyo f .. '
smoo lhly as possiblc'up to the test value and is ap plied ror a pe riod "r: min, arter
I ; d be which it is redl'ccd to less than one-third o rthis amo unt befo re being s';:itched a IT,
t / csts.

7.4.5 Induced over-voltage withstand test and internal discharge t"s'

In order to prove the intcrturn and line end insulation it is necesssf'.' ta induce a
higher vo ltage than normal in the windings. The va lue depc:Hls upon the
r' el li ne transrormer insulati on level as shown in table 7,2 (a) and (b),
, p( i~ te Fo r test voltages up to 66 k Y, three· phase tra nsrormers arC genNali), supplied
I d urmg direct fro lll a three -phasc source, but fo r highcr va lues it is lIsual u, energise each
, , I low-voltage winding in turn from a sin gle- phase supply.
''''1~ t c y
, tnble In order to avoid sa tu ration o f th e co re at the test voltage it is Il Cl;C!"S:lry to usea
)1..1)' lo w supply o r a higher frequ ency than normal, ror exa mple, 250 Hz, Al this highe(
 . "
)

,,'
:.~'" ,~ . ,
",
" '
.... , ,
" " "
\ ''
" .
"", "
,,' '"

, ,,'"
.. ", . ,
,~:~ .. ,"
,

~~~,.~~~~.. ~ ,., ...

166 MOD[ltN !'owEIt '1RANSFORME lt I'll /\CI ICE

freq uency, howevcr, the tran sformer will ha ve a ca prtciti\ c reac ta nce o fbctwec lJ
500 10 1000 11 (referred 10 I he low-volloge wi ndi ng), " n<l ,I ,is lIlay re qui re " , upply
o f II P 10 30'CX) k Vt\ :1t :I lead iug powe r f;u.:tor. Th is req ll i r1; 1111.: 11 1Cil il be rl:d II ced by
'."(
v)

means o f:l jlarallel-reso nnllt cin.:uit whh: h is obtai ned by <.:tl llllcc tin g:l v;Iriable n,C'
. .n.
j n<J lIcto r " c ross Ihe ge nera tor Icrm in:t Is illlt! by ndj llst i Il l.: it s rC: lcl anee to t he sa me
vnlue as Ihe tran srormer capaciti ve rc; u..: la rH'c; a ll ow;IIICC is IIlade fo r the ratio of ..,.
II' (*t.
_J : )

Z
:lll)' interpos ing tra nsfpt-m er whi<.:h rna )' be co nnected betwee ll the gCllerntor and U1
tilc transfo rmer 1.IIl( l c~ tes t. Series resonalH.:c between· the ca paci tive 10ll d :Jlld :II1Y
series imluctance in the d rcuit mu st be avo ided be(,::w :o-.e o f the da nger of
producin g excessive \'o lt:lges. Before cnrry ing ou l any le " t" it is advisable 10 check
, I
fro m de::; ign Ijn!cc cak: ulati olls :llld f!'OllI th e cil'~ lIit P;lI illlll.' ters Ihat this will not
occur. As a rurth er preca uti on, a sphere gap shou ld be connected across th e high- "
J:)
voltage winding so that it wi ll s park ove r if allY (':xcl.!s.s ive voltages arc rL f'
inatlvertcMly produ ced. I:'. J c-
'J
I\s in the pr c~cdill B tes t, the high vo ltil gc sho uld be llll'a.s Ul cd by means o fa t.:J u)
Z
peak- mcasuring device such as a sphere ga p, Alt cr1latively. n bridge rec tifi er and U1
ammeter which give a reading proportio nal to the pea k vo lt agl.! mny be COI1 IlCCICU
in the ea rth cnd of the hi gh-vollagc capacito r bushing of the phase under test
and ma), be ca li bra ted ::1ga inst a sphcre gap at a number of poin ts lip to about 70 %
o fl he req uired lesl vo ltage, /I graph 0 f sphere ga p voltage aea insl bush ing eu rrenl
ca n t hen be d ra WIl, a nu t he bushi ng eu nen t eq uivnlcI11 o f t he fu ll test voltage ma y
be oblained by eXl rapola lio n,
The tes t is main t.tin cd for I min fo r frequ clH.:ics lIot gr..::atcI til;II1 t wice nOflna l.
" Il'
/II higher frequencies Ihe lime is reduced such Ihal <I )

lil lie of tes t in :-il'cont!s ~

GO x Iwicc raled fr~~ qll c llcy
tes t frequc ncy
t
' .1 U
, J
::-:
n

" ('
,,"z.
V)

The duratio n o f the test o n a 50 li z transfor11ler whcn suppl ied a t a frequency of Vi

250 l Iz is, Iherefore, 24s,
Typk'a l co nncc tions fo r single-phase tcsts on a thrcc- plwsc three- limbed co re
arc shO\vn in fi gure 7.8. figure 7,8(.1) shows Ihe co nnect ions req 1I ired for carryi tlg fi gure 7.S
oul the single-phase tesl on Ihe Iwo ou ler phases , imult aneous ly, Si nce Ihe Ira n'i rOr'II11' r
voltage a pplieu 10 the low-vo ltage wind i1lg durin g the tes t may b~ hi :'lCf rl wll the
specified se pcra le so urce lesl voltage, il is usu"IIO earlh Ihe mid poinl of Ihe
supply trnllsformcr in order to keep the vo ltage between wind ings :.JIlC:1ea rth to a
For a li \1
sa fe va lue. The centre phase is tested separa tely; the co nnccti ons arc as shown in
inIUl'I1 .·1II ..
fi gu rc 7.8(b). In this case, owi ng 10 the di rcc li nn o f the nU X, ;1 vo li agc o r 1. 5 times
their lin..: IeI'
the test value V will appcar between the high-volt nge (erminal of the pha'ic under
he t \'tee n ac
test :lJ1d the adja~c n t terminals.
DllI'ine t
Part ia ll y graded or full y insulated windin ~s Illa), tcs ted as show n in fi t.: urc
! :.:
!llen t o r i lll L'
7.S(c), in which each phi1 se is tes ted se parat ely. tile other I wo beillgjo ined toge th er
impo rtant.
a nd ea rth ed. \\'ith th is co nnec ti o n, th c vo ltage be tween ;H.ljacc nt tCl lllin nls is
OI1(; m d
lim it ed to til l' !e..; t value V, but the voltage that appc:Hs a t t'h e neutra l point
clIrrcilt o\'\..' r
lamina l will b( olle-third or this alTl ou nt.

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:J rryi ng
it ,I': 11 ,
Figure 7.8 ind ml.· tI ~ \ {) lla gc tests 011 ti ll ce' phase
Typiull si ngle-phase connections rU I'
, Ihe trn nsformcrs: (a) l e.!>1 o n the Iwo outer pha se": (b) I ('~ I " lIlh e C~ rltrc pha <ic: (CJ :1! tcrn:ll;vc Ii l )
1.. ,)\ Ihe
I of Ihe . l eS! \ ' ~, I'it ';
I I loa
\'n in
For a lI\'e-limbed corc th e tests arc also ca rri cfl o ul in single phases, eac h phase
i
I .,
I :)'
,
in turn . The nux is Ill~ldc to bypass the t wo ph :' ''c~ not und e r IC$ I by CO llll cc tillg i "
S limes
th cir li /1l,; te rminals to the IIclitrallcrlllina l atH_I car Ill. thu s limiting the..: vo ltage
J " " d.,
,
;: 11IJcr
bel ween adj"ccn l (ermina ls (0 Ihe lesl va llie. i ' . 1\
During th e indu ced -vo hage tes t the insllblioll is highly s tressed. ~ll1 d ilH;:lsurc- ; • I' .
ri gu rc
me nt l..... r ill !\:rna l di st.: hargcs produced by s u ~ h ! :- tn'SS is heco min g iJl': H..'!l!'i ll gly i I' r
)""I III: r . I I til ,.
Is is lI11pOlt:II1t. I
O ne meth od o r IllcasurC11lcnt GI.1 6is by a type.: or d\.'t\~c tor ill whkh the di ~;c h :lI'ge ........
· l.Joint '~ "

CUr relll O\·e.:f a range or 10 to l ~OkHz is :ll11plilicd :111d di :-: pln)' cd ill til l: fo rm o f
">,
,,

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168 ~1() IH~ l lN POWER 1!{t\ NSI Ol t ~ II ' ll f'lt A( 11(,.'1:
"
pulses o n all osci llosco pe. The peak vatuc o f the d:"1 1I 'll gC i.s IIH:a SlII"CU oy wi'(1; III "' 1
co mpariso n with that of a kn ow n pulse injec ted int o thc tIL- l el· to r.. 1c. .... J', ' 1' 1 '
I,I I,',I 1\ not her mcthod, specified by NEMA fOf rndio interfere nce tcs ts 2, is o rt CIl mcd " -th at Ih ~ I'~ i" I
;, .1 for intef l1[ll disdmrgc lkl ccti o l1 . Thi s instrulI1ent is IlllIed fo r a frequ e ncy o f ~,k~I ~~tll,.I '
II , ,I'
1 l\. 11' z. anti va lues afC indicatcd\Jirc(':lly 0 11 a vo ltllldcr assul:ia \cd \~ilh thc t il t: IIi!;: \. r
instrum cnt. ' '(<.)I"1I 1;.': r- :;i "
In bot h mcth od s, co nn ec tions betwee n th e trans fo ll1ler under tes t ;Ind th c ,~,"U I: , th e I '"
measu ring cq uipIIlcnqs ;\wdc via a bl c.1t:k ing capaci tor, o r, ;r1H,: rnativcly, the tcs t sS \lln cd 1'1
lappillg o f Ihe Irall sfo rmcr bushin g may be useu, II P [ In:t1 \ t l'
II is illlportan t, \\h cn cn rrying o ut th e les t, to cn ,- urc thaI th e tes t al ca is f, ce - th ;11. \'. IU'lI·"
fr0 111 c:< lran t:<1 us intel fcrcl1ce ;11111 Ihal th ere :ll e 110 lIll ' ,II tll l' d ohjt:t.:ts in Ihc til ..: ~U'II
vk:illit)'. sine!.: lil ci\c an,; liable 10 plodlh,:C rabc l l.:;ulill t;S, 17 ,\1\: 111;\1 U; IS l.:o lllhl l." t iu ll 85 ': " ' [11'\ 1;
at the hi gh-vo lt age termin als is kepI to :1 minilllUII1 by fill ing su itahle spheres or on.l \· 11 _
ell ipsoids ove r th e (ermina l lead s ill orde r to redu ce the elect ri c stress, Fo r . !r ~
Th t' m easll rc m ent s arc ca rri ed o ut a t variolls v:llu cs up tn Ihe rull illdul'cd Il: ~ t Ira n::,ru rIt'
\,o lt aue ;1I1l1 arc repeal eu a$ th e vo lla ge is reduced 10 i'CI'Q, ril e llleaSIl l'cd vnlllcs pr c,.;isit1!1 1,1

provide a good indicat io n o f the insulatio n quality atlhe h1 llhcr vo ltages. I f, as is I hI.! \'0': 1[ ' ,

, ". genc ral, a preliminary tes t has bee n ca rried o ut at about 1. 2 tim es th e no rillal "fO.2,
I i I ,I voltanc befo re th e COlllllle nce m cnt o f allY of th e electric le::;!S, co! npari so n of th c r he I" I

.. j'":, 'I' II" init ial a nd final discharge meaS Ufemcnt at that v Itagc wi ll provid e a good gCIIC I'aI I) I,
~ : :' ,J: , indicatio n of wllCthcr a ny da/ll:1ge has ol.:l,:urrcd during ail ) o r th e hi gh·voltage t he \ \\0 ,-
J "
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i ,I' • tests, poi) pili "'; .
1(,I rif t. : I '
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(".1.'( d or
~ " I ,i hnly
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1 II 11'1 r The final rcsi~ta ll cc va lu es are meas ured preferably by means of it f<c h in d \I blc im, tr ' !, li t

·1 ';;!:" I "
II'
bridge, Ccrta in prcca lltj o ll ~ arc necessary 10 ensure :I t'(.' III ;IC), :11I d In PI l'vt'II (
dallJ:1 gc to tl1(: ill stnlll h.: n l s alld arc.: as folluws,
llJi 'i ,';' . :"
al ~d J

" n'l! '

~ I 'II •
(a) Since th e windin gs ;He hi gh ly illd uc ti ve, tim e lIlust be ~llIowe d fo r the SinL.. t:-
,i/Hli
iHiI:'11
cu rrent to attai n a steady value before takill g I11C;l ~;Ult' IIlL'n t s, F'aihl rc to do \ '. :I\f.: rlil l I

so wi ll result in raI se read ings alld Illay ca use dam ace to th e voltage cir cuit pro{h ll ill.:
, i!I ;;1 'III, ,, o f Ihe briu ge du e 10 Ihe hi gh illducc<l vo lla ge llial is prouu ced whell Icdlll'( I' J
'j ,I : sw itchill£ 011, The voltage lead s, there fore . sho uld ,w l b: l.:o nl1 ec l cd until a 111111 11
fill :l1ll1ll!,:: tCf ill Ihe circui t ind ica tcs stea dy rC;1(Jillll. :ln d, of co urse, th ey applid I"
'I
" ~I ii'I I .i
, " I ,
sho llI<I be removed be fore SWilchili g ofr. rh c LI
l' ',!'
f ,I
'{ ,1:1
(b) Th..: tempera turc o f til e wind in gs must be st ;lblc ;!IH t kno\\ II. ;l nd for Ihis is lkpUld
1 . 'I ' rC:1SOI1 it is ill1po ft31111hat this test is ca rried o ut h..: f(1lc th e ptJ we r les ts arc rills \";\111 1:
1,
'I
I .n ;lppli ,:d. I j \ '-(: I ' • r;:
j' I .\ '. ill',
" ! 7.4.7 No· hl ~CI l o ~·;.s :lIId no-lund ClIrrl' i1'
\ :\ 11' .. ·... "
I I , \ I ,1t :1:
I" t The m !.!ils un'; II1 CI1( of l1o· !o ad loss rtlld \.: lurc n{ IS Hl1jll) I I.l III, no t on ly fo r Ihe 11 ) ... 10:
, I j
purpuse of a..,:;c·-t, ; ng th e e Oicicilcy 0 f th e t r;l ns form er btl! a lso as a cht:t:k 'ha t I he 1 ; I 'i: , I
, \l f

: '1, ' hi g h - , 'o lt at:~ 't C') (5 dCl'c riued ill the prcl."cdi ll g ':';c;: ti ol1$ IIiIVL: bee H C;1f! ied ou t th e ' .. J
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 169
,
TRANSI ORMER PROCESS ING AND TES riNG
~ .
witho ut damage to winding insulation. For large transrormcrs, thcrdore, a no~
load measu rement is o nen curried Oul berore and after the electric tests to ensure
that there is I~o_s ignifi cunt change betwee n the two measurements.
Measuremenl is carried o ul al normal fre'l,ucilcy supplyingcilher Ihe lower- or
Ihc higher-voilage windin'g, buI il is usua lly more cO llvenienl 10 supply Ihe
fOi mcr, Since Ihe no-load currenl will be ve ry small compa red wilh Ihe full load
' (he, value, th e {lR losses ill th e willdin~ will be negligible, and the measured power is
assumed to 'rcpr'eseOI the cur~ltlld dielectric loss. The specified tolerance, at
,
y. Ihe leSI '
I -, normal voltage and frequency is one-seven th o f the guaranteed' va lue, provided
thal,lV hcn co mbined wilh Ibe load 10SS, Ihe lolall osses do not ,-xcecd one-Ienlh of
r t is frcc
c. .. " n the thG ~\l ;lral\l eed ' Yalue. Measurements arc tak cn at a seri es l ' vo lt:lgcs between
l nd IClion.' ~S "'; and 110 %o f normal, SO Ihal curvcs o f no-load currellt allu pOlVcr ma y be
res or draw n.
For safelY and cO;lVcnicnce the vollagcs and currenlS 10 be measured are
.Il1 l' 'u lesl tlilll:; furlllcd 10 a,bo ul 110 V lind S A, using inslrulllenll ransfor illers of lbe hi glli'SI
: . ~a l llCS \)/,\'I';<; ion (class AL~, The illstruITIents also must be of preci sion-grade accuracy,
, If, as is th ... ,\ allnh.: tcrs being des iglled to produce a full -scale deflcc tion at a power factor
Ie 11 0f l11al o f 11,2, '
The !l a-load power fnctor for distributi on and Sl11all powe r tran sformers is
,n " 1lo flh e
, 1 good
ecnerally be lween 0,2 and 0.5, Three-phase unils of Ihis si,e may be lesled using
;h-voilage Ihe Iwo-wallmeler melhod. eilher by IWO single-clemen I IVa ltmelers o r by a
polypha se instrument.
The power fac tor of larger units, however, especially when work in g at higher
OIIX uCl1sit ies, is about 0.1. At thi s low valuc the tw o-wa ttm cter meth od resulls in I,
qil ly a small difference in th e instrument rendings. A small error in one
ouble iu th lIment, th erefore, will produce a large error in the result. It is preferable in
) event l! .h; case to usc the three-wattmeter method sinee th e total loss is givcn by the
;;1- , IJ raic sum o f th ree readings and any small er ror in one uf th c in strulIlen ts is
,w _
lli11 111:lgnified to the ,sa me extent.
" ~ r Ihe , Sin"e Ihe no-load currenl will be no n-sinusoidal, il is possible Ihallhe voil"ge
lur 10 do " ,t"dnrm may be distorled owing 10 Ihe ha rmonic componclils o f Ihe curre lll,
I PC ircuit
I" ! duci ng vo hage drops across series impedances in Ihe supply, This can be
c I when rerluced by supplyi ng from a large source and by keeping Ihe scries ililpeda nee 10
;'1' lIdn illlulIl, H the distorti o n ca nnot be elim inated co mpletely, a co rrc<.:t ion ca n be
l . ": until
urs they <t.~)pli cd to single~phase units or to three~ pllase units with a Jcha winuing.
I The core loss cotisisls o f' hysleresis and eddy current losses; the hysleresis loss
I

is dependenl on Ihe pea k value. and Ihe eddy currenl losses depend on"lhe
" ~ r Ihis
r te ts are .... ri"s value of flux, During Ihe Icsl, IWo voilmelers arc used, O nc is a brid ge recli fler
Iype ca libraled 10 ind icale average vollage Illulliplied by 1.11 (Ihal is rms value on
a sille wnvc form) a nd the uther a dynamomcter type which indicatcs true fin s
v,lIues. The supply voltage is se t so that the rat~d va lu e is illlJiwt ed on the rec tifi er
\:u!tllld cr. Si nce the peak va lue of flux is propo rtional to this avera ge vollage,thc
hystcl'cs is co mponen t will be measured correc tl y, whilst th e eddy currcllt loss will
: r? r Ihe
k ,ha llhe bl! eit her lower or hjghcr than th e true value, depending lIpon th e form factor of
I he :"I!ppty vo ltage, Since the rati o be tween the two co mponent s is kn ow n for any
rrictl ou t

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170 MO DERN I'OWE R T RANS I'O ll Mr: lt " RA I III E

p;lrl icular q ua lity o f co re steel, a co rrecti o n c..:;i~n be a p'plicJ by IJ sing the fo llOwing
furmula < can be
co ndu cto r r
nI'''.]
-- .
{J = Pm' un dcr sho
(7.1) as that for
k, +k1k,
where P is th e lIo-load loss for a sinusoidal vbltn gc, Pm [I I..: II! C;JC; Ul'c d no-load loss
• ?
),
k I Ihe ra t io 0 r hysteresis lass to tota I loss, k 1 Ihe f ;J Iio \l r,'dd YClI rre nt loss t o 10101
.
.
that. wilen a
g ll3~al1l (,c
th e li n:
'I
loss fi nd '" Sinc<.: I il c.!
fill S voltage )l'~'- ( ilc tll,tl l lll" \Ol lagc )' the lattc.! r i,
I
kJ = ( average vo ltage x 1.11 ;= 7:l k d 11'1': .!llltlgC abo~ 1 ""I i
;1 rnIlII 11l l<"
Fo r nOrma I nnx oell sil ies "no freq uend cs 0 f 50 II " " ," W i ll. k , a nd k, arc each
laken as equal 10 0.5 (for cold -ro lled steel).:
It is usual to analyse th e flo -load current wavefo rm. " his can be carried o ut
correc ted te.:
current,
curren l tl
tI I
ancr th e measurement of the no- load loss. A Ilo n-inducl i\ c resisto r orabou! In The 1'0\\'(
may be insert ed directly in the supply linc (in wh ich case [I ,!; line must c:uthcd be iJ Uw lo!l' ll r' I
fo r s:r fely); o r I he resislor may be connecled 10 Ihc seell ll. : ")' windi ng of a fully tv li1 o,c
insulatcd currcnt trans fo rmcr. T he resulta nt v o l tn g(~ ;ft: r··':" [his res istor is then po wer r.I({
:lpplied to a harm o ni c il ll:l lyscr which is des igner! ! f) i l l d ic~lt c h.irm o nic
W<l ttl lletc r"l
cO mponcnts directly as a percenta ge of th e fUlldam cl1t :iI. Ilccess a l')
Illcnt s at
7.4.8 Noi.... c Irs. o rd e r t o ell

Whilst th e trans fo rlller is still co nnected fo r cl1crgising I' ll 110 loa d, it may be
r~c.lo
irlstnr rllC
I
co nvc nient at this stage to carry o ut the no ise tests, deta il s , f\\ !lith arc dea lt with Illc nt~ T he
in ch:rpler 8. ./
orlh]':\\';'''1
sligl·. Iy"
7..1.9 Loud loss "lid imp« I:II'cc rolt:rge a r<.:\\ •
, \1 11 1',

O,lJ5, it Cil l i
r
The loao loss (cop pe r loss) co mprises Ihes llm oflhe 1'1<' ' l:S inlhe will dings ang le 'IJ 'I
a nd th e s tray losses due to eddy currents ill th e COr' '11 1.' 1,'1 ';, dam ps all d tank. ill the (,. I
Since th e lattcr va ry wilh frequcncy, it is impo rtant t, t tl l , 1)' the tl nns fOfln cr at !' how il in r
th c r,Heu frequ ency, The test iscarriell out hy short -cir llrit i ll.':" lle windin g alld by
slIpplying a ,'('du ced vn lt 3gc (the impedan ce \'u l [;r l~\" ) ['1 [he o th er windin g
Th e I' I
"'. 111' 11 , ( II
~lrnk ic.: llt to t ause fu ll -loi1 d Current to circulate, Th e sh t)l ill:uit ill g condu ctor i' \\ h ~ n . 0 11 r
co nsists o f so lid co ppcr bars and should be o f:tn <l d e'l t!;rIC current -carrying Ihe \'0 11" .
ca pacity in o rd er to kee p losscs in it 10 a minimul1l, All j l lil1lS !lss()ciateJ wiLh it tru lls for. 1
sho uld be nr"t ci Cil !led and smcarcd wit h co nlact grease bi.' f(: 1t' heing nrml y ho lt ed The illl; 1
toge ther. It is usua ll y 1I10 rc co nve nient to supply Ihe hig her \ I ,It: lgc windin g :1 lid
10 sho rt -ci rcuit til l' lo\vc r-\, olta gc side since this will rl" pli r,' II ' ~"; sup ply l: ur l'c nt.
The illlp cd :rllCC \'o ltage varies fro m ab o ut 5% o fn ol'll1;r1 \P~r I~C rU i' Ji ~tlib llt in ll
trall s fo rl11 e r~ a nd u p to a bo ut 15 %fo r large ge nerat o r lII ri ts. I ii i.' Illcas ured power T hu s
will inc.·lude (I sma ll core loss as well as th e load loss. bll! . !\ ;'h':C th e vU It {l gC is
gc ner:1l1 y o nly a fra cti on o f no rmal, th is addi tio llal 1t ,' , " ;111 be ig no red, If,
however, as fo r a hi gh-irn pc{iance transforllll' r, th e c. rio! !,1··:, io.; ap p rc<.: iah h: , it

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 " RA NS I 'O R~l t; R 1' ltOCl:.SS ING ANI) I I! SII NG • 171

1.: ~l foliowing can be measured by supplying Ihe impedance vollage wi lh Ihe shorl-ci rcuiting
,, conductor removed and by deducting the resultant loss from that measured
llllJ(;r short ·c,; j ['cu it co nd it ions, The toleran ce allowed ror th e load loss is th e sit rnc
'i (7. 1) as Iha l for Ihe no-load loss, Iha l is o ne-sc ~ell ih o f Ihe gua ra nleed va lue prov ided
Ihat, when added to Ihe no-load loss, Ihe to lal docs nol exceed on', - Ienlh o f Ihe
I
'j load loss, gurtrantccd to ta l losses. III aJditio n, th e l os~ is measured on ex treme li.1ppings, and
) 5 10 10lal Ihe impedance vollage on all tappi ngs.
" Since the loss va ries with the temperature o r the windings,.it is inl lJo rta nt that
,, the \;ttl t.: r is stablc and know n. It is, thcrd orc, preferable to li mit !\Il: c.; u l·!'cnl to
auout halfthc rated va luc in o rder to keep the temperature ri sc of th e windin gs to
a lIlinipli m durin g the lest. The mcasured impedance vo lt age l:;Ul then be
d k are each co rre,l ' ' to the raled value by mUllipl ying by Ihe " ,tio o f ", tcd CUI re lll 10 tcst
I. currenl , ""U Ihe losses by mull iply illg Ihel11 by Ihe squa re of Ihe ral io o f rated
! tuned out cu rn.; nl 10 tes t current.
o f abO UI In The puwer f'I(.: 101' (l flil e supply is be tween 0.3 ;I lid 0,5 for di sll iuu tiu!l and small
; f earlhed pO\\(:r tran sf fm ers, anu tile losses t::lll be measured by using SillliiM !nstrulllcnt s
I o f a fully to those used in the no-load test. When testin g very large unit s, however, the
i S I ~ r is Ihen powe r fa ctor may bc as low as 0.02, in which case special Icllcct in g-typc
{' IW.l'mol1ic wa ttllleters, wit h a full -scale ucncc ti on at power fa ctors o f 0.05 or less, arc
necessa ry in order to obt,lin a reaso nable dencclio n, For th ree~ l"ba sc I11 caS llre~
Illen ts at very low powe r fa ctor, the three-wa ttmeter method lIlUSt be used in
llnler to ellsure grea ter accuracy as explained in sub-section 7.1 7.
The load test oflen requi res Ihe supply of large currenls a l high vollages, and
I, 'lillay be instrlllllcnl transformers arc th erefore used for sa fe and co nvenient Illeasure·
:e dea lt wilh melll S. The Sl11a l1 phase angle errors in hercnt in them, however. loge l her with that
of lh~ wattmeter vo lta ge co il (duc to its slight ;nductalH': c). produce a pha se angle
sligh tly di f(erent ,from th e true pha se angle o f the supply. The dis~ rcpa ll c)' may be
oillya few millu les. ""h ough Ihe effect is negli gible fo r power fael rs greate r Ihan .
0.05, il ca uses an appreciable erro r a ll ower powe r facto rs because , as Ihe phase
indings angle approuchcs 90 0 , a small chan ge in the an gle results in a co nsiderable change
s n d ta nk:. in Ihccosille o flh e angle. The apparen t phase a llgle '" produced b), Ihese errors is
''' ~trmcr ., ' shown in figure 7.9.
The phase a ngi~, a or P. o f the instruillen t tra nsformer is as;;; \lrtled pos iti ve
, I and by
(,.. 1 'Iinding when, on reversa l, the secondary pha so r lends the prillHlry phase ! :ll1d nega ti ve
: cO~ld u (;.l or wh en, on reversa l, th e seco ndary phasor lags the primary , In fi gul(' 7.9, th ercforc.
I ·carrYll1g the vo ltage transformer phase angle ex is show n as negati ve :,1'1.1 the current
1 d wil h il tran sformer phase angle fJ as pos iti vc.
rml y boil ed The Ille thod of erro r t:o rrec.: tioll, with k as a t:o nstalll. is as fo ll ows .
.. :li ng and
(7 .2)
current.
lis I ri, b1I t iOI1
."·"'d power Thus
I .
: o lla gc IS C::C5 ;p
power x 17.3)
t;llgf"cd. If, c·)~ I}I
recia ble, iI
I

---:7:::-"" .,. ,i, 1)' :~'i~~"..~

.• ~
l ""'
., f'hT'~~
:-: .....
, .. J.. !! '" "":'V.lf.. ~ 'h .. ' .W~t,.... "iPI" "1
."'.

The corn
errors. III P
instrument
+ 1 '~ voltag
" Ane r co
fc f~ rcllCc h
........... , arc contain
.... ~ yr 02.2 alld (
............ " •
" ,,
',¢
, , ,,
,, ,,
,, ,,
,, ,
,, \
Is
.0 I
- P
Figu re 7.9 Ph:l';;C angle errors due (0 instrumen t t r:1 n S ro rm ~ ' s: "u . ~ lIpply vo lt:ll}.c; Ipl
supp ly c urrcl~ I ; 1",. secondary vo ltage of vol tage tra nsformcr; I , . sC(.'C" lldary current o f
t.:IlI IC ll t trans former: 11)1;' current in wa ltmc tc i vo l l:lgC coi l
I .
;
From ngurC ,7.9 The ca l·
'" = I/!+ a+ p+l' ( 7.4) 7.7. The I
l os~cs as
Hence I

eos(~ = cos"'cos(a+p+)' ) - si n "' s in (. I p + ).) (7.5)

- ~
7.4 .(0) L
Beca use a + /1 + )' is very sma Ii
I The ~crc
. /, I
cos (a+p+),) = I (7.6) Wh l It l it
and llH.. eVel!!
II
11
sin (a+p+l') = (a+p +), )rad (7.7)
Figure
Iransrorr
Al low pOll'er fac ial's", '" trr rad, and he nce I/! :::: -lrr ' a,I. Therefore sin I/! = I. loge lher
and hence, rr !l JIl equa tio n 7.5, lhe dell:!
i For I '
. cos l' = C," 11 .- (a 1· /1 1-)') II.HI
rrOl~~
Icrl11 in :d
Thus, )qu :lIion 7.3, wh ich 1I

I . tnl t' power = mea sured powe r x

cos l/! · (' I /Ji-), )
- - _ (7.9)
windi ng
Aula·
C\.'!; I/J wil h twl
I
arc til er
With th e ph;r .c ;J l1glc errors given in ccntiradians. th t.: r'~ l'n.' lIt agc err or C:I11 be
ex pressed :-. ill lj 1ly as (a)
! (b)
(. I- P+ )'Jicc nlira di-I"s)
percen tage error = .. - ----- (7. 10) ( c)
cos '" (eI)

,. .. " . ~.,. •. , _ _ ,.1 ''''''' ' ' "' ,r;lr --,

I . I
,.
./ ., , '...:. .'
:'.'
r·. 7 .
 ./.,

C I(l .~ .'i Vl 1fllt fl l' fIl/rlre U {ji.'''' 'IH"l' f t'lIJI'l'rllfllr e

r e)
A
E
B
F
Ii
toll age; JP ' C
I r ent o f

T he caleula t ion 0 [the losses to the required tempera t ure is dealt II it h in section
7,7. The j 2}{ losses nrc taken as increasing with the tcmperat ure u!1d the stray
(7.4)
losses as decreasing with temperature.

(7.5)
7.4. 10 z..c roNscqucncc illlprdancc i
rhe l ero-scqucnce impedance Zh is meas ured on all star -Co IIIH..'L1cJ windings 'I
(7.6) wllich havea n earthed ncu tral in o rd er to determinc the current which will now in ,II
"

the evcn t o[ a line-to-ea rth [ault. . I'

Figure 7.10 shows the connections [or ca rrying o ut this test on a delta - star i
(7.7) tran sformer. The ' line terminals on the sta r-co nnected winding are joined
I
I/t = I ,
together, and a single-phase supply is applied betwee n these a nd the neutral point, ,.II
the delta being Icrt on open ci rcuit during this test.
For transrormcrs with 1110rc than o ne slar-l.:on l1ccted winJin g and neutral
(7.8) terminals, additional mcasurcmenIs 0 r the zero -seq lIellce impedance are l1l'ade. in
which the line terminals and the neutral terminal o r the other star-connected
winding arc co nnected together.
Auto-transrormers with a neutral terminOt I arc trea led as llonnaI tra nsrormers
(7.9 ) wi th two slar.co nnectcd windings, The rour tes ts poss ible tinder these conditio ns
Otre therefore as rollows.
or all be
(a) Zh ror high-voltogc to neutral and tertia ry.
(b) Zh [or low-volt age to neutral and tertia ry.
(7.10 ) (e) Zh [or low-vt, llage to neutral, hi gh-vo lta ge and tertia ry.
(d) Zh [or high -voltage to ncutral, low-vo lt age and tertiary.

, " .:
 ,.. ",t, I ' "1'" ... 'Ill.·
~r" f,f" "!:'" ,". r,' I~ " '
. , ,I.
1
•
.•,
,
; if .,(' I I
"
"
'··.i " ••
~'-.,~ ,.~
··,,'f'
. . " ~ '".'
/,
!. f·"
,,'
, .' ,. II,
II
II.~ ~,' '
. 'I
'''1 • ~

.... f
" "

,I "
.,, "
-'(' -i' '(
r: i'
il'" .,
174 M OUl-. UN I'OWEIt T HI\Ns r O It ~r I:R I'n~ (: I l e i!
,, ,."'l',.,) Ii 02 b2
,, ,r
'~,
I
", I '

01 _ _.-=.:..._-"CIJ
--_._;--- •• - - -• ,
AI BI CI

N A2 B2 C2
, S I~I G LE­
PI-lASE
:1
,' .I SUPPLY
p.
"I ,,
Fi gure 7. 10 CO IlI1CCIions ror ze ro-se q nCIH:1.! impt.: d:llh':C tes t o n a della star I l'ansfvlltl cr
"./ 1
; ,:, ! I Th e co nnecli" ns for Ihese lesls nrc shown in ngu re 7. 11 (a). Ib). Ie) a nd Id),
res peel ivc ly.
" ,
,, /' ;'\! The inlpcdancc decreases sli ghtly as Ihe Ctlrrent is increased. It is measured at

" II"
iil!fl 'l
several va lues up 10 Ihe highesl currenl possible wilhin Ihe Irans former and
supply limitati ons. The results arc ex pressed in ohms per ph:1 sC a nd a rc give n by
3 x Vi r, where V is Ihe lesl voll age and I Ihe le,1 curren I. l
Ii ' 7.4.1 1 Temperalure rise lesl
I
,,. , '~ ; I
, T he first unit or II new des ign is subjected 10 a I ClllpCf<l(lI re ri se te:>t in order to Fi gure 7. 11 ,i
I
confirm tholt, under 11 0rmal conditi ons, the temperature rise o f the winu ings Ira nSror mcr \\j lll
,., r.l
/, i . (measured by I he cilange-o f-res isiance mel hod) " '1<llhe oil, whe re a pplicable, will abc-No Aile "I ' 'I
h" ,I nol exceed Ihe specincd limils G 1.7. Gl.l. Gl.2 given in ,,, bles 7. ~ and 7.5.
'! '11 The tcmpcr:llllre rises are meas ured a bo ve th e tempera tu re of thc cooling nir
, ! for nil types except wutcr·cooled tra nsformers. III this casc, t IIc Icm pcralli rc rise is ngurc 7.1 2(a). 1
I/' I I11cnsurcd above the in let wal er tempera ture. low-vollage s
The lesl is carried out in such a way Ihal full -load 10<5es, Ihal is Ihe S UIll Mlhe sllpplicd at, ,
no-load and Ihe full -load co pper loss, arc produced in lh e lransformer. Since it is bo th transfll rm
i~ . I
, I not possiblc to load the transformcr d irrc ll y, vn l'io lls Illclh("ld<; have been lkvi~cd t r:lIlS fell' mel' i
where these co nd itione; ca n be achicved wit hollt using an t.'\k rna l load. vull ilgC wind
volt ;,gl. ! or OIl \.! \
LJ(l ck ~ f o· bac k or Sw n/JlIl'I' rest in th e windino"
Th is ml.!t hod requ ires basica lly Iwo identica l unit s :1I H.1 Ill:!)' he used on "illglc. higlt ·\o ltage
phnsc o r thrcc·r h :l ~C Ir:l ll sfor lllc rs; th c 6i nglc· phnse cO Il Il,·"ti("l ns arc show n in ll 'al thei n",1

; I • .:.
.. .. --..,.... .....
~ "'-'i-.-. ~--.,.... ............... ..--, - -.-' l" (". ,~,.....
" " ," , .. ,', '. .. .1 f
I •
 T RANs r OIHI II;lt I' ROCESSING ANI) li S t ING 175
'.
,I

(0)

(b)

I 'I
nsl( rmcr

d (d), (c)
I A B C

1ft pb pCI~
f " fCd a t
I rl and
l iven by

, Jet' 10
Cd) f\f0J ,
Figure 7, II Conllecti o ns for zcro-sequence impcdal1 L;1." ! 1I..: "ts o n SHu ~ I"r au to · ·
dill LiS Ira m.rl)rtm: r \\i lh delta \cl'li;It'Y: (a) supply, AB C- N. AUC ~ h"ltn l . ,1Ix o pen: (ll) ~ Hpply.
,blc, will abc -N. A UC (l pcn. abc short ed; (e) supply, abc- No AU CN ~ hl 'l tt:d. al>c short ..:d: (\.I) !\upply.
ABC· N. AUC short ed, "beN , hulI , '''<\
I
ng oL ir I
n; fi SC IS
I, ,
fi g ure 7, 12(a), The two tran s ro rmers arc co nn ec ted in' p:t r:dld on bOlh hi g h- and
lo w-vo lt:lUc sides. and ~ i1e se t o f windings (\lsua ll y t) le I ~)w-vo lt "ge windings) is
, qflhe
I supplied at nor mal vo llagc and frequency, lhus prl~tlw.. jllg the no-load loss .in
liKe It I S
bolll Iransformers, Full-load copper loss is Obl"ill"? by means of a n a uxiliary
tran s ro rmer s upplied rro m a separate source and cO lll ~ec lcd belween th e two lo w-
dc r iSCd
vo lt age win dings, The; auxilia ry transformer must supply twice the impedance
voltage or olle or the transrormcrs in order to ca use rllil -ioad currcnt 10 circulate
in the windin gs as ind icated by ammeter 1\. . The CU rl L' 1I 1 rnay be injc:ctl.:d into the
il,glc- high.voltagc wi ndin gs ir it is more convcnient, but c;i H.! mus t be tak e ll lo ensure
thaI the in sulati o n or th e au xiliary tran s ro rm e r is L'~1JXlblc o r withSIU!ld in g the
r IO
,
,, "

I
---.- ... - r
~-
1

, ' , .,
l
--'·--r.-~

! <I #
~ . ;t,~ • ..'
I' • ,'I ," "
 'l , ••
.. , ~ ~ ~ J:~' "t.
.'" '.' ., r ';\'.
,. II' r,'
t. ,. , I
,...
~ ~ ~.< '~,
.' I • '~ . ,"

~
f ~. ... .,t
' ! .i'
~. L~.- .. - "
, If.
,
I" -- --
176 MODERN I'OWFR II(ANS I'OR""ER I' R/\l' I lU i ,.I
.)
"
'fAillE 7.4 n 'l1Ipcra lure rise limits lor drY"),pe frml .ifofll/(: I"s '! .(t
TABLE 7 .~
- --
J
-----
2
- - - - - - - -- .!: ~'jJ-
J 4
Pori Coolillg method O<lSS oj ,.~~
- - - . - - - - - - - - - ---
" {ClIlpNlllre
TCIJII'('l"/Iflll"C rise
(C)- ,. POI

wind ings (measured

by resis tance)
air, nall/ral or A 60 :i,jin~s
forced E 75 . \(· . . . .-,craIU
, .. o SO ,\ . .I ca:-UII. ,
F 100 rcsist:UKC)
II 125 I,I:
co re s <"lnd ot he r (a) <;;\IIIC \'allie as
parIs ror windings
(a) adjacen l 10 all (b) a va lue Ihal
wi ndi ngs will not
ad vcr~c l y
lOP oil
(h) no t ;Idjaccllt allee!
(1l1C' ISlln.: d •.•
10 wi ndin gs IhCI111 0111Cl e
insulati ng
part s tll:1I may
be in co ntact
wi lh lhe
windings

higher yoUages which wi ll be presen l on Ihese windin gs.

co rcs "lid 01
II will be round in praclice Ihal one lrans rormer is slighlly holler Ihan Ihe ol her
beca use Ihe no·load and rull-Ioad currenl wi ll be nearly in p hase in o pe and
almost in phnsc opposition in tI le othe r. The resultant va lue o f currell t 'vi II,
Ihere ro re, be slighlly dirrerenl in Ihe Iwo Irans rormers. Th e One wilh Ihe higher
tcmpcrn turc rise is o frered ror acceptance tes ts.
The au xiliary tran sforme r llIay bc ollii tt ed ir suilabh.: tappi ngs arc ttv:lilab le on
th e two tr<lll s rorm crs under les t. The tappings ca n be se t o n ullequal tap ping
'"
-;r-
posili ns (sec fi gure 7. t 2(b» , and a circula ling CUITenl is prod llced by the Equivcdcli
unbalanced vo ltages, This mell
In bOlh cases, rull-Ioau conuilions arc ob tained by suppl ying Ihc appropriale Theco llllcC I
voltngcs and currents. It is not necess:\ ry to measure th e aC l unl power suppli ed. YO II 'gc \\': I
De/fa ·· della lest 10 Ihe l>i L I
loss ai llie "
Three-phase tra nsrormers ha ving delta-connected winn ip '! <; Ill :l.y be tested by the ci rcu it and
dc lla - de lt a (eS l lllc th od, a typica l co nn ect io n being sho\' q- in figlir~ 7. I J(a), O ne Th is t c~
winding, u ~lIa Jl y Ihe low. vo ll nge winding, is supplied a l norma l volt age a nd ro rced air
rreque ncy 10 produce Ihe core loss. Artc r thiscc
The other winciing is co nnected in opc n de lta by removi ng onc o f {lie (klta is maintn'
!1'1ks, and a sin gle- phase il li xi liary slIpply is injected at this poi nt in o rd er 10 tClllperat •
..: jrclI btc rull · load curren t in the windin gs. If the \lolt ng..; o n Ih e hic h-vo ltagc side
is 100 hi g h fo r Ih e insubtio ll h;vcl \..If th e ;llI x iliary tr ;IIlSfoI"llH,: r, the S:lI IlC 1'Il e 0p clI ·d
conditions C:t ll be produced by injecting th e currcnt in tht~ !ow.vo!t:IUe side, as Ir thc fl ( +

sho wn ill fi gure 7.IJ(b). transfoflll .... r

,
I,

, .....
~_ , • • • w ........ ~

. ...
~ -.---....----~----
-.,._-.
, ~, .... ""
. ~ .
 .f
. T R A NS FO RM ER PH OC ESs iN O A N D 'J ES li NG 177
I
( .
- 5 Tempera rure rise limilSf or oi/·immerst.'d t),pe IrtllIJ! ormers
_ T ABI.E 7.
,: / ------------~------------------------------------ --------
", ... 2 3 4
"J Coolillg m (J IJu:~d Oil cir('uftllioll T CIllPC/'(/llll'l' ri.<;c
riJe ,j 1'111'1
C) IC)
"
I'
I:
5 ~I wind ings ll ulural air, . natural 65
I tem per a ture cl a ss ro ~~d ait.t,. ~
!O '. " A (mcasun::d by wa ter (int ernal •
)0 (': resis tan ce) coo lers) .

'forced nif. ru~ccd 65

: va llie as Wil le r (ex ter nal
il1G5 eoolcrs)
I Ihal
60. \\ he ll (he
to p oil
y tra ll sfor mer is
(mea ::" '1 ' , I b)'
thf.; 1' 111 () I I 'CI)
sc aled o r
cquippcJ with a
I lay CO ll scrv:tlor
'lla l
55. "'hen the
transformer is
110 t so scaled o r
equipped

co l'C~ :lIld 01 he r
the I Cmr.!.! l'i llIlI'C
1 Ie o th er in 11 0 (;.\ SC to
pa rts
1 •.me and reach il v:llue
r rent will. th ai wi ll illj ure
I th e corc itself
I ' ihigher
:1 or adja ce nt
pariS
·. i1a ble on ~I
,,.

:r
J ' Ip pping
y
Ihe
)"r pria le
I
.shorr-circuit run
El/ llj(;U/t: llt
Thi s met" hod is l11os1 generally used in practice, particularly on Iile large r units.
T he cOlln',ctions arc the sa me as ror the load test (sub-sec lion 7.4.8), Ihal is the low-
. I plied. volt auc i'lin dings a re shorted and a reduced supply a t normal rrequenc)' is applied
to Ihe hi Gh-voltage sid e sumeient to produce the Sillll o [ no-load and ra ted load
loss at tllC refe rence temperature. This tolalloss is measured by wall 1l1c lers in the
circui l and is maintained until the top oil has reached a sleady temperalure_
Th is lest cO lild take 12, 9 or 7 h ro r ONAN (oil-tWIUr,,1air-natu ra l) OFAF (oil-
forc~d :li r-ro .. ~ctl) o r OF \VF (o il-fo rced wa tcr-fo n.:cd) Ira n s fo rlllc rs. l ~s pCC livcly.
A ftc r th'is condi tio n has bee n a ttain ed, th e c urrelll is red uced to its rat ed va lue a nd
is l11aini:lillcd fo r 1 to 2 h in orde r to allow the windi ngs to reach th eir lIon na l I
"
tcnl pcr;l t lire,
i
T il e oJll;" -circ llje test
Jr the no-load loss is hi gh compa red wilh the load loss, as [or earlhin g
tran:-; f0rllH.:rs, the equivale nt sho rt -circ uit test Illay r~s u lt ;n too hi f, h a CIII renl
I,!
f,1.
',I t,
, I
.11 'I ~
..... J ., '
j. , ,
I ,[.
I, '-
"
 " 'N·

, ~)
' ..
'~~,.: \

.:..!.... "... ..' {C

178 MQI)E RN POWER TRANS I'OR MER'PIlACrr CE

(0) .,
.j \
.\
.)'
SUPPLY SINGLE-PHASE SLPPIY 'I .
~I •
FOR NORMAL VOLTAGE\ ,;\
AUX . ( & FRI':QUENCY J
TRANSF. "

LV' "
L_ I·
i'
I'

. /j'Nv
'. " I n t.NSF.
I '0 I
HV 'I
(

HV
.'
I :1 ".1'5F.
~ 'o 2

LV
(b)
SI NGLE-PHASE SUPPLY
( NORMAL VOLTAGE )
to FREQUENCY

r I

LV
'--/NNv'vWNWWlV#v-- - " ,'

HV

HV

LV I
Fi gure 7. 12 Back-to -bad . or Surnpncr, les t 0 11 two single· ph:! ,,!.: [ 1;II1 ... rp l Iliers: (a) b:l !> ic.:
arrangemen t; (b) arrangement "ilh IWO ul1 cquall rall "rlll ltll.! /' \" 1 pings
,
densi ty in lhc wind ings. Inlhis casc it may be prcrcrablc 10 SIIP I" )' th t.: trall sflJ rlllCr
open drcuit at a vo lt age in excess of norma l, possihly lip to 15 ~ ~, so tll :l! the
0 11
resultant core loss wi ll be equa l 10 the SlIlll of the 11 0rl11; 11 nll - Io'hl ;, lId th :.: load
losses.

..... :-' ,,..., -

 (0)

THREE-PHASE SUPPLY

LV

HV

SINGLE-PHASE SUPPLY

( b) SINGLE-PHASE SUPPLY
I

L,,~ l ~i
I
I THREE-PHASE SUPPLY
I f---o-""""MlI/\r~ =>-(
x L
- Ul

-I «a:
1-
LV

HV
(:1) basic

15 ( rm cr
"'at the
I load f7i gutc 7. 13 Co nn ecti ons for del la delt a tcs !: (;1) ope ll -delt a auxili:lry I'lIpply on Ihe
hi gh-vo ltage side: (b ) o pen-delta au xiliary :wl' ply nil the low·' I) II .1 t',,· ~ id c

.I"
-' I!
, 'I I '
Ir. ,1~ •
I
J
I

.,.... T" •.. , ... , -- ., ..

, ,i
.....
.
~ -~

------ -~ I ~,., ,
"':j.\ 'r. r "-'
,"
,
I, • ~\ J
 0' "" "r''"
•~V t, '. :';:
.~ " :. I

180, MODERN l'UWE It IIt ANS H lltl\ l EIt l' ItAc,."II C E

Te1ilpera!ur e I/I L' a S!lI'(, l1I ch l S .

Du(ing the It.;rnpt..: ratufc rise test on an oil-immersed-type transformer, hourly
. readin Gs o r th l~ to p o il tempera tures arc take n by mea ns o ra th erm o meter pl ~ccJ
,. j
,

'.
-"',. .. olt:r gc \
bridges,
Ut. : fo rc
in a pocket in th l.! trans fohiler top cover. EITecti ve avcr3 gc oil tempera tu res are 1\ 35 to l>~
. dc:tcfm ined from I]1Ca SlIfCmcnlS taken a t the in let and ou t let o f the coo lers. These be a !tuwe l
r,~h rcgarlk d as the su rface. at the top and ba lto m of a coo ling tube where lh -; p·.Jun:
"ra'dialors arc muunt,c.d.,on the t~U1k. fo r scparn tc coolers 1ll l::1SUrClIlcnI S arc taken rC;IJi Il L~.
" hcrlllo/l1 clcr poCkets in thc"toolcr top a nd bOttOJll cO llllecting pipes adj,1ccllt to d clt.: 111I
(0 the ma in t!l nk. T he tempera ture o f the air is Illcasured by t,lking scve ra l n;s i s tall <': c ~
rc,;dings at po int s situated at a dista nce of I to 2 III fro l11, and ha lrv\W1Y lip the C0 Il Vl:f IC
cooling slIrf:1 c.: t', r: u'c bein g tllk e n to CIl .' i \1rc th a i the th ~ 11I 10 111 e l l: rS :ll'e sh idd t;d t C Jl1p ~ r ; 1

from Jirect rad i;lnl heat and draughts. Time lag c:.: rr o rs betwec il t C lllpc r~lture Ihell pl" ll
vaiiations inlhe tran sforlllcr and the surround in g air arc rcduced by placin g Ihe po l;\tio n
thermollleters in sJlccial ClipS wilh a time conslant sim ila r to Ihat of Ihe The"
transformer, T he lesl is co ntinued under full -load loss co nditions IIntilt ilc re is
sufficient evidellce tha t th e hila! oi l Icmpera ture ri se wo ul.d no t exceed the
specified limil. rids can be established by eXlrapolating the gmph o f oil' 74 ' 8 ,
temperature r i ~;c ;1 ~a il1 s t time; as show l! in figure 7. 14. Altcrnatively, the test lIlay
be con tin ued 1III Iil Ihe oi llcmperature rise has reached a steady va lue, which in
practice is reg,\ rrk d as a n increase of not more than I °e It - I ,

t'J
", 50
u
.".) r'

~
1- U
,~ 0
I- 0:
,,- Ii'"
1-1 III
40
- - I- -- - I- - --- -- -- -
:-J
'; j.
\
r~ --- -- -- - - - - - - -- - --
- -- - r '
- - -
;:--~

1- - 1,..- - --I- - " ,I

II
,I
.'
.ilQ - - - - Ie - - -- -- ,- ,-
.3.IU
I
~ ] ~~_
l-
Aa3 '/; ' 3_ - -
AD ;)-/ ,
-
20 / J .182
- --
\.?
Z
0 ~ 0"
z tl 0' ,

dO l / !Q...
--; J--- ~81 - - - j: d(
Ll '_
'" - I- - - . - dO

TEMP [ll,~
1
I I I;lE
!- I-dt i-dt -it 1--- - i - -

I-
)
INCnt:lvll , N, r !lO 0 2 3
- -'-- -
4 5 6 7 8
---"-
9
- ------
10 II 12
TIME (HO Ui>.S ) F iULI n

7,4, 12 II
i\ t I he ': 111..1 o r I! p; le$1 Ihe su pply is swi tched o lf. and t he a vC l'a g e tempe ra IUres of
ln suhl
th e willdin l'1\ a fC determ ined by measuring the hot rcsistrl ll l:G valtl es :\lld by
the origin al co ld valu cs; one hi gh-vo ltage ri lid v i lC Ju w-
cQ Jllparing rIl.l \ ,. illl tank b) I
I ,
, ,,
, '

1 " ' Ii
"I ', I'\ I" [
• .-~', 7""'~- '. ,. ~-r'- "'1"T"~~ < , ----...-r---··---.......- ... ~'-'- ," -"-"' _
!; , \:' ir,~ .'. ,.;..,' • '.~.;'.~~ ~ '.,} q,'.h,:··;~.f 'f." . .. !
 181
.(
1 HAr-.'SFORt\·IER PROCESSI NG AND TES'II NO

voltage windi ng arc measured simultancously by mcans o f two Kelvin double

I
r lPU rly bridges.
ilefore the mcasuremcnts call be madc, however. the shor t-circuit connec tion " ·.1
:
cr placed
.ln res are
II These
J \.o ~herc
has to be removed, and the de supply used fair the resistance measurement s must ·
be allowed to reac h a steady value, 1\ certa in time, probably 2 to 3 min, will
therefo re ebpse between switchinj) 01T the power supply and taking the first " :i
rf
arc ,It a ken
rc~tdil1 g, uurin g wh ich the rcsista11ccs of the windi ngs will be decreasing. In o rder
to octt,; l'Ininc the lcmpcmlurcs at the instant o f swi lt:iling off the po\ver the '
'JOcent
L ;evcral resistances arc Illcasured fi t interva ls over a pcrioti of 15 min and arc thcn :~. t
.1)' up the
COIl Vt..: r! CJ to tClll pcralun.:s; allowance is made for any change ill average oil :''
: ' ,;elded tempcra ture uuri ng this period. Graphs o f windi ng tClllpcrat urcs ag:l iust time are
1 ;ralurc
Ihen plott ed, fro lll which the values at shutd own may be obtained by ex tra-.' i
palation ;\ 5 shuwn in figure 7.IS.
l'
:::C~~'!,~:i~
, I
Tile JIleth ou or lh: l t,;f m ini ng the tt,; lnpcratuf'c rise is givell in sct.: lion 7.7. i

I '
" ,
(Cc d the ,
74,8 liH
l h f oil
:! :1t may
' , \ "1 A
" I-\:' __ .l... - 1- 1-1- ----- --- - 1- l"
', II• 4 I"" 1
__ '::, __ \ 73 'l '
\,
.. hich in
I I I
i1
'I
I
I
-,1-1--1

.1

--1-
- 1-

o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15
TIME (MINUTES)
12
Fi gure 7. 15

7.4, 12 Insulation rl'sist:\l1cC

craturcs or
,.na nd by Ins\! la t iOIl resistance is Illcasured bel wee n ;111, wilid ill gs a lid b~ l wce ll windi ngs a I1d
: mc lo w· lank by using a I11cgaohlllln..: tcr insulnti ul\ tt.;stc r; typical viducs at room
II
I
i i
\
i I~,

I '-,' -,:r....- . ~·"""-:---7t-;-"'·

.. ,
I 'I
,i I ,rl ,
 , ,~, .. ~ ~i '

''''i.\'
" I
, 1
,
182 , . MODERN POWE R TRANSrOI"~ ~,Il I'R,\I: I ICE , , ,::~,
, I
tcn :pcralurc arc not less than 1000 MO:. In additi on, the IIlslIlatlo n res istance or 't~".;'f rullowing II,.
Ihe magnelic circ llil to Ihe clamps ilnd tank is checked bdore final despatch, '~,>~
,
' II :, (a) Rali r
l' .', (b) InSl
,\ "
(e) Rcsb
7.5 TRANSFOItMER ACCESSORIES (d ) Oi l ,
, i, (e) All
: ,i . All a ncillary cqll i pll1~\;l ror usc wit h the tr<1n sforl11q; is lesled se pa ra lely before
opel
(I) II) stJ1
asse mbly to the main ,u nit. ",
(g) No "

, Capacitor bushiugs
r,
,.
7.5. 1
I:
•. 1 Power ractor and capacit ance Il1cns urclllc nls ilrc carried nu t at var iolls vo ll ;Igcs
I
" 1- ! . lip to l10rm all inc v<l lues on all cap;I(,:itor bll "hings using a high· v(l lt ;lgC SdH:rillg '1'10" f" lI "w
,! bridge. A I mi 11 SCpil ra Ie-so u n.:c voltage wi I hSla ltd les t is t hell il pplied. a fl cr whkh 750 MVA 5(
.. , 1 the power fa ctor rin d capa citan ce I1lCaS lIr'l:I11C llt s arc rcpc:l1 cu. Int ern al discharge luw-voll,,[;(
1 lests are a lso carried oUI berore and aflcr Ihe applied voliage lesl. The n O ll
1 '

t\ I ellS II fe/lle/.
7.5.2 1\1arshallillJ,: kiosks aud associat ed c<)UiPIJICIII
This test w
The ",dring ~ irclljts are checked, a nd associated equ ipment such as rdays,
cO nl 'lctors, winding IcmpcnllUrc illt!ica to/,s, etc. , arc t C~ l cd fo r ~:l li s f:K I O I Y
ope ration, aft er whil:h a vo ltage lest of 2 kV is :lpplied f\l r InJin bCI\\ eC Il all
lei min Hls <.l l1 d cnrlh.
- )

7.5.3 On-loa d tal) clmngcrs J'

"I IlC \ ~;t\ t.: f'
This cq uipmen t is Sli bjcc lcd to'separa te tesls, de la il s 0 f wh icll arc give n in chap ler } ~.

6, [n acld iIion, the gcar is cicc Irically opera leJ Iell IiIlles IllI'()lIgho ut Ihe cO lllplel e Hl' ,~ i,'ftllll' c! ,<
, , range dur ing the no- load les t in ord er to check it s sa tis ra t.: to ry o pera ti o n. The resista
:ll1d th e t.:u.
,' 7.5.4 Oil tesl each low·vu
f"lIows,
,: I Salllpies arc tt.:l)tc d fVI elect ric q rclI gth bc.:rt1 rc an y oil is :!('t.:C ph.:t! inlo sto rage, ami 1\ V<;!'a
, !
.. I
I aga in before it is in trodu ced int o th e transformer. T he It.:SI is ..:a rri cd olllllsing a
A \ cra g(
, 1 stand ard oil tes t ce ll with c!c.!ctroucs co nsisting o r spheres 13 mlll ' in diam eter
spaced 4 mill apar t. The sa mple is requi red to withstand it \'o!t:1ge o r 40 kV ror a .\f "".'ii ll/' cd
peri od of I mi ll.
, 1 Thl! test wr
\'n l t~' gc t ~ ' 1

7.6 CO .\ l M ISS IO N ING ANI) srn: 'It :STS

" After instalbti Cl ll, <:c rtain tC:-.t!'l arc r('qu in:d O il site bf.'rorc the tra n ~ rf,,' rm cr is put
into .'Ic rv icc. Fo r lranSrOI'nH.:rs which nrc tlc~ I KI!I'h c u as I.: nm ph:te un its. the

......, .. "
\-~):-- '~'=' ':'" ' ~ ,. - -:,- -' .- .
, l '. ' ! .'
~ "': \ ,- ,I' '. ,sf-
 ." ~

,, .
( 'I

"

T RANS! ORM ER PROCESSI NG A NU ' I I : ~ li NG . 183

..)
!Slst; nee of followi ng tes ts arc ca rr ied out. ~ 'f
~ ,

.1051 " Ieh.

(a) Il atio and phaso r re ferellce te~t:)
(1)) I nsul ali on resista nce, ~;
(e) R ~s iS la ncc o f wiild ings. " /),,
(d) O d sa mple teSIS. . ,
(e) All control, protecti ve and. coqling gca r IS t: hcl: kcd fo r S;:llis factory
opt.: ra tion. ~ I • .

,tely be fore Insulat io n resistance (5 f magnet, . . circuit.

(8 •
(g) No -load current check at redu cbJ" voltage.
., ",
" 'I
! .'
7.7 TI::STS ON A LARGE I'OW E~ T RANSFO t: ,' (U t
voltages ;\
ge Schering The following res ult s we re obtained from t'ests L<I I I in l out a ll a th ree-phase
. , \\'IHeh
, alter ' 750 MY A 50 Hz a u'l o-tra nsformer which was CO Tl lh.. \'l cd "ta r hi gh -volt age - sta r
Iis(':hargc luw -vo lt age and illcluded a delta-connected Ic r l i ~lI )' ".i I1' li ng. .
The no minal voltage ratio was 400 to 275 to 1.1 k V.
Ai e(/.'il/re l/ WIII vf IIo· loa(/ loss
T his test , V;IS ca rri ed o ut by supplyi ng the tertia ry win uing at 13 kV a nd 50 !-l z.
,
h "1 relays, (kW)
tisfa cto ry 11 x JIlcan (kV ) (k V (r ms)) (II),

"
t \\'cen all ------------------
t3 t3.t6 17 t 52
In
203

-I
en in, chap ter
The wave form err or was negligible.
,
Resistance of wi lUJifig S
r o mple te
n ion.
;
T he res istance was measured on all phases b c t \', \... CI I ~a\.: ll high-voltage tel' mina l i ,i II ','
a nd the co rres ponding !O\v. voltagc termi nal (SI.:I it.:s' winding) :IUU a lso between
each low-volt age terminal and the neu tra l (COllllllOI1 winding). The rcs tills werc as "i'
\ I
I .'\
'1::1;.
)
,
•
",
fu llo wL ! ,, 'I:1:,1, ~ ,
I s lo ra!;!.!, a nd Av..;rage rc ~ i s tall cc ort he three series win dinh a t 24.5 C = 0. 11 9 1'0
l' ·. . ul using :l Avcragc n.:sista ncc of the th ree common wi l llli ll ~S at 24,5"<": = OAOS !l
'I"
I r,~
:
't; .J.
diameter
1
, 40 k V for a
I ,
' I'
Ii
".
;" ~
,
At CllSIII"t,r/ load loss hiolH,;oltage to low-Lo /laye II it!illg.'i It
I ,.1
)
I
The test was carried oul supplying the high-\'o ll :lge term inals with the low- : "
II
voltage termin als short-circuited wi th the rollowi1,1t,; jes uits.

(kll) (II) (kW)

__
. .-
A pp(/rt' II , TC!IIIf wro, li re
P OII'('r /II ~ ~ or I' C )
,for ncr is put 48.5 1083 ~8 0 O.UU97 24.5
'" units. the
,.
., ,
'

•• 1 "
'J I '.!
J ; I,
-; ~ ....- - ¥-.; 'j-"---~. ,. . . . . . . . . -".,. . --
""h '. ','.
 184 r-.IOI)ERN POWER TRAN SI O lt to. l EH. PRA'CT ICE

The instruJllc nt Ir<l llSforll1c r er rors we re + 1. 8'. Therefore wlu!rc O2 ~s II

1. 8 x 0.029 1 - Wi llUill ~ ,II .'r
pcn;t,;ll lagc erro r = - - - -- = 5.4 % the q!SIS\ il
' 0 . 0 097 0
IClnpcr,a fu J'c
Tillis T"bl0'7,fl·
corrccte\!.toss
, = 0.946 x 880 = 832 kW at 24.5 ' C rull' loacl"
WJlldll ~ ,
<' ~j
fr o m the meas ured va lues of resistance, the load loss ~:l1l be ca lculiltcd ror the cx lrapo l,, '. I
,.~
7: ~ . J
rdl!rc llcc te mpe rat ure 'o f 75 °C as foll ows.
I ' I~ r" r sc ri cs windi ng = 1083' x 0. 11 9 1 x 3 = 420k W
rA"t.E
I'R ror co mmo n wi ndi ng = 492' x 0.408 x 3 = 297 k W
(Note the cu rrent in the co mm on windi ng = high. vo llage - Iow. vo lt ngc l.oad fo,u
cll rrc nt) No-lmll/ I(I ,L

TOla l l '/! = 7 17kIV Turelf rdr ed '1'

Measured loss a t 24.5 ' C := 834k W Tt '.~ r luss
H.lf('d flJf/'(
r. ',H '1I1'f" 'I t
Siray loss 24.5 ' C
,
01 1
235+75
= 11 7 kW
- --- -
I Ra1 75 ' C = . - - · x 717
235 + 24.5
= 857 kW --- -
235 + 24.5 Till' uil /0 111'''''
Siray loss a l 75 C = - - . x 11 7 ~ 97kW lOP oi l h 1.n l~!'I'
235 + 75 r
,
.l,cr ~\gl! ,lIf
, I

TOla l loss " I 75 ' c = 954 kW

lOp oiljlC Ill PCf
Tempera( l/re rise t l!SI AI (/(, t\, .,If I'
A temperature rise test was ca rriecl Oll t at the full rat ed V:lItIC lJO MVi\ (V I', \ I;
r;\~ I ~;'~:~ r inl
r:!d' i '. \ J I l ' j, n':
cooling) under the ~nlllc s h o rt ~circ ui t conditio n t\ j for th e ILq d 1(:51. The volln De .I
was illcreased, ho\\cvcr, in o rd er to supp ly the cqui v:ilcnt of the load loss at 75 °C uilr~ ,
pIllS tll c 1l 0- 10a d l oss, T he tc m pc ra t Il I'C IllCaSl l rCl11cnt s we re rcco l'd !.!d, as d c.:~ (; 1 i hc.: u 1I \'l' ~'a l.lc oi l !~
ill s ub -:,cc.:tio n 7.4, 10, T hc :lct ua l supply to the tra nsform er was as follows " ,c rag..: oil kl

Ik V) 1,1) Ik 111 1M I'll)

!
------ ---- I
windi ng 1elll l)(
Oi l l1 or ma1
no -Io:l d loss
cur re nt 48.5 1083 954
152 .- avera ge air tel

. d·mg tel
Wm i
i(
at rull -load loss 52.2 11 68 1106 106 avcr:t1:,c oi l (I. L

,1\ 1:1g.c Ir l 'f:

The f! 's ist:l l1cCS of the se ri es and comlllo n wind ings (pha se IJ) we rc 1lll':l slJ rcd at a ,\ il :d i nt;: II
kllOWII 1l: n1pCratun.: befo re the star t o f the tl.!s t, and Ihcy \','c.: II'; ICpt'al c.: d a t t min
<; t'l ics wi lldi n~
intc r\':ds o\'..:r it peri od o f 15 min ., rtl.! r the rIna l sllIIldo w n. Tl1 c:-.c va lul:s wc.: rc
l\:s isl :\ IIC" "
!•.'oll vc.:r tcd t o tClIlpL' ra turc by lIsing th e fo rm ula
COnlnlon \\ III
r ~'sb t ap(
a
Il,
0, = (2351· 0,) - 235 (7. 1 I) lup o il 1.:111 1)4.; 1
1<,

. . , ,
I ' , ~". '" , .... ' ~ 't"'-.- "
 " . 185
.,.1 TR ANSfO H.M t:. R rItOn:SS I Ny AND 'I ( S'II NG
,/ . .
.'.,' " here 0, is Ihe lempe ralure of the wind ing a rt er Ihe lesl. R, the resist",lCe o f Ihe
, '~ \v in uing " I te mperature O2 , 0, Ihe lemperalure o f Ihe winuing before the les t, R,
) he resistan ce o f the w;nc!ing a l temperature 0, and 235 th e reciproca l o f the
. ftCll1pcra llirc coc nicicnt for copper.
'I . Tab le 7,6 shows the data recorued a t tile elld of bo th the full -load loss anu th e
'I.fu ll-Ioad cli rre nt tes ts and also the calculatioll fo r th e tempcratllre rise o f the
"windings. The rcsistances:of the windings 'at the time of shutdown were
the ' "
ex trapol ated in the manllcf.&hOwn in figure 7.15.
" I ~ ~~ •
t' T"lIIjJt.:rallire rise (est data (750 M VA .. 0 FA F ('{wfillg : I/omwl flfl.lilio n: IIIn'e -
, J'DLE 7,6
IW ,d/llse /req ueuc)' is 50 liz)
271 kw
)w-~o ltage Load fuss .954kW
No-loud foss 152kW,

71 J I W Tow i l'Ctl t' d loss 1I 06kW

; 34 kW Test t(lS.~ It 06k W
'(
I083 A

~W
Haled crlfl'l!lI (
Tl'.~ ( C"l1f'rt'1I1 I 'I083A , i~

I. 1
A t lest /o(ld At Slllli do ll'n
.
, ~"f·.. ' ~'1..,'
"," ""',,..
(' G) ·.II' ''·~,'
Ie., k\.V
I '.'
TvI' (Ii i (~' lIlf)~'mlw' c? rise
k
> 1 IV 65, t 64
l OP oil 11: 1111''' 1:l lmc 24,6
2),7
1.1 \ 1: 1':11;1: _IiI' k lHp~' ra turc

lOP ~) i l \l..:Ulp,: ralli rc ri se 41.4 ,I"

.. Jf' (~
'\' .;:. .;
I
I' ,I(OFAF
I 'I
vo llage
AI'('/'ogc oil It "'paar ur(! rise
ril(\ ial Of in k ! tempe rature
rmli,Ilur' ( l ll~h: 1 II:1llJX I';\lure
6JJ
59, 5
62.3
5H,5 .
-,If:., .,r~
r.:
. 1 .' ,
l

l ,R 1,8
oss at 75 · C diJl \: i~, t1cc
I
Ilseri bed .I\'crage oi l 'll' lI1pC ra I Urc 65. 1- 3.8/2 .-:: r·l2 64 - 3. ~, 2 = 62. 1
r, ~ ws avcrag~ oil :t,' tllpcrilt ul'c ri se 63 .2 - 23.7 = 39 ,S 62 . 1 -~ 24.6 = 37.5 ,I
,•
._- j:, '--(-'C-- ) -- - -- - - - - -- S- .-.r-i.-.,,- lI'illdifl Ct}IIII;,-U-,I-\\'~l/(j;;!lI-
9
/' ----- !-- - - - - - - - - - - - ----
77.7
•
wind ing tt.:l ;'I'l' I':lIUrC 3\ shu tdow n 73.5
24,6 24,6
avcra Sc air ill.'1l1 Pcr:'llu rc

win ding lempera tu re risc above ambien t 48,9

avcrage oil ltclIlpcra turc ri se ,It shutdown 37,5
--I I
3\,c r;\gc tL:rnp'': I':ltu],1! Jiffcrcncc hc \wcc n t 1.4 15,6
;'H' urcd at a
It 1 I11 In
' win din g,." :llld oi l
( a
• seri es wiruli rlg t ~ lllpcrl\ turc ri sc by
"<.I lues were 11.4 + 39.5 -~ 50,9
rc :-.istancc at r:llcd loa d
com mon \\:im.1illg temperat ure risc by
15,6 r 39,5 ~ 55.1
re sisl;l11CC al ral ed loa d
41.1
(7, II) lOp oi l ICII lpcralllfc risc at rat ed loa d
- ---'--- - - - - - -- '.

,,",' ',~"~ . ., ~ ~. I:, .J

• 1\' \
, '
'I '.
... t,' ' • 1;1·" ,'H!"Tt"'" ,,,~I
.,~ -T '''"""""". \
'JI"~':"-'~_~l f't l~i,·t:1
.
~ ',

,. , ". , ·'l

,,
: '. " Ij
" J ,

,
,
, .I,,'
"A'i.'
.i
.-
, • ,1
"
• ..,' " ~M ''''''''~
'f 1 ,
~ ~;:... • • ·1

186 ~ '() n"'(N I'OWE R I I(ANSI"OI( ," En 1' 1( 1\( II ( I!

7.8 FUTUIlJ,; OEVELOPI\IENTS

.' ,
r I1crC:lSCS j 11 hu t II tll c powcr :1I11l t he- vo ltage 0 r t ra IlsrnissiOIJ '\y~ 1 1.: il lS 1'1 ;1\'I' rl~" lt IlI.'d
ill co rrcspo nd il1g increases iii (he rating o f electric pl;,t;tt, ilnd it i"i ~I ' IH'r; d!y
~l ccCptcu th a t this trend wil! co ntinlle in th e ruture. 1
For trans ro rm ers it i,,, possible that the tcndcncy will DC towards fill:~ ! e- ph:JSc
nn its bo th to case th~ l~robl c ll1 S o r1ran spo rt ::Ind also t< ', creOlllc tl".: I.· ··c("""ivc
t:!eit ranecs between (erminals which wou ld be Ilccess<'Iry ror three- ph ''':'' 1.~;l\'OIt
tran s ro rm ers. Even so, sOllle unit s may still present des p;t tch pruhlt: lll", '.I d Ihey J. DLIII :
may have to hc l)IIilt ;,,,(1 tc~:tl.:d at Ihe fa cto ry, to bcdismal1tled fil l' Ir,I!1 ' I'nt t ;1110
thl.: l1 to b.. : H.' llili /t 0 11 sitl.: ro llo \\.-'cll by proving tes ts. Thi s ha s a lrl,:;ldy h l:" 11 d\)t1c in
a number or
C~I SCS whcrc acccss or
the complete unit to th e si te 11 :1) ,1u ( bee n
possible.
The voltage levcls o fclectric tests wi ll ha ve to be mod ified \, hell d l ·;' !illg wit h
hi!;her vol!;, !;c lalillgs sim:e itl crc: l ~ ill g th e l es t Icvel pro 1'1/(11 \\'0111.1 H".1l1{ ill
CXt'c';sivc!y high vo lt ages. The induccd-\'o Jl ngc withstand tcst in it s prcS1; l1t fo rm
/llay ha\'c to be rcplaced by a lower l es t levcl but may ha\'c to be l1lain lni'l,·r\ for a 3.1 I N'
lon ge r p~r j od , dlll'ing whic h tin.lc in,terna l di sc harge (ki cctiull te'i IS ',· 'lI dd he
carried out and wOlll ll be th e d etermining fa clor in [he ac,'cc pl:tr h:i; Il r this Trans fvl'
part ic ular test.
irrcspc...: !
Tes t su pply rcquirelllents will be c,xpcc.;tcu to increase ill order to COI l\.' il l! the Alth t) u ~ 1I
large r ralin gs, but to what ex tent it is no t yet certain. It is o f inkt t:-, { ill IHl le,
however, 111<11 th e I:lrgc:st tran sforme rs in th e 19 505 we re o lll y aboll t It:1 '- PiA, -,
ha s bee n
and ~ 1I1!
Yet today a Sllpply of Litis ma gnitude is o fl ell required to pro\ jdc ti le It .... !
cCllt'(S,
rcquiremenlS fo r prese nt-day unit s, as ca ll be see n fro m th e tCIllP,: I ,' IIIIC l i:.e
l' x:llllple in secti o n 7.7. beel/! nc ~:
ta" ~' tl "
pt ,/v ide
ACliNO \,d .E D GE,\I ENT
taken to
The ,."
sound
Tlte authors arc i l1dcht~d to Ferrallti Limited ror pCl'l nis-;iu n ttl l l": ' : II I hc absorptll
inrorlll:1t it,)t1 ;ltHI d i:l ~' rilIllS containcd ill th e tes t.
in r...:rcp:,
l ou cl llc ~

H LFFIl ENCLS ' instrutl

rllc:a Slil CI
insirull
(Rl' rCrCIll"t' l1 ullll'crs prcl.'edcd by Ihl.! letter G 'lre li slc:d in 'LTlill ll / , 1 1., microp
I . lI i:. hl\p. M. j ,. :llld f cinhl' l'g. R., Gr ulld s:·it/lichl! \ 'l' l hl"'~" I I'li g ,ks .ne l \\'01 k.
II Odl :- 1';II'lIlU 11 !.,!.s-S I II'!' gc Il C ntl 0 1' 5 , \ 11 \\ l' II d lIll g des Po l)"1 ri L!ill ' ~) Il~ ! r · I : ' a It. scale. t"
gl' l'ii t. !: /,k'l()ft '('/t. ,1/IiJe/till"lIholl. X;"l (19 71) 62 UJl \1vC1 t
2. Nil linn:!! Fk'ct I leill Manuf;, I.' ! tlrCI S· 1\~ ~ (H,: ja IiO Il . N EArA (USA ) lUI , ,I " lli'lds I'or I,
(lj ,\lC(ls /II' , 'mnlf (lj Rt/div !lIflul'l/ a ' ·OIIIlSt' ( RIV ) (4 lIigh-' (1/((/.1:(' ' , ', 'OW" IS c.."lll be

•
.
I
I
'
• Sec ;lI so rcrcrcncc~ r. 1.4, G I.II , G2 .J, G2 (' ;11 II G2 14 .

f '4 l
I
,,

;. ~ ., ....
 ..,

r '.
.. .. ' /.1 t ,I' .
' ~ ] - :'
-.,. .......

I.

·es ulted
.,
genera lly
·1 Transformer Noi?e
i-),hase ~. ::
: I..,.;ccssivc
,
Ille' avolt 1. O un sbee* and M.· Mi lne(*
, they
lJ t and
:n d nc III
)1 been

lIi ll!? with

, ·su lt _in
. It fo rm
8.1 I NTRODUCTION
,"c~for a
wo~ l d be
TrallSrOrmCrs cmit a distinctive hum which is con tinu ous, o r co nstant level a nd
I .or this
irrespecti ve o r load an d whieh consists of discrete rrequcl1cy com poncnts.
:: WI)h the Allhough over the years the noise produced by tranS ror!J1crs o r given r<lted power
• ) notc. has been reduced, the problem ha s become seve re ow ing to the iUl: rcasi ng size
; MVA. and num ber of transforme rs and the tendency for these to be loca ted close r to load
: thf t st centres. The result has been thaI the likelihood of annoya nce to residents has
7
l'''rc fl se become potentially grea ter a nd that more a nd mo rc prccautions now need to be
ta ke n al the planning stage. Complai nts ca n to a large extent be fores talled
provided suitable es~imatcs afC made at this sta ge and provillcd measures arc
tak cn to limi t the noise. .
The respo nse o f the IHllnan ear to sou nd as a fun cti on o r rrcq ucllcY. lIlcthods of
sound level measurement a nd behaviour o r so und · in rauiation, rc nectio n.
Ibli h the absorp tion and diffraction have been well inl·csti gated, as ind icated by exa mples
in re ferenees 1,2 alid 3. 11 is of practical interes t to note that th ere is a di [ference in
loudness :I s~css m i:: llt bc twee n the human c<\r a nd it s simula tio n with an
instrument and that, thcrdorc, a distinction is mauc bet wee n subjecti ve
measuremc nts based o n human cvaluation a nd objectivc measurements with an
instrument. Such a n instrument, en llcd a so und level meter, consists or a
4.) mi crop ho ne, an electronic a mpl ifi er and all attenuation filter netw o rk. T he
....,g des netwo rk, known as weighting, has three se lli ngs: (I) the 40 dll wcigh ting o r II
sca le, (2) the 70 dB weighting or B sca le a nd (3) a C sca le which is sllbsta ntiall y

': I.1,' ~'i/'r:. ......

I "r halt - ,.
un wcig hl ed. it·.~
For more detail ed invcsti ga ti o n o r a noise :- pcct nllll most so und 1c"cl meters ,
J\h;tluu /s '1~·

r
can be extended by suitable analyscrs wit h either wide o r narrow b:lI1d. For ~~'~
! ){, rnfllS

.. r.crt ~lI\ti Liuli tcd .

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. ,;
,
~;~:
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t·
.'

11,1

,'I'1'''
' lit '1-; I'

1"1 ;~

-.-
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I 1/ ~

I . . 'r"
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t!'
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. ' :. I' "t,
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- ........ .~
,
.. , -,;...! _ ..
~-'

183 ' 1t1 DF lt N .I·O WE R I It ANSFO Rp., I E ll !'R ACI l e l :

,I ,
cxa mple. a n Ot: l il\'C b :IIH.1 unalyser dca ls with :1 wide freque ncy ba nd where the
- . . {,'
upper rrcquem.:y i~ I\vice the lower onc. A narrow ba nd may dea l with o nly 3 or
5 % o.r {Ill ocl:I\C u;"lnd . .
,, .. ~

"
j
8,2 :tR !\ N S FOR~ I E R VIIIRATION
,;
",
8.2-' . ~o urc c
•
"
;\.
.
The Il;a in SO ll l'l: t.: of 11:1I1 "fn rm cr';lOisc is the lll ilg ll l.' l iI.: l:ore ",hidl \'ibra l\:s in a
com plc~ m3 IlIlCr 0 \\ i II g 10 Ihe aClio n 0 f cross- n uxi ng illlli 11l :1gl1ctosl riCIion. It is
not certain what IJI"'l'o rti on o f the tota l noise is co nt i ibll ted by each o f these
fac to rs. Cross-nBxing, Iha t is nu x p:lssing betwecn adjace nt la ll1 iilati oll s, se ts up
l11:1 gnctic forces \\' l1 i"h C:llise the. lnlllill:l ti olls to vibrate ;'\l twice the supp ly
freq uency (t ha t is Iro I I, ror a 50 Hi sup ply), With 1ll0d"fIl core dcs ign cross-
nu xing is probably uf fE' la live ly m\nor imporl a nce except pcrh:1 ps at the co rn ers
and a t the jo ints \\ liN C £nps int er.ve ne in th e magnetic pa th or whc.: revc r an
npprecia blc d jffl.! fellcc ill penncabilii y ex ists betwee n points on adjnce nt 1:1 111-
illa tio ns.
Magnetostr ict ion i<; I he. rchl live clw ngc 0 f eli IIlcnsio n, d ti e. to 1lI:1t: l1 clisa t io n. uf
a mag net ie 11 1:1 tel i:d III :1 Ill ng nel ic fie ld . Til is cha nge c;\ n be POS!t i \'c or Ilegal ive. or
it Illay be o f one PI1 1;·. 1ity at a low nu x density and may th cn reverse HS the nHX
de nsity increases is,'" n ~ ure 8, 1), Thi s cha nge not o nl y causcs IOll gitud ina l </
vib ra tio ns in the plnll . .! o f th e la min ati ons o f th e corc legs or yo kes bu t also res ul ts
,I;
in out-o f-pla ne d is pl l1" Il h' ll ts o f the CO re lim bs. Ma gnet ostriction is sC I1 ~ iti vc to ,"
mcchanica l stress. Tlli e; j" illustra tcd 4 in fi gure 8.2 wh ich shows the e ffcct o f
co mpressive a nd tCll si/!; :: t r'cs'\cs 0 11 pos itivcly ma gnclostrid i\'c Pla l r rl :11. II is 1I 0 t
sunkient, there rore. ~(ll d y to :l im at ob tain ing co re lI1a teria l o f low in here nt
magncl os tri ction bllt III ( oll sidcr a lso the se llsiti vity (I f the llw teria l 10 s l l' ~ S S
which it will be s ubjo 'c !l~ d to i n a completed tra nsformer co re. Erro lt s ~Irc.
Ihere fore, d irec lcd to \11 r. 1i [I i 11[; nat core steel 3S t he ciamping 0 f wa vy I;:llllina t ions
in the co re will res ll it in inc leased sll·esses. T hus nol oll ly dnl:s the qn alit y and
l1a t n ~ss o f the Ct1 I1.: l , lt ;11t.: 1 ia l as received fl'ol11 Ih e steel make r bt.: l..·oHl e of
importance bu t also tIle
mcth od o f an nea ling lIsed by the tra ll s ro r~~c r manufac-
ture rs Ill llst a lso be c O /l ~ i dcrcd .
As th e re lat ionship: between mn gnctostri c: tivc stra in :l nd nux density is nol
lin ea r. the lll:1 g ncl os t l"lk tiye d isplacel11ent Cll" cd by sinusoida l fl ux wi ll co nta in
ha rm onics o f the ft' ll I "lIl' nl :1I freq ll(' /H.·Y. ;l nd th is :Ig:l in is twice the ~, u p p l y
frcqu t.: ncy. Altho ugl li t' a\ ", a ... 1.! fl ux density in a co re limb m ~! y be sinll s. . lid;r l, tile
loca l nu x densit y al ·In y p:lllicuiar p~ l rl o r the co re co ntaills a la rge 1I11111 bcr o f
.! t..: II... ity \
h :lf Ill O ll i cs ~. T h...:sc. i ll :11I I" n. wi ll rcs ult in [t n in creased ha rn n""l ilic co n k ' ll l or Ihe
ap p ar '~
t.!o rc vibrati o ns.
In vcst igatio ns6 h;l\ c . . l lIw. n tha t the h;l ~ ic Illa gncto ,\ t rk ti o ll ft)f a t; i \·L·1l flux
hn ks :1

. ,_... -.......... ~;:-:I .......,. --., ,....-........ - .-..r;-'

" '... I' ! ,,,'
l, • • .' ·u.."'t/(/;:.; 1.'1
~
."l',""· .
 TRA NSFOI{ME R NO ISI3 189
"
'/
hera Ihe
...
StraIn

,
,(

,"': ,'JII
"

+ " . II
,II ,!
I I.
J

:s in a
: !
I , .. ,
n, fl is
+ (
I' ,
of 1lhese t .\
, ',
s liS
lip
( ; 'pply
I ,
I~
'
.I
~;~ ~~
I'
gn 'ross- t'
(' raI rners
~c r an
("'\',dl 1 lam- +

io n, o f
'. . . live, or
IS ' he nux
Figure 8. 1 Osci ll ogra ms o f ma gnc tostrictivc strain ngaili sl flu ,; dt: n:-ilY \'
iudinal i,
resu lts ~M o i n
~ l1 si tivc
to .6 --- - -
20 '10
- eCt o f
I is not •1--.- 1-: . . . --
" \
~." :, .
, II hcrcnt
t stress
IS are,
... Ipa li u lls
11

- ~,, 1\
uality ilnd
\~
...... ~ i:
) ome of
mnufac- " -- ....., Iii
I'
' --0_ ~

o I ' 0
)' is not ComprlZ~sion MN/rnl T~nsjo n
I con tain
the! supply Fig ure 8.2 Erke l o f stress t'll Il1a gllclOslri C: lion"
.'~" ,d:1l, the
,In ber 0 f
de nsity va ri es from poi nt to point lilrollGil o lit the lIlalcl'ial. follow in g an
ht.;d t o f the
apparently rand o m p:lllI,;rl1. Tile picture cnll be furth er cO l1lpl k.llcd by gaps, bolt
I
i\"c II nux
hDiL:S an d eha ngcs ill PCfIllC,d>ili ' y, ca usi IIg IUGd ella ngcs ill nux ' kll :> ily alld hence

... _._-.... '-'~"' - '~-fP7"' "~r'" P~"",:"""-:""I" -.~, '1i ..,-.-- --: ~.. f~:;-;:~r
•••', ,'f ..
1 '1." ' \
 r, .jl :'j (II (" 'I
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'll ,
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.:.;:. ~' I· ,
1\
f, ""
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190 fo,l()l)l.ItN I'OW I' It I !t ANS I n ltM rlt 1' llAC II CI!

.,ddilio na l d;fferences ill IlHlgn c t o~ tl it.:li\'c displih,x!mc.:lIl s. Thus, wilen a co re leg is

,
,~" j,
1'1
I excited it carries o ut a most complex Ino ti Ol1 , involving 'writ hin g' dishing a nd
tran sverse nexural movemen ts apart fr o lll the (ex pecteel) lo ngitudina l d isplace_
3.3 T

.1'
, I men Is 1, Do l h longi! ud il1al and t rillls\'crsc vibra lions con t ri bu Ie Iowa rus the noise Tho; ,
. III ,
i.' " , ge nera ted by the transformer·. As the legs and yo kes arc COli pled at the corne,",
frurn P
I movemen t o f one will affec t the beha vi '" of the ot her.
II (ca d i·"
I\.s the co re is a struct ure co nsistin g o f distri but ed 1ll3 SS and stiffness, it has nil
.., ),,I,1, ill n11 i Ie Ill! rnbc r o f natura I frcq lIc llcic s, o ne 0 r wll ic.: h 111:\y elli Ilc id c wit h OIl C0 r I he
:Hitlt J
'1 InO!";
har mo ni...:s o f tire' l;l:1gnctostricti vc o r 1l1 : l gIlC I ~ fon,'cs, resu ltin g in £,rea lly
i' ! ( I
j ' l: r , ;\y llf
magnified core vibrat io n. Attcmpts 8 .!) ha ve been Illiltle to t:a lcu latc these natural
:!;;I
. I .,
I frequencies for bo th in-pla ne and o ul -o f-plalle dircl:ti0tlS fo r different types of
CtHC~ , 1l"\':I IlSC o f th e considerable lIlall!i,.' ul:lt k,, 1 dflll i ill\'o lv,-=<I , com put ers arc
i. 'I ' Il 11' 1' i' L
I, I requ ired fur sllI.:h L'alc ulations. ncwtl
t,
I.,
:II:
t " I 8.2.2 Tr:1l1s mic.;siOIl
to be
I IlI.:SS U I

Co re vilH:ll ions c~n be tran smitted 10 the ta nk Ih rough the co rc slIp port s or uu t , i r ,
th roug h the o il. The tra nsmission throug h the slIpports ca n be substantially upt h
redu ced by rc<; ting thc co rc 0 11 springs or ot her anti-vibra tio n mountings. 1n any Plu lL
case, if possible, the core should no t be ri gid ly tied to any part o f the tank a t any ~izcs slJ
poin t. Since oi l is relatively inco mprcss ible, the proporti on o f vibrational power :'I t r;\iL
i
, I, trtl nsl11itted Ihrough it is app reciable and is probahlY far 1110re than that
tr;ltlsmitted th roug h thc supports. If it is ~lssumcd Iha t ha lf the energy is
111 1.: II t

tr:IJlsmilt cd thr o ugh the supports th en, ~n; n if highl y emc icn,t :lllt i-v ibration
moun ts w<: rc IItted, the transmitted energy wo uld (11 1)' be ha lved, res ult ing in a

.,.
;)01
dec rease in the noise level o f on ly abou t J dB. Thi schungc illn oisc levc l is nnl y j us t
disce rnible by the hUllla n ca r. Fo r : 111)' ~ i /ab l c rcdll c.: ti nn it is e",sc lllial Ih:lt the
vi bra tio nal energy trull smillcd alo ng all pat hs is atll'lIu:l\cll.
'),.
"
! 8.2.3 T' III"
Thc ta nk mollifies the vibrational pattern ill thc oil (111(.1, thi,. n.: forc, prubab l)' <l lso
,. f th a t o fth c'corc ilsclf an d ndopts its oWlll11odes o fvibra tio ll wit lltl1c pa rt icula r
, .i I
fo rci ng frequcncies which arc imposed a ll it. In somc c.:,, ~cs ind ividual p'I[H.: ls lIl:ly
,;, j "
1
I ~'I
,I
I:, ( resonat e, a nd th is wi ll result in increased vibra tionn l ampl it udcs. A. . it tank
I posscsses· IXl ,lC ls o f differe nt size and as Ihe!'c arc !leith, r fl L'c ly S llJ lpO I ted nor
I:, rigidly f1 x~ d , the calculation o f natural frequ encies is \ cry Ji fficu lt a nd is made
r
,- r
I
eve n morc· so by the vario us attachments 10 the ta nk such as c.able boxes, tap·
chan ge gC:H pocke ts, etc. There arc variolls W:l )'S in which tanks c all be tes tcd for
I rcsona fl ec I 0, If slich rcsena necs a r~ t n '\l'lH'c rL'd, I hey may he I'('tllcdi e.: d by :tikring
I
the Ill:1ss -tn-stiffncss ratio of IIl l: I' Ilid in q ll!''' tiIHl .
Tile amoll llt o f [l oi!'c radi itkd dcpt.!mls 0 11 the vibratit'/liil pa tter n o f the tank
ilnd 1:1nk P :\ lll!l~ , Ihat is On the \ibriltiolla l amp litu des and lIlodesan d o n whether
p:1 11cls \,ihra tc ill or out o r pha!'c. lut r rfe rence tnl:cs place betwee n the va rioll s
!"IolJlld wa vcs radi:ltin g fr um diffl:rL' nt par ts or th e.: 1,\I1k, :ll1d this rcs ult~ in fairly
ahrupt L'!l :IIl J"iCS in noisc !c\'d :Houn d tile I:ltlk .

.. .
 ~ .,

TI(ANSF~R/l. 1 ER , ~OISE 19 1
, .'
cOfe leg is ./•
1
'i "ipg and 8.3 TI!AN S FOllMEH NO ISE .,
" lisplace- . :" I
~ . ,~
Is Ih' noise The so ulld Icvcl mcasurcd close to a tnu,l sfq'rm cr a l1d m Olll1 d it s peri phery varies
lC c rnel'S,
fro lll poin t to poi nt. For that reason it ~ ,ysua l to tnke :t Il lltll l>c r o f no ise level '
readings (sec sccLio n S.5) and to ave raS9! thelll arilh illetica lly to ublai n Ih"
5, ,, las an arilhmelie mea n fo, the so und levcls. lt is pllen suggesled Ihat a quadrati'c mea n is
one o f lile a morc lIsdu l rcprc.sc nla t ion o f il group 0 ..•Iund levels. The quad fa t ic ntea n level
" rea lly La~ o f th e gru up o f sO llnd I ~fcfs L., . : .., L.~ is
S '1 tura l [11,1 •
I Iypes o f L" = L,o, - lp-/og,o(lI) (S. I )
) crs arc Il represel1 ts the re vel ortlle average va lu~ of p!, where I' , i~ the f'o lll1d pressure in
I, newtons per square metre at any point a nd is lIsdul ,\ IKIl ' lu nd power levc!s are
to be calculaled fro lll the so und pressure icvels, si nce 11 \1' I"""cr is proportional to
pressure squared. The quadratic mea n is always grci.ltlT 11 .:1 11 the a rithIl~e ti c mea n
'I tor
ilalltI .lal Iy
but, i r t he ran ge 0 r sou nd pressures is less than 10 d 13, Ih. II I II..; d i rrcrc ilce bet ween
bO lh Illean kvcls will usually be less Iha n I dB.
Plottin g the sound levels or transrormcrs against til!.!, h1C;,ril hlll o rtlleir ra ted
s -'tallY
Ii , a ny sizes shows tha t the p('lints will be scattered about a s\l ,d,l', hllinc or a ser ies of
tI p wcr straight lines. Figure 8.3 gives average noise levels obl:lillr.:d by using mea s ure~
I? " Ithat Illcnl lIlet hods descri bed in 13rilish specifica tions (sec tab'le 8. 1, Ihi rd colul11l1). The
., gy is
ib ,a tion
in~ in :l
I.
II ~ jl1 5t

~ ,
c.\.\\~
1. _ll' lhe 90

60 •• ~~
---_.
'- \" \

1!:1"",<;.t-·'i.
I"

-
# -
.,,1'

.
i"'~'''''

,Iy,,Iso 1";;:;-;-' ' "

~~"I.-
1tJ.""SlI)\ I
,\ tilar
,nay
~ !l!--
•.<.\1 \""
oj
70
, la nk ~ W"'"'"
=. nor ~. "
S, tll p.
ade
'" -:::;:::;"" ~
'f,"~~
",tt.~
--
r tf for
t ing ,
: lank
( l~r , So 100 200 I >0,
1--- -
1000
10
, J\" TUN SrOI\HC " • s ""'TfHG HVA
fair y
Figure 8.3 Noise level s o rt rallsrl llllll' I S

~ ~ """" 1----
, '
'""T"'-- .~. ..• q.""'~"'-'-, ''l' - ! " ' .. , -

r· .:;'~
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--.... " ..
l' .. -
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f' f.{ : ,."}.\ "
., /:;/,
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,I ;~.

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-.. ~, t' ,o.:'f't ,1.""..... ~.,.
1 "

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...- '-, .

192 M O lll~ ltN rOWb l{ IIt A N SI ORM HR rlt ,\ c I t<.. E

noise level incrc;lscs with size or mass o f tile core and with illcn.:asing nu x de nsity. were tll!.! n ave r
Small red uctions Illay be made by lowe rin g the nux densit y. but the resultant against dislrlm...
ill(:rcasc in th e core mass pa ni,dl y o rf~c t s th e impro vement o bt a ined. F o r a fi xed vary 1l1arkeulr
sho ws a typic:
c{' r'l.: IllaS$ tile r~ bli o n s hip between the t.: hall £c in noise k vcl il nd !lux density is
" pproximately 25 dB (A) T - ' . "
For more c.h.:la ilcd wo rk the no ise spectrum Illust be kn own. fi gure 8.4 shows
typica l spectra cove rin g Lliffercnt types ilnd siz!.!s o f trans formCl's: app roxima te
mea n levels mcCl sllr!.!d ....O.3 111 fl'oll1 th e transfo rmer tank are givc n.
•
10 0

,.
<0, kY 600 " VA
ero lor 1 'o n~ 'Of '" r

, 0 / f"-", f-- ' .

V
0
III ~ 90 MYA
Iran mj" lo n ~ - - I-

K
."
""-
Iron '/or

"'"
0 -

1/
J} ~v
l O H'I' A
Sy'l e m
\ ' on,lor
k\
r\ ~\ '\
I' igurc 8,5 Ili

0 distinct rcgJO

~
\
If (2) an in term

I
If I '\ 1\ va riousJ1ar
" f \. th cse fa cs , ...

I
\'" lev el 111# 'i C\ c

~
the f" rfiie ll!
·' 0 /-- -.- ---- '' \ - , at
stabi),"c
o f d il[cre,,! t

~\
ca ll be seC
lO - - -- -- tra nsfOI'Ill(
When th e

/0
1\'\ \I",:,lIy do n
cau sing 1'e
c" uscu by .. ,
a t somc di s!
10
l OOO 4000 8000 co ndi tion
" 115
'" 5" 1000
wa ves Clll
Oc love bond centr e fre quen cie s Hz
layer.
Figure 8.4 T ran .. fnr mcr noi!>c ~ pc~ t r a

8.4 FAN
T h ~ drcC l l.)r di ~ l : lI a:: c on a tra nSfOll1 l1.:r lia ise lwr mo ni c :Hld tile no ise 1c.:\ 1'1is o f
imp or tan ce, It has bc~ n inves ti ga ted by lak ing measurement s a rOlln d tra ns fo r-
IIH: r s at Ji rrl!rl.: lIl d ista nces, The harm o nic readi ngs o bt ai ll ~d a t a give n d i.., I:\J1 ce
The l1 oi~

"II \
, _.~ •• ". _ _ _ _ _ _ , .. __ - -. """lI"'"R_~7 _ _ _ ---
• -or- ~ .. ,. ..... "~

" )-
 .I
j .., TRAN SFORM I! R NO ISE 193
-
IIUX , density .
./
IYere 'thell averaged, ,,"ti
the differences bet wee n these average levels were plotted
'he rcs ulton! ng:"!ifl st distn nee. II W:15 fo und I I t hal Ihe ell ryes plo t led for d ifferent trans formers
or a fix ed vary II wrkcdly ~\'i.': 11 whe n the Ira nsform...:rs a rc sited in open areas. r igurc 8.5
sho\VS a l ypkH I curve a; extreme fo rms ~rc\ represe nt ed by cur ves ba nd c. Thr'cc
". dens ity is
.'1 .. .
r
I shows
S ~4
I!
. ,. (.0
.
t •• lroximu tc "E
"
. 6'"
I'
"
•
~
"

•
~

•.•~ " lO I ---+--'+---+-~"\,----

"
,,1" '0
,., 10
" '00
""?: l res
- Distance from source

Figure 8.5 DiSl am:c atlL'nuat ion: cu rve a, typical curve; curves band c, ext reme rorms

di s tind reg io n,s Gill bl! see ll : (1) th e nca r ri cld when; litllc all clllla li o ll occ urs,
(2) a n intcrlllcu ia lc reg ion a nd (3) the far fi eld , In the interm(,diate region the
various hnrl1lonics o r anyone transformer may attenuate at dirrerent rates, a nd
these rates may be l'o lllpictely differen t in o ther tran sformers, In so me cascs the
level may eve n r\'5c slightl y as the distance frol1l the Ir:lt1SrOrIllCr is illl.:lcascd, In
the rar field thc 1d i ffl.: I CilI curves telld to converge, a nd therea ft er the r~ll c tends to
stabilise a t 5 to '6 dlll",r doublin g o f dista nce. If the A-scale sO l/lid level readings
l
o r d ifferent tr;u ,:,fo l ll1l:rs arc plo tted, the curves lie ve ry l11uch close r together as
ca n be seen rrl~; ll figu re 8,6, which shows the dist,Hlce attcnua ti on o f seve ral
transformers o r diff,:rcnl manufacture ra nging from 71 to 100 ~1YA.
\Vhen the Il;)isc o f tra nsformers i s measll red on site, free~ llc l d t:oJld itions
usually lI o 11 0 1 :I,'~ is t as s\vitch houses, blast walls a nd othcr o b'd;u.:ks interven e, I

ca using rl.: nc..: titl ll , standing waves or press ure build-up, Diffra ctioll:l i crfccts arc i: ,
caused by lI'a ll '~ illi d this agai n leads to difficulties ill the estimation o f no ise levels I

at some dist:lI1 tc fr om the lrans rorm er. Further co mplicat ions ari se witli"willd
cOIH.l itiollS. If \\\1": air tempera ture changes with height from the groll nd , so und
waves clIl:lllatillg fr0 11l the tran sfo rmers wi ll be C Uf VC U aW:lY flum the wa n ne r
laye r. i
I
8.4 fAN NO IS E I,
, cvel is o f I
d t ~an s fo r­
t'" istancc The noi(;c nl:1d ~ by the fan s fi tted to th e cooler cO lll ribll! (,!S lu the lo ta lllU is(.', but "

,:.
, ' I'
.

r Ii It i
• • '10
,....-' , " ,) ~,.'.:: .. "
e<'

:,.":, , . ',;,,,
,.
.~.'
., ~, ,!

, _.
·t ' ~ <
'R ' _ ___. ..
/ _ ......

194 "" l onERN I'OWe R TRAN S H) I{ ~ Irn PRA CTI CE ,I

dB
..I'
o ~~----r------'--------,r---~-.---,
.,.
!

" j
' I -----~

IOI- _ -,-;--;- I_____ I',,"~

.;.' '

" --
2 - 1 ~_~'"oc; l1Jr.r Ii. ' ·5
MVA "1------I·----~:s,;J
.3. I~I"IJ I ~~CO MV~
1 ~toc t\lr cr B ~o MVA
1. I,lonu f<X! ljf .f 8 25 MVA
5 M.1"UfcK1m- - 2 5.M.'tA Figllre 1<. I
2S - !." MQ;'u fOC l ljf. f C sO MVA
ra n ~ . S()O I'
pro \·ili c 11;1 t

,_ _ __ .;,,0l_ _ _] , 0- -.- .....,,:..,---

0·] 10 · 0
- d---.
]0 ' 0
D, !.lonc e: m ar illillld i
is lak en ;1$
Fi gure 8.6 Distance att enua tio n, A !Ocalc a ve ra ~l! " lIf
~~' e'i \ ~U I
its freq uency spec tr ulll is cO llt in uo us, with perhaps some iso la ted pure ! nll l'~' ill it. surfa jcs ;.. , 1
It there fo re differs from th at o f transfo rmers. In m:lIly cases fan l1 oi, "· 11 he the Iklll SrO
ncglcctcJ, fo r inst;lncc when the fa ns arc o lil y in operati ull Juring ti ll' ' 1. 1):· " ';, bd' ?,le ,II
but in o th ers it ma y be necessary 10 de termine thespcctrull1 o flh c fans, t il,' " "' Y ..,il r., ,\ 'S \ It 1\
in fac t mask the no ise produccd by the trans fo rmer. Typica i lloise 51'I.: <.: tl'l f \'! ( \'. 0 l.>Lrl rdt.:r cll
types o f coole rs arc shown in fi g ure 8.7 12 • ;, wor k to "Y
, finall. I
il co mparisu
1
cation is n
3.5 MEA 5U1lf~ME NT SPECIFICATIONS nCU I by I :

I
Spccifi cn tions exist in nwny co untries,, and all stipulate the usc o f , a. S01111dI In c!
meter which ope rates 0 11 the A sca le. For meas urement, the micropho l1 e j" h"ld , at 8.6 HE I
a specified height and dista nce fr III the trans former co nto ur. rcadill t: .. ' .·ing
t"ken around the periphery o f the trans fo rm er wi th the lIl icruphotlc 1111' ,:, '":\
usually 1101 more than I In :1P;.lft , subject to [\ min imum Il um ber o f rt.'il d ill };';. I he 11.6.1 r. '.,
co ntour is oblaincd by pl'lcing all ilnaginary str in g arounu the plan projcll i(ltll\ f
the transformer includin g a ll pOdc l S, b ~) ,'( e s, stiffeners alill att:r chm cllt s (irwhr d * The ro ll t)\'
i ll g t:tnk"~l tt ; l\: h c u radiat o rs) bdow tank ('o \'er height. hUI excludin g \, Ih l.'s,
tnlnsport lu gs, projecti ons above 1:lllk ,'o\'e r hdght and sepa ra te rnJ ia tor h:Ill ks, ( I) "
The individutl l A -sc~ll e readill gs arc Itsna lly :lc1dcu ar il il rnctira ll y. an d [he.:

" ~ ."' -f" "~ ' '''"'::''7 ~

?',;;;.:,[: :~,:,;~.
.
- r---:-t" ":'1
"
~

• ,,f I '.
 00
b

70
V --- ~
V 0
" ~
<
r--
~~
-/ 5
d)

-I M
-'
:;0 - ." "

' 0
60 '00 500 1000 .
Frqquq ncy Hz
I)
Figure 8.7 Noise sp ec t r ulll of cooler!', measured OIl 2111 dis t:nll.:c: CIII v(' il. four pro peller 1/
I fan s. 560 rev min - I, 0.90 III in cliameter, mount ed unth:r radi ato r ba nk. as ll lied al so to
pro vide nat ural·:lir coolin g: cur ve b. o nc axial -no w fan . 715 re v min - I , 0.95 III in d iameter.
I'
II,
nllcd to oil coo ler, <I S lI sed 10 provide only ro rcccJ -;lir coo lin g I~
". ar ithmetic Illean \!al,uc plu scorrcclio ns fo r cablc, microphone or instru llIent error
,II
I
is wk c.: n ;IS the noise leve l o f the transfo rlll er (in the UK this is kn own as the
;w ..:ragc surface no ise level),
Meas ure ments sho uld be carried out in an en viro llment frec rro m rcnccting
1 S in it. s ur faces and wilh" background level preferably Illore Ihon 7 dB below Ihe kvel o f
(,,:an be the transformcr. To vcrify this. the back ground is measured bo th imillt..' dialcly
; t.lay timc, bero re and aft l:.r the tran sformcr has been energised fo r it s ll oi l.,c I ~S t. Table 8. 1
rhd c may shows th ~ \a ria ti on between nati ona l spccinca ti (lI ls. Il cove rs the lIlai n featul ~s.
for Iwo but refere nce should be l1lade to the original doc liments befo re all ~ lllpljllg to
I
work to a ny o r these spccincati ons.
I Finally, il llluSI be siressed that the object o f a spcci lkation is 10 permi l
cOll1pariso n bel wee n di frcl'cn I transformcrs. 11 owcvcr. co mpliancc wi t h a specifi-
cati on is no t a guara nt ee tha t a trall srorm er will no t ca use an y alliloyance to
nearby res ide nts.

nd level
, is held al
8.6 HE ~ I J-: J)IAL ~ H: ASUltES
"".s' ul.! ing
)c:ltiolls
-lI l lgS. The 8.6.1 (\ l n nllrnC (UfCr
,jCC('o no f'
I (i c1ud -
The followin g measu rcs ca n be ta ken by the manufacturer,
I ~ alves,
lo r ~lnk s, (I) C ross- flu xillg by su ita ble co rc difllt' ll siolling and clt;sign should bc
"ld I he H.:duccd,

, .",
, .

,
...
~ .. "
,,'
:~'·i[t~:O.=~:'~~~-~
. J~ -- ........ __ .. - .. -=--=.--_.- -~ - ~-==.::--
~ff1r?I ~~~~i\0~~ . .::- --. .-.-:- ~ -- : ":,
~.
I' -;
i'~ .
~'::'"1
~;;,-~ ..

~i~i!~)~-~~~. ]
"*'<;;1 ... - ,.
-"·.---h~: ';
~~7't. "v.... . . '!".-~
.
""
a- .!,'? ....... , ... --

r ~:.;~~ifi!~.~iA
.~"'~~-~~'"";;:J
TABLE 8.1 Noise level measureme;a spt!ciji<:ulions (l972) ", .... ti:
~i~~~~:~~~~
~~~~~~ '''':''~' ''' :'~
_r-.. 't.-_:
. '._; f .: z::~ ~~ __. .
~__ _
,;0-.,.,;"_;', _, ~ •.". -••' 1]:
UK l:;,,-'''>-'''' ~ ' . "- ~
Coumr}' International USA
p.~~~~::. >~~~? .
I .;r'-7-:::: i ..:- - .-
N~lion~ Electrical :-'b.nufac-
I $Suing authori! }' Internatio nal Elcclrotechnical British Electricity Boards
"~
~~;'!1~ij
Commission (lEG (BEB) turcrs' AMoci.alion (NEMA)
o
.1
Spe(ific~':!.o~ ~':..n'!''''r _n~H yet p~b~is~~ _•..::. __ T.2 ( 966) -. TR I 119681
Z
Sound teed nlt'reT scule A A A (5
M icrophone height tan" < 2.5 m. on..;·n<li: t:mk
nelgiu 1.2 m or one·nalf tank height, tank < 2.4 m. one-haif tank height
<; t~ ~ .~t~,;-.!=-.t-,,:.;o:.1
~ ~-.: ~ ;-:; ~>'-.i- .;.~
,- j tank ~ 2.5 m. ont::·third and tWO-
thirds tank height
wh ichC'o'cr is the lesse. t:mk ;;"!: 24 m. one-third and two-
thirds tank height
... ~ ,:;:>+.f ~ .-. '.
">Z
i cooler < 4 m. one-half cooler height
cooler ~ 4 m. one-third and two-thirds ~ ~/~.c~~;_>, ,~
::l cooler height o ~,"J.'e-~~.'r-~ -:1

-' MtasuFI!ment position

j\1inimum number 6 for transformer only;
10 when cooler irl\'oh'ed
6 4
"'""
m
t:~~l~- ~
'~)1
jO!. : A reragmg mellwJ
Maximum imernal 1m
range < IOdB. arithmetic;
1m
arithmetic
O.9m
•
arithmetic
~

">
:,,:·-.-t·~:~'i:~·j;.,_' >~
....- ~~JY~
i .:>-

'-~oj range;;"!: IOdB. quadratic ";;

~

"~~, Cooling equipment nvise routine only if ~ool crs < 10 m m

when requested routllie (if coolers •• ,
T •
•.
_
'
•
r
•
.... - .
\ measurements from transformer tank moumed) t'''':d~:"·~~·~~~~'·-.1
! £ '1 uit:aff!nl SOU/ld lend of not required not required not req~ired f~:~~~';~:f4~~~ f~
reference h,'nu:.pilt'rl! ·- ~r.,-"""~,,
Co: ;;-~~ f,.? ;:. _4;,;.~.-~~ -
Effecllr:e meusu reme nt surface ,area must be staled not required not required t:- ~~-.;..
·-"-:-:~~···-·..u.: t
.....;;.,... .j?:-.~.;
1
HarmOniC analysis not requtn:d not required not required • '::;i--'~$-..; ~ ~_~
,. ~·_i"·-+'c.-:. .....~--;: -J
Maximum permissible none SLa.ted depend on megavol!amperes.. depemJ on me£3...,ohampcres. i. _.. - :..;-,:-'.::. '- .o:'":'l
sound te L'els voltage and cooler position voit.:J g.: .lnd cooler type ; T" '~'':-;-'' .' !

" :. :.-: -:~~--;--:~ J -."/;~'> -;;iP-~( ~~J!~j~

~
-.. -:->,~~«~"Si."".;
~

~ ·.~··-..;;t''t;::·~··f~-'''··
----': :.':...= ~~~ ;'.~
0) (2) Il ) (\ ) .\2) (l)
~"-' .... ::~-- ;:~~ .
Cooler position Cooler type (II
(m)
(2) '-'
.. (l)
~~~ (m) (m)
i- -
-.-\_'(.-e-:.-" '';'"
.... ~ .. ;

mou :iatui
'- -
0.3
2
- - TC T
- -iC '-----T'. TC- - t. ~
nl 0' T
. _ _.
0.3
~:-.d
TC
T
T-
T
TC
r - Tr
r- _ ,',.r'-'
,_ •. L--J .
.' --"" .r_~
'r .., j
I
~ - - ' -... r~
 ,,-
"'. r f'
I .'I,' '
",'I 'I ,

,
,! f'.~..
I
t, ',.

.,.'

TRA NSFO RMER NO ISE 197

~ ,.~
Ii "
E Ii;.., "
uuu
0-
~1!
f!
......... .1

: ........ '1
~o
u 0 .,
"e
'§.
e
" "
o "
E u
c c •
' i'
~ "8.£"
c
0 ..

.,
il "

:5c
"
u 0
> ' I, ,i., ,J ,.
",:1 '!"
;,"
.' ,f~
u u .. S
... . .
"
~
d ~ I-~I- i·1 \:
"Ii=S "'e:'" !I
E
~ , ,
,,"
," I,

"0, ,
~,
:,1
&"8
."
5 uuu
...... ... I-~I-
U .......
U
f.. "
.,
,
E 0
~ oc";; IjI' I· ,,
, f
".
;;" f
"&B
c
0
~
~.
,
M .....
, 1
" ." ,.... ,... '.... f I
I
~ "0
u 0
>
=:! ci :"'"! ci d~ci odd
'" '"

......u u I-
u....
1-'"
e: f.. f..

,
Uu
,- I- ......
UU I-S",
I-
~ 1l
" ;;
Y cr ~
e 0
c
;; 0
c c

Ii
1',1

, '.~",
"
;:- ~ .. ,
• "• .~ .~
~
r
~
,g] "
]] ;;, - , ;; ]] ;;"
u u u
"

""§
~
(l g~ •
c-
0
• c
" -
0
•
, "

,- t•
~
•to!:! <
,9 ]
~~
'i ,c E E
.~
c
,~
1E~
=:"::
c c
>< • .;;0
~
0
E --
ve
[E.!o(
~ .g
•aE.:.rI
;j> • .!! ~ U
0
n ~ V
M e
n "' c
~ A ~
'" "'-

"
_ _ _ _ _ _ .Mn ... _ _
,
~ ,.
---:-::-::::---:--~-_C~".C~":."-:-~:"_C~-_:-_':::~:::
-.----
__~:=::;~ :"~i~'7;:-~~~~:.o:';.~;::;;=~;;!2'~:::~.::i~,~~ _~ -. ;..:~~-: ;,,-'::;:.>-'::"::---<": f' ,~
---,-. -_._...
-,~ .. .........._.... _--
..... - --_.-.---- ' _._- --~ - -:.~-- ---~---
.... :,.;
- - --: ::-t>' __ '-:_-___ , ___ ~ ." ~""'''_~_'''''_ -:- ''''"-_'-'---:-;,. 1-_ -: __ • _ _ _ _ __

_ " ::.......:: ____ .... _ ~_-_..,.__7__=-=_-- .~ ~ _0.:.",:,"_ _~_ ...:

- ----

J.~-~

,j.. '"
co
;}%t~:.. ;- .,.-. ~.;; ;.-.:'~
t'~~~~"l .=. "! !"..--~. ;; j

!tlt~,,;
~

'I
TABLE 8.1 (cominued)
:OJ
Country France West German y

j Issuing authorit y Electriciu= de France

(EDF)
Verband Deutschcr Elekuo-
technikcr eV (VDE) ,- •~"..\l:;'~J-.- '~--":--l
l~~~::~~~t:~~~~~· ~
I
SpecIfication number HN52-{)2 (1965) 0532 Pan I (1 1.71 )
,- "
0

" ~~.~,.'S• -.?£~

..~~~, . 4,.""
• "k~'''' .. -c.. ... ~. ~
i Sound lel:el marter scale A and C
m r~~~, ..:-:... r'~.>.--·~.2 ' ..~ . ...:..,....
t-~ :fd:.~~ .;.r~\....... _.;;.,.. ~'
I
A "Z r;;r$:;'~::';"'~~ ." d

f~Q~~,f~~ '~.;: ~
tank or cooler < 25 at. ace-haIr (3
~
height
.'
""
.'.[ ICTophone r~iyh r m
tank: or cooler ~ 25 m, one-thud one·half lank hcight
and two-thirds height
Min imum numba 10 ;: ..... ?,,""';
Meu.suremt'nl pOSItions no rmally only " JXlsHions If z .~

~~1~,~
~
ratmg~ 1.6 MVA :a nd S if
Maximum lf1u!rnal 1m 6 -'
ra llog> 1.6 M VA: io r comparISon
tes t mmimum number is 4 at 1 m
intervals ""
~
... --:..
'" .
';-

Auraging I1U'In.od quadratIC .~ - ~-~ :

arithmetic
~.
1 Coo:inq t l(:Jiprr.enc noise
measur..r....mls
founne ::o rrru lly rou tine:
• t'1
".;
. ,. ·i
for r:omp.trison test, r,Qt required r,
Ec:m:u!,om SU Olr.ti t. 1'.-/ u: l!.;u.reJ r·J:" j In r:i..llUS nefdjsphe re (lot iC'-i u:red '" -.
rc)i.'rence r.emlSphal!

:~~~:-:·,~~~~\~;;'1
Effl!c:iL'e rr.easurem;!nt surface must be Slated not required
"U"
:: arrr.onic ar.a1rsis no. required
.\[ . .I x:mum permissibl;! non..: s la led
req uired at one position , ~ <: l : t
~Olmd i~t"ejs
none Sla ted
(German spec. DIN 42540 does
.:ontam levels}
.-~ -. "-"r'Z ..-
~ .... _.. f'
•,
\
-. '- ':."
'-;'~. -; . ~:

\
-.
~Ii (2) (3) \1)" ( 2) (l )
C.,IU/.-r ,~'1>jl .. lI. C 'lU tr:'r 'ypl'
lmJ (m,
..--~- . •
. :.3.5 7C T f • \
:,!
i ... n", mour. ~cd :;..H .. ;-;.,\ .:llr 0.J
(U' , :- TC
~
•
T"'.C' ;. j. 5 7C Te
f.·. ·.:..-d ";'if

.c:: :-- --- ___ j , 3, "'--_ TC TC

 ._____ '___-'I;a~x::jn::," . ,miss. !_
••1lOO = _ _ _ _ _!!no
g!ne 1:. ~'_:-:!..t.,.,...,,,,, ~;~'.:r4
>~ ,.....:"':~
sound li!(.tiG ~~ 4 ' _'~ _

(Ge.mar; spec. DIN 4.2540 does

"'~-.;
.- ...-. .•
' :

r~-~:~~.:.. -"~~>iJ ~~' h~ . 'i

conta..in levels)
. ':" ~~~;"

;
}------ -------------------------- ~
~

Cool.. r position Cooler rypt (I )

(m)
(2) (3) (I) •
(m)
12) 13) \ ~,.;,!'? -. "'>~ ,
- ... ;e, '";;j''' ':-'11,'
I I \ :r~-':.~'
::'.,< >J.,: ~ ~
'- --"'J .~ ' "';"~:: :~4
.;..~- "".,-".
0'.

~ .-~
:C'i
, :'-< '

ta nl.. mounted natural air OJ TC T 1,3,5 TC T \}) :':- ~,,:-tc" o~

, forced air
water
0.3°, 1" TC 'P,e' I, l, 5
1.3,5
TC
TC
TC
TC
j
sep:u:lte n::lIu ral ai r 0,3 T T 1, l, 5 TC T "-,,;j
'0.3", I" T',e' 'P,e' 1.3,5 TC TC '- ~

I
<3m fr om forced aLr
I, l, 5 TC TC ·'~,4
ta n); water
f';;'~~
natu ra l ::I ir 0,3' T T 1,3.5 TC T ""'ti
j ~ rarate.

> 3 m from forced air 0.3", Itt T', C' T".0 1. 3.5 TC TC ~": ~
t::lnk wa ter I. 3, 5 TC TC
1 ~~ .3
.!

,1 ...
"~
.t~!¥;'tt~I·"
1 Column (1 ). microph one distantt; column (2). transformer T :.ind/or cooler C included in comour; column (3). transformer T and/or fuoler fans C energised.
~ ",.',~:-~)t'f-~~(.f'-~'~;!

~
Test to determine noise from tra nsformer (..... ithout any cooler noise).
to Test 10 take account of cooler noise g 'ii" :t~:.,,~~ .
&.. . t: ~=A;tX"; ~
~\-:-.:-;.lt~(o:"~~':.-.o~: ~
I Subject \ 0 agreement.
<I Microphone distance depends on rating: ;:. 1.6 MVA. 1 m; < 1.6 MVA.;:' 65 MVA, 3 m; < 65 MVA. 5 m. .
~
~ 'M: ;f-Oi"h;:.;?f ~"-~
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, '"

200 MODERN POWER 'I'RANS '·ORME It I' RAC /I CE ).

(2) Flal slecl of low maglleloslriClion lJ should be used.

(3) Flux disl orli on should be kepi 10 a minimum.
: end
j
Ju
bu)'I •
(4) Careful annea ling. (2) Tank-!
(5) The mechanical stresses in the corell should be limited.
(6) Core or lank resonanceS-shou ld be avoided.
trail '
scrc
r'
el)
L

There shou ld be no rigid connections be twee n CC rC and la nk . Iransf;

(8) Exle"," 1 cladding.
II is unlikely that (;Idica l improvements in core vibratio n a nd hellce ge nera ted
Ihe 'T
"" cnd o..•
lIoise will occu (, but rcsea fell into Ira ns fOfm er co rc s l~c l s is bringi ng a bO ll I !-t lcady thc desired I~(
redu ctions in magnclos lriction a nd sc nc;itiv ity to mechanic:! 1stresses. HcduClion Whe re Ihe ['
o f a few dec ibels arc therefore often p'oss iblc by u!" ing the kit esl spec ial core S l c d~. slrrf:H.:e arc 0
nul sunici,ll\
8.6.2 On sile The U0C "1'1
I
wn tls and ,v
The most obvio lls way 0 f reduciJlg the e ffect 0 r 1fa nsfoll l1cr noise is by i ncrcasi llg t! nclosure wi!
the llistancc between th e transformer :I ud the nearest hOllse. Figure 8.6 cou ld oe Vents rna y
used to es timate the reduction o f noise levcl wi th incrc:l sillg d isl<lnccs rr olll the any coolil' J'
1n.lllsformcr.
sOllnd insl. ..11
IVa/(s, a llri-t; ibrafioll pads be' fiLled .
Itis illli Ir
Walls may be erecled, preferably al leasl I In higher Ihall Ihe Iransfonne r and to the en' ):
loca led close 10 it On average a red llcli on o fa bou llOdOI ") I' ll Ih e far ,ide o fl he Whe re pipes
wa ll will be obta in ed, but pl:oplc living a ll the opposit e ~ id c may receive mo re pro'1. idctl '~F'
Ihnn their sh are! If the wall is scI (00 rar awuy or not hig h (,!lollgh, the shadow whichtarc 5
effec i will be malerially reduced. Shrubs arc frequenll y plan led for 1I10re
psychologica l and deeo rali ve reaso ns and may Ih lls help 10 n'du ce Ihe likelihood 1l1ca~1
' o f lie
T ,limit 1
o r com plaints. [11 thcmscives, their co ntri bution 10 noise reductio n is I1cgliJ;ib lc. , 11
belli ; ne> I
Anti ~ \' i b ration pads arc used under trans rormers to minilflise th e Iran Slll is.sion T 1e (II I I'
of vibralion frOIl1 Ihe lank 1O' lhc prinlh . They arc onl y requ ired if Ihe plillih is -'
n,: niently m,
con nected to any wa ll or huilding (cithcr directly or Ihrtlllg h rOl'ky gro und)
which, if s llbjc~ ".:d 10 rU"~t.:J vibration, wi ll f'adiat e noise. Wht.:l e SUl:h cO llllec tioll
\x:lwccn ·,i
Intn Sro rl' r
docs 110t cx ist, the fitting o f a nli-vib ration pilds will be o f IIV value in rcdll<:ing The noisi
noise. Thc pads a rc maclc 0 roil-f'csistant clasto mer a nd (I rc usua ll y desig ned for it Ine3sufCC I "t
low nalilral frequc ncy (thai is about 10 I-Iz) o r the cO lJlbi nat iun o f Irn Jl SrOJ'llICr undc r rr ~ !
lllil SS and pad stifrnL~ss. The dynamic stirrncss l4 mllst be u :; ~tl rur the c;llcllla tion. rcvcrber,llll
wh ich in any cnse is ollly app rox il'nate beca use the mill'S o r Ihe W~l1 s fo rm c r is to the trans
grca ter than that o r the plinth, because the tran srormer is 11 (,'1 1 a simple mass and
beca use thc co mpli nllcc and efrecti ve mass of thc ea rth are not kno\l,Ill.
The flilil I'
up, bull I,
F:IIC/(lSlIres no l always
I 5 16 Tank · II.
E ncl(1 $Urcs • . 11 ma y be class ified as fo ll ows. 15"B(1I I;.
(I) Frcc-st,IIHfl ng cnclos ure. This is a sC I'.lrnI C bu ild inc \ wnpk tdy SUI wllrh.i . uhtai ncu. \
ing the tr,lIlsformcr, fitted with roa r a nd doo rs ilnd usually with ll t.:cess single C llt'\<
I
space between the tra ns rormer and th e cildosurc \\a lls ThIS type o r rn dosll l r

"'-'~~ r ::i-- ~

" ~ 1
.. -. - .. - . ,.. , .. . ~
.t;. I~
: r t. t , "
 , .?
"

TRA NS i'ORMER NO ISE ; ' ... >f'

.
201
enclo,sure is erected" ft er the transformer has been installed and may be
, built'of stcel. brk'k or co ncrete l8 .
I (2) T"n'k.support ed enclosure' (rank cladding). This is integra l with the
tralis fo rmer lank an d is supported from it. It is usually o f steel and Illay
scr~~n the sid es of the tank .only or may form a hood over thc who le
.' I r~' ;l S rOr Jl1 Cr, (I mus t be rcsiliently supported from the tank to minimise
tl. tran sll1iss ion of vibra tl ol\:.::· .. · .'.' '
.~ .. . ...
AII encldsu res mus t be adeq UH tely sealed 10 preven I esca pc o f noise. The gre" ler
the uesin.:d noise insulalioll, th e more cnrc needs LO be takcn over th e sca ling.
Where Ihe "['e,, uf g" I" ;lIill cracks which nrc 10 be filled is large in relalion 10 Ihe
surface area oflhe cnclu, urc Ihe scaling material must be applied in tleplh I ' . It is
not sumcient to rely o n Ihe faci Ihal Ihe enclosure is lighl proo f.
T he doors must bc IIWUC hea vy enough in relati on to th e mass of the enclosure
walls and roof and pruperly scaled; o,l hcrwise Ihe so und insulation of Ihe
Ing enclosure will be impaired. ...
L jl be .t.
Vents may be proviyed to allow oil tumes 10 escape, bu tlhey J o not conlribule
om th e any coo ling for th e tr;lns fllrI1lCr. The '\tcn t area must be lim iled l9 to maintain th e
so und insulati on of (h,e Cl1dc.. 'S lII'C. Where large ven ts arc neetl ed, silcnL:c rs ... hould
be fill ed. i
It is impo rt ant tv lll inilllisl.! thc transmission of vi bra lion from th e tran sform er
h.

]l;;~
to th e enclos ure, for .ill.')la ncc by pipC\\'Ofk or electric co nductor connec ti ons.
Where pipes arc brough t ('hrough Ihe enclosure wa lls, Ilexible scaling lIlusl be
provided be tween thelll <l IlU Ihe wall. Similar methods arc used for bu shin gs
: h [l~O W which arc usually IIH lllll l Cd on turret s, which arc sea led to the cndosul'c roo f by
1 11 0rc ~. means o f nexiblc seal'j llg lll 'ltcrial. '
"'" Ie od .)1 To lilllil Ihe noisc"ellli.((ed by pipes belween Ihe enclosure and the ,aJiator
;Iiglble. bank, ilex ible be ll ow~'''re in serled inlh. pipelines onthc inside oft be enclosure.
1 ~ I O Il Th e (average sllr (,icc) noise level of an enclosed transforme r is Ili osl con·
! h is ./ " venient ly measured ';1 ' a uistance o f 0.3 m from the enclosure. Th e Jirrcrc ilce
;ro nd) belween this leve l :;nd the (average surface) noise level of Ih e unenciosed
Q • ion trans former may be knllco the average-surface-noise redu cti on of th e t..: nclos ure.
jug The noise level /ncns Llfcd inside an enclosure is usua lly highe r tha n that
id )f a
J
mea sured att llc S;'Ull ~ dis t31l(;C from th e transformer before it was cnclo scu (llml is
( rH' ner
,I under rree-field co ,~d i( io ns). This increase is w1. lIcd build -up. II is I..:auscu by
1 !"O ~l , , reverbcrati on or by found pressure incfca se due to the prox. imity of the cncl os ur~
; 111 r IS 10 Ihe Iransform er, ano va lues of IOdB (A) and above ' •· 20 ha ve becn measured.
ass nd The fit ting 0 f a bso r()c n't materia l on th e inside of th e enclosu re reduces t he build-
uP. but tcsts20 have shown that th e uecrease in so und leve l in side th e enclosure is
no t always accomp[llliccJ by a similar decrease 011 th e ol ltside .
.. Tank C1 tt achcd c,;doslI res gi ve average-s urfa ce- llOisc reu ucl ions of ,1 bu ut 10 to
4

15 dl3(A), whcreas \\';lh 'frec-s tanding enclos ures val ucs of20 to 25 dH(A) C,Lln be
Ind- obta ined. \Vhc re n~oise red ucti ons grea ter th an 'abo ut 30c.l U(A) :trc required,
Jv ,
aCL:CS5 si ngle cll(;llIsu rcs "i'e 110 longer suffi cicnt. There have bee n bui lt su me double "
,I: of cncl osures in tli e UK . T he rcsults indica te that att eJluations o f 40 dlJ( /\ ) or JIlorc

j-.-~~~.---- "-"-~ -. .... .....,."l"Jll'" • 1l).~j_ ..hi', 4;' ~;., : 1.!c.:::....'71~ !.:(~ :;r ..... ;,-~--. ':""""- . . :-.. .;..... .
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202 "' 1 0n l ~ RN POWFIt "/ !tA NS I ( ~ ,\ II ' R I'RAe III E

.I
arc fea sible provid ed grea t allcntio n is pa id to detai ls; ill p.1I tieulHr vihr.llinns (he averagc
must be pre\,enteu from being tra nsmitt ed fr om th e I r~lI1 S ro rl;lcr p/illih or Ihe
o n c ~ third ot.:
iJlner enclos ure to lhe ou tcr enclosure w:lIls.
200". , li z,
The avcrngc ~ ~Hlrracc - noisc rcdllctio ll o f ;t il enclos ure must l1 ~ t be equ al. ': "".i.lh Obv iously I
the decrease ill noise leve l al sO Int;dislalH:C fro lll the IntllsfOl'lll cr • say, at a JW1rby differc nl ill
hOllse after a ll ex istin g tran s fo rm er is enclosed. This decrease, which C,ln he great imp,o rt:
\
termed insertion loss, depe nds also o n the disl;lllcC :lItClluatiqil. \Vilh large fn:c_ I r th e estill:
standing cnc10s lircs (lie di stillH.:C attelluation c:I n be ' Ie!>' Ihan Iha t or the ~ l!~t illial t.:d t
lIllCI1c!oseu tralls rorrn cr''s,
' ., "
sam!.:: at: I klllI
I
4\ do ubt t·

10 a j,
U,7 PLANNiNG l ra Ii S ri. I' I,
ad ll ,llly ImuJ
A Brilis'
8.7, ) Reside,,'i,, 1 areas
cxccssi vc 11
Wi t h a knowl edge 0 r I he trails rormcr noi)\c :llld its ha rm onics ano tnk i Ill; ;tP ' I1 Ii I\t Jcvcl meter.
o r d istaflce a ItCllua lion , crrecl 0 r 1'I.: f1 r.l.' t ions. wa lis, enclos ures, etc., the Iwi ",: 1,.\ el t:on form s
at th e IIca rest ho use ca n be cst inwlcd with :t n'Hs(lIwble degree o raccllracy h: rnrc accu racy u
th e is in ~ l all c d . The Ihr~ :-; hnld o r audibi lity llr th l! l1Iajl)r h:1r I It 11Ii, ' s
Ir;] IlSrOr lll c r in vo l vi ng ha
('''y, 100 10 40() il z) ill Ih e prescilce or ba ckground Il o ise call be cn ICII 1.1 ic" I by standa rd II '"
using th e meas ured alllbien t· spct:t rllIll. Compar iso n between the ;1LIIP: lilit y
thr es hold \,;II\II.:s and th e est imated so und pre"is nre leve ls o r the t ran C; r{lr l," I 3,'/.2 Offie
harmonics i1llhc hllu se will ~ h uw whClh cr c() l1lplaillls;lrc likely, Figure ~,~ , III
:t plot o r smhll rlla II :t 111 bien ( noise 1Ih.::lslln.: d Oil a Ollc-Ih ird ocl a \Ie Imlld iJ In I) "l r, '-'v',hacon!
T he esti mated" so und press ure Ic\'cls o rlile pure tones o r 100, 200, ' . . 111 \', lii, Il figll re~'9
mcas u !.!s ar
an.:ju st masked by tllat :llll bic nl . th a t is th e I ncs whic h wou ld just he in :l1 rd il' tu
press .rc I,
dB
. cslin)illCd
50 .- - - .- p~-Dlll]Q
o","ud,bll, 'y lhrHhOld 01 100,200 _ HI
- J-= rt.:l~ '~rcs 5011
for inter vt'n

•9,
~~" Abo. , 'I' fIfc'(·...
. ' " ' ' ' ' '' ''''i'/'!L "1 bol'1'\C vib

r-- ..... ~ Do"'"''''''

--- - - - • - -
(I , ();;10"f Bond)
tV"t'1i
C- · .- . - - i-
. ~,8 1'1(

- ~.

---- - i- . -- - - I- .
,0 --- - - ---
II is li kel) ,
1970s wi!
--- - - --- - - I- i- . -- - reductio n 0
0 . L.. -
50
- - '00
K)O rooO liz
L _ ca n be attri\
'00
whose It
Figure ~,8 n :td' t;JllUrrd level :Illt l alltlihilily [lrrc): i1(lld (Jr In ajt ,l' h,1rllll ' ni,.:,J I ..:o nsl['uct, ,,
Ilot ran su I
usc of Iii
rhe alllhielit. is Thc lIohc cxiqing ill Ihe ;u ca he rNe rl,c Ira mrOlllll'r I~' Ill' lgj \cd , Wh~1\

I.
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:""".:r.:.4,:,,;."tjr:W":~ 'h't,;. .• t''IIr.~-:~'' ':.... tI ""i.'~"
I, " )~.,. ;' ;'~ '\!~'l'" ~ ,'Y~i1t',. ·,~,),,,,'a I .+' f',.:,~, ,t "'r" 1"7'~ ,';.~,,\ I( ,-
, J., ~~I""I,J" 'M 'b \ I.t" ... , 1"', 1',1" • ;"'~"~.' I,
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... I, I "'I, " '7' " ~ 1"
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" • ~: ,j,~1-'A:' '".4"/~',{.),'.,dl"I'
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, .... t . 't "
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1.~I , .r.~,"';t·l'·'·'I~'~·· ~ ·'1.!.;'~"·".:I·~" j ' , i" 1 ~l'i~ " , 'jf,
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'~. , .... ; )I; ,.'i,.l, '/f)'~"~~~'1!~i\~I. "\'k"~' ;~>. l . ..'ot,.t, ':'''\':~~~t''~-:\~:I ·r·, • . I'~, ','~"I~:' ,,1'. I, "r,t'\~':"'~ 'I) .f~· ( .:/ oL \,.
1 f.' "':',i','( ../1 :,7'/(1 -P'I· ':•• ", 'N'I t,
,It' Ii I
,;.;, ~I ;~~{~.~(.;, ,,' ,'r .~t"\~'W~ 'RJr'lll'',o,~~~1.~,~;~ ;r.':f.(. t tl, ,;: ~,~P:~~i,';,f '~." .~( ~~'f'.' H' .1';"'- "~ I .. ~ ir' It ·\~'.,H.· {" " ..~,<~ If ,)"
"t.::1' ,{ ~~' '\ J'~~l.L ~ ',' ,N·':..~VI~ ,'~w'~}.I)'ji'i*7.~I~:'!~~!r~r~:Jo)~~i)f.'-":l~ tr1~,\.~.~ .." ~\~"... :,.,:'1,,; f~i'/I.\", ~ " ;:f\~·;t,"\,'" i.'; \ ~J ~A. t \' ,");" , l' '~' 1.•
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__ -......... > .,' ~_.'-o.J~"''''''' --.....-~. "' ............ 1j.-:-_.__ ..
" ... {., •• I .... _~..... _""'~--..!.:O" ..~~...:... •• ~.._ ...... "1
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,.O ,\N S" OO .. £. NO ' SE 203 f~~.:i·i·[:)t~:,;,

)r ~1 tons ,i thc avcrage listener, arc 0btainc<.l by adding the values give n in table 8.2 to the f.i:B:~4~,"c~~~'
1 o r lI)c. oll~-t hird oct:wc band levcls o f th e ambien t rcad o rr [It freq uencies lOO. ! Ifl~!. f..:~?ff'~: ~..~.
200, .. , li z. These SOI IIlO pr~ss ll rc kvcls hav~ bef,;11 lila I ked in 0 11 fi gure 8.8. 1111:) ~ .
fi th
C" Obvio usly largc variations will occu r bctween ybung"nd o ld people "n" betwee n 'I I ff~ , .
ncarby different individuals, quit c apart fro m any psychologica l fa ctors which a rc of r '
,~.:"
le~els
1\ be " . great imparlance and ma y in fa ct detcrm ine whether th e no ise is anlloying o r not.
• rrec- If the estimatcd sound press ure of thc transfo rmer I,"rmo nics exceed the II t
of th~ estima ted thresholds by more than about 5 to 10dU, it will be adyi sable to take III l'
SOl11e action beforehand , for n larg·c reducti on a n enclos ure, UI" ill SOlllC t.:,\ 'i CS CVC I1 II·
I I ')
I"
a douhk cnclosure, will be needed. \Vhcrc the difference is (ln ly 5 d n it will del}C l1d I,t·,. .
,~

to a large ex tent o n th e po licy decisio n o f tIle ut ility whi!o:h is imt :dlillg the ,,;,~ 1 t;.i
transfo rm er, wheth er cladding should wait until co mplaint s by resident s a re I j'f;.l ft J t ' :
al'tll al ly 11l:1dc. I : ~ ).
t\ Ilrilish !' tallllard IllCIIlIJd ror predicting the likclilh\od o f ~O IlII'I; ril1 t s o f ~: t', "I~fl
,1

cxccssi\"(,: nui~c21 utili~cs

Illca sun.: mcnis taken with th e t\ ' ' 'l: ight illgo f l h~ ~uu lld Ij'l i.; :' 1 /;}, u
h,;vel meter. This has the advantage o f simplicity, The use o f the I\. :-.t:al c a lso I ~~ ;', \ j~::"'. i.
t~' ?1Irl
j"'I!~>~ ~~1,:-
\\ t'.."
~unl ' Ievc I measurcme nt pladlce.
CO il forllls Wi.t I1 11 0 fl11 UI trans for mer nOise . 'r llC 'Iil
'. 4

!' c levcl
, -
aC~llr:t cy of this meth ou, although o ft en adequate, ,,,,ill he inrerior to the lIIe th od 'I \\ 1 ~', <J.' ,I ~
I h'~ f0l"c
)nics
involving harmonic Hllalys is. An international standard very si mila r to til t.: Dr itish ,I: ~~~Ir
, : ~:j 4~;\ ~~,
,,!·l'{.••"··1:.
~ f ·:"
,~I' I
I
standard li as also been published". f ,"
"cd by
dibi lity
I
, H~j :',V 1$

.1 ·Iner 8.7.2 o ftiel'S Il! ~P,I ~'

I,', 1·'
~ . ,tPWS Where offi ces arc crcct cLi ncar a transfor mer the no isc criterion cu rvcs ~ :-,hown in
2 I
$I ,I • I
t ,\.
~. I'
I ',. ,
Ja iyscr.
hich
figure 8.9 may be used. toge ther with tablc 8.3. to de ter mine whdher !,<" lllcdial
measures arc Ilcccssary. rh e f,; Urves apply rur variolls types of nO kes, I'h l! su und
I, ~ !I;;;:l.~,!;~'r~."
~ ·h" .~ I,
Ie to
I press ure levels of the difrerent transformer ha l' lIH)Il ics in th t.: umt.:c" "hvuld be
cstilllau.:d and should no t exceed the va lues give n by the approplial t:Slll vC, It
I: ~ :':,,:' "1:
requires so mc expericnce a nd knowledge to assess huw lIludl redu t.:lior1 lu allow
ror intervcning spacc's 0 1' roo ms alit.! for wall s and \\i nd ows. Simi la rl y, structurc· Ii III" "
borne vibrnt io ns tr:lIlsn)ittcd into thc onices must be co nsid ered .
[i~f ;I . ~l
P1il,j·•• ', ,
I
:. ~ , \', ~ ...
r
Ii '
i' , 1", "
8.8 PROS I''':(TS FOf( TilE FUT UHE I

;:;11\ ;'" ·~i

! i !I( 11~,i: l!,~1i.,::~,'i<n
It is likely that the tre nd s which ha"e become apparent in thc latc 1960s and ea rly • I

19705 wi ll co ntinue for so me lime. Thc most stri ki ng o f these is th e steady I I 11#:' ~fi1f';\' ::'.:
redu cti on o f trans missio n transfo rm er lIo ise (sce II gu rc R. IO(a)). This n.:duc,; tion " r ,I " , J.I ,. -.."

l,
can be attrib ut ed main I)' to improved co re stecl beca use 'he 60 M V" 1.1 2 kV unit s,
whose noise le vels wac used to dcrive figure S. IO(Cl}. were a ll or c:; imilar
eo nstrU l.: ti \I Il , It is pn'b;rhlc that noise Ic,'cls o rl;Irgc ut: Il t:l' al or triltl " rOI nlc r s will i ~ .~' .. :
not rail :': ~) rapiuly bccallSI: o fth c highcr harmonic t.:lll lh,.' llt o f Iht: Ilui'il.: due tu Ihl.:
lI ~C of high nu x d c n ~ ili es.
. r.'' '1'
~'l
<'
Whell thc probability o f co mplaint s of C ;~f,;c s shl.: Ir:til Sfo llllc r n lli ~c is ht:illg

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, ;
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204 M QDl: HN 1'0\\' 1.1{ f lU;..: ... , OR ' [I R J' It :\ \. J ICE

rA llLE 8.2 M asking o/ f rflll.'ifol'men Ilfl/"mo/l;cs hr !Ja cky/'(}ulld lI oise ) TAII L E 8.

Fretjll('I/(")' (I l l ) 100 )00

VafllC (0 he tlrld ~'d Iv
- _.- -._.
"
200 -100
._--
JOO
-
/",(' kU " (JII/If/l o Oh lOill
(l//{lihilily IIJl't'.\ /wld (dlJ)
} +1 - I - 21 4 •5

00 K - - i - - -- ----

NC 70

60

NC60 5

f'J C 50

~
-j
o
0 30 - - - -
,.
"
~ p pl.,t"" (l I' llvC"l oI d
NCJO <tnJI th~
0/ H ~.; rl"9 lo r - :t ~(L pt<ln\
CootirOJo,n /io-;-" usco fl"
20 ' ,,;. ...:...- -~--l--
will be
NC20
"'l so und leI
'0 T hi s 1\ i ll
., so '0 0 '00 <10 0 000 16 0 0 31 50 6300 c o n <; lr 1
\v ill no, .
anu us..:n
Fi gll re 8.9 N o i"iC I.: r i!cri on C\.H H'S2J noise.
The
<l sscsscd. it is Il cccs 'I ary 10 co nsider no l o lily ho w th e leve l o f a partiL"lI!ar ~i/c o f c on l..'C rn ~

I f a il Sform ef is fallin g hut how the sh'es 0 r I fa 11 5 forlllers i" P;f rt k ula r 10(:1 I i l.Jl I ~ ilrc pl cd"l
risin g. Th i~ is illd ka tcd ill ti t: urc S. IO(b). The dat a fro ll1 ligu rc ~ . I O(:t ) :I lid (h) ha\>c fnr I ,',",
becn cOlll hi ncd to produ ce fi gure 8. IO(c). II is appa re llt th a t. e\e n th ~Hl g h ~ i l.cs of Re···· II
, tran s fo rl11 crs arc increasing. th e po tcnt i,li nuisancc co uld we ll be held al its
present level.
the I:SA
':~lIl l il1 I
..",....
,
f\·fcth ods o f lIoise rn C,lsurcment r~ l r I ra ll ~ ro rm c rs , wc ll \" . . ta b lishcd in Fu rupc u' a ~ ; .

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.-- .,

T RAN SFOR MER NO ISE 205

I ,
TAIlLE 8.3 Rl'culllllu:lIl/ed noise crit eria for ujices B (referring to fi gure 8.9)
. 00 -- NoiSt, CI'irt!ri o Cll rt lC CUl1 l11 l l1l1ictll iOIl l'lIrir o lllll (, llf

ve ry quiet o nicc; telepho ne usc executi ye offi ces and ca n-

~o 30
s:l tisf<lctory: suitable for la rge rerence r OO lllS ro r 50
5 peop le
L:o nfcrcllccs
quid o!Ti ccs; s.i ti sfnctory for co n- pri vate o r !\l·.llI i-private .
.10 35 offi ces, rc&cptlon l OOIllS
fcr cli1.cs al a 5111 table; normal
voke ' ) to 10 Ill; telep hone II SC and Slllall cu nrere nce
sa 1i:.fado ry roo ms ror 20 peo ple
sati sf:u:to ry fo r confcrcm:cs at a mediu m-s ized vnil.:cs and
35-40 industrial business o ffi ces
1. 80 102.40 In lable; lelcphone lISC
satisfaclOry; normal voice 3 to
4111
:o;a ti sf;lc lo ry fo r confe rences at a large ClI l:)ilH'l! 1 illg li nd
40 50
1.20 to 1.50 III tablt:; telephone usc t1rafling roo illS, etc.
occasio nally sli ght ly diffi cult :
no rmal vo ice 0.90 to 1.80 Ill,
ra ised vo ice 1.80 10 J.60 In
ullsatisfacto ry for conferences of secretarial arcas, (typing)
50- 55 ",ccQunlin g rueas (bu si-
more th ,ln two o r three: people;
tel ephone lise slightly difficult; ness machines). blue pri nt
normal voice O. ~O to 0.60 Ill, rOo ms, etc.
ra is('d vuke 0.90 to l .l:W III
very no isy: omcc cll vi ro nmcnt un · not recollllllelided for
above 55
satisra ctory; telephone use dir- any Iype or orllee
fl cult

a nd lli e USA, are unli ke ly 10 clian ge rn;H kcdly. bllillicre wi ll probably be \I ider
.1l'l'epW nce o f int ern a ti o nal ra th er th a n nati o nal specifica ti o ns. The CO ll tinuing
lI ~C of til\.: A wei ghting net wo rk o fth t.! so und Icvclll H.: tcr is wc ll ass1II'cd ,alld th ere
wi ll be an increas ing tend cncy to ca lcuble so und powcr le vc ls frolll Ihe nOl' lllal
so und Icvels, logel her wi 1h t hc crfecti vc sou nd rad ia I iug area u f the Ira IIS fo rm er.
Th is will allow mo rc va lid co mpn ri sO I1S bet wcen Irans fo rmers t) rvaril' 1! Ssizes LInd
con::,lrucl iOlls mcas u rcd to ui frere nl spcc irka ti ons. Noise Slxc trllll1 J r.: lt.:l 1ni 1\.1ti o n
will not bcl.:ome pa rt ofa routine test in the foreseeable future, butm;\nufacturcrs
and users wi ll ha ve to maintain th eir infor mat io n o n th e ha rmonic con lent o rthe
no ise.
Till.! future docs no t st.!t.! 111 to ho ld any prc.Jblcrns as far as inslrurnclll ;lt io n is
I
l': of co nce rned. ROliline leSis wi ll be fa cililnled by llie use o f lighl weighl porlable
L .S a rc
precisio n so und level In clers, "nd ve ry so phislicLlt cd equipm ent will be ava ilable
b) hove for rc~can.. h, .
os of RI;~carch a nd developme nt on tran sfor mer noi st.! rC:ll.: hcd" pc;a k. ill Europe and
tits the USA . in Ihe early 19605. Sillcc that lime cmp has is has co ntin ued <lnd will
COllI i n (Ie 10 !'nove stead i Iy ove r 10 co n tl'ol 0 f no ist.! 011 site rali ll..' r Ihan t'1 a I ICI1l pt 10
.""ope
I 11lakc \'t.!ry large reducti o ns al th e source.

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10
~ fl('ltiu
Hoist
l oor l
, I' , llt:FldtENo

'0 I.. ' "

f\. I. FktC"J

~
60 HVA
. IS.I I ',

,
Tlon1 101111u l

2. <:h." i
., p ... .... 0<'0/
. ... J . Fn': lIl'll
, If VII
l

,t. G":OI
1950 160
" 0 "'" l'l'oc /,

o·
,
, ~~
AttOliwt!

(ROlio
./ ~. "
-
',on ,'
5. Rulll l !) ;
Z.o
6 \\'hil,If'
I :

~
I. r e i 1:1111
o·1 I " I"'l't ,
o , S. J0'.1
,
0 ·0

1950
- /

19 .. 1910 1980
9.
tr:llt ...
' ki t:
rreq'
rn
.I
,
F./CClI' .
+ '0
1I,ICltl", 1< , 10. CCr\ ini
Hoi n
the ( ,
o IdO '
ltv, '
-(\')6
~~f9: "
'I

- ~ TrOI'l~l or
II. ~ a~t lll
i ta II ,
-, 0
, 950 1960 19/0 1980
I /., ,'.1ill
13;, Ke , r, I
,'
,
. lran ~ ")
Fi!;urc 8.10 Modern trend in tran sfo rm er noi se level: (tl) noise levels o f 60 M V1\ 1.12 ~ V
I r:\Il" mis~ i o n Iramfol"ll ll' f'S; (b) maxim um Irall !'r~lIrllr.:r ralillt,:s: (I.:) noi.;;c Inels o r lal'l;co;1 I 't. 1)0.....
lj Imn sformcrs cri ais ,
III 15. Keil. [
! Legislatio n on rnaXillltll1"l perm iss ible Iloise leve ls ill \ ;H ious localities is a Trw I
J)n s~ ibj lit y. Thus. d cclr icity supply und ert ,tkil1 gs will I 11:1 h: noise co ntro l a IG. J;J ~k .. )
!:ou tin c par t of all sub-sta ti on li nd powe r stalitHl planni ng. New IIH.!,l llOUS o r noisc 17. Jump.
YO Hlrol arc unlik ely to emerge, bU I ex istill g ~llo\\' l cd gc will be morc widely 18. Milt :
,, !,plied. 25 ( (
19. orO\\, il
I
.\ CC<NOWLEDGEJ\IF:NT 20. Mill
Trof' ~
,
,'f( (1/1,\ I
I 21. Bril i... h
"he :Iuthors wis h 10 thank Ferran ti Lim ill'O (or permi ssiu ll to publ ish this .·Iff'
in((lI"lllal io n . . n. In k

l I
"
 i
TRANSrOIt }'lER NO ISE .,...I, 207
'1
."
[lEFE IIENCES i
'."1

I. F'k lchcr, II., and MUll so n, W. A., Equul L~lIclllcss CO flf O/Il'SjO·t I'u re T Ulles,
ASA Pllbl., No. Z 24.2 (1 942) . '/'
2. Churcher, B. G ., and King, /\ . J., The perrormance or n oi se· lil~ l cr'. J . IlIsI.
CicC II'. Eng., 8 1, ( 1937 ) 57 .,
). French, N. R., and Stein berg, J. C , Intelli gibi lity or s pee~h SQulllls, J.
A fO I/SI . Soc. Alii., 19, ( 1947) 90 i '
4. George, W. R., I-Iolt , E., and Thompson, J. E., Magnetostrie ti on iii stccl, ' ..
I'roc . !t1S1. Electr. £lIg. , Parr A 109, (1 962) 10 1
5. Ruhlmann, R., Harmonics in the noise emill ed by tran srormers, £I1'''ll'Ole('II .
Z., AI/sg. A , 85, (1 964) 430
6. IVhitaker. J. D ., Magilctos trictio il in steel, E/e'·lr. Times. 137. (1 %0) 675
7. Fe rr anti Limited, Vibro licms of TI'tI II,\!ormer Cor('s (1960) (anilll:l ll:d lill 11
based 0 11 measurements)
8. Jordan, 11. , Reink e. H ., and Ta cgc n. F. M cclHlllica l natural frcqucl1dcs of
t

tran sror mers, AEG Mill .. 52, ( 1962) '1,15

9. I-lensha )) , R. D.. [Jenn ett , 1' . J., McCalli on. H.. and Milner. M .. Natura l
fl'cqucncics and mode shapes of vibration of tr ansformer core s, Proc. In s;.
Elew. Ellg ., 112 , (1 965) 2133
10, "crvini, G. C, . Variable frequency l:onstunt voltage th ree-phase suppl y I'u r
lhe observa ti on of vibrati ons in lr:lnsformcrs. EIt.'lIrOIl'Ulica, I.I -N 8 hi'i.
( 1964) 630
I I. Mallei, J., Aco ustical study or elec trica l genera ling and tr;1I1 ~ I t1 illi l l g
statio ns. 1<<'1 '. Gt'll . Oa lr .• 74. ( 1%5) 205 .
12. Milne r. M., Pr..,bJcms o f tran sforme r noise. Mach . Lio)'d, "pril 9. \ I'JI, II
13. Kerr, I I. W., and Palme r, S., J)evelopments in the design or laJ'c.c 1'<1'" r
transrorme rs, 1'1'0(.. IlIsl . Elec lr. Ellg .. 111 , (1 964) 823 '
kV 14. IJro\\,nsey, C. M., .T he assessmenl of perrormance of anli·viblat il>l l 11I" t·
. lar cs t
eria ls, Pro c. IIISI. [(eelr. Ellg .. Pori A. 109, ( 1962) SuppJ. No.3. 231 II
15. Kri l, C , and Milne r, M ., The Perform(/ Il ce of Noise Ell cfo,\ w't'S /o r
TI'IIII.I/ul'llIers. CIGR" R,·p., No. 105. No. 105/\ (1 964) :
::. .. i a
16. Jack son, R. S.. Perro rmance or ac u li stic hoods. AnlS lic(/ , 12, (1 962) IJ~
Ilrol a
17. Jump, L., Causes and reduelio n o rl ransformer noise. AEI Ellg .. ( 1964) 2pO
I disc
18, Milner. M., and De nne tt , P. J" Transformc r noise red uction. Ela/l'. Tim ('.\·...
\ dely
19. ~~o\~;,~~~. C. M ., 7)1<' I'robl<'111 u/ Nu is" lI'il" /'ur lieu/ar 11<1;.,...",·,·1",
TI'IIII.I/orlll£'rs, CellI. £I,·clr. Res. Lab . (L<'oll",rlleo"). M elli ., No . 3 ( 1956)
20. Milne r, M., ;Ind Dun sbee. J., Tri-ln sfoflllcr noise ha rmonics, 51h 1111. n ll:g,
An""'I .. Lj,'ge 1'0/,., No . F. 12 ( 1956) I
2 1. Bri tish Standards InslilUl ion, BS 4142, A/t'lhod of Rali"g Im/Ilsrl' ;al Noise
Ihis A/f. 'Clil/g Mixed lIe.' idt'lIIia l ol/d II/d"slrio l Areas (1973)
! 22. inl cll1:1tiona l Org~lli S\1ti o n ror Standa rui sati on. I SO R- I ?96 , A ,p ~·.\ \lIluJl 0/

J
 ..,
L

u
. ,," I ;: ;'"

, I
.' "
;~'i:'
"', '
_ _ .......... '" .. _I

208 \!l ll) l! RN rO WE R rRANSI OI<ME n I'I{A C II CE

, ,
NOI~'i" with H, '.\/ Jl'('{ 10 Community Ri.lspolfse (1971)
23. Be, onck, L. L.. Noise Rl'dlll'lioll, MeGraw· l/ill, New Yo rk (1 960) 5 19 J

"

ADDlTIONA!. (!/·.t:;·: aENCES

.' ,J: Distrib,
a. Beranek , L. l.. , A(OllS Ii('s, McG ra w.l lill , New York ( I Y51) II.K.llo
"f
b , Ki,llg, A. J" t'(JSlln'IlIl'1I ' alld SIIPfJrl'ssiofl 0/ Noise (wi'" Spefial Re/rrl'lIce to
Elre/ril'al, Mac/.ill"s). Chap ni,,,, and lI all, London ( 1965)
. I ,
Acoustical Icrllls

British Standard>; III " ri ttlti oll .. 8S 66 /, G/o.\·.\"({ry o[ ;1('(1//.\1/(,0/ 7i..'rms (/ 969)
:I ,
b. Uniled Siai es of' "Ille rica Siandards IlIsli lule, US. fS 05 1.1. A('o.micul
Terminology (II;'/',', /il lg Afc'dumicul ShOl'k and Vi/)ral;(JI/ ) ( 1960)
c, flll crna lio na l 1'/" II L'(Cchnk',lL Com mission. /I~C 50 (08), 11II('1'I/(llioll(l/
Electro/ce/II/it'ld l 'ol'lIhulary. Gro/lp 08, t:h'C'fro AtOlf,\!i(,J (1960)
While Ihelc i
be {kline( ,~
Tr:IIIS rOrllll'r Il tl i ,o.c di ~ tr ib\lli l "
tJlillinllllll 1,1
a, IEEE COll1l ni t h l.' · :~· I 'l..nt llibliog r:IIJhy 0 11 trall SrOrtllCr noi se. 11:'1:'£ TrOllS ,
lll d ~ ~l'/ i t c ,',
POlI'er AI'}lrlr , Sy", .. R7, No.2, Febrll ary (1 968) 1000 ~ · V ~ h
b, Oritish EkeLI k':d a nd A llied ManUnlC(lIrcrs' Associa ti on Limi ted . Guide
T rallsforml'r S( "-I(' .'. f 4'(lJUrCl11l'lIl . IJ E A .\f A Pub/ .. No, 227 (1~)G8)
10
II or m} lI y Ih
ll L'c (' lj a r y' )
c. IJ l iti:.. h Eh:l,: tti~ ': d ;' nd A llied Mallura..:t un.:rs' Associatio ll Lilllitcd. C uide (0
/:
I'i.'\" ,: util ! i
.
TI'IIIIS/Ul'l lI t'I' S ,,·.· I; ' .lI illOlog)'. 111\ ,1 I/A I'llbl., No. 23 1 ( 1%9) I,, ..',II'I'I ~, I III \
tl\n..: ~ · pl l ;l"' C,
I
Sound I c\'(~ 1 meters .13 kY",. I
t:01lV (.; I !.]( II
a, I3rit ish Stalld ards In.; : titll lion. BS 4197. SPl'cijic(J(ioll/v l' a Precision Sound p" r po l.,\,;$ ar
I .l'rel All'/er ( I "6 7)
t.: un ... ll"l lC'
b. Inlc.: rnati un .d ":(t,'I:tJ l..lkchllica l C(,l lllllli!"sio ll, II:'C 179, I'r, '('/,\;III/ ')Ulflltll.n 'd
Meiers (1 973) I . Ill l ' I'S U" \
wo uld bt.: 1'1.:
loaus call t
may p t,; f
I \' u ita l,.;(', "r,
"'11 11 ~i d l ,"
nllt:lhl )
3.3 kY .

• (j[C I~ ', I

9.8).
t F\lIl1l ~

I
l
I.

.. _..... .
..
. "";'", _."
 . ..

iO) 19
g.
"

Distrib ution Transformers

H. K. Homfray* and .D. Boyle .,.

i
.'
II/S (1969)
/: ?lIsl iCllI
I 9. 1 OEF IN ITION ANO CLASS IFICATION
erl/ !II;ol/(J/
While I here is no genera II)' recognised cJdl ni t io n, a disl ri but ion t ra Il sfo rm cr may
be den ned as a transfo rmer lIsed to supply power, for ge nera l purposes, at fi nal
di stributio n vollagc level fro m a highcr-voltngc ui stributi on sy'-lC Ill . The
nli nilllll lll rating is ww alJy regarded as 5 kVA, but the ma ximulIl is so mewhat
Tram. ind l..' nllitc. For public supply pu rposes it is not CO/llill on to lise rat ing c)'cccuing
I 1000 kYA, but industria l sub·stati ons rrequentl y h:\I'e hi gher ralin gs. 3 MYA is
, r,,,it/r 10 norl1lally th e practit.:al limi t for loadin g at meu ium VO II :lgC. ns th e illlpcdallcc , I j'

uic/r 10
IIc"'\..'~ ~ :l ry to limit fault ('U I rellt to the usual switl:h gc.:ar r:lt ings ri ses In illlpr~H.'til.;al
i
u
p~ J n; l1t ; l gcs at higher ratings.
Ulili" ,li on vo lJage in IJritain is stand" nli sed at 240 Y sin gle· pi ",," or 4 15 Y
Ihree·phase. The higher. voltage system is usuolly 6.6 or I I kY, but va lues up 10
J3 kY Illay be used, mo re part icularly in o th er cou nt! ics . Transformcrs IIsed for
co nversio n fro m dist,·ibuli o n to lowe r vo lta ges ( 110 V o r less) fo r c.: o nlr('ll or Sil fC ly
~o llnd purposes arc not llsua ll y regard ed as distribution tran sformers, though similar
I co nstruct ions arc employed for the larger sizes of stich transformers. TrnJlsfor-
Lilli'. L(Jl'd Illers used for specific purposes slich as supp lYing rt'c tifi c: rs or fUfl1<I ce loa ds
would be regarded as specia l types, but th ose ",pplyi ng large mo torS3S individua l
loa ds C[t ll be regarded as distr ibut ion types, ,lIlJ ind eed standard t r an s form ~ rs
Ill:! )' pl.' l'fo rlll th is duty, Po wcr statio n auxilia ry trnll s rOI mers, s uppl ying medium
voltage, arc a sp..:t.:ial ca ~c of d istributio n tra nsforml'rs alld GI ll \I )it.:fully be
co nside red with thcm, as Iltc ralings arc similar, althou gh certain spec ia l fcalur('s ,
Jl tably fittings. HfC involved. In thi s case lhe high·vo ltagc system is cO l11monly
3. 3 kY .

• GEe Po we r Tran sfo rmers Lillljlcd, fo rlUe rl y Engli sh Elec tric C\llnpany Lilll ilell ( ~e\,; lio n s 9. 11 0
9.R).
t F() fl llcrly Ferr;w!] Lilllih.'J ( ~cl.: !i o n s 9.9 10 9 . (4).
f',l
I: ,'"
i' • 1

I ; ;~ 't:
,I 'j "t~
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~ ~,.:)
" 1"
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q., , " :1

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\

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<I,',·,
,
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,I 2 10
,
I I !'I! ,, or loss me
, I
Dislribution Irans rormers may be broadly cla ss ifi ed by Iype or use, SUpply "
aUlhority transrormers arc virtually all oil cooled (O~), IIltho ugh Ih ey may be distribut io n
rI trdllSrOrT llCrs
installed indoo rs or o utd oo rs, the diflc rcl1ccs in cO lI slruct io l1 for the two
situ ntions arc very small. Th ey may .be db t! iblltior
I
,i , rurth er c:ln ss ifi cd by type o f installation ' ::,t;1I1Li;lrti I(
ei th er directly o n a pole o r o n a polc-Il1Ollnkd platfo rll1 for rUl'al distributi on,
I
wilh ratings up 10 200 kVII, or ror gro und lIlounling muslly ror ,,,ban iml u ~ t rial": lI s
distribution, from 100 kVA upwards. Con sul1ler :lIlU il1du $ t rial ' lI ~ c Ira nsformers \\ ill lI ~lI; dl)
arc those used by large consumers who I~kc slipp ly al hi g h vo lt age alld proville \Vh t.:re ' \ I ~:~
their own sub-station or s ub - ~t:lti o n s. They Inay be inel oor or o utd oor. the bl.':-.t ~1.1I 1l 1
:1
:, Increasing usc is bei ng made or in sulating nnd coolin g media o th er than oil, I he I\lure I r
C\ clltuillly I
f
\ I
I <
'
1
ei lher air (liN) with cia s C insulalio n or sy nlhelie liquid (SN), lV ilh eilher Iy pe
there is no nrc ri sk, allu rewer res trictions o n siting. (AN trallsrllr rncrs are dt: . . iUIl Ih .II . .
, .! '. \ , :I di scussed in c\lapler 11.) Dy Iheir nalure, consul11cr-owned Ira nSrOll11CfS arc Since il Pil i
~ •j I cnr ryillg It:
usually or high ra ling "nd ground mounled, Ihough sub-s lali ns arc 11 0 1
I. ,I ,!
II "
nccessa rily al groulld level. I ural d i ~ lri
vay low. Fe
BI)llfox illlH
, practict.! i n
~ ~ 9,2 DESIGN CONSIDf.IlIITlONS tendency to I

~I
1 mos t cen llr \11
; 9,2,1 Specificll ii ons the ratio tl I
iron iwd C" I
The tk .:; igner"s speci llca tio n (see secti on 3.3). is gOVC l llCU by standa rd The III her
spccilit.:ations(il.7.(;! },(i1 2. by th e c u ~to JJ) cr's spccill<.:alio ll (!'n : :-,cl.:ti u ll 3.2), ro r i trall !:. fu [II I'
which rderence 1 is a comprehensive exa mple, and by the pa rticular ll1:lnu- fr o'" ((10 I
:I
fa cturc r's ow n standa rd s a nd code of practicc. Slila lIe)(1':11 ill
I ; :~ pro pI .I,II U' I
I,

1' ( , IItl
, It.!,.,I1 11-cc
9.2.2 Economic considerati ons
~! 11l; 1 ~:;1 1g faul

,,"
. Si nce th e di stributi on transformer is in ti ll: last li nk o f lilt! chai ll frolll t;cnc l:tling IlI.:t\\'o l'k is \
sla tion to ultimate consumer, since sO lne d("grce o rdiversity I1lU ~ t occur be twee n
, the lowcr- and higher-power portions of the supply system and since security o f
" supply must be provid ed, the to tal in stalled ca pacity o f di stri but io n I ra ll ~ fol mas
is morc than t hat of gcnera t i ng pia nl , the ra l io heing :I bo ut I ~ to I. The ella j 11 is of
cou rse so mewhat length y, so IIlat JlI.: rhilps:\ lJlIa rl t.:r o f the tt)! al eap:l<: il y ( l r a ll
trans ronner ins talled is in l.Ii stributi ontrilllsr(.) llIl(;rs. Furth erm o re, -: i ll~c th e 4...'OS I
t
The , ubjeel
I
,I, per kilovolt; n pere increases as the rating orall Y plant decreases, the propo l lion
,\, 4,2 Ihe " I
,\ ' or capilall'al ue or lola l i!lsla lieu Inlil Sror mer ca paeily rcpresen I('d by u isl ri b" Iion l, xca"i..,n;1 ,
tra nsfo rmers is prob:lbly nearer a ile-third . It is obvi o us th at tliere is a ::,Irong In.:;sco; 10 he
incentive to keep capital cos ts down, th ough no t al the cxpc n ~c of filliPing l"U~ t s, t\ IICt )pl.'(s
I
since losses at this stage of the network may rcprese llt rough ly I 0 of th t.: tulal Q
II1 "l ll or ... l
power ge nerated. \\ illd illg t r
A s usual in engin eering, a compromise is requi red b!.: twcc n the l· lJ ilnil1 gc~ls t s of ilil d b) "1ll:1I
losses and capital cost which increases as loss level s tk creasc. Under a ny givt' n set thl.' i,) l1 gl..:
of circumst'lIiccs an optimum co nditi o n <:an be foulld by :Ipplyill n c;l pit ali,.;atio l1 \\\ 0 ((.til

t ; ,

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,,' 1)ISTRII1UTlON TRAN.5FOK1'o I fRS 211
•<
of 10»!> method s. Il owcvc r. for th e Inulytuuc of tlilTcrcnl situati ons in a
'"ply dislli bu til )1\ lh.:l wlI lk it would 110 t be' econol11ic In tlv ~ igl1 o r 11l;\Illlnu..: lurc
ay be
trallsform ers of the ~a ll1 c rating wi th lllan ~, tlil1'c l c Jlt lo:;s k:vcls. '(hcl'cfon.:, for
Ihe 1111'0
:-- l1 a ti OIl
distribu tio n pllrposes, nn ave rage or t ypic~l siluati on 11l~ly be lI sed to ticlcl'lninc
, ' standard los!\cs. However, for the largen tranSfOl'll h.:r silcs, parlicu1:Jrly for
'.' li t inn,
i lldll ~ lI ial l.:ustull1e rs. it !lIay be worth cOI) ",deri ng indi \' id ll;1i GISes, Th e I.:lIs tOI11Cr
,r urban
will II sually spec ify the loss Jc~c l, or 1:1\ "jbly :tl tc lll:tti\c Inss 1c\l:ls h :qllirco,
) f OI'Olcrs
Wil e re loss levels arc specified, til e designc(s proble m is ba, ie: di y Ihat uf i1nding
,
ovide
the best compromi se between l1lanufaclud~lg Cos lS alld lu:hllica l cO II:- id cr:ltions,
I. I The m o re lrall "f rmers Ihat can, through at:cl:plalh,:~ uf slandan.l o e!' i gll ~,
Ihan oil,
',; r I)'pe
c\ ell t tI<I II)' be I1l:ltlC 10 one design, Ihe gre)ller is t hc cl1'ul t ;t t t L.:Uud ng cos t s o n that
1 rs arc d c,igll Ihal ca n be juslified. '\
tilers arc Si1Il'1.! i rOil Ins\c$ are ;,11 \\,;I)'S prese nt . while copper IllS~1.!5 :I I I.! 0 111y inell n co wI! ile
elio t
cCll'ryin g I'c vcnu~ earn in g loaos. th ere is a tenuen cy, ('.,ped .llly Oil !->Illall unit s for
I lIl'al distr ibu tio n wit h low loa d fa clor, for the ratio or iro llto co pper iosses 10 be
Vf,;fY low, For cX:'llllple. in the spcci lkatio n gi ve n ill ICrL' l ellCe I t hc rati o is
; IJlIH' o~i l1ltlldy 1106,5 , up to lOOOkYA ratin g, Thi s I;I tio is lower'thnn is Ihe
pl':Jc..:liL'c ill Illost oliler c..:o ulilrics, lI owcvc;r, with I'l.: \'i~l: d bulk t:lrirT's- 'hcrc is a
te nu e ncy to ckcreasc the n lti o at least 0 11 the larger stIes, The ralio to give the
Ill ost el..'onom iL:a I pcl'fo rl1lancc in a panicu I" r sit \1<1 t iUIl III \I~tllOt be co n fu sed wit h
the 1':lliotl1:1 1 givcs th~ highest electrical efficiency, Sil1l(' ,tilc assessed costs o f the
iron and copper losses per kilowatt arc usually f;Ir fi lim cqua l.
sla , dard Thc other f.lctor required by the designer is the l'..: rl..' l'll tage rC;lc\ancc of the
, 1 ,~ ), for Iransformer, Low vulues of reactance illcan 10\\,-\ oll;It'e rql ulation , For the lange
:! manu- frum 100 to 1000 kVA thc usual rcactulH:c valuc is (1I..' I ',\ I,.'l ' l1 t1 :ll1d 6';·:,. but o n Ihe
Sllta lIer ra ti ngs IO'.ve r va I tiCS may be cmployed si m::L' a ll; t' lu: tI f;llllt ell Ir e 111 will fa ll
proportionally to th e rat illg at constant reactance, 'I h·.' I. \·.., t ora Iran:,fulllle f' is
little :1rT'cc ted by ' th e ac tual reactance va lue over a fai l:l), \\ i(1L' ran ge u f' \' ; illl ~S , In
maJ.-ilig fault ca lculation s for secondary circ ui ts. Ihe I. I' nll iu ul iu ll ( ) f' Ih f,; primary
;c ~19ra ting network is rarely completely negligible anti sho liid b\,,' lu l,CII into ill.'CO\lnl.
II Ictwccn
I ' 0f
unty L
,.,
I
nsfo rmcrs
I

s~cll on
rhafn is of 9.3 CORE CONSTIWCflON
, :y of all
(.;\,; th e cos t The S\l bjeel o f cores is S\I bs tanlially dea lt \Vii h ill' h.J er4 ;\s dese ri bed ill
I '
)[01'01' 11011 4,2 the corc llIat erial is invartably cold ·wllcd 91 ;!i Il-on cnled :-. Icel, exccpt
i :ibution occasiollally in the very smallest transformcr ~ i /t.:S, ·l lli s l11all! ri ~i1 cna bles low iron
~ ~\ /slrong losses to be obtai nt.:d in an CCO IlOIll ic Ill:! 11 ncr. 'I III 1' e· I ~ Il:l st.: II a IlSrn rlll t l'S :t rc o f I he
nin ~ costs, core type (sec scc ti o n 4,3), Sin gle-phase cores arc lI ~l1 ; tl l y of Ihe sa lil t.: I) pc r:lthcr
) II e tOlal th an of s hcll fo rill , a s thi s gives better cooling orthe c~·i l s. allJ th t.: im:rca scd cos t in
winding two sets of coi ls is more than orTsc t by th c ~ 1 ~I ;tlil.;r IllC<lnlurn o flh e I.'o ils
ng fosts of anti by smaller Iluln bc r of core plates that ha \'e 10 be ( lit ;llld built. Frequ enlly also
)"£ ve n sel Ihe I ~)nl!c/' clrect hlc leg Iengl h of t he single- pha ~e \"'Ol'\'" I) I'C, w it ic h is I he !' UIlI Ihe or ',:
a isalio n two cui l lengths" cn:lbles the req uired n.::;u:lalll,.'c til be obtai ll L'd ill a lIl ore
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7. 12 ~ ' ODl ' /{N pow ,·/{ 'R '\i'.'SIOI,\ II I{ ,' j( ,\ t 'II':

cC0110miC:'1 1 m;1l1 IlCr. The !IulIl ber of steps ro r stcp pclf·(ore st.'C tiulls is usually portions. ;
between fivc li nd "iC VC Il , th e choicc being tk tcf'ln ineti by th e vailles of strip wid ths join t, wit'
aV:li l:1ble in th e rna nuraetu rer's ran ge; th e cost of the co re is almost im/epclIcil'n t of operat io n': (.
111f.; Jllllllh!,;/' or ~ r t,'ps ;Ict ll :lll y c,,· lllplo yc d. Il ;l\'~ b c!,;'
Mitn,,: ul.:orn e..: r j u in l s ill sl!';a d or square o\'l.' rl aps arc eOll llll unly U'H:ti 10 rrdul'c wh ich It;!,
t he add it io n;lI lu",'i or l'O f'n crs (sec su b-set:t iOIl 4.3.3). \V it h sq U.. II e ovcrl:! p j oi n ! s it illscrted' a i'
is possible to im:rt.!il sc the sec ti on of the yokl.:s to oblai n lower losses lind noise Ihe £"11S
Ic\\:1 wi tho ut :du.: rin g tile space avai lable 1'0 1' thc windings, ;1 Y0 kc sections up to nu iil t c rnh,~di
2 0 /~ greatcr Ikln the leg secti o ns nrc em pl oyed by some make rs. O n n typica l Ih is t) _ ' ut
5()O kVA tran <,J(} rmcr. the li se of square ovcrlap corc joints \\'it l ~ th e yo "e cross- Fo r th roc
seet io n 10 0<: grL';l ll.' r I ha 11 I he leg sect io n gh'cs :II'PI'O.'( illl:! tely I hc ~a lllC l o~s a s I he three-leg I
lI 'tCo r11litnx l L'OI flc rj nill ls and eqlla l 1cganti yo ke secti o ns bUI :llll1ecos l oru!o<ing twO place..:
lIl orc iron. The ("utting ilnd bui ldin g ofmilrcu corcs lend s 10 require morc labour l'ons t,itllcnt
:Iud more exp(; lI ~ ivc eq uipment , but, wilh reaso nably l a rgc ·sc~lI l! produc tion, th e is about }
h" I;II lt.:c uf :lChanta ge is in fa vo ur of mi tred co res. used up t
" " ;dlt; IIl:ll i\c IIlel llOt! o( ;Ivniding CO l III.:I' losses is to u:-;c :- Ilip- wu ulld l:(l rcs. plutcs. The·
For "i inglc-pha ') c ull its these are wOllnd f, om a continu ous 511ip of grain ·oricnted co re wou l '
stee l, so Ih ~11 the dirct.·l ion o f o pt imulll orie nt atio n is everyw here pa rnllel lo Ihe circu lar \)
flu x pat hs. Oy c.:/flployin g spec ial wi nd ing mac hines, it is poss ible to wind co ils 0 11 n This ar J'all ~
d osed core, th e winding bei ng support ed dur ing wind ing by a co llapsible mandrel co llside r,i1)1
placed ro und Ih e co re legs, and driven by gcars on Ihe end of Ihe mandrel. Ihe ' Fordi ,
Ill:llldrel being rl'm oved after the winding is co mpleted. Th e losses o n suc h all or tnpe, lL

1I 1H': 1I 1 core ;Irtcr il l1llea ling will he sC:IJ'cdy mo re than the los"c.:s o f the mat eria l Co re bolis
Illl't1 sured 0 11 a n Epsle in square test (see figure 9. 1). \Vilh this l Jld h o d \I.:ry low ci'"]J pcJ
Ihe la{ge,
may e a si
to p :),llJ l~ ~
sent·to "
, thee
\\' 11/; 11
U-shaped I
f ·to
o a :om';!l!' I)ha ~ (' \I/I('ul woul'ld co,~
rods 11 5 0 ,
b !llIt' t' nt'(I"f' unCu l WOUtld co.e \\ inding
C mokt'r~ publi:.hed (u'ye 10' cpsle,n !,o .... ples
d 5 10(' ~ l.'d 101)(' 0 ( a re the main c
0.5 • I.' "' ocked bOI ll'd CO' t'
o n'IQ\o.CI\ ,;!uo,on1ee fiqu'l.'s
sho rt ·cil
Fili x Ii
1 _ _ L _ _ _ 1_ _ _ 1_ _ Ii mil noise
1
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 7.5 j.O . ...
iron l o s~ ""
10 101 CO Il' IO';~ ~W( 0.9 kr.;J,.1 1
requireJ

9.4 \\, 1
losses havc bee n obtni nco fo r rural po lc- nwlIlllcu IranSrOllllc rs lip to I UO kVA,
ro r f.:x:lIll plc :lbO llt 22 \V o n a 5 k V!\ trall:- ro rmcr. To avoid th e U"C of :. pcda l coi l-
wind i Ilg 111:1 chincs, it is possihie to cOIl'wlida Ie Ihe core by hl1 nd i Ilg t hc j"d i\ id lIa ) I\. g.... Il l' I
turns toge lher wi lh cpoxy resin alld thclll Ocut it into \w o l1al\ cs throu gh Ihe leg

" ---I' -~f

.,.;. ........ "'t'-::,- ''''':1f'''~~:'''';" I ,;! 00:."-:'-" - .... "T' ", •

I .'~~·I:· \;f1·~'J.:~,:·'I' .i·.

~,~.•. ,., ': _;!'~Ji 'p' ,.i}.·I~: )l: I '"
 .."' OI STRIDUTION TRANSFORMERS 213
'/ f .
po rt 'ons, The CUi races arc th en g ro und and etched 10 ob lai n" close-filling bu ll
)';" 'hs jqi n,l. without bridging of the inl crlami nar insulation by burrs. but these
op<.;:rt1lions co n ~ itlt: rably ill c r~a sc the core Joss. Vnri ous form s of 'lake-apart' co re
" It liaye bee n "eveloped an d used in Ihe USA, ro r trans ror m ers up 10 10010200 k VA,
: edu 'e wl lieh have lurns cui individually, o r in sma ll groups so Ihal Ih e co re ca n be
i I ~ it
H,
I': in ser ted it portion Ht a time into the coils and so reassembled to give a core with
. ) 15(: 1') ,'" sa ps usua ll y di s lri b ul cO"'a lo ng the legs. The losses or s uch a co re arc
,
s u P 10
'
'inlcnllCdin !c be twee n th ose ota cutand an uncut wound core. Manu fac ture of
,: 'al
, 0 55-
1, i}
. • ~ I,

' Ih,s Iype or co,e Illay have s larte,d a lso elsew he re.
: For th n:c-plw sc transrormers, three wound cores ca n be co mbined to give a
•
'

; as the th ree-kg tYPl! ~t)l'c. l·i th c r c'u'" or uncut, th e third co re being woulld over the other
r " IWO placcd ~idc by side (sec figure 4,7(e)), Flux rediSlribuli o ll be lwee ll Ih e Ih rce
I'l~~ eo'n s lilU clIl corcs I"kes place in Ih e, y~kes, wilh Ih e res ulllh"llh e specific iro n loss
:"1, he is about 30',%; llit;hcr thn nthat for a single-phase wound corc. The uncut form is
used up to JOUkV /\, with nuvantagcs ovc r a cO ll ve ntional co rc built up from
,[es, plat es. Tlu..t)Il·1 i,:11 co nsiu crali oll s suggest th al th e idea l furm of it thrccw phasc
',.l1led corc woulJ han; the cores disposed at the co rn ers o f an cq llilatend triangle, with a
I iolhe so
circu lar 0 1" tl i<lllglllar yoke, th at complete symmetry between legs is ~I\.: hi cvcd .
On a T his arr ... ngcnk nl has been useo by some European rnalluf<1l.:1un:rs, but th crc arc
I rei considerable r~h';l.: hallicf.aI difficulties in co nstructi on.
I
For distribt;ti on-s ize tran sformersco rc laminationsare held loge lht.:f by mca ns
of tape, usually 1.:0 11 0 11 webbing, wound on th e Icgs wh ile th ese me under tension.
Core bolts arc no longer used on th is size of trrlns forrilc r. Yokes arc usua ll y
cla mped loge lh er be l ween s lee l sec ti o ns by bo lt s eX le rnallO Ih e co re, Ih o ug h o n
th e largest s i L~s or distribution transrormcrs where co re ma sscs cx ~cc d 1 t, th ere
lIlay be a s i" gl" bo ll Ih rough eac h yo ke o n the ee"ll'e lin e o r Ih e m iddle leg, T he
top ilnd 00([ 9111 core cla mps are cOllnected by tic rods out side th e win dings whi ch
servc to:l ppl f t.: nd cia 111 pi ng press ure onlo I he wi nd in gs and to tl ist ri bllle the mass
when til t.: COI:I.: an ti win uings arc ·lifted. Wilh wound co res, on th e Sl1w lt sizcs, th e
U-shapcd l: I::m p l.'llc loscs the LOp and botto m yokes, :111<..1 with 1I1ln lt l'ur.;s th e ti e
rods usu:l1 ly pass insklc Ihe co ils in th e space Icn by thc ft.:l1loval of th e l.:ollapsi blc
, A llh ough s uch lie rods a rc ins iJ e Ih e coi l, Ih ey do no t e nc irc le
willliing Illa"drel.
the main CO l' '; nux and so do not require insulation to prevent th em acting as
sh ort~ci rcllitling Lur'ns.
F lu x Je" s/Iies a rc nominally 1,65 T, but lowe r va lu es arc emp loyed ill o rd er 10
li mi t noise :!IHJ switching inrush curren ts for th e larger sizes and to 'Ob tain low
iron losses 9 n Ihe s m a ll rural Iypes, Ir low no ise leve l o r iron loss is spee ir, cally
requi red, Ihe nux den s ilies may be reduced to as low as I.OT.

9A W IND ING CONSTRUCflO N

I,
A gc nc..:ral t;·cat lllc..:nt on wi ndings is give n in chapter 5.
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9.4.1 Low-yoll age "illrlillgs .(

'1
Low-voltage windin gs ;lrc pl,l ced nearest the CO~~: ~ i n t'c th e in sulat ion !C\'cl
rcqui red is lo w. No rma l practice is to usc hclicnlly wGl'ml cni ls. ,\ rl :l xi:d cl,)n liil g'
du ct is Il o rnl;!lt )' pro\· j(kd inlhc nl1dd lcofth c radia l d i lj l c ll ~ ; () Il. :rr)( 1 r<) t' the l!! r eC f
r;l tin gs th e co il wi ll proo:tbly be o f ollly two laycrs::r o r the h":ilv;,' r currents, .
mul tiple rec tan gular str ip condu cto rs fire wound j n pa i'allcl, \\;1 11 I r:lll spns iti oIl S"
at the mid -point of the windings. Alth ough thea rcti '1 )' tl L'" i1;r h1c ir 1\)("1 11.: Ih ;r l1
two conductors r;ldi ~111y a rc WOUIlU in pa r;, illcl. tran sp osi tiul1,\ :1 1 11" 11,' tha n one ;>
point arc nOI al wnys economic:llly jtl sli fit:d. \Vith an Cxcll llulnhl: r Cl l' byl'l's in the >
co il, a single transpositio n placc u a t the end of a 1:.I)'cr \\ hid l i, 11 11': 010:-, [ >
>
cOll ve nient po~'i t i o n - i s ort cn sulTicicllt.
COllductor ,overings lIsed arc paper and cnanlcl (i>\ZA ), cnilllH.: 1 hcill~ sligh tl y ~
cheaper. In lcrlaycr insulation, 'if req uired in add it io n to coo l illg du \.:[s. is
press board. S pir~ 1 co ll a rs of press hoa rd or sy nth etic r cs in ~ l hilH kd p:rJ'l' r, whic h
b
has gn:al c,: r Illc, hanical slrl'll gth , :lrc t;ll'cd to the end turn ... 10 p rl)\ ide Oat end
11\
stllfaces fo r supports and to s upport (he o pp o~ jtc lay of adjaccnt la) \.: r.... If the
hi gh ~vo l t ;1 ge will din g co nsists of more Ihan o ne helical co il or is II di ~ k winding
with tappings. spa cin g co llars Illay be required in the low·, n1t :lgc windin g to
Ill;] in tain t he. sa me ax ia I am perc turns d i ~ t ribu t iO Il as in the highM vo lt rl,Cc winel ing. Figure.:
On singh;· pha se IrnnsfQrlllers o f co rc I)pe, the co ils on the two Iq;s 1I1<1y be
co nnected in series o r pa rallel, as oo l1\'cll icnt. Where it is n ~I:L''''''; 1I y to mak e n
tra nsforme r to giv e either a vo lta ge V in I wo Mw ire COIIlIl't' t i\"l 11 or IhG \('I ltagc
V - 0 V ill thrce· "irc co nnec ti on, it meth od of CO IlIl ~c l i o n l,.l f two Ivw. vpl lage as·l3 . Ie..
hnJfM windillgs is used. The nccessary b.t1allcc of rcacl3ncc to th l.: hi~ h · \ o lt "gc rou[lJ r~
windin g and o f res istan ce of the two ha lf·windin g!' is achieved with lI , jll ,l; fo ur sin/liar typ
co ils in total. f'or OJ sma ll tran sfo rll1e r. two co ncentric pail " :lll' \\( "11' 01 p i l l' 4,1 11 ""ll'lu, d,
a!~lJw; ,"
c<ll: h h:tl f o fth e leg k ll glh alld " 1c.:c r I)Ss · l'lln l1 c..: t c d,a ss h O\ ~ 11 in ri!.~~I1 \ ' 1/ ' (:1), ,\ hi le "

wit h a co rc;- type cUllstruct io ll [hl: sa llle e/Tcc t is ob t;rilleo hy \', il ''! ;' lg two !la mes.
f\ f ulti q',
co ncentric cO,il5 0 11 each kg and cr oss-con nct: tin g. as shown in n ~JI: \ I) "lIb). 1
tra nsfl. \ 11.;
allo\\ " , .~ s
9.4.2 High· nlll:r gc ,\illdings o\'e r;.1I1 ~pa(
:Irc usc 1) 11
The 111 0s 1 co mm on form oflli gh.volla gc winoing is th e hdil'a ll) \\1111,,-1 , i ,dillg
II:.I vc a :)(1
with PYA cna mdlcd or paper·covered rOJl nd wire. Uy \\inding ( \\0 \'.i ll'S in
For singl
pa rallel. which a rc t hl:aper til :ln a strip o f the same area. il is PI..ISS i bILl to ll,C thi s
leg are " " 01
form lip \0 IOOOkVi\ 6.6 kV del ta -co nnec ted windings. The ntllll l",, ' ~,rr,' il s in
pa ralic en
seri es on cel eh leg varies fr om Olle 10 fOllr ro r vQ 1t:J ges up 10:t J k V. TId . . II:'I~~ ,1r,o il
has a reasolla ble Sp:ICC fnt.: tor :Ind exce llent sIJrge ·,'olt :rgc lI i. . llibllli, ' 11 , :l lu l il is
l'; I"'Y In l)b t :J ill l.! II~\ d l'\)o lin g by in ~!'; 1 ti ll g: l xi;1i du t.: ts inlhc windillg. I h, . Ila)l.'r 9. 1,3
\ oll'lgc is co nsi d cl a ble \)[ llhe larger ratin gs where th e IIll lllbl.:r p Cb )I ' 1,; I 1'1 ~', hilt
rhe 11 ' 1 1, 1
pre~s h o ard in ~ lIlat jo n Illay be lI$cd 10 m:lint ain a sare val uc "f ill il.:r! \) ' 1 '. (Il'SS .
vo lt age V;II j
Th e choice of the /lumber o f coils in series is depcndcnt 0 11 (he kg \ ,'·1 1. 'r . .· :11".1
is a bo\ ,II I
:dl o\\':l blc intcrJa yCf stresses, but sin gle co ils ca n be useu ",ali .. ral' !lll ily up to
<:h,l l1 l;l ' fo
rili ng' n r :11 Iens t 1000 k V1\ at 11 k V p hase volt age. For 10\\(: ( 1':1I L' d ' 1,lt ... '''; "' lIdl

\ I
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, , 1: t ,
"' 1•• ' {,~ ,., .,i ,.
.\'r'- ;I
 ,

I I> IS IIUIlUIION IJ(A NS I O IC\ lFIlS

;r

(aJ (b)
) .. Ipvcl
,t oling
, -
lClarge r
:urr9nls,
( t lOllS "

;,li ;nt:~~
Il lhe
loost

, "gh lly
I
I IS, is '
r. which
IIV LV LV HV LV LV LV LV !-IV
r '>I'lcllti
, If Ihe LEG A LEG B
\\ JII~ lin g
lcling to
\ td in g. Sl:rics.par:L1Ic1 arrangclI1l:IlIS ror low-voltage windings: (a) flJr ~ h(:l1 · t )' pc
rigurc 9.2 it
... tty be transfor mer: (b) rOf a I.:orc- I)'pc tmmfOflllcr
"'" kc a
lltage
)l,Iage
L·voltage
as 13 o r 6.6kV in st;lr co nnection, wilen the Clirre nt illlhc co il is t a high ro r
rOlln d wires, Slrip conductors insulated wit h en<.1 l11el o r paper ca n be lIsed wit h a
,,'".,
sim ib r type o r winding. Press- paper nnd pressboard coll ars or c<..ip.; strips are i.; :. f
i ; rour ,, ,,"
,~

ne o n Clll pl l»),cd :IS o I11ow-yo ll:lge co ils; th ey arc arranged to ~IO p ~ h ol' t oi'lhc yokc.;s to
\:1), \yh ile allow aCcess nf oi l lo L'oolillg du cts, tllc coils bei ng ~ lIpporteJ by hh 'lk ... rr oIL t.l lic
rr;Hlles.
r'
I
irl!.~ Iwo · ·
) (b), Multi ·sec ti Olla l coils arc rarel y found ill llloJcrn designs ror oi l·coo led
tral\~rorlllc rs . bu t th ey ma y be nCl:cssary 0 11 AN class C Iransf'ntrncrs whcre
allowable stresses are smaller. They are morc expc nsive to wind and hare a lowe r
oyera II space factor I ha 11 hclica l co ils, Disk co ils wi t It rec ta Ilgu la r st riP cOJlll llcto rs
I
IlllinS al e used 011 sOll\e laq;c r ratings. Lik e ll1ulti · s!,,~('ti nll: " coi ls tltey nrc cxpc nsi\'c and
, I , have a poo r surgc-vo!t;q;c Jist ribution.
WlrjS III for si ngle-pha se transformers of the co rc type Ihe high-\'o ltage coils on each .I; - ~ ...
) , this
: ) Is in
leg arc t:'Oll llc( tcd in series ror sl1l:d l r;llings, where thccurrcnt is to O low lojus tiry " ',,"
.)C 0 co il
parallcl co nuuclors, a nd in parallel on hi gher rat ings, r ".
"

:, ··d it is
daycr 9.4.3 T:q)pillgs
t ":.' ,

.'
J(: W. bu t
cr st ress. The normal prllcticc is to provide hi gh-vo ltage laps 10 allow adjustmen t ror
I ;c and
\'oll:I1;e varia tion s 0 11 tlte hi gh-vo lta ge side. T npping ra nges or lip to 1: 10 %, that
is nbove ill1 d below ratcd vo lta ge. ma y be required. The cos t o f o n· lml u tnp
IJ up to
l:11:lI1gl' rs for th e ratings co nccrned ill <.Iistri blll ion tramifo rl tlc rs is pru hibilivc.
Lgc slsllCh

t'

"'I -_ow, ..--- --..- ....

, .
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216 \10 1If I{N POWE R IIlAN SrOIlMFn !' IlAC ! KE

except in..,~· c ,.y :\ 1'~'I..: i;tl t :' ' 'I.!S. Tap-aujusting switches a rL'" lIsct! with ex tern:,1 ha ndles ( o il' :lnu ' I
operated, oilly \\ h.:n the transfor mer is unexcited . O n pole-mou nl ed tran s ro r~ tur ns req tl l
mers, ,a\ed al cOO kV A or less, Ih ere arc inl erna l hnk boa,us in place of lap must bl!j it
swil cllc$('
\Vith m lllti -~('.: ti nlla l or d isk coilf th e tripping section is placed ill the (t..: l1 trc of
To oo tai ' I
""-:111 011 1y I
the wi rl'dill g. to I1winlai n electrica l balance. This is also a po int of mi nimu lll on the inti
inlcrtu'fn slt rgc-y()lt ;1gc :-. Ircss. T he windin gs arc tl sllally so a rr:l ll gc u tha t lhe f:,pS \\" ;lh ::, I<lI 1('
Call be ii,ad c o n the oul er layc r o f the co il, fo r cO II\'Cni l'lll'C n f l 'O I1I HX' ti o ll . With whl!rl! t h' I
single !ieal high-\ olt ugc coi ls il m:iy be Illcchallically'.d illkul t to bl'ing ou t laps insulati o n ;
frol11 the mill -po int or th e 'Co il. bu t it is pO$<.; iblc t o usc laps o n th e ou lcrrno' l Ca n..: IIl 11 .. t '
layer s. til~ t j... al Illl' n l~i<.;h o flile winding. It rnll ~t be re rn~ l llb\'Tc:d 111:11 Ihi~ cnd r f :111(1 th at 1
tire wi lld illg (::111 hI' ll1a t to' wh ic:h a ~ lI l'gc H"' ll age is ill' pl j~d , in \\ hil.:h c;r:.1.! Ikt.:!" . ·...
ITI1cctions f'I'Olll II to.: I IHl s u f I he p or t iOlls o f I he wi lId i ngs 1h:r I do no l ell IT)' <.: u I'rCIl{ unualanc l;(
on mi"nim uJ11 tap Call t:i \ C hi gh va illes o r, s.urgc vollage bctwccn laps, up to 25 %or helix ;lnL I'

the applicd surge H>lt<lgC. I t is, however. quit e fe(lsiblc 10 insulatc be t wee n tap hi gh \(d'
co nl1ec tion s f(II' [Ir is \'a lt re o f surge. stress at up to I I kV rntc:d \·u llage. fu il all d Cl
\Vh en made at [h ~ ck<.: tri t'al ce ntro. o f th e legs. l aps al'e so arranged tha i a ca Ul 'ie, 1 [
po r I ion frolll ~al' h !r:l lf o f tire winding is disco llllccicu i n turn, th us gi" illg tensil e r\
lllinim 'llll amperc lur 11 lIn balance J:>c twccn the two ha l\'cs. Il owcvcr, o n co rc~ s h o rl ~dll.:lt
ty pc single-plmse (fan:- i'Ol"lncrs with th c hi gh ~ vo lta ge coi ls o n th e two legs
cO llllccted in se ries it may be necessary, if thc l ow ~ vo l ta gc co ils arc cO llllec ted in
co nst nlC!
thall in I
ij
pa rallcl, 10 rCI110 \'C~'I I ,,;rlllll nr lJC r s o flurn s fro muo th Icgr;; 0 11 c\l; ry tap po ~ i l i o n: hi gh. illt ,,,
oth erwise u nhn l:ltll 1''\ :lltl lll'l"c.: lurn s \\'i ll pr Odl!cc.: or cirCllbtilll,! CUII l: llt hl.: ! \\·l:L' 1l
tire low-\" oll :rgc \.."\,i l, 111 1 11r..: Iwo legs,
- I
9.5 ) 1',\"
9..1.4 Jl ig h- 10 IO\\- \lI!r :'gC insulation
,
('oil::; o.fllle rat in J;~ 1..'1ln .. id\.· l n l arc sullkk nt ly robus t to he sd f" uP Jl ll llin g C\l.:C pt r,(;"" I
a t th e lowl!s t r;1 1il1r'l i l11 d hi[ hcst vo ltage, over II kY. TIr ~ j l1 " IlI ~lli o n l>C t\\'Cl: 11 t ~;II.· 1..,I Jr" :~c
bigh- and l ow-\olla ~w Lni ls co nsists of ,,' !lumber o f wraps or pr~ss bo;Jrd a nd smalle r ~il
usua lly it se t o f S P ;h":l· I'I. r:n n no n-se lf-s upportin g coi ls can he Il liH.1c wil ho ut Ihe sllla r
indiviuual SUp pu rl ir \\O Ulld directly o lll o th e low-voltage '("'o il alfd insulatio n uut doOl .'
during wind ing. il1'.k;u.I o f bc.::i ng wound and ~ rectcd ind ividua lly. On larger iIl St :rll\.·CS \
ra tings a cO llsidcf.l hk '. j'; lCe bdwec n coi ls is required to obtain th e speci fi ed p;llticul I
rca(:t:r ncc: 1his ~ p;ll"l: l.'; '11 \ t'll icn t Iy f 0 1'1115 :1n oi l·cooli Il g d lICI. O n t he smalles t si les lill~ b tl
uf Irn n:;; fo r llll.: r s lh ~ d i:a l ;IIICCS req ui red to o bta in th e rcaC l al1~C l11ay bt too SlIlall Up 10 ,
10 allow for a cool ing',duc l. The axia l du cls in Ihe co il s arc necessa ry 10 pro\"idc !\ .
coo ling. However, as I,he leakage nu x encloseu by Ihe UUCI docs nO ll ink wilh Ihe
pUll"" "1
I ah\ ays I
, o r I !lese <lllC! s o n t he react a tll'C i, Il lUl'h I I..·!'~ 111:111 ir I he
wllo lc o f I he co il. tilCcll"c<.:! ei lIiCI' CIII.·
~; "ll e ~ p:tcc . or C\'l'1I 1r.1I r tl f' i[, wc re n !\~ d rn r;r coo lin g duci hl· !\\ I.'l; n th ~ \\ il1d i ll g ~. r:\di:l l ~lrs
Certai, \
ulili ~cd t
9.4.5 Fo il" indinl! 'j
1I1 0\IIl I ~ d
Irthc co ndu cto r is in t ,IC rorm ora w id !.! th in ro il, it is possible t t) win d coi ls wilh ill cr .... :I:: r
only onc turn per l a)"c ~' . wi th good Iho.: rm al ~O ll dll C li \' it y o ut to th e cdg('~ of the

~ ......... .
.. .., ... ,..,I't\'"
, .... ""\.~.-.

\
".: '..):
•
 ---_.....
'.
1'1
,:!
t",
DISTR IBUTI ON T/V\ NS I' O lt fo,II;KS 2 17 .t
.,'
-/
,/'·1 '
l'oi ls nlld vcry low eddy current losses. For high·\,oll:'gc co nditions the IllIl11bcr of
"
llIfil S n;qll ircd is such (h.lt even wi th the thinnest foil a lIumber of Ilarrow coils
Inus! bcjoin cd ill series. Unfortunately this has:\ poo r s urgc· voltagc di:-. tribu l ion.
To oulain a rCilsonablc space fnc tor overa ll for t'he wintling. int crturll in sulation ~ , .

1 !I
'.'
of,
(.'<1 11 on ly be a small fra ction ofa millimetre thick. The f'C5 u/lalll pea k surge stress ,'1
UI1
: laps on thl: illh; rlllrn insulation is high. Satisfactory thin ins ulation which will "
'Vilh withstand the stress Illust be free frbill pin-holes, On low-voltn ge CQ il ~ . howcver, "
where the number o f turns is small, mlH: h thic.:ker foil is required. Satisfactory if

' ''~;il
in sulati on as a film (lpplicd to the roil. or as interka\'I.: J lI1:l tcrial, call be obtai ned, '; i
nd 0 Ca re llIu st be taken th:lt thc IBm of ins ulation is tlnbrokcn at the edgcs of the foil ,I I
ill

alld tha t :l lly intericaving material must exlcllu beyo nd the etl gcs, I
's ,I
': 11
Orca use each turn in low-voltage wihlli ngs is the full widt h o f the coil,
( ,jI
unba lanced I1lcch:lnical forces rounu the <.:oil pcrimeter produced by the large
i%or
, "P IIc li.--: :tngles o r the co ils arc climillatctl, If the wintling is Illade lon ger tha n the :''.,1
high -vo ltage winding, the int el'll:}1axial forces (b:dalll.:ed on.: rall) arc ten sile ~Il the
foil ilnd cUlnpressivc in the high-voltage \\' indint~, Cum pressivc fO I L'e~ 'HC, of .,;
.,,-
na! a ,
~; .. :118 course, Illllch Illo re eas il y withstood by a coil with lIla ny turn s pt,;r Ja )cr th.w ,~
I'r
d
re- tensi le forces, whereas th e-full width fo il has guod , 1,\ i:.l 1 tensilc strength, The
: ,1
- legs shor t-ci rcuil strength of this construction is th erefore vc ry high, This Illeth od of
led in co nstru ction has been cXl~n s ivcly used in USA where reac tances [Ire much lower
II II' I'
) 11 '

"
' ''"n in Srilish practice (sec sub-section 9,8), Whcn Ihe lllarket price of co pper is
high, <lluminiuJ1l foil low-vo ltn ge windings can bt,; ju stifk d ccono lllicn lly, n
; 'I
-<I I
I
I,
9.5 TANK CONSTItU(.TION AND COOLING , I'
,
) ' pt ,, "
:cn Tank s arc norm a lly rectan gu lar ill shape and are co nstructed rro m llI ild steel in I

thickncsses of 4 to 6111 11'1 . OlTasionally cy ljlld ril.:~" shapes :I re employed ror the

Iji
I and
~ malJer sizes, On the large r siles various fo rms ur tank stirrcllcrs arc II l'cdcd, but
Ih f)Uft
, th e smaller sizes can be maue adequately rigid wi th o ut ~ tilrcllas. Cu \'crs for t I
, on
, !
.0 gc~ o utdoor lI SC are required to be formed so tlwt raill l::l llnot lodge on Ihl.! lll, In most
instances co vcrs arc bolted on, but quick- rd case type o f fa slcm:rs II lil) be used, ,!
cinch
, l~ , ,
particularly when it is necessary to removc tbe CU\cr to ob tnin a cl'C~S to ta pping-
link boards, ' ,I
~~;~~ r
Up 10 abou t 50 k VA the surface area of plain lank s is adequate for COO IUlg
I :"k
Ihe
I
•
purposes, Above this rating addit iollal coo ling s urfilccs ~lrC needed, a nd these are
a lways integral wilh the tank , The ex tra surfaces lIlay be provided by Ilibes of {II' I '
I ei ther circ ular or ellip tica l cross-secti o n directl y in sert ed il1l o the lank wa lls or by
lings. '/ ;,
I
1
1':tlii;l tors huilt fro m tubes sct int o headers o r Uuilt rl' O I11 pressed-stee l sec ti ons,
Cl!II:li ll tk:-.igns of radiators enable the space at th e co rn ers of th e tan k to be
I utili sed for ext ra cooling surface in a way Ill a t is lI u l f\1 :lclka l \\'1111 dirL:c lly d i',~
"

,
; wi lh I mOllllted tu bes, and thc usc of radia tors occupying these corner spaces is I .' ,
"
illl.:n. a~i l1 g, 1 ~ .• 1
Ihe I

I
I ,.
- -
_... _""'-""';- T
,.
;
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~I
218
I
MOOEItN POW ER mANSI ORMJ; lt I'RA c n CE
II'
tank
, Ii
JI1 0 l
I
9.6 TERMINAL AHfiANGEMENTS -,, breathe r, a
I ';
I ,I 9.6.1 Pole-; llIotJlltcd outdoor transforlllers
occasio n,, '[
.1 Ii ~ . t r~ul s fOl'l1
:1 II Sheuded porcelain bushings arc e;\1plo),e<l ror lerm inal conneclions o n bOlh Ihe la rge r trlu
.', . r~ JllOvab1c,
, :ij
I.
,I
high ~ and loW-vOIt;:I£C winding!;. The bnshings arc of Ihe one-hole lixing
demo ullt able type. Insulating loc king strips arc co nn ec ted betwee n th e inside
ends of t he cond lIctint\ SIems, so t ha I j n t he event of tla mage t he out er (j I Ii ngs ca n :
1110untcd
lugs ali i...
I
I "
be unscrewed and one porcelain at a lime can be rcpT?lccd \vitho ul access being r .1J thl: IITl Oll lcl

'j
I,

I required 10 Ihe insidG or Ihe lank , Ih ough il is necessa ry 10 lower Ih e oil level 10 l',";.' Il1ecO vci
replace at Icast the high-volta ge pOf'ce lains. Low-vo lta ge bushings nrc usually , Iype a ll ,
Illollnled horizonla lly o n Ihe side o rlhe lank and Illay be mOllnl ed above oille"cl, I p<'sition ;Ill
si nce Ihe voltage slress level on Ihe inner end is ve ry low. Ca re ShOllld be laken, p .tfticu\;ld,.
•
however, to ensure tha t the termina l is not partially in a nd partially o ul of oil I large r Ih, 1
'under:1 ny co nd it io n o f ~c ,. v i cc. :- inee :111)' l.:OIl t a III ina I iOIl prc~c llt is like ly to fl oa I at a ll d, a s it :'ll;
the oil surface. Iligh-voitagl.:. bushin gs arc 1l1 0 li ll t c d at un aJlgle of 30 to 45 0 to the
vertica l, in order that the rai n sheds Illay be crrcdivc, in a pocket on the tank w~lll
remo le rrom Ihe pole. O n Ihe sillal iesl sizes il is necessary 10 splay Ihe lerl11inals
o f tCl ll pcr:
nlled in '
Th" cl
I
t
"
~
,
',.
ap:H I at th e to ps to o btain th e necessary 'in c~ t o - linc c1 c :tr;lll (c~. Th e la p o r th e arran ged I,
,:' I' terminal is only j ust higher than the top o f the tank . Double-ga p <lfcing ho rns for which c< '1
: t.. protect ion ag~insl lightning are a standard fitting. \Va Icc V:l f
j ~ I ~ " tempe ra! II
'1' 'i
9.6.2 Ground-mounted tnllls fofl11CrS l
,~~ ,' so me de " \
C (f~C ~I VC
llis h·voltage connect ions arc usually miluc in three-core paper-in sulat eu Icad·
covered cab le ror which a Ih ree· pole one .gla nd cable box is provid ed, Ir cables, 'vc,~al i V"
negl Cl. Ir
which do not require scaling ;l g~ in s l in gress of moistu re, arc tI '\cu, a recessed type
call Ibe 1 )
of porce lain is so metillles fitt ed, th e joint being cove red witl1 a but yl· rubbcr seal.
co ' rOSH
Stcm· lypc terminal s ma y he I'ittc(1 to speci.1! requirement s. r O I ind oo r usc Ihcse
tonscl'\
_ need not be shedd cd. Wh ere pos,)lb lc, they an.: fitt ed hori 7onud ly in the tank !'!ide, •
le rm ina'
bUI steml crmilwls in the CO \'cr 11l:l)' so metimes be req uired il ~ . fo r instance, whell
Ihe higlH.: r·vo lta ge supply is by uvcrl1cad line 0 11 ilil outdoor si te. 1IIII1is ca!\l!. il is
to C IIIJul t
of the mo:•
necessa ry 10 lit a co nservat or to maintain the oil level up to Ihe cover or 10 usc a
specia l arr.ll1gclllcll t of bush ing wit h a I11CI[ll1i 5ed and earthed portion reachi ng to relay is, h ~
IS nolll·
below cold oil leve l. This avoids stressing troub les wl1ic h ca n occu r if the porcelain
th CCO Il JI,.. L·
is partially in air and p:1rlially in o il or hi gher permillivily. Low. voltage
majorily C
co nnecli ons ma), be ei l her in ca ble boxes o r as ope n· lype s l c ll1l e r lllinal~, Ihe Inller
been s< r
bein g ve ry commo n for ind oo r USC', and arc no rmally provided n thc o pposite
adeqllH I
10ng side or Ihe lank 10 Ihe high' l'olta ge cable box or lerminals,
Ilo rlilall y I
COIlSC('\ "

Y.7 I'I'ITI NGS

the tall ,
cOllscnat ·
uc pOS ilS il
Tile number of type o f fittings, as wou ld be cxpct:lcd. il1 crc" ~c ,, as the Si7C and th em t< )
impur tance of the tran sformer illt.:rc:l ses. The minimum filtill L1S, additi o n:d to trall sfu •.Il

. ,,~,
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U IS 1Il III U l iO N -1 1l i\ NS I· O,~MI RS 2 19
~ . "
ta nk mounti ng a rrange ments. arc all o j l - d ra i ~j n g a nd oi l-s:lIn pl ing dev ice. a
brea ther, a meth od o f indica tin g correct oil level ( II SU;l lly an oil ga uge but
occasiona ll y a d ip stic k), an ea rthing ICfminid Rile! a ra ti ng pla te. O n thcS l11a llcr
t ra nsfo n nc rs I he o il d f a in, closed by a plug a ml ~\' i I h a sa III pIj n~ lk\'icc, a IH.1 0 11 the
)O lh Ihe larger transfo rmers a dra in va lve a rc sta ndil,.rd. UIl Jc ~ S th e cover is re ud il y
i j ll g J'cll lova l>lc. as 0 11 po le- mo unt ed types, a fi ll ing ori fkc is l1 ('ccssa ry. Gro u nd -
n ide mo ullted transfo rlll crs ofrn l ings,q bovc 3 1'S kV'/\ a rc nOl lllidl), liltcd with j.icking
," ~sF.a n lugs at the corn ers to fac ili ta te n'io\'cmcnt. A ... .,:ual fltling i. . :t I'l'c kc l to a<.£cpt a
}CII1g ther mometer 10 mcasure top oi l { C lllpcra ture.I >~l h it..: h is ~ illl ;l h d:1{ oi l h.: \'cl o r in
'cl lo th c co\'cr if it t'o nsc n ':lt o r is I1 tt ecl , A therm o l1 ic tcr, if II l1 cd, 1l1;IY bc it simple dia l
usually typc 11 11 a il h u l l ... IL' III n r a 1 ;l rgc r - ~cakd ill il t l'lll l1 L' 1I1 1IIll1l11lL'cI in a l'()li "C lli cllt
,; , !c"cl positio n and o pcr:J tcu via a capilla ry tu be fro'lll a bu lb in til L' i!h'l llIu II H.:tc r pock et.
I
, '
I~e " . Pa l titlilarl y in industria l sub-stati ons, a la rm and tri p CU I1 !Ut'{S<'::l n l;c fill ed to tl~c _
JL of oil Imger tlH.: rl110 lllclc rS to so und a n alarm when a n eXl:CSS (, il h.' 1I11h.: ra lure is reached
, 0 011 al "Il d ,a~ a ~L'CO ll d sla ge, to lrip the associa tcd hi gh-vo lt:I!;1.! bH,.' :1l licr if a furt hcr ri se

ullhe of Il' mpl.:r:lture OCCll rs , WinLii ng tcmperature inuiea tors 11l :IY ol:l':lsion:dl y bc
.... y:1I1 I1t lcd in ind ustrial usc of til e large r sizes,
rl11J11a ls The cho ice o f breather lies betwee n a plain type, lhat is <In ul1ob , l rlle l ~iJ vcnt
r 1lhc arrallgL'd to kec p out rai n or o ther fo rms of wa ter, an d a c.kltydraling brea lher
s ror whic h co nta ins a dryin g 'lgC ll t, stich as silic(1 gel, in orde r It) jllC\'Cnl at mos pheri c
wat er \'''pour bei ng d raw n int o the air space Hbovc the oil ~\' h c l1 the tnillsfo r m cr
I
1l: 1l1pl.:ra llll'l.! fall s, Thc Ilc<.:cssi ty for a nd crfec ti \'cness o r Ih il) t)PC is (I lIIa ll cr of

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1c~l d-
so me UCD:llc, In ind oo r Sli b -SI<l1 iOlls whe!'e reb li ve l!lllll id i I)' { ': I n b L' II igh, it Cit n be
efTecti ve as long as it is properl y mai nta ined, but it has bl:L'11 ;1 1gucu th at dTccti vc
bles, ve l1l ilali on 10 keep down hum idilY is as effecli ve al1 d b s likely 10 suffc r rro l11
Iype I1 q~ l cc t. Jf \'enti la tion is in ad equate when a plain brl'a thcr i .. u:-cd , l- lTi\)lls t ro ub le

,~ r Sl'a!.
(,:a ll be cllL'olJnt crcd wi th co ndensati on o n the tall k :111(1 ':lI\l.!r l',lll ~ i l1 g bo th
jP I,hco:; c I..:o r r()~ io n ,1I111 eket ric fa ilu re du e to d ro plets of \\ :IlL'r 1';',lli l1ll into the o il.
,I Comcrva t I'S or ex pa nsion vessels arc esscnt ial /'0 1' 1111)' tldJl'lrll l'lllCI with
SH . e,
, ,VIWIl te rmina ls in the co \'cr in u rd er 10 111::l inl ain o il up to the 1J11~'I , I', id,,; u r the 1:l l1 k anu
lse, it is to cnable press urc- an d f'" ls-ac ti vatcd (Buchho lz) I'I..:/ays tu t IL' lilted \\ hich a fC o nc
ISC a of the mos t clTccti vc ty pes of ove ra ll transfor1l1 L'r protcL'l i( Hl. rhe li se o f s'ueh a
1£ 10 rc lay i!;, howc ver, eco no micall y o nl y justified in th e largcr ~i'/I..' 'i I'UI' ~t.:)' d\l l ic ~ and
Ifcc l:-Jin is 110t lhc practice o l1l1lni n distributi o n netwo rk s, Ano thl) ;11 1:01111..'11 1 ill fa\' u ur o f
lage the cO ll scrvat o r, as the name im plies, is that it red uces uxid~,ti , ~ 1l o f th e oil, bU lthc
] tie r or
majori ly or dislribul io n tr" n, ro rmers wilh high vo ll ages II k V or less ha ve.pol
t' POsilC been so eq ui pped for many years; the modern gr; rdcs lo f oi l ap pear to give

I, ad l:qllill c sl.!l'vice wit hout sl ud gin g un der pr:1 cti ca l cO ll d i tjoJl ~ , Co nserva to rs are
11 0rm:l lI y n tlCU 011 Ii ig hcr-\'o lt age t ra I1SrOl'lllCrS, Pro\ isinn: i ~ no rma lI y mad e o n a
co nservator- ty pe t l':1ll!'i forl1lcr for oi l filtrati o n to bc 1I1:1lk\ ia a lOp IiI te r vOl I\,c on
the lan k and the drai n \':J lve so th at the o il lll.!cd ll u l b,,; ~' il c lJ!:tll.'d tlll:Ull g h the
consc rva to r. thereby' a vo id ing da nge r of spl' c:ldill1; <I ll )· L'\)J1 ta rn ill tl lio ll frol11
d eposits in th e vcssel. Conse rva to rs are designed wi lh a 1'1.' 1110\ ,tult.: ('!lei to enable
~c ~ no
thcl11 to he d efi ned o ut. Ex plos io n ve nt s a re no t in\';n ial' l) fi lll:d to eo nscr\'n lor
)" ali lo t l : 'lI ~ r\ lI' llI c.:I'S , hutl hL'Y (;'11 ; I s~ i s t to rcd 'lcc pOll:n ti,lI lill..: li .; k,

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\\ ith cable
9.8 ,\ !';on: ON USA PRACTICE kiosks, rr lo ~
An altcn w1
AI11 ~ J'il'all dis tributiun pral.:ticc.: in gencra l i~ \'cry dilfcfcllt fro m British pra cti ce li £hli llg Ii;
and (h is has res ult cd in no table di tTcrcllccs ill d ist ri b\l t io n t fa IlSrOf mcr st:! nutl Ius: IJ cca" s~ ,
L3y definit io n, ;:tn Am e ric~ ln di stribut io n tr:lnsro nn er 11<1 5 :1 r;\(in g o f I c~s than pr odw: ti q rl
50 1 kVI\ ; tran srormers ab o ve this rOltin g up to IOM VA :u e sl1lali power, or :\11 I,!), tcnt I
net wo rk, t r:ll l sf Ol'mcJ:.S: re bti \\.!
O ne o r Ihe princ ipa I co uses o r d irrerences is Ihe low nn" I d iSIribul io n "o ltage or labo ur ~a' i
ab o lll 115 Y , ill gle-l'h"5" (a160 li z). Wil h " low ho using den, il y and Ihe necc;s ily bt..'ar lin!!!
U~C of 1' (;1
to kce p final (' i!oo tributi on rUlls sho rt to kce p do wn th e vo ltage dro p, th is has
res ulted inlhe usc or Illan y sma ll Ii)"t l di sll·ibulio n Iran s r~ rl1l c rs "m,h slipplying a lll;lndr~ l s •.

sma II n umber o r cllsto mcrs: t hey arc fed rro m a 111 <1in d ist ri btl t iO Il vo lt :lgc of fro III u btain low
2 10 15 kY, lil e o lder sys lems lendin g lo ward s Ihe 10 lver ""Iu e. Wilh Ihe sl11a l1 th e lo w·\,'
nllmher o f co nsumers th c rill ~ l l di ve rsit y 011 (" ileh trallsfo rm er is lo w. In additio n. over th e h'l
heatin g 10.1<..1 5 have in th e past bec n r,l)"e. alth o ugh th esc, togc ther wi th air 10 I hr"c-\1I·
cond itio nin g loa ds, nrc now incrctl sin g. Th e c h :l r~l c t c ri s ti c load has th ercforc a no t PH)Cl
prcpo rHkrall ce o r mo tOr (appliam;c) I() ~ld s :1110 is pC;lky in na ture.
in sta nces
Thi " ha'\ Jed III the ad o ptio n of lo wer 1l 11 rn illa! ratin gs ro r tr :rrl SrOrlll CrS ro r thc !hfI.:C-ph as
whic h all '"
!oo:lIllC max imulll demanu th an in I3ritish pr:lI: ticc. with crnph a&is o n lo w rt'g ul atio n
I.:o res,
a nd hig h overloa d ca prlc itics. particul arl y und er s\t1l1l1lc r co nd iti o ns. O vc rl o:1 d
requi re ment s ca n bc as hi gh as 400 % ro r ~ h. r hc n: qllin.': Illt.: l1t ro r low
reg ul a ti o n 1c:l(l s to lo w co ppc r losscs ~ll1d lo w rC:lctal h'C, th e latt er o rt cn o nly 2 ~{
o r evcll less, In co ntras t. th e level of iro n losses is higher than in British practice
gi\'in g iro n to co pper loss rati os of I to 3 or 4, alth o ugh low m:lg ncti sin gc url"cnt is
9.9 '}I F'
o rt ell str essed as il feature by m;rnurn cturcrs. Thc'\c co n... idcra tio ll s in tu rn hn\c
Icd des igners to ,,!al'e el1lph :l';;is on sho rt ·cirt uit ~ t re ll g lh, hCl'aU tiC or th e hi gh
9.9.1 "~(l
Y~rlu e o f r:H,11t to rated current , and o n th cr III a I distributi o n and redu l.: tio ll nr ", rlkl
In l_
tCl11pcraturt.: ofll ot sl'ot.c;, since th t.:se deter 1lline th e ultimate life of the illsuklti ull. tl'anSfo rnl t
Rece nt r(,~ lIn s o f thi s h<.1 \·C bec n th e tllt ro ducti o n of roil \\i nuill gs ilnd much typ it.:a l ~r
ut.:vt.:! o pmcnt o n inS\ll:ili o ll lI1:lt l' r ials wilh t;llOd hi gh· h..'lIlpcrn tul' c pcrro rllwll cc,
by using var iCllrs fo rms of eherlli call y trca teu ed lu!osc. Also int ercst Ilas increased Ril tin g
in rcsin -c ncapsulat eu tran sro rm ers p:ll'ti ally to provide mcch.:I nica l ri gid ity and Volla 1;;'
part iall y to elimina te o il a nd redu ce mass. In assessin g ideas o n insulatio n it Ta PI'in
:-.ho uld be bn rn c in mind thilt th c U SA sl:l l1 dard d istri butiu n transfo rm er is a l mpcd:ll
sca led unit , in th c scnse that no bl'(.'at hers arc provid ed, th ough th e scali ng is by Lo"1I I ~
gaskets 0 11 th e co\'cr ~ Ind cOllllll o nly a han d ho le is provi ded in the to p to allow No- IlIa
:l ccess to tnpping link s o r swit chcs, Connl'L\
Distributio n has in the pas t bce n alm ost entirely by on.' II H..'; l(.1 linc", t!r oug h ~ 1 :r .\im u
und erground dist ri buti o n is now wi dc o; pre:ld, Th is has rc;; ultcd in additiona l Telll,,!.'
fea ture s such n~ su rge arres to rs and fU ,l;S o r disco nn ec tin g :,\\'i tt hcs \\hie h :I re
pro \ id t: d o n pt'I! C. 11 1llU ll tcd II a lI SfOI'l IlCrs. P Ih c n :O IllIll O Ii liu ill l!S IiiI' L' b,', II hui lt ·
in ~cco lH.lar)' circui t bn:a kcrs w i lh trippin g devices mat ched to th e th Cl'I ll:l ! ti ll re
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constant of tile wi ndings, as in th e co mpletely scl r· prutctlcd II<l nsfo l'llle r. f\ f:lny r'c rcrcllt"t'
o r th ese fcatnrcs ha ve bee n inco rpol'n tc<.l in pil d-mOltllt cd tr:Hl sl"o r Illers r~II' tl '\C

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DISTRIBUTION TRA NSFOItr-. l l:.RS 22 1.

with ...·ablcs; these arc transformers arranged with their fillings to fo rm sma ll
k il}s k ~ , mOil BI Cd ('I n I he gro ll nL! ;J nd c~l s i Iy d i sgui ~c tl by so m c f(H'1ll o r b nd s!.:;! pi ng.
;\11 ;lilt.: rna ti vc dcn: lopm cm ha s bee n 10 IllPII , ll ll l an sfo l'lll CrS in Ihe h:l sc uf s lrcc l
1''' ctice light ing fillings.
t ,{,rdS: Ilcca lI SC o f Ihe hi rgc Illl mber o f small sizes of II''' nsformc rs (,: /11 ployed, t I' UI..! ma ss
prod lll:t iO Il met hod s GIll be emp loyed. I'll is j tl nIl cnc;:t.!S COll st ruct io n and dc ta i1s to
I : than
:Ill CX t l..! I1t that \\'O\l ld be impossible. fo r exa mple, lI n the IJlilish 1I1:11 ke l . AI ~ o the
JOW"" or n;I:ltivc (:OS I o f mat crial s and labo ur is c.1irTcl'c nt, so that cmplwsis is pl:h.:cd 0 11
tn gc of labour :-;t vin g ra lha 111<1 11 o llll;a lcrial cost red uctio n. The rcsldt;Jll t tr,IJl sfo rm crs
bt.:ar litt!t.: s il1lil~l rity 10 those of Uritish 1l1:J IlUr:lclurc; l1 u t:tb lc d ifTcrcllL'cs arc th c'
I

IlI,ccssity
. this h as
usc of rectallgul:lC-scctio ll shell ·type co res, wit h co ils 1I' 0 1111U O il leclaugular
I lyi ng a JJ1andrcls, :t IH.J the use of cylindrical tank s wi th co \'cr· l1lounlcd term ina ls. To
.... Jffroll1 obta inluw rc: nC\,II1 CC Ihe high·vo lta gc wi ndin g is usua ll y wo und Q\'cr ollc-ha lf o!'
thc isl11a ll th e low-volla ge winding anu the uther half o r th e l o w ·\'u l t ~l gC winding wo und
: dit i or~ over th e h igh·volta ge willl.!i ng, Th l't.:c-philsc c.l ist ribu{i on Ira IIs rVI Il lt' l Sas u ppuscu
itb ai r 10 thl'cc-ph <l sc banks o r ~ ingle - ph a se ullit s arc ra re. and tic"cloplllc!1 t of ,hc:-.t.: has
LI.!/'cforc a no t proceeded to the exte nt of single-pha sc unit s. This lia s 1 t'~l1 IICU in somc
I in ,, ';lllct,;S in till: u5l!of sl;lIIdard single-ph ase unit s 1ll 0 1lII tcu in:l CO llll1l 0 1ll rink fo r
~h rec . pll; l se supplies ,IIlU in th e develo plilcllt orCO llll ccti o llS. SUl..' h as 111 1.: Icc ·· lcC.
for I he
cGuJatio n wh i..:: h allows thr~e-p ha sc units to be made by usin g only two single- phase
Ove rload co rcs,
)~ low
I vl1h,
2% .
1 p\"etlec 9.9 DESIGN or A TYPICAL DIST RIIl UTlO:-l TRANSFOR .\ IER
I rrcnt [s
t 'n have .
. the hi gh . • 9.9.1 Sl'('cificalion
I lion of 111 order to ill ustrat e thc problems ari si ng tn the d es ign o r di !'> tr ib uti o n
d ;1I inn. Ilal1 . ;f·~ qlll \.' l ~ il i ~ u"\,, ru! to l'ollsitkr, ill de la il. :1 dc!'>ig n ba sed un the rnl h.I \\i llg
.lid , lllu(.:h I),pil..'a i !'> jK'l' iliGltioll which fo ll ows Ihe C .~'l1 l1l' !t.: give n ill cil ;ll't c r 2,
,... .. mancc.
: rc;\scu Rating 750 kYA. lli rcc· ph:l se LHO Uliti mOllntin g
~ H.Lj l y and I t 000 to -133 V a l no· loa d
Vol tage r:1tio
ulati on it Tappi ngs ± 5 % 0 11 hi gh-vo lt age winding
, 1cr is a 1mpeela nee 4.75 % "t rull-Ioad. 75 ' C
I .. . lg is !J.y 9500 W at 75 ' C
L0ad loss
? to all ow No-load loss 14 20W
Connec ti o n hi gh-\'o lt age delt a. low-volt age star
Ih o ngh Ma xi llHl11l nu x den silY 1.55 T
ldditi ona l TClll pcra lurc ri se 55 ' C top oil
65 (o c
windings. ll h.:asurcd by rcsist:II H.:e
''''IICbuh"ilt-re
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rrn II time, Th l: tran srorm er is to be fully in atJ..:ordillicc wil h Ihe requi rcllIellt s se l dow li in
ler. rVlil ll Y
Il, rl..'l\:IIl't.: (, 1. 7.
for usc

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9.9.2 Scil~ti o n of cOl'e fra me ' . I 9.9.3 T I,
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There arc i~any possi ble desig ns that would mee t this spcciGca lioll, but there is a It 1l1l1st be
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I prime co·;lstra int . that (I f cos t, whicll is no t specifica ll y included. The buyer will deg.ree C r
,I ,Ii I' I. r not wish )o pay ll10rc Ih :l ll 111c current ma rke t price; anti the tran sfon ncr l't: fllIitt l ~
~ I l ' "r 1 IlJallufact,tlrcf, se llin !,; at tl w ctlrrci1t market price, wi ll wish to l1lax imise his profit ~d'l he: dt'L'h
by prod.u~i ng a t th e lowcs l cost. The minimum cost constl"il int co nsiderably
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reduces' tI le opl ion s nl~t~ tl 10 the cl c~ ig·llcr. Thcon.: tically, there wi ll be only one
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"'j
!' I" 1, d cs i gn'~ : h gi\"cs tlll.! lowest cost; in I'r:ld icc th ere wilillc a li11lit ed Iltllllbcr or
I I, I! ': 1I1:111Ul
I' , I rll tern nti vcs nvai labk. !"I ii') choice ex isIS beca usc n miihu rac turcr will be u nil ble 10 1)11 I'd 1;1~c ~,
1 '1'1 " alloca te ll1:'1.rgj n a ll"o·~ t s \\ itll sumck nl accu!"n cy to cna ble him to judge bc tween ~
'I/'1' , , , 'II
I
num ber of' des igns wi lh in a limit ed r;lJlge. II is also f"elt wor th while by
I'his is i ' 0
the IHIl I .. I.!
: '/ 1" 1I1ilIlUfill'h;rCrS to ;1\.lopl a l.:ell;'lin alllO\l llt o f' stalH.hlldi sa li o ll in tksig n :1ml ill Jcsig.n Slil
I' /1..1,\ productiOl; method, The tb ign"r is left wit h " Il umbe r orpu>sibi lit ies which may
I .f 11~ .~ I ho\\'c\'t.: I
'\'' llil : , no t include the desig n with the lowest materi,1! cost. . n'igh t 1

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, A design omce would h:1\c ,1 lihr(lfy' or designs from \\lhit~ h cO lild be selected a ,dlho ul e
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, I "f'l i:' co re rrrlme. Given a suiL lhlc core fra me th e ot her design fe;ltlll'es will r<1 11 read il y ll1aIlUrl" '~\
: ;.' ':1, ': ' in to place. A lt el'l lillin;ly, jl des ign wo ul d be o btained whic h aimed ,It obl'li ning this at c
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'I I minimum cost within c·,' r!:!i n gu idcli'l1j!$ ap propriate to the part icular rac tory. 111 the (
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This has been fa cilil all'd ill rece nt years by the usc orcleetronic computers (see 4.75 % wit
I", chapter 3), ,
• "tit
1' '1.I." , be as I "
, ' 1 11 :1 !1 Ir the quantiti es n.:q ltilt:d con ro rm ing with th is particu lar spccilication we re cait.:ula .. J
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{ I, , su llkiell t Iy la rgc, it 11'011 Itl proba bly be dec ided to mini Illi se t he cos t or 111 :1 teri a l by
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I .i t ~ :. using P;lrtS o ut side th e ~:'I; i s ling sl;tlldal'd ~angc ror th e ·p;lrti clI l.1r r:tl·!<.\ry. is- '1 CI,'l' '<1
Il o\\'evcr, it will b~ :1 ";"U Hl l' t.! 11I.:re that o ill y a s1l1a1/ qU:I!!ti!)' of the particu lar , '
IIII / IS' I'
transrormer is 10 be pl c) du\,·...:d. It is co nsidered necessary, thererore, to fil the cli~t rol.
pwduci int o ;111 CSI:l bli , lh:d ~t.: h cd lli c ro r {I fact o ry ,,11;<.: 11 ;s producing 1:ll gC rh,'" I
1 1l1 11l h~rs o f' ..;illlilar. tl ltl ll~' h Iw t id e nt ica l, 1r:Jl1 srol'llH:rs. ri ll: d...:..; iL!I1t: IS \\' ill. (.
thc.:n.:rol·c. ha \'Ca n:~ 11 ic.: tl II I ;l l1gc.: ur, ror example, cOI'e r, :l Ines :llld co mltl l.: tul' si/cs
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avai lable,
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T he stand ard COI'l.' f"ri,' llIt:S I.:ollsi<.lcrcd in chnptcr 2 '1I'e, thc.:rcforc. con::, idcred hi ll \
hac, wit h th c l..l lU\\ kd g~ 111:11 by limiting Ihe choices in I.h is way the cost or \
It shOlilt1
l1la t e rin ! 'u~cd \\i ll be ~(i ll l l.! \\ha l gren tt.: r than th e ll1 inillllll11 L(l')t ·p o~~ib tc.
the hi )'.h,
rrarne ' d illlcil sinlls, !l,llX I.kn~i t y, low · \plt :lgC t1ll'll S and c.:u n cll I den sity, as
11':1I1::. f 111
I.icr i\ l'u in chapt er 2, ilr ~' ' lI11 l111:triscd below.
\'olla b It
Co re arc;) ,-1 Fe I = O.0 27J Ill Z
Il a lf· wiJ th or widcl,\ l' ul'c.:. pla te bFr:. 95 mm = " i ~1
Widt h or core \\'inJ u)\' h. 152 111111 = I gl
Il eight or ca re \\ il ll.l n;w II " 620111 111 = Th c:-;c lu
Flux pe~l s it y Ii", \ 1.53 T =
1l1l1ll1"' r
C urrellt den sity J \ 2,97 A 111111 - 1=
Low-vo lt ;1 se t1l rn s N il 27 =
j ,t I,
Th ert; is :In indic llhlll,I1l' l c. "lirady. Iha t we :lrc pa ying for stall d:lI d i"a titlll of'
'j I I, Ihc core rrame. Th ~ !lux dem"ity is lowc r than th e lIla ~illl Um pCI'Jllill cd: this FI' t)p" SI
IlCc.:v
,~ ! f'
• suggC'i ts that r:llhcr l1Ior~ iro n area i~ heing l1 st.:d Ih:ll1 is lI..' qui rcd . II'

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DISTR IU UT ION TRAN S FOR~ llllS 223 .1
.~

> rc is a
>'1
t ~t 'r will
IllS I'lller
9.9.3 T ul'lls ratio

It IIlllst be noted th ai th e volt age ralio must equa l the declared ratio within the
degree or acc uracy laid down in refere n c~ G 1.7. It is Slaled Iha l Ihe lolerance
permitt ed on Ihe vo ll age ra lio is Ihe lowe r ofl he followin g 111'0 yalues: (::1 ± 1/200
- .i
I ;
.,i
I

his profit I
j ' r"bly
orlhe dec lared fOlio o r (b) a percenlage oflhe declared ralio C'I"aIIO o ne-Ien lh of I..
I II
V i l y One
th e :1<:lual perccntage impedance voltage at ra ted currcnt.
Voll age rat ios on ,tappin gs i.it~ subjec t to agreement b~t ween th e PUI chaser and
'., [:
Will cr of
the manufacturer, and, in I,he absence of allY specific rcCluircrltl.:ll t by the (;,
,ble 10 i ,~ : _

ICc n a
I'"rcha se r. il is ass umed Ihallhesc lolera nces al so apply 10 .he lappin g Yoltages.
This is n rea sonab le nsslIInption on the part ort he lllilllUnr cturer ill rlli s C:l !'C sincc
\'.i:J
.. i I,
I ,
,wh Ie by

ri
th e IllJlnbcr oftlll'lls on tile high-vo ltage wi ndi ng willlllakc Jin c:tdjtt :-' lll ll: lIl :I I tile
and in
design stage or the volt age ratio prac ti cable without nulling tu th e cost. Ir.
, c:h Illay h ow~vcr,lhe voltngcs 0 11 b Olh I he high- and low-vo lta ge windjl1 g~; 1 ~ :lI.j b ~ c lli ow. it
I
s '~ ' c:. led a
might be dinku lt to obtai n all accuratc vo ltage rati o, pnrliculall y 'JI1 tappings, I;
I 1eadi ly
withou t excessive cost; SO IllC specific agrt.:elllent mi ght be..: Il cc~ :,~ ary he tween J., I
111t1 IlUra<.:1un.: r i:Hld purchaser. The IIWlluracturer wouhJ be c), pcc tcd to advise on
ohlni ning

'. r
r r'ICIory.
(sec
I thi s "t th e enqu iry .sta ge,
I n the case lIl uj cr consideration thc gunrant eecJ iUlpl!dancc is req uired to be
4,7 5 % within a tolerance or ± 10 %. T he voll;lgc rati o toicrtl llcc cou ld . thc..:rcrorc,
be a' low as 0.1 x 0.9 x 4.7S% = 0.427S%. This musl be bOl'lle ill I-"ind in Ihe
1011 wcre
ealculalion of Ihe high -volta ge lurn s required. .1
r 'lial by
T he lolerances are, of course, applied 10 Ihe Iransfo .'mer as nn,dl y produced. It I I,'I
"clory. ., ,
F
is necessary for the designer to allow for possible manuractul iug "<lr iati olls in , "t Ir . ~
l:lrliculnr , \'
turll s wound. Th is is rr matt er of judgement, experiellce and production qua lity
I Pi Ihe co nI 1'0 1. \

lI
j ;/ I:lrgc i
Theil . Ii, '.
lCI'S will
I . ' r,
(,JI) I' Sl zes
I .
decla red phase volla(:e ralio = 11 000/ 1433/3 " ') -- ·14'
,
!i,
Th crero re
J
II J:"I ldcl'cO
,
I .
high -voltage lu l'lls on principa l lapping N, = 44 x N I ' ~·1 y 27 ~ 11 88 ; ,
e t'ost of
.J 11 should be nOled Ilia l wilh a permitted 1 0 Ieranceof0.4 27S~;': il i" Ill'cessa r.y for
:. "IIY. as Ihe high·vo llage lurns 10 be wilhin ± S lurns of Ih is fi gu le in Ihe cO lllpleled
IraIlSrOJ'lllcr. It can be ass llllled wilh a hi gh deg ree o r ;rSS lIr;JI1 CC [hal Ihe low-
voltage 11IJ'IlS in th e completed tran sformer will be as des igned. _ .
j
Hig h-vo ltage lul'lls on ma xi mum lap N'm = 1.05 x 11 88 = 1247
I High-vo ltage turn s on minimum tap N 2u,l" = 0.95 x 11 88 .:. . : 11 29
Th ese turn s mu st, of course, be rounded to th e nearest integer. bu t wilh thi s
Illll"bcr o f high,vollagc lurns acc uracy bettcr Ihan O.OS % can be oblain ed.

\Vindiug, currelll dl'usily

Io n or
I.e; Ihis From sub-sec ti on 9,9.2, the curren t density required is 2.97 A nr~l1 - 2; . it is
lH:ccssa ry 10 ask whel lier Ih is CUlTe nt densi ty is accep tabl e. Apart rro l11lllc lilllits

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224 MODERN I'OWI: R 1 H,\i\<';1 OR~I [I{ I'H /\(' neE

\\\1<'1 11'
!I imposed by th e specification on luau loss :IIlU in !;oI1l~ r:l'it.:S by the I Clll pcr:lturc c,',,·
, \1\ \\','\1 1,e
, ri ses when c:.arrying contin uous r:ll cd cllrrcnl, the o nly oll}!.: r lilllit on currellt "." elL'· \
• I I
I ilc li silY a rises fr o m the short-circuil capability. Referellce C; 1.7 requ ires tha t a
YIi I 750 k V/\ t r:tI1sfo rlll cr wi t han cq II i\'a ICll t sho rl -d rell i I ell rr t..:llt -Iilll it jug iJl1 pcdancc
,t I"
! . or 5 % whil'h includes :lily supply i I1lPC,d:1lice s hou ld \\ ithsl:H ld Iwcllty lim es th e
rated currell t for Js. Furth er. the average winding Icm l'cl:lturc for an oil-
i i' , illJlllC/'scd tr:1ll SfOrlllCr wilh copper windi ngs subjected Ii) the ovcr-current
t~> ~pl'l..: illcd Illll st 110t cxcc.;cd 250 ~ C at the \:no of the sho rt -cin..' ui l period.
j" ' The rorll1ula by wli'i ch thc tem pcralure alt:lin cd nil ShtH I circui t may be
~': tl C\l 1al l'd is give n by.

19.1)
WIH':n.: lJ . . m is thc highest ave ragc tcmpera ture all.1incJ by the win din g in degrees
I..!lsius. 0. . 1 thc initi:iI avera ge tempera ture of thc \"iu llin g in deg rees Cc lsius. ./k
th e short -c ircuit curren t dcnsity in :lJ11pc rc.;s per sq uarc ll1illi m:.:t r·c. f~ th e dm.ll io n
of the sho rt c.: irctlit ill seconds. all a rU Ilt:1i01l o f 1({J:m ·j 0",), O:m th e hig hes t
-I1cl'lni s<.: ihlc a\'crngc winding tcmpcr;Ittrrc a ll :rilled tinde r sll ,)! r· j·ire ll it conditi olls
, (this equals 250 C ror ;111 oi l· immcrsed Ir" I1,; fol'lI1 . : r wilh l:npl'Cr windings) ;lIId
!; O" l the sum of th e ma:.;inlllll1l(,lllpcr:lt1 Irc ofrhct:lh1 l il1g II h'dil~lIr ;l lId 1Ill.': winding I II,' II \:\ 1
, h..·1I1 1'i..'r:l lllre ri :-:c.; nll.::I~ lIr<.'d by n :sislilllI':C, ,
" \ ~ I I' :11 0' I
1r ! i For th e Iransform er und er co nsidera ti o n. til e ma:<illlulI1 winding tC'lllpCr;llu rc
"I ~
~.. ,.I\ ~ J
ri se by rcsistnncc is 65 C. and the ma xim um ;Iir tempcra tur e i<.; 'IO ~ C (reference
G I .7~l h" s .
0., ~ 40+65 ; 105 C
lVilhO: ... ; 250 C ,,"dO., ; I05 ' C.l hc l·"lllcofllf} . rrolll rcl': rcllt'eG I. 7.i' gilcll
no;; 8.2. T he m,lxinllll1l cmren! dell sity pl.:rmitl cu for the :,bO\l' \"o ndili ol1" is
77.0 I\. 111 III - 1 r(.)I' il copl'l: r , wolIlH l t ra Il sfo I Iller wi til a .1 s short c.: i feu it lilt i ng. rhis
iI IllL':1I1 S that, for tht..: tr:'n~ rClnlJa umkr L:ol1',itkra tit..J1l h. . n:.'. the lIlrl'\irn um wo rking
I ,•.' urrCll t d c n ~ i! y mns\ no t c.'xl't:t.: d 77/ ~ O ..: J . ~5 t\ mm 2. It !1\u<;\ he notcd th at
·11 simil:tr cO llsidcl'tltions rrpply to ;111 th e tapping posi tions.
j. The requi red clifTellt dCIl : :. it y of' 2.97 i\ Illlll - l is, tIH: rd'u lc. "cell to be
,, comfortab ly with in the spcci fk:nion short ·circll it therma l Icqui relllcn l , C\t:1l
when co nsideratio n is givcn to thc conditions 11 all tap pin gs

9.9.5 l.ow-\o ll agc nimling im,jclc "iamcrer

It is ncccssury, now, to c~ tabli s ll th e inside diamete r o f th l.! lo\\" ·\,ollagc winding
whic h, to minimise' insu lati o n problems, will bc th e wi ndin g ,~ e,;rcs t the co rc.
1\.5 out lined in ehnp tcr 4. th e corc wi ll be bui lt of ll1:1gllclic <.;tce llaminatiollS
approx imately 0,3 111111 thick; c;'lell laminati un has a thin dlClIlil..';rI cO:lling which
, proviLi es ins ulat ion. lind til e core cross·section h:u: a stcppt:d for:n.;\ typic:"!1 !' pacc
t, , I
I ' .' lid I)'
: I' f:lcl o r in co rc buildin g. tf' all ow for ill " Ulalit.1I1 :rnd iflC\llll pkh; IiI!Ul!! (l rth e :-: p:Ic..:C ,, //l IH.'r
to 1 , 1 " rI iI
•!
,. due to th e usc or t; l lllinilliull ". would be 0.96, tllat is 96 / " or th e tlO",s core ;II"C(1

..., ,,
! t'. • 1
•I WCt UId bc 1l1:lgIlC\ it: !o t t..:c l, II is :llso pra t t lea ble to Ob i" i 11 ;"j ra t io I,f [' l'llSSl ' tlr t: ",{.;t to

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DIS m .JOU n O N I RANSFOlt MLRS 225
..'
co re ~ird c nrca 01"0.94. T he nel l co re steel area AFt co ntained within ;.', given co re
Ii." .:) " lure
II Cllrrent ci rd c:.' dia meter d, would then be "I

1'11:11 a . :- I
A F< = 0.94 x O.96d' " / 4 ;::: 0.'11 d ' (9 .2)
I .:da ll cc 'i J
. I
11:n,CS the
r 'In o il ~
rl OIll which . "i
d '" (..1 1'</ 0.7 1)'/2 ",, 1.19..11 10' (9 .3)
l' I'r L' 1l1
U. I kll t:C, with Are -...: 0.U273 Ill! r.~~c sub -sn .: li , 9 , 9 .~ ) Ii . 1' )/ 111111 .
may be The low-vo ltage windin g wo u,ld have as sma ll illl i ll ~idl: . 1i.flllcIC!' ;, l' co uld be
littt.:d on th is co re ir we allow ro r necessary insulation h CI \\I.:" 11 the wi lld ing ~lnd
lh t.' t.: lII'C :ltaJ ro r th e nee d to holtl the cor'c leg l:t lllin:t tiQIl'> rogd hcf. Fo r a
19.1)
di!- tr ib uti oll class tr ans rorm er it is 11 0 t necessary to lISC a bpi " d l.'oll'> trllcl io J1, and
~g r ('cs it wou ld be 1l 0 l'ma ilO usc so me ro rm Orlapiilg on th e (,'o rc k !..'''' I'lle insu latio n and
, liS , J.. Illcclt:lIlic:iI support rcqu ircmcnlmay bccombincd i n onL' 111:l k r ia l. ,\ !ypical lo\v-'
dlt :lli on volt:l gc wil1t1in g insid e diallIeter dtj' taking space radors itltu itCCO Ulll , would be
: • ghc'I l Gmill greater tha n the co re circle diameter. Thus .
) Iii ions l I·
j 1l ,!;1) ;, nd d" = 197 +6 = 203111111 i.
. ':
I"I
. " iJldill g " )
9.9.6 FO \'ln:lli un of IOH-l'uIlHgC winding
11 '0.: 1':11 lire Rated low-voltage windin g current '1 = low-vo1t:\gc li ne cu rrent
I, .II •
,,
l'~ f~' ''C ll l'C 3'"
= 750 x 10 ' / ·133 x ..
= 1000 /\
!I .il'
I
'Ig1\ 'L' /1
It is sia led in cha pter 2 that the minimum quallt ity o r Ct'ppcr is lI sed when the
hig h- and lo w-\' oll:.l ge winding current densit iC's :lrc ,tp PJO,\illJatcly equal.
d
r. !; I ~:.'
1:.1 .
I is tll S Th erefore I
I
I

,nLi' rids Low-voll ngc wi nu in g cross-sec tio n area a l := 1, / ) " 'tll l/2. Y7 . .137 11lIll' I.
. Irking (
, t Ihal It will be ro ulld tl t.:L:cssary to subdivide th e low-\ofh .,.:r· ~l llHju d u r into a •
Illll uht.! r o r strands in order to reduce c(idy c lln ~111 It ,.: 's ill the windin g, I'
l~cLlaJlg lJ!ar l'O llducto r strand s wo uld be useu, anJ it i ... :1, It 'd tll :II t h c lc nrc tI
n 10 be
. eve n
f l i mi ted number o r co nductor Sil CS avai lable since.: it is r ~' l l' ll l,:d to l'UnfOl I1l to an
.I; .
'.'
esta blis hed stand a rd rall :;c o f part s, as disclissed in ~ lIl \' lillll fJ,9 2.
It will be "'n o wil tl1 :1\ it two-la ye r 100Y -\'O!l ilg c \\ ind illg II itll II •.'l·o ling uu el
betwee n la ye rs will be Ill'('cssary to mee t the cooli ng l't.'qui'!'·I!l"llh i'. -.. , the 750 k V1\
transfo rm er v fthc re qui red vo ltage a nd wo rki ng il l til e dll',i red C III J t.: nl densit y. If !
Wi !ldin g this is no t kn own at thi s sta gc. o nc or I wo Ir i ~1I d t.:~ i tl1s will J'!"L"lduce thi s •
kllowledge. Wi lh N, = 27 (sec sub-scctioll 9.9.2) Ihe IIt ""ber N'J."r tllrn s pc r
I" lo re. laye r is '
I , I iOll s
Ii! \' hich
c ;11 ~ p ; l l' C
N, Y' = N, / 2 = 27/ 2 " 13.5
~ pa cc It sho uld bc Il o ll:d til ;,! frac ti o llal turns Illa y Ix wnll' !' 1 ill :\ 1.1 )': 1 bu t th al lh c \ ,"

'" ,C ilrca to t:.ll IlLI JlI b\; r o f turns IIlli SI be an integer '
c area to TI \(.: co il wi ll he.: helica lly wo und , T oallo w ror th e ht.:li x.::· I ,, - 1,II' oI\';l le lll to th e

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7.26
;t~iill diml'n sio n of Olle ex tra turn lIlust be allowed ill thl.! wind ing lcngt h. In titan 5 111m I,
addition, it is likely tha t sOlllc·:n:ial pa cking bc tween th e tlhll S in thcccntrcOflhc
.' ,
winding will be d es il'~l b l e bo th to pro \idc for the ndju!'tnwllt of the lo w. \,olt agc
win ding Ida ti vc to the high-vo,lt;'lgc wi nding so as 10 ;l chicvc c l cc tr OI11~len\~ tic rhe low-v' I,
balance ill ordc r to min imise sho'r t-circ llil forces and, possib ly, 10 ~1I 1 0\V sp:a'l! for
rIII ~ 203 \ "II'
can ring OUI tran "o positions of til e strand s of lhe turn . This will be uiscusscd later.
Tt is suOi cicnt 10 ~ily here that ;111 ax ia l gn p of 15 mill will be left at Ih e winding
1 ,I

centre for thi s purpQ;~e _ T he milli ll111llll!l1ll clt.:arance fo r a low.vo lta ge windin g is 1 -rhe \( -,
tak en as 10111111 al each cnu. This clr:lf:lnCe is uttern: illcu no t so llIuch by
insuln tioJ1 rcquirclill:n ts bu t to allo w th c provi sio n or Il1cc h:1 l1 ical sup por t a t lhe
('nels o f lhe lo w -\ol l :lge w i ndinr,s_
The willdill!; I.:()JIl\(u.: l or \\'ill it sdl' be ill!- ul;l lcd. The CO Ot!lh.: tor ins ulatio n cOllltJ
I turn for

Wit h (h.c ailL

t rlC '

typica lly be eithcr l!lli.ll1lc l or a pape r \\'Iapp ing, Ircnamel is used, it is II C('('S~;lIy . , each eno i" -I
that it is hard ;'Iml suilablc fo r im l11 crsio n ill hot oil. It \\'J ' uld be 11 0 r l11 ,11 to U ~C a Ihe kn ow l It
polyvinyl :1cctat c ella mel. The no minal ill "uhl tio ll ~ Irt.' rlg th of the cOlldm:to r tha t th e end
cQvcl'ing is 1101 ~ i g llilkaJl t since the \'o ltage be..: I WCCIl tul m illihi s If"l\ ~ fo rIll C r wi ll Oc" ibilil y in:
be o nly 9.4 V. It is nccc!'sary, 11 0\\'c\"cr, th:! t Ihe in sula tion '; 11l' l1 l.p h he J" ':'":scr\,cd \\ tominiln i
when lhe ,insulation is subj ec ted to th e..: mec ha ll ica l ;'- (r '.s"cS illlpf) .. ~d II illg the . . i/c woul "
manufaclurin g procc~s or by th e short-circui t fOI'ccs ('IICtHilltcrc..:d in f,<.. l viec. If CL:o nomy ha
paper cove'ring is used, il wi ll be Ih ick er Ihan enal11e1 cua li llg of similar c1eclrie
and mechallical strcllg th . The windillg sp;u,;c f:lctor \\'11'.': 11 tI ~ illg pilpcr-covcrcd
co nduct o r i~, th crefo re. worse thall when cll:lI11cl co\crcd cllIJdl.lctor is H ~cd .
Il o\\'c~'c r, papl.: r·{·ovl! /"cd cO lldlle..: t o r'~ ;lrC li~ l. ! l y to hi.! 1,: llI'::l l'a. Th l! rc is nil 1\ 11 ill ::' ll h I il
('co ll omic assessment 10 be I1ladc. It is a ~"' lIll1t:d that pap...:r-cu\"Lfed cO lldllelo r is ill \\ il~dlng' \I
use in th e faclory \\ here th e tnln Srorm cr i" 10 be 11I:tdc, and thi s is th e choke h"::lc. \ olt)gc \\ IIH
Ihe ~igh . an·
I\. S llit ~l blc walllhk'kn css fo r thc p:lpcr cO\c r ing is 0.2 11 IJIl.
I f \\'c t:I}.. C tlt l! \\ illdnw hc.:ig hl II" :-: (1 20 III III rro lll " lI b· ",·r tiolllJ.9.2, tll ..' 11 l hl.!
1l1:1 .... lI11UIIliJl\lIlat ..:d :I\i:tl diIllCn ~il' ll h'l
.'
pill! IUIIl is gi\r-n byor .
I11or ·!c do; ,1
; 11 ' Ii low

II
"-
J Illill of:
Ii" ~ 1620 - 2 x 10 15)/ 14 ,5 = 40.J 111111
be in tllf 'in
The low-\ nll ;l!}': \\ iodin ,!.! l'nllducto r wi ll H·quirc.lI 1t';JI\! rUli l sHa nd s of t) pi l ;II rite hi t; \ r
rl\"ailabJc L"' )!jl l tlo· l l1 rs. Th e h Ie stlantl ;1\;a l dinH; Il ~iu ll fir \\' oltld 1111.: 11 he ",iL ks, tlw l)
The hi l l!
Ii, = (·10.3 - IOla l eO I1i1uclo r ill >ulalio l1)/ 4 ~ :(40.3 'I x 2 x I),")
= 9. 1111 111
plus Ihe t'
llIay be ,..,!"
I.el it be ""sUlllcd thai co ndu cto rs or
wid th 9.5 111111 :II C ;,·,;;i bblc. tk ~ i g l\/prol
Thus, I lle Ili ial ( l'oss - ~ec l ion: tI ;Irca or thc IO\\"\i olla gc t. lllldl lctO; lit" .137111111 2 pas t It:\" II
IlllI st be..: (lb tClin ,,'d wilh a multiple or 1(') 111" !- tl":lIul s ill !';II ,rt !.-1 rh .: IO"' -Hr!t:lgc Ihal ill' , I
,I" I \\ indin g llIiI )' hc rp l"lll cd \)f I\\'\.' h·c , tl: lI l1 ls ill poIr;dll'l u l (}.51 111ll x 1.0111111 (v ils to he
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I..'P I HlllClol"s, thi .. low \'o lt :lL!I' (o lldllt:llJt l'j\~,"i
:1 11 :11 1.:<1 uf .1 \(1 11111)2 wllitlt is al'l1l):-.t lu 111(.;" 1\\
tile arCa rcquil ..'d. ,I dcs iglh,.'r b lI o t ill\\'a)"~ so I'nrtlll1:li c, f"l ll! (urn diHl ~' l1 s i(HI". \ o lt;tgc "'. '
il1duding 0 2 ,11111 \\':1 11 th il.·k. ll e!'s of \..'\I I1<1I1<.: tor • u~Nillg, arc th ell hee ll th:l1
-1 x9,9 == .'9 . (;111111 :1\i:llly and) >. ~. 4 "': /0.2111111 r:ld ia ll,r . \\ indin \
Th..: \ '':1 ! it" 11, \ " " i lit! d lll.:t hd \\ L',' n I Ill.': t \,'\' !l)\\ \ I ,I! age :lI )".,...; -: ll ll uid /11 '1 ! It: Ie',,,; I cd II!.."C .'b

I
I,
,

I,
 ~. I.;'~')"
, ,1

'~. :,~
•

,
, . I '
, '" ,
~ ,.I'
" l'
t •

V'
'j', ~~
.
t
L., .

",. = 2 .",,25.4+ 203 = 253.8 111111

T'~t t o tal axi:d 11l:ight "I of tl.le lo w-vo l ta ge.; winding with ti le all oW:l ll CC o f I
1I 1rt1 fo r th e hdi\; ;t l1 (\ 15 n1l11 for a ll ax ial cent re gap is g iven by
", = (13.5+ 1)39.6+ 15 = 5X9 111111
io n could \\,itll th e :tI H:ad )' il''' \!rtlcd win do w height of 620 01111 , a cl earance of 15.5 111111 a t
lCC('ssil ry L'; Idl elld j" Iln.: n il\;li l:th.le. The low-vo lw gc windin g will be lert at this s t :I1~l! wi th
III a I !O usc it 1111: klH)",ln ljJ.\,.' Ill.!! the.: cnd ;Jml ,ce ntre gaps lIla y he :Iujll ~ t cu a litt k \\ilh th e limit
('I nductur thaI the l:ml t ' ],II ,lII n: must no t ·be Icss thun 10 mill. This wi ll pr o\id!.! sume
I
JIlIl.: r wi ll fl ex ibi lit y ill :11i~,]j I1g lilc !l1a gnctic ce ntres o f th e hi gh- illld low-volta ge wi ndin gs
,..; Ptcsc rvcd 10 minimi se ~ Illlll -~ ircu it fo rces'. 11 sho ul d be no ted th at a frcec ho iee ofco ndu l.:tor
I ;Iur ing the
I . site wo uld !J a\~ :lIh)\\\"'d II mo re elTicic nt ulili ~:tti o n or th e s p:Jcc a\'; til:tb lc: this
c.:rvJI.:C, If eco ll o my Iw s bl: (, 11 fll rcgo ne in the interes ts or stanuardi satio n.
ta r CI' 'C Il'ic I
. I
l,c r-c,:O\'I".' fl'd
is u:,cd . 1.),'),7 For nl:l (iulI HI' Idg lH'ult llgC winding
.... re is {I n An insul;lIin g hili il.! r wi ll be requ ired bc t\\\.!c n th e high- :lIh.l Iv ':, ·.\ o lta gc ,
luu ctor is in \\illdings. and it i . . ; 1 "'~ lJlll cd thnt ~l cooli ng du ct \\ill be dcsilab lc und er th e.: hi gh- . ,I.
( )icc herc, ,. .!
\'uit at!1.! \\ind illg, Illi s is no rilla lthoug h not o bli ga lu ry. The in sul,l ti o n bl.! l\\'ccn
t h~ high - alit! It ",\: \ ,lIta!,;\.! wind ings co uld be solid wilh [il l.! coulillgdu' t pnJ \'isio n
::1
.. ,
'."/" I
,2, th en the
. [!lad!.! d ~I.! \\ 111.' 11.: 1'1II I! I l'I L ~I pIer 2, a cka I'U Il \.! e o r 9 Illlll is req ui J'\:d bd \\ ('~ 11 the hig h- ~ i'I"
:11H1 10w -\·01 11l1.:\.' \" indings wi th a L'o o lillg du ct induded . This could t : I ~C th e r or lll
or311\111 ur ~l.d id ill:, ul,lIio l1 an d 'l 6111111 coo lin g duct. The so lid illclIla lio ll \\ ou ld
be in th e 1'0 1 III ~ l r 1 ';l p~ r wrappin gs wo unu directly 0 11 th c lo w-ndt ,tgc \\illding.
Is 0 ' typica l T he hi g h~ \()I I ,I~~": \\in dillg wo uld th en be fill ed o\c r. insulat io ll boa rd ~ pH ce r
Ie Slick s, thw, pro \i ding the coolin g du ct.
The high-\'1l1I.q.;c , \\in ding lila), bc w o und d irn :ll y o n Ihe lu\, ·\ u lt ;Ige.; winding
plus th e insulati ng." ra p and th e space r ~ ti cks ; o r il rn ay be wuulld ~~' : " H: Il cJy and
lIlay be assl.: lllhlcd ~)\ C r the low-vu lt age wi nd ing and i nsulat io ll later. Th is is a
design/ producllo ll I,r.,blcm innucnccd by genera l design; d ec i ~ i " n s tllk en iil th e
_r 337 111111 2 past ha\'e kd 10 th l! 1)I ..:senl fact o ry prod uct io n meth ods. rur example. it llIay be ". "

t I-voll agc Ihat it ha s bec n JC 1 ' ~ h) Jn ar)' to forll1lhe high-\'olt :lge windin g ( I r .. !llLlllbcrof ~ l1l:t ll
( J.O111m coi ls to be a ~,)c'lIlhk d a f't cr windin g a nd to be co nlll.:<.:Icd in fI('r ie~. This wo uld
; \,.~ tu nglliar mC;"llhal "hIdin g b lhcs ror heavy low-\'o lt ngc wi ndi ngs \\\,,1111 b:'dc\'o tcd so kly
: " is aim os l to th CSl! windil\~s , \\ illl :t ra cto ry ~cc ti o tl of sma ll er winditll! 1;ILhcs ror high-
I I J n ~ i o ns, vo lta ge \\ indi nl!<;, and a se para te as~c lllb ly sectio n. Il oWCH: 1'. ir till.! d(:ds io ll has
Lre th en bee n tlLal tIL e hi eh· \ nl t;Igc wi ndi ngs wo uld be wou nd dircl.:t ly Oil [he low-vo lt :lgc
I
.'t he less .
\\i nd i ll g'i, this \\ I l ilid il1~rca ~c th e IIt llllbcr l, r l" rgr' 1;lt hes r L" I~I;:'~' d hu t \\'otdd
I'cdu l:c ~ lIh 'l.! q ll t' lIt '1',,,,c lllbly litnc. Th ~se :t I C 111:11 ei " .t!IU ilhk tl l . . \.. hl l'h il lighLhavc
 " . " ~ .. ~.. :'r;:1.
.. ,
"." .'\"
~ ~ I f"\ r ' If~l?'~'~
~:;
.
''',
.
,I
"

,.
l
.. , ....
,
."
"
,,'\', .':.
1,'~~ ,
••
,.

~" ., ' '!l'J"~'A"

:. . .:,
". ; .
",
" (; , ~ i ..,
, _~q.,.t,
._ .. _ .........-'.-1._.,."" ......... '.
'-w' •
. "
__ ...... _, ..u
.:
~ I ... ..
...........

228 /I.' O UI ~ I~N I'OWE R rHANS I Ol{/'. l ER I'I\AC:rl C ~

a number of so luti ons dependi ng on a vi, ricty arloen l factors, i~~cllIdilig th e tYpe fro, n t i,uplcr i. '1
I
.,
of I:Iholir a\'~lilablc . -;-
Th ere ;1 rc also alt cflla Ii n: types o f h.igh · "ol1 age wind i ng. PI'o~a bly t h ~ ( , ~~t j ., fr, I
:-.a ti!' fac tory winding for this class o r lran sforll1 cr is a simple multi-layer Again if we Ink !.! I
whic h uses tl round con ducto r; a rccl<lll gul:rr cond uctor may; bc u ~c d. :
tll ?-
this
• concl ul,;lo r widlh
prod uces a ue ll er winding :-' p:I I.:C rll c tar, althuugh thi s bendit likdy It) ,:" dlNc is , cOlu.lllcto rs :1J'( ),
Ih:lll CO lllltcrual:lrll:c d by l.h e ex ira cos l o rtlle l'o nductor. An :~·lt t.:r l1a t i\'!.: j'; ;t dj , k '. colldlldnr 4,2 I
winding (sec sub -s ec ti o n S.3.4), The di ~ k wi nding wou ru 1. .• li-c ("·O I11 1tl1 ' Illy h: 7.62 111m 2 ; it will '
roul1d in hi gher-rat ed tr:lll!' rOf'lIi CrS tll :1 11 ill th e 750kV/\ llii li. !<i fornu: f Hndn Tlie axial \\' '\
l,tJ ll :-iidera t iOIl. but th ere' :1re some j1;trtieu l;"tr points or int erest in t I lc"~ \\ illdilll~_ \
parlicularly in Ihe coo ling, and a Ji~k winding wi ll be adopled here.
When Ihe choice or wind in g lype has bec n decid ed, Ihe dcsig n call 1" '0((" d, Th e 1ll:l,<irnllJll ~ I
extra pad, ing : 1"
Iligh-q'lIagc phase currenl I, ~ hi gh·\,0I1agc li ne curro, lI jJ ' " th e.; ~kdll'JlI, q:> .. ..:
~ 750 x 10' / 11 000 x J "22.7 II tappings slio,tld
from the current'densit y, deri\'ed in chnpler 2, ;lnd rererred to ill SU!J ·S ( l'I;'·Ij S
Cra mfl.H 1111' 1' ;, It!
aC I OS$ t he I. I 1 ;
9.9,2. anu 9,9..1, the I'cquircd c r o~s -sectiol1[\ 1 area (12 o r t he hi t: I1 - \III' aJ.:~
condu l: lor may ue obtai ned. • volts / turn x ( 0(:1\
tluccd over-vo l" ll
II, ~ 22.7/2.97 ~ 7.64 111m' ror li nin, It Ir {
with thi s .;1c:l'lrt..:
Let it hI.! :1 ss ullled thallhcrc is:1. radial dllet. 4 111111 wide. bCI\','t': CII c:leh p;l ir llf 'I he I ;,di,d \\ it!
di . . k sec ti o ns a lld all in sulating \\:ls her of 0,2 111111 uctwec ll c:1ch :.L,(· tiol1 n r :1 I' ,ti r.
Idea lly, in Ihis type or\\·inding t:1ppings would be made 0 11 the (fI!ter ~ lIrr;"tcc " r t'le
windi ng which l1le~n s that, :1 t the 1,lppin g point!'. the nuinbc r or turn s ill .1 p ~"r uf'
sec t io Il S shou ld cq u;il t hL' lUll 11 bl 'l' or III fil S br.: t \\Tt,' 11 1:1 ppi II gS, Til l' :1 "'" 1111 I'd it'll ill
abo be maLIc a l this stage thilt the numher or turns per sccti ol1 ih rnuldlt) UI , ' IC
'
, 'i .
The in ~ d~ dia
wiudilll.:.
.
gnp h d\'
. ,1
Il l s; (' ~ (.
I
.:c n I .!

willdillg will be equa l. . _' rI" rI

Frolll sub·sec lion 9.9.3 lile I L' I " llIi gh - \'''lla~c lurn s al lhe prillLil'allap pi, ,i s _- 2
N 2 = 1188, For t:lpping SIt.: pS o r 21%o r t he hi gh-\'olt:1ge windin g. Ihe Il tlfll l ' " f
ll cm:c the hi t -,
turns bc:l\\'cell ta ppin g poi Ill s mu st be
IlIrn s belll' oeil lappillg = 11 88/40
The r!.!quir< ('
• j 1:1 " 1 This "'llla is 30 \l'he ll roull': 'd 10 Ihe II c.x 1 highes l ill leger, and ,b crerore
1 :
gi\'es a minillullI
lurn s/sccli on ~ 30/ 2 be no nna l to rO\
, I, 1.'~'111 = 15
'I" ! J
, ! 9.9.8 SUI1I1It. Y
1I1l1l1bl: I' tlf"di s k SCl: liOIlS I lola l t11111 S/ 15 = 12·11/ 15 I
II should be, '\c
This equal s 84, when round ed to the next .hi ~ I H..:s t in tege r.
Ilmay be s('c nlhal il \\ ill he IH't.:CSS: II'y 10 oll1 il IJ turns fr OIH S,l :< 15 111 111" In 11\.:\..: 11 ~ ilIcLlI;\ t,
s h o rl ~ (; ire llit I l. : l
gi\' ~ the requirc.d 1l ,n turn s. Thl! g:l ps Idt by th ese OIP illl'1\ IIII'I1 S \', ill ,;
di !oo trihlltcd evcllly ' lhrnligh the \\hlding. oblninr..:d may bl!
The axiol dim cll s;'O Il or;1 paper. in sula ted tu rn C: 111 now be I'il ku! n tc d so t Ita t t hI.: current densil I)

\\ indin g 1l1;"t)' be ;1(.'(;( 1111111 0 <l:ll c <l ill Ih ~ given \\ ind o w Iwighl it' ',',r: ;dluw rOJ l 'l./ we ll bd ow II Ii
II \'IL':t r ; lll c\~s. Thc I !: q llill: d L' lld t.:k:l1ancc ror an II ~ V \\'iJldiJl g is 1102 = 2R 11 11 11.
Ihat 111 ~ o.; IllHI ..: il
II
!I
1
:
,.
 DISTR I BUTION TRAN s rORMERS 229
"
n fro m t hapier 2. The insula ,ed lurn axial heigh I ". , is Ihen givel; by
"., = (620 - 2 x28 - 42 x O.i - 41 x 4J/ 84= 4.67mm
Aga in if we taKe the conductor paper cQvcrillS as 0.211'1111 watl thickn ess, a bare
t.:olld llcLOr wid th o f 4.27 111111 is obta ined. It is ;'t ss lIlllcd that 4.2 mill wide
co nductors a rc avnilable. An area of 7.13111111 2 is obta ined frolll:t rectan gular
It (\ II Il! Ill:to r 4.2 mill wide :lI1d 1.75 n1ln thick. This c.:u lIlp:ln.:s wi lh th e d erived
7,(12 III 1112; it will ~call sc hi gher lo!tscs but they should not be excessi\'e1y hi gh.
The axial winding length 112 is then ..
84 x 4.6 -I- 4i x 0.2 + 41 x 4 = 559 111m

pr ceed. , , Tilt.: IIl:\xi murn space a\lflilablc is 620 - 2 )( 28 = 564 111111. Therefore. 5 111111 of
't . exira pack in g is required . Any packing should be insert ed in such a ",,,nller Ihal
" ,\ \
th ~ elec tro ma gnetic balance is maintained . It should be noted at thi s ~ Ia gc that
1:I]' pi llgs shou ld be rCllloved fro m tile cen tre of, the windings. Also. wl1 el1 the
}9SCCtiO Il S 11. 11I>, rorme r is on the minimulll turns tapping. the wo rkin g steady·state voltage
h ollnge ;' •. 1'''5 the ce ntre gap will be the vo lt age ;]cross the 10t:1I tapping ra nge. !Iwi is
n 1lt s/ tu rI1 X total turns between taps = 9.4 x 120 = 11 2X V. The st.lod:lld in -
I du ( . .:d o\'cr-voltngc withstand test (sec sub-section 7.4.4) wi ll he at ,,,,ief: this level
r~ r Imin . It may be nCl:cssary to increase the insulati o n at th e ce ntre gap to (leal
I with Ihis electric stress.
h pnir of The radia l width b 2 o f th e hi gh-vo ltage willding is give n by
' f a Irair. b, = 15 x (1.7 5 +0.4) = 32.3 111111
" oflh e
I- The inside diameter d 21 o f the high-voltage winding is, with the low-voltage
a IJal( of
lion will windi ng outs ide diamcler d l , = 253.811101 "nd Ihe rad i,, 1widlh ho = 9 nlln o flhe
, It the gap bl..' (wct.:1l the low- ilno high-volta ge windings .
tI 'l = d l ,+2 x bo
.1
pplllg IS
r 'ler of
.
ii
I
= 253.8+ 18 = 272 111m 10 Ihe nea resl millimetre
Ilc m.:I.! the high-\'o ltagc winding Ollt sid e diameter
I
,I tI" = 272 -I- 2 x 32.3 = 336.6 mm
i Th c requ ired clearance bel ween phases will be 12 mm (frol11 chapler 2 ). This
giVe' a lIlin ill1il11 di slance bel ween leg cenlres of 336 + 12 = 348.6111111. II wo uld
lllOl'mal 10 ro ulld Ihis up 10 350 111m .
.
'
~ ,9,8 Su mlllary of core and \\indings
Ii , hlluld be nOled thall he high ·volt age currenl for Ihe lowesl voltage la lio has
U IS to bl. : t.:n calcula ted and includ ed in the table bclow, Thi s is ~i mply a rem ind er that
,, 111) 1 I-ci rcuitreq uirem ents have to be met on a ll tappin gs. The curren t density
" . •1 be
Dhta ined ma y be compared wit h the limit calculated in sub·st..:ction 1).9.4. The
h Ihe Cllrrent density of 3.35 /\ mm - 1 on th e minimum tap ping posi ti o n at 750 k Y/\ is
e end well bc10w the limit set for thermal requirements in rcfcn.:llcc G l. 7, provided
:8 111 In , 111 :11 tile short-circuit illlpcli:H1CC on this tapping posit io n is not undul y low.

!
; .
' {)
- . -~~-:Ht.~:'::-·:.:~'~
'1\ .:.,.. /)1,' .•••
,~,
.. ~
,·,}..... J "
,I;~. •
l,

\I
• j , . • ., ' ~ • . ~ .. • " . ~ ,
 230 MOf)t; RN POWE R rRA N ~ 1 O H, /I.\ ER ,P IlAC I'll'[:

The co re and wi nd ing design ca n be su mJ1lar i scd~' as foll ows. 15 %ort 7Y%;,
into accOU ' , th e f
lorl' Thu s Ihe , ViSlJ
arc:t (m 2 )
0.0273
wind ow heiGh t (UUII) 620 .,
(kg centre distance (mill) 350 ,

L O)l" I'O/l llgl'

-------_.. _---
wlndillg ... Ilish-r ulril}tl II illdlllg
--~
This val ue is c.\
loss bu t Ihey " r
I
" findings of winuing hot l'1
phr. sc volt aGe (V) 250 11 550 II lT5 11 0m 10725 10450 The ed dy c . p."
,, "
Phase c urrent (A) 1000 22.7 (2l.91
tu rn s 27 1247 11'8 111 291 o fthcwin t ' [!

II
(l) iI S in !'criC$ I S 1 .h , t" (ill pairs ) " or ed dy , "
\111 ns/ b)w/coi l Il .5 I
strands h ~C (
l:l)'crs/coil 2 15
('(Induc tors
Those (,. " I· t
hare /mm' ) l\\ch'C 9.5 )( 3.0 4,2 x 1.75 three poss ible I ]
(m m 1 ) Iwewe 9.9 )( 3.4 4.6)( 2.I S o th er stra nu rep"
CUVCII' t!
IlIrn cli!ll c n ~ill n ~ (111111 1) 10.1)( )9.6 4.6)( 2.1S 1 min il:l illl ill 3 ( r
turn area (nl m 1 )
cu rrent demit)' (A nUlI · 1)
.D 6
2.98
7. 13
l l8 Il l5)
I The ,d eal "a'l:
fi gure 9.3(:1). I f II·
II 'il1r!lIlg 11i1l1"/I .~hJ/ls
radial width hI' b J (mill) 25 .' l 2.J th ose ro r 3 cop· 11
I
in side diul1lctcr (mm) 20l 272 curren t losses; .:.
!1lc:m di;m H:tcr (mm) 228. ' )04J , ,
va luc w itho ut I I."
(lulsidc diameter (111m) 2118 l lM
emJ ins ula tion (mill) 10 I wo 28 in the axial uirec t
axial spacers (rlllny
I WO
26 ducls. 41 )( ,I
wa ~ h cr!O. 42 x 0.2
n n-uniroI'Hlit: t
at centre, 5
aboH . In prat.: t y

he igh t (min) 600 564 to the lkgrce give

---.------ one or two tr:u ?
wou lLl r tUll l'C II !

or it s ,'uluc with a
9.10 CALCU LATION OF ClIAItACrEltlSTlCTItA NS H :: '\ IEf! DATA direction inSII:: ll1 ,
c:tc.: h tr :t n $po~tI j
Thi s ~p:Jcc is a ...!i
9.10. 1 Load lo,'os The cody clirL
From equa tion 2. 1. the low-voltage winding rcsis l:II1CC HI PL'!' ! .h:1 SC at 75 °C is 17.5 / 8 ~. 2.2 % '
dislO ll io n, a 10 I
H, = (21.4 x 10 - 6 x 27 x n x 228.4)/ 336 = 0.00 1.'.1 11 the lo w-voltage \,
Th erero rc \ Agn in f'r om " " l
75 ' C is
nR, = 1000' x O.DO I 23 = 1230 1V per pha ,e a( 75I L
H, = (2
From cqu:l1ioll 2.9, th e jJcrcc llwgc eddy cu rrent loss 1f" /J !! i:-
=
~~ P" =. 9.5(h" I N / IOO hl,)' a( 75 ' C and 50 li z
= 9. 5{ ~. O x IOOOx27/ ( IOO xWOx2.9Sj}' = 17.5" " The rcfore
where bd is th e to tal brc;Hlt h o f the b~lrc con duc to r, I N .-: ' ,.V, ~ / 2N;. the Jjf{, =
:lmpere turns,. " th ...· <lxia l lcngt h o f th e wind ing:lnd .Jlh e c.:ul'n,' nl dt:: ll .. il),. Abou t = .7

,\
, I
1

,.,
, ,It;
 "

(",... --
. ".
I
'J
i D IS nUH U I JON TK ,\NSI ORME ltS .231

--
.! 15 .... "I' 17.5 %. that is 2.5 Yo.. is to be added 10 the ngurc o r 17.5 % ill order to take
I :; ill to a"COu lit th c fa cllh,,1 the lea kage field is distorl ed a l th e ends alld lit tappin gs.
Thus the revised v~lIuc or %P; I is
/ ..
%1'; , : (17.5+2.5)% : 20 %
"

.', .,. T lli s va lue i$ excessive si nce 110t on ly do th e eddy cunen! losses illcrc:lsc th e load
loss bu t th ey arc also un eve nly distr ibuted (sec chap ter 2) which incrc;]scs th e ri sk
> I
" or win di ng hot 5[10 t S.
3.9) . Th e cduy clIrrf nt losses can be rcdi.J ccd a ll ow cos t by tran sposing th e :-. Ir a nds
129) : ,~, " oC tile \d nd in gco nductor. 1t sho uld be noted tlwt transpos itio ns red lice that part
.' ,
o f eddy CUI reli t losses that :11 isc rrom current ci rcul<lIing betwee n th e se para te
I '1 !"tr';l tH is hl'cau ~c lIr their int erco nnec ti o ll at th e windin g cnds.
; ht):-,c tf<IIl Spos itions th ai ensure that each scp<lrntc strand lil.:s in eac h o r the

f I hl 1 C po,,,, ... iblc radial positi o n in each layer ror the S: IIllC number or turn:, ns cHe h
lithe r :-.1 r:1I1d rep rese nt the idea l condition ror reducing eddy current losses 10 a
I mitli ll dlll ill a co nduc to r with a give n number o f str:ltHJs ill th c radial direction.
J' Tht..: idea l tran s·posit ion ro r Ihe part icular low. vo lta ge winding is illu:-. lra ll'd in
rigllll' lJ.3 (n). Ir th is iJca l tran sposition is employed the eddy current losses nre
IIHI . . l · for n coil~lIclo r or the mdia l wid th br; or a single ~ trilIlLl . Sin<.:l' the eddy
e UII ..; Ii ! losses arc pro por ti o na l to 11;. Ihey \.\'ill be redu ced to UIlt:-l1il1th or the
\::I1 uc \\ ith o lillranspositio n. This reducti o n npplies strictl y o nly to n UnirUflll fi eld
in Ihl' ax ial dirc<.: ti o n. Empi rica l adjustments nrc usually madc 10 allow for Ihe
Il l,n -lillironlli ty o r th e ncld ill all (l eilia l coil in a similar way 10 111<It adup ted
:1 hll\ ~'. 111 pract icc it is U11 nccessary to red lI CC th e lossc.;s ill t his I) pc o r tr; lll ~ rUI Iller
to the degree gh cn by an ideal tran spositio n. It woukl be mo re custo 11lary to use
one.: or two transpos itions, o ne in the ce ntre oreach la ye r. as in figure 9.~lb) , Th is
\\ (' lIl1 redu ce th e eddy curren t loss in a unifo rm fi eld to approximalely ollc -eig hth
nfit!oo \: lIuc with an untnlllsposed cond ucto r which h:IS thrce :H ranJ s in th e ladia l
)A 1 A ( l il~l. li l) 1l instcad Oronc-f!inlh with the idea l tran sposi tio n. It ~ h u llid be no ted that
Fa~' h transpositio n -requires axia l spncc cq ual to th e width or o nc olra ~ lralld.

1I
Th is ... pace is :lvililablc in ' the low.vo lt ngc windin g centre p:lcking.
I ril e n ld y current losses in a un ifo rm fi cld wou ld thus be reduced to
5 () is .' 7.5/ 8 : 2.2 %; with Ih e addit io ll'" all owallce of 2.5 "; d eri ved ab ove ro r lield
di . . lurtio ll. a lo tal o f (2.2 + 2.5)% .::; 5 ~~ for eddy cl..trrc nt losses is arri H'd :,t fo r
,the.: IIHY - \,() I ta J..!c \\'lIH
' I'Ill g.
I J Aga in fro m equatio n 2. 1. the hi gh· \ o lta ge windill g re.:"iS \:lIH:C H1. PCl pli:1SC at
175 C is ' .

1< , = (21.4 X 10 - 6 x 11 88 x n x 304.3 )/7. 13

I,
;
= 3.4 n on principa l tapping

·rll crc l"o rc

'1/, the I llR, : 22.7' x 3.4
l out ! = 1752 W pcr phase at 75 f' C o n prindpal tapping

IJ
~I
'8:'7'-
.,
:,,",)~
.
I,s.
!
,

'
···.;<-T"--
"'.1 ',.

..
~r-
.'1:;: " I'· \
( ~'."
" I' •
.,
,"
" . , I '

,,
~~ .. j'
..u- . ... ...................... : .... ... ........ . ~-

232 ~IOI) E IlN POW Ell r RANS I O K \1 1 H I' nA( r t( E

11 i::. Il CCl;S /
IOyer I

..'
IiI
"
10,,<5 prod ' i
.', ,
,I,
fields, The low
, th e low- vO It :II!
it is a SS II1l1 C' I
5..:(liol1 as II. ..
i N
R
]'- l ur nS ! I) IU l ns

li enee
I,

rh uSapp n
t- l ur ns rh..: l o ~'" "
\ al gclY ": 11 1)'; "
rc fcl red to ,
N 10 101 w.r'ld ing lvrns
\\\J uld be ~L tI
'0)
\

I rhi s is wil,,,
\\ ilhi n the l ~\1
loSS,

'),10.2 N u ~l t

rll e lI :-' \lal

ll ;\\lsfo rtm.: I'S
·i ' urnS 4,
As ~k r i \
,\ In,nilllll
\t)OI1 UIl .
N 10 101 winding ' ur,'S rro ll1 C
'b)

f igure 903 Tr:ltl~ pos ili o n s in two-la yer co il: (a) ;dl.,;11 Ir:r n' l'm itiu n ro r three radial
!'lra nd s: (hI pmctica il ran spo!'itiCl II rl.'r IIHt:C rjl\kll SHands \\ here h.. ;
. and b, c tl
i
The pc:['cc n tagc r..:ddy CU[Tc n! loss %P' l is (sec r..: qlL tilJIl 2.9). ThenK '
I
iro ll is r~t i
~, .. r" = 9,5(h" IN/IOO I/J)':I ' 75 ' C :t'HI,' OII I
= 9,5(1.7 5x2 2,7x II SX, IOO x : (, , (.1. IXI' 0,7'1. I.·all t'c lieu il
rLJ r this " ,
To ~d l o\\' ror the non-uniform fi eld th is \~i l l he illlll',\ "l' d It! I u{" f .. ,_, = 7
The to tal windin g losses P Cu :Irc th ell gi\I.'1l by !
Jlcu -"J (/~H11· nU2+Pll + J" l ) i (9.41
= 3(1 230 x 1.05+ 1752 x 1.01) = 9 1X31V

--~ ~ --- ...

"
,'01 •. '
~' " ) f"
,

..
'.:...' '
!
..
ii/i
1 fA i
t
,', o::Z
,.- ........ I

DIS I RI nu li ON TltAN SfOH.fl.1 EHS

23.1

. It is necessary here to make allowance for the losses illicaus and eddy curren t
'. ,
losses produced in the tank and structural steelwork due to leakage magnetic
> fields. The low-voltage lead lengt h will be a significa nt proportion of the length of
·f the low-vo\wgc wind in g ,Iud will produce a signifi~a llt exIra loss. For exa mple, if
"
it is aSS lImed that a 1m length of lead per ph3se 'ls required of the sa me crosS-
section as the winding conducto r, this wi ll have a resistance H\Z of
.~, HI !!' = ,12 1.4 x 10 - 6 x 1000)/336 = 6.4 x 10-' 0 per phase
~
'.
Il ence
,~ i~ HI ;/' = 1000' x 6.4~ 10 -' = 64W per phase
\ Thus aPl'ro,illlatdy 200 W will be required for the three-phase low-volt age leads .
t
• The 10lses produced ill the tank and structu ral stecl will be es timated 0 11 a
., largely empirical ba sis for a transformer of this type. In the origina l design,
referred to ill <.: haplcr 2. a rather co nserva tive loss of 500 W is ass umed ; 200 W
would he a morc typical "li lue. Therefore, the total loss Plut • 1 is
P,~.I = 9183 + 200 + 200 = 9583 W

T his is with in 0.9% of the req uired guarantee valu'c and is thus com r0rt nbly
.\ within the tolerance of ± 1/7 (reference G 1. 7) of the gllaranteed vallie of Ihe load
loss.

9.1 0.2 "'o-Ioad losses

The us\wl practice with grai n-oriented steel, which is in general use for th ese
t r;\nsformer~. is for the coreS to have mitred corner joints, as described in c1wptcr

4.
As derived in sub-sec tion 9.9.5 the core circle diameter is given as d = 197 mill.
A maxin1U1ll pia Ie width (sec figure 4.5(a)) appropriate to tbis core circle would be
190 Illlll .
From chapter 2, the total length of iron is
(9.5)

dial whe re II"" is the height of core wind ow, been th e distan ce betwcen core leg centres
and b , the half-width of widest core-plate. Therefore
F
iF, = 3 x 620 + 4(350+95) = 3640mm = 3.64m
The maSS of iron is expressed in equation 2.64. A small addit ional quantity of
iron is required nt the end or each centre Icg in order that the narrower l~l~ plates
can be tied in to the yoke plates. This extra quantity would be approximately Gkg
for thi s size of co re. With the area AF, = 0.0273 In', the densit;, 01 iron
"dFe = 7,G5 x I03kgm - J , the mass of the core iron beco mes

/IIF, = 3640 x 0.0273 x 765 x 10' + 6 = 766 kg

(9.4) If we tak e from figure 2, I th e spt.!cific iron loss in ~\Il asscll1bh.:d mitred \.:ore at a
 --:'"1
-,
oJ. 1 .'1

, .. I,
, ..
., ~,,}

"
,
I . ,·";-t;
, -.1 _. , .
f~
!
"
J
l' '~'.. " i !'4f: ,
' T'" . ' I "r
.I
I,
• ., I
--, t ,
".- ...t:
"'. ;.....
........ .- .... .. " ~
.,'j
- .~
I
t
~
.? -'
'.

234 MO DERN I'OWI;R ·1 KA NSI 0 10.1 1 It PRA l l h. 1l

'ma xi lllUIll nu . . dCllsityof 1.53 wb Ill - l as (-'Fe = 1.5 1 W. kg - ' . thl! tOla l iron loss . , I

Ir .:'
., . .H
;;1
.. PF' = 1. 51 X 766 = 11 57 1'1 .\- .J
i1
.... : This is \I'd I below Ihe guaranlced. va ili c of 14201'1. Exallli na lio n of figure 2. 1 and
indicates thitt the gun rallteed l oss ~ cou ld . ill fa ct, bc oblaincJ wit h squ:lrC-CUt
co rners. There mig ht be so mc advD nl :l gc ill this as the mitred-co re con struction
Icnds to be ra ther morc ex pensive for ~l given co re :-; i lC. It is h C I t: :ISSlIl1h.:d 111:11 the Also
pnrticula r fado ry is aJ re.\dy producill g mi tred cores nn a large scale, and
co nse<! I'cnll y tile mitred core wi ll be used , I lowcver. ,lIe low loss does indicate
' . th tl t ti ll. I e is :, 'f,t rt her price t hat must be p<l id fo r standa rlii :-;a t ion: it sUL!£eslt: Ih,II ;) where it is a SS \1 \

. 1:II'! c:r con.: wil h co nseq ue ntl y less wi nding 111:1I l: l'ia l wi ll plOtluce ~ I.: h l'al'~r
11';' . . rot 1111.: 1' ill IcrlllS o f 'cost of material.
This is 4.6 %,,\,c '"
lolerance o r 10
9.10.3
Inanu fa('(u rcJ Hil l
In clwp ler 2 the percentage rcrtctance is give n fro m equation 2.26:ls pcrnlil S himself \
adjus tl1lcnt to 1
~~ X = 59.4 I N(3boso + /), .1 1 + b,s,)/ 109 x "'mlr
reactance is to L. ~
to make allo w:lnc
where hi' '" " "d 1>0 ore, 'respeclively, Ihe radi,, 1 wid lhs o f Iii" low- and high-
.J buI these are n .
vo ltage windings and of the ga p between thelTl, S t. 052 and So the lengths of mean
t 1I rn , rcs pcl: \i \'cly, of the low- and hi"gh-vo lla ge wi nd illgs a nd of Ihe d lIel belwcen
,
I,
t hem, II Ihl: a \ 1:1 1 lengl h of Ihe shorter wi 11<1 i ng. I N Ihe a I1lp ~ rc turns alld (P", the ,
maxim ulll 11,,'{ . 9. 11 II n:R~ •
Il llla), be sho\\ I1lhall o a ll ow for Ihe elTeel o flh eax i,,1 dU CI inlhe low-voll age
winding
9 . l1.1 TCI1'1 1c r !J 1
Thl.! a ,c r ~l gc Ie ,
tran sformer a t !) t
where hn is tll. .· rad i:1I width of the lirsllaycr, bb the rndial "i<l111 uf (he seco nd
laye r. i',
,
J nd hd the radi:d \ddl h of axial du ct. Therefore with, fo r a co il d

'" ., 10.2 + 10.2 + 3( 10.2/ 20.4)' x 5 : 24.15111 111

Also :Ind, for a coil el i
h, = 32.3 111m
bo = 9.0 111111 wlH; rc .\1 ~ is I he
l:ot11ing surfaC''' i
.I, = n x 228,4 = 7 1 ~ mill
in . . ula liu iI in \ I
S2 = IT x 304.3 0:: t)~(l mm co il in S411arc 11"1";
ofa coil in squar
So = n x 262.8 = R2G111111
copper layers 1
Ir = 564111111 transfer onl y r·

.-
\'- :l l~ d high-
.,," s of mean
t ~c twccn
s ;1nu (~... the
9.11 TIIERMAL CALCULATIONS
w vohngc

9.11.1 TClllpN;)turc difference between nilld ing and surrollnding oil

The t\\" cragc temperature difference betwee n winding and surroundin g oil ill a
Ihe second Iran sformcr al slead y load is, fro m chapler 2,

60 w ' -:-' io';;: {lie

._ M, } / 0 .8
1I ,,,,),f(II)+D I< +K, M,
·C (9.6)

wi th. for a coil dissipating heat only through one surface, i!

f(lI) ~ (211 - 1)(11 - .1)/ 611 (9.7) I
II
:Ind. for a co il di ssipating hea l thro ugh two surfaces.

f(lI) = (11 - 1)(11 - 2)/ 1211 (9.8)

where Mr: is the rate o f total hea l trans fer fro m unit area of th e external coil
cooling surface in wa tt s per square metre. i. th e tliel ma l co nducti vity of copper
insulatio n in wa il S per metre per kelvin, Ac the e~ t c rnal heat tra nsfer surf(:lcc ora
coi l in squa re metres. AOll h c int ern al heallral1'\r~ I' surface bclWCCIl (.;opper layers
ora (('I ii in !H.lliarc ·metres. Oil th e total hori L.o nt :1i thi . .: kn css ori nsulat i,Jll betwecn
cop per laycrs in 1l1illill1ctres, II the number of copper layers in a (;0i l with heat
tran sfer only from verti cal surfaces. (5 he the hori[.ont;1i thickn ess of ex ternal
,I

. "
I .. ' •
 "
/' ..
,.
.1.'. . . I,
'I

'," ",
I ,

236 MOI)~RN r OWl; R r !tANS I OR~ II: It l'I{Al' ll l l~

insula ti on of (he coil cooling s llrfa ~c in l1lillim d rcs !I od K( th e

cocmcicllt fo r heat transfer by convcclio ll from coil sur faces to oil.
For the low-volt age wi nding. the coil is lighll y asse mb led on the core plus the
necessa ry insulation which will make any duct betwee n the corc and the low:
volt:lgc windi ng rather ineffecti ve for coo ling. This. of course. is delibera te si nce and
the prov ision of an clTectivc cooling duct would req uire mo rc space and is
pro bably unju stified, The ou ler diameter o f the low-vo lt age wi nding is covered
with a fai rl y heavy in sulating wrap; there will be so me cooli ng from this sllI'face,
but it wi ll t,>c neglected for the nl QIll (; nl. It is. Illt.;rel1. l fe. cO ll , 'j dcrcu that a ll the
losses ge nerated in l:he low·volta ge willdi ng nrc dissipated into the axial duct
betwee n its two layers, Eae h laye r th clI cools thro ugh nile <; urrace o llly,
The two laycrs arc separated by ver tic:l I $p:lcc r ~ t i c k s \\' 11;(.'11 wo uld cove r :lhC1l l1
I
I
represen t

the fekvan l
9/'; 1(11 ,,) ""d.
• I ...
~Ild \cr tica\ CO li
v~

30 %o r Ihe co ni ing ~ lIrra cc~, These sp:ln: rs are Il ccc:-.sa ry IH)( II for SII pp o rt LI tir ing On l h ~ prill e
coi l winuing and also to provid e support when the wi nd ings carry heavy short- pairs of SC\:1iOI
circuit currenls which wo uld produce co mpressive radial fo rces on lhe low- is I'" rtly cove,'
voltage winding, The ratio Ac/,101 fot lhe low-voltage winu ing is therefore 0,7. crrc~li n! coolll1l
Thus the coo ling surface A e , of t he low-vo lt age winding, with insid c and outside hori7,o ilt::11 ~ u r r:
diameters ti l' a nd die. respecti ve ly, turns N 1!I, pcr laye r a nd lhe 111m axial gross Aod. is,
dimension he is vertical cuolll 'e
Ae = 2 X J(d " + d,,) IT X N I Y ' X ",AdAol ~
= 2.x 228.4 X 11 X 13.5 X 39.6 X 0.7 JIlm' = 0,53 7m ' (9,9)
\ De-C:l usc fib ~
It should be noted thaI the cove red conductor :lx ial dinll': lI"kllls nrc lI sed, This is
justifiah le if the co nducli ng p<Jlh th rollg h the thin wa ll cC,.I\'c rillg i,'\ cO ll sidc.; led,
!i surrac!.! pa (,;0 1

The heat P C ul to be diss ipated is I

I
DeG1USC II., ::::
P C"' = 1230 X 1.05 = 1292 W
~ . = 6. = 0.4 "
Because
RUb = t
(9,10)
,I ud
therefore
I

>1\ M. = 1292/0.5 37 = 24 10Wm - '

ThuS from cq
i'
A = 0. 16 W m - I = 0.4 mm, ~", = 0.2 mJn, rrolll cq""lio n 9.7 \\'ilh = 3,
, Ii K - I"jb II
1(11) = 10/ 18,a nd K, = 0,04 fonc rtica l ~ lI r f" ccs (sccc h" I'I,'r 2, refercn ce I ). TIi,, ~,
\ iii
1
fr o l11 cq u:t li OJI 9,6 II \\'o ul,1 UC
\!• 110 .. = {5A + 20,3) "C = 25.7 "C
betwee n \':ind
were more \l
~
,1

,,
\, I: Fo r the disk co ils of the high· volt;!,ge windi ng. heat is dis..; ipa tcd on fo ur
su rfaces for c;'lch pa ir of sec t io ns, Iwo hori7o n'la 1a Iltl Iwo \'e ll iL';I I. F r~)11l (.; ha pIer
of high-volt •
winuing space
I'
, .' I I" 2. rcrcrc nce I, It is, how
dilfl.: fCnCCS I
I" '
I , "C (9, I II voltage wiud i
\ I
transfOfltll.:r 1,
tem peratu re
:I
I

l .. I ''' l( -' r ';

,"
l'
,~

~~!, ," ,
I ' I
I '
I ,I
 I ~
,
~l~'Nt~;"·
)'" ,0'.'
.~ .. \:i;·~"!i. . . t~~l.r ~'f • t'~ '
~,.~.\P..,il'1\\" ..:~ _;",1, ,(.J' 1'\~
:"'~ l.ltil;. ,' I'~.•
.. , . "
t'
1 • -J
'
~ .•.• ,
, •
,,'" • ,•.• 11 I<;r......' I. " . ..1' • I If· •

..
,
t • '. .
•
,',"'(r:' . . .
"
•
.~ , '.;.;.:., r ",-;,~'::t.\+. I '.;1 l~t~Y. ,.~.. :i~l' ,r: ., ,'I',; \f's,". .
~H " •
,11'i\,.'.~·t,."
-II J '-,"'\:':;' ',~i,! "
',.
*«, ..
-",'
]1. ' :,"
"t',
"

'1'1';.1.. ' ~11!i ·~f'''~ I.· .. '

':;; ~h,?I';'~!~.· ,I ,:t;;'">~~:~{·,· ~~~~II):" ~,~('.~,;: ,~~~r' ~~
,I .... "(>fi;" 1

,':" '' !f~'e

,j' ..:

• I .,'
, 'J'"
., ~' .. , ' { ).. lI,fI:'f' :;"'1',;,;::1:,,' ,I ;i.~' "" : . i1'~.
I"
MIt
, -,.
~,.,

~~~,:~"
,',
\
.......
,~~, ~ ,.r
I' ' .. ~"t.i~., ,\
- -_._-_..
'l . ".'f~i

[
,
D I SIRII}U I"I ON lRAN
• srORMFItS . 237 ~!. I ~ r,~~,'
!\j ,
-~ , ~ i \ . ;'W,II
f'~.2 is the load i :;;f,~~,<..;!
~l .~·i~:lt{;1;l
where loss pc r d isk coil of the hi gh·\'o ltage wind ll' g, with
, "lpirical
I { A ' ' }
ROb = 0" ....2!,·O,,!( fl b) I· J,., I" )), (9. 12) l '';j(l'l •
I Ills Ihe
low.
I lC ,
I AAcb AO l b
.
1
,
:, I
I
f.),
•
·H ;,t,.' .,,'
''''"''
!; \

. '1 ,il
~ ,,~,,!!)'.
)CrH c since and 'I 11
)rlrc and is
; overed
R , = _ ,I
o 10 . ..tA
_{ A" ,j':!(fl,11 ,I,,, I
.( .. .:O!.} (9.13) III'
I ·t,l.
I
I' '. .
,,"011 . I'
I.. ., II rr~lce
, '
rep rese nling. res pec tive ly, the eq ui va lent th er ma l r,,,i·. I·lnces fo r i1,e horizo nta l 'I I".I I.1,''"
th ot all Ihe
,illl
, dllc i ~1lL1 V..: rt k:l l cO l1lponents o r hea l no w. Th~ subscri pts I, :tlld 11 refer, respecli vely, to :1:
1 I I J.
the lelevall t v:d\ll.~s for hOf'ilo ntal tlOd ve rti ca l tli rc...:til.)ll, ana logouS'lO cq llation ~'l .1
1.1; ~
) Y',
'over abo ut 9.6: !(fl,) and [( fl,) refe r to cqua tion 9.8. ;:p,_.
) t,du ring O n Ihe principaltappillg PC.2 = 1770 W per phase. The re a rc 40 coils, that .is 1'11111 "'.t.t;.·.·~.?'-·'
, .~ sha n · pairs of secti o ns, in circuit; th e refo re P~.2 = PC• 2/40 ~ 4'4 .3 W. The inner su rface ,I
n the low. is partly cove red by hi gh·vo ltage to low·voltage space r , ticks; a typica l "a lue of I I' ~il ' ; i
" of,?re 0.7. d T!.!(\ ivc cooli ng surface Ath wo uld be 80 %or the urn';" sur r:lcc A Oib' Simila rly Ihe ! ~ Ii '\ ~~~~ .",
ho rizo nlal surfa ces arc pa rtly Illa sked, and a n clfcc lil e' "' r" cc A,hOf7O % o f the lip, .'
gfOS~ I'I'~ ·:~'·;i'/:,
,I out side ' c·

~1(; ; :!li,:O'lJ
tUrI) ,", xia l Au,,, is typi cal. l ienee AthlAoih = 0.8 and I l d J'!"d1 ;: 0.7. TI1US th e total j'l
veni cal cooling su rfa ce per co il, wit h th e "" ial di ll" " , i,, n 9.4 Ill lll, is '
I
I (9.9)
A,h = n x (272 x 0.8 + 336.6) x 9.4 lilli" " 0.0 1636 m ' I ;'. "" H:r:'.\1;{" ~ ,.f\,:,~

~'hjs is
I3CC:l USC II" == 15, cquatlo n 9.8 gives /(11,,) = 1.01. Til!.! I f'l l al hori ZQntil l cooling 1 j

sidered.
surface pe r coil is
A,, = n( 168.3' - 136') x 2 0.7 III III , 0.043 m'
lII
'
;1 11

'l "1"
' lIt>
!.I· I··,~tl:·.:~ .·
X

n eea"se ", = 2, equa ti o n 9.8 gives j("') = 0. Wit h ). = 0. 16WIll - 'K - ' ,
I
:\
J. = J, = 0.4111111 and D". = D". = 0.2 mm, equa ti o ns,,9. 12 an d 9. 13 give I It. 'i'f...
,'. •i

1(9.10)
and
R"b = (0.8 x 0.4 x 1.01

R
+ 0.2 +9 x 0.16)/ 10' x ti·,1 G x 0.01636 ~

= (0.2+20xO. 16)/ 10' XO. 16 X OI..,0 1J = 0.5

I'
1.96. Ii' (;' \~
II . I t i: ' .j' '..,;,
,,' .t:.;
I' ,,' . . ..
'.~~ ,,
• ," I' ~

P~.2 = 44.3 ~;";,~,,

Oh
Thusrrolll equa ti on 9. 11 wit h :: :11 ,
'I' = J, M ., '" 44.3 x 1.96 x 0.5/(1.96+0.5) , 17.7 ' C ' . ' '-II,;.:" .,
e I). Thus.
11 wo uld be preferab le to arrange the coils such tl, a t telllpc rature diffe rences i. ; ;:> , ;.
between \vindi ng and surround ing o il ror the low~ ~'nd high-voltage windings. ~ ';(1
were nlOrc nea rly equa l. One way to ac hieve lh is ww '!d b~ to reduce the number
I ,'.:''';,,

I .'f''',. ';
I . ,., '(
I

"') n four o f h ig h.vohage horizo ntal cooling du cts, the reby ill'p rol'ing the hi gH. voltage
r , hapt er winding space factor and saving co ndu cto r ma teria \. i ' ,:.,'
11 is, howeve r, necessa ry to pau se here and to ask whe ther tempc ra ture th~ I···· \ ,\.~.
i
\f~!
d ifferences for both windings a rc acceptable. The hi gher value, fo r th e low· "

:~~"':I~~~,~:'t',~,~ 1~:~~;e~1~:ei~;~e~~~:~~el~~~~I~:it~: ~ \:~i':,:7i""~ ~~I,:~;'r~: ~~~I~Ci~~~:~~~ ~' l' ;'

(9.11 ) volta ge windi ng, is 25.7 'C In th e refere nce GI.20 the recommendatio ns on i, !,

II \: 1
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238 MODERN PowER I n ,\ NS l OI{'\ll,1{ I'ltAl ll (; I:

is thererore higher thall it should be, Sin.:e the hi gh-\'o ll :l gc \\ inuing tempcrat llre I
I The tJnk wid \h I
.i

dirTercl1ce is 10w.. so l11c redistr ibution orthe heat losses to reduce th e low-vo hagc t\ ;
bn = d ~t
winding tctl"'tpcralurc difference is to be made. Thi s requ ires appropr iat e changes . I .' ~:-
in thc d l!~ i g l\ 10 :Icco l1\(1 lish Ihis dcs ir:lblc ;lil1l. Ir owevc r, th l! !"ll riller (.' :llculatio IlS
arc wit h th c willdi ngs :tl rc:ldy d erived , r() obtain !1'OII in II
r\!qu ir~d in e,xcc~~ ~)
ICIllr'<' "lIu r eor I:
9. 11.2 Cllre 1('llIl'or"l lIro of \\ iJc~ 1 c' "'T-p l
, .~

I ~crcren ce G 1. 7 specifics rather vaguc ly th at the core and ( ,rlt ~1 pilrts mu ~ t not .. '
l"1
"
:tll ai n a tt.: lllpl! l'ilIUI't.: that wi ll injure the core or :lIly :Hlj::l'Cll t l1l il tc rials. rhe fiJr :l (l\!"C- I )!pc 11,
t(·m pl.! lat llrc is 11\' t 1I 11'a s llrc d during the sl:IIHbrd h..' 1I1PI: I: 1I 11I1.: ri:;c tes ts, Ilnrall!
11 .. lIl n := lie
thclc .IIlY :lgl:cet! Illethods of measuremcnt.
, =
Fo r oi l-immersed distribu ti o n transro rmers up to 1600kVt\. it is not the
practice to provicle cooling ducts espccia ll y ror the co rc, and Ibis lllay bc l;lkcl1 itS II is wort h nol i,,!
sat is fn cl ury in g\.! ncra l. I lo\\'CVCf, b rgt.:r tran s rUI Ill l: rS Illa y ,I.! quirc co re t.:ooling by economisin g vn
dUt.:IS. required for co'
transfor mers to
accornmoualc th':;1
9.11.3 O il t CI11 I)(,~ ratlJrc The I ype or ral"
gro upS; each gWll
The tank :wel the exte rna l coo ling arrangemcnts will now b\.! t:onsidcrcd. desirable heighI fl'
The tank itse lr mu st. o r co urse, be or suml'icnt si7c to co ntain th e core and sa lisra,lory oi l
windings with the Il l.!cl'ssa ry cO ll llecti ons Hnd termina ls and :i!:-0 any fittin gs suc h Iran ~ rO rmcr. To
as lapping-sc leclor swilCh. Adequate insulalion clea rances l11\1 sl be provided. should be low, \\11'.
It lI'ili benecc"" ry loa llow at least 120 111111 in Ihelank "id lh .lI1d 100 nllll in h ( ltt (YIl elllr y ril'C;
the tank length in excess of lhc core :lud winding o\'I.! I:II I 1'1,111 d ir Il CIl ,j( IIl S.·/ 11(· . . 1; :-.1111111d he k s, tl
I.: k ,lI :lH l·CS alc 11Vl"' SS:IIY 10 alhl\v ill sulati on c il:;uaIlCl" I'ur th e \\uld illg :llllilcail "l, Ifill !.: height of
to :l llo w r,.\.!1.! cin.:u1i! li OI1 o r o il a nd to pe rmit the :ls~t l1lb l y orll l!' CUIC and winding :.I no lilc('c ntrc uflh
in thc tank. r" lio 1" Ie ror tl"
The min imum oillc\'cl mil be such as to cove r th c core and \\ i nding am.! any == he
11 6
CLlIIIlcc ti 0 ns anu fittings wh it , requi re oil ror their insulation, rh l.! minimum oi l = \ (}J\
Ic\'el should be ~ It a le\'el sllch that rC(1uired insulat ion is IJr(niLkd at the luwes t c := 1 If
:1\L'r:l gc oi l tempe rat ure at which the tran sro rm cr is ex pec ted 10 Dpc r:ll c. This is
no r rll;l ll y :1ss urn cd to bc - 25 °C in nccordancc with rercrl'l1I.:l' Ci 1. 7 and in the There rore
abscnce Oril ll Y ot her ~ pec if1 c minimulll telllpCf:1lUrc. In setting till: minimulil oil
lel'el it 111 list also be borne in mind Ihat eX lerna l coo lillg ,.ati ialo rs· will be
necessary 0 11 this tra nsrormer and that these should have a to p C'O Il JH.'c tioll 10 the This is rat her hig
I:lnk slI mciently high to produce a goou nil cin:ulatiol1. . tli l!1dOl cbe iIl C I ~"
The tank dimensio ns ca ll no w be derived, The length b r1 l.ll thc lank \\ ill be, The hea l ui s~i l "l l
wit h " f.cn ror th e distance belwcc nlcg cc ntrc5 and d 2t fo r the hig h-\ ol l;'\gc \\ intlillg or the IOlal cooli
ou tside di::llllcler, In co nl l:tst, thl.:
rlln ~lio n u r the lat
h n -::::. 2hctn+ d 2t + 100
Thc limi t or I
= 2 x 350 + 336.6 ~ 100 :::: 11 40111 111 transrormer nul
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" 1>1 :-. I IU II U liON 1It ,\NSI O,IU. II itS 2.19
.,
W'Voliage
'cra l llrc l
,
I
The lank "kllh
, '> 12

h" ' (/ ,,+ 120

is

c changes .' f ~ .1.16, 6 + 120 ", 460111111 (9, 15)

I "I lions t , .rrof.)ht:li 11 II,.uII. ro l' t he III in i 1l11~ m oi ll cv~ l . a rcaSO Il ~1 ble ~a lue for ,'he height " m,lo
-1 '\
\
I required
t l,': 'll1p~ r;lt
e;(cl'''S of the core hClght he
III be 200
WIll with the oil at an :ncr:lge
111111,
of' 15 "c. \Vith ilw for the height orwindow and h~e for halrth ~ \\ illl h
,
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Ivilh::sl co rc~ p l:ite , ,' .;,.

(9.16)
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1'''5t not
;'1The
• II Or arc I
'j ir .. nl n == he + 200
-, 620 + 4 X 95 + 200 = 12001ll1TI (9. 17)
,J lhe
I
L ': i" as
co( ling
j It is w o r lit nOlill!,; herc. lh at there is little to bcgaincd in thi s type ortrallsrorm cr
by ccol1ollli ~ill:; \)1l 1;l!lk hcigli t ~ in ce. irthc heigh t is lowe r, morc ,';u liat ors wi ll be
I reqllired fo r ~" lt d i ll g purposes, This is because it is eco nom ica l in these

;1 tra nsrorme rs to lit th e c'o oling radiat ors directly on th e lank and nM to
acc0 ll11l10d;ltc them in a separate coolin g bank.

~I The Iype o [ ,."di,lIo r 10 be used here will be the na l'-plalc radiat or asscmb led in
groups: ca..:h UltJlIP j" cOIlllected to the tank by a COlllillon pipe. In order to ;\" "":'i5 a
1 dcsirabk: hl,jt,; hl fn r the rl1 diat o r it is necessa ry to cf.) ll sit..ic r tile co ntiitio ns for
H'C, nd sati Sr:H.: I\)IY (Ii i t il \' 1I1:I I io l1 , Fi gure 9,4 shows a ~ct.: tiol1 throu gh :1 t) pil.:al
, Hh,; h
tnlllSrormcr. T t) phtain good oi l circulati on it is desirable that the r:lti o hole
,""d. should be loll', II' here ," is Ihe height o [ Ihe celllrC o[ hea till g above Ihe radi: lI o r
in
111111 bottom clltry l'il't: :I!ld (' is th e di ~ tl1l1 cC betwee n top ami bottom cntr y pipe"; Ilo/ e
!lese: should he lcs< II"" , !lA.
I
~lpS , lrthc hI.: i;; 11 1~f rlh\. · .,;c nlrc of the bott o m entry pipe is 50 111m above th ~ tank ba"c
ind ing ;"Ind the ";I.'IlIIC ~frl hc l OP entry pipe is 50 mill below minimum o illc\cl at 15 V. the
I
"ry
ralio h, /e [\)1' Ihe I,, "k sO,[ar dcri ved can be calculaled.
I
Jill oil
"0
~;~ h'it.:!it or co rc cen tre - 50
= 1000/2 - 50 = 450 mm
('lIVes t
e , 1.~OO - (50 + 50) = 1100 111111
s is
th e
II Thel c[u re
Imoil
be,
.he
i h,/e =' 0.41
This is rather hi gh :111(1 sho uld . preferably, be rcduccu , The minimum oil level will
lhcrc rol'i,! hi,! i ll'('l\';1~t:d to IJOOI11Ill. gi\dn g 1I0 /e = 0,375,
. . 1
)c, The h\! . ll d i 'i~i P;It illil ror a give il a vcra ge tClIl pera t 11 rc ri se of t he oil is :I fu :1.,; 1io n
I ri g o f the to tal cooling surface and thc proportion of radiat or to i:() l1 n~c li oll f. tlrf'a{·c.
I til COn lf':1 s t, 1h'c dilfcrc ilce betwee n top oil and ave rage o il Icmpt.: ra!\I !I.· j" a
run cti o ll o f' 1l!l,;l j il !C o f o il circulation which is a runcti o n of th e ill\ crsc of "I' / C,
I "
Th e lim it o r 1 ~'lllpc rallire rise or the top oil is 55 ~ C (n: rcrcllcc G 1.7) ror a
t ra nsf o r lHc r I'll! l'l III i J1Pcd wit h n n oi l co nscr\'i.\ tor. Su nicient ("(Io ling surr;H.:\..· lliusl

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i Ii ..I ~, IO MODI; IlN I'OWI : I{ 1 1{AN S I1,1I~ M I · IlI~ R.At 11, I·
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, [1(:0:1'13 ble a VI.!

'n
., ,'1'!.
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1:1I 1 '' r ~----
oi l level
.,..
1- 11
" radi,llors, TIH"
\ he dc!'igl1 \1
,d H, ,
, I- The total, ,,
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,, " cOlltill U{,Hl'i Ill.
:PII
tun.: ri se Jiml

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to th e prinl.!i
limits m ~ly be
raling. uut \' ,
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!,; x c~c din g
thall Ihe g \l ;Il :
ingly. ll o"!.!\'';
I

e."ccO it by ,
. --._---. The \(' 111 11
- r lh.::-.igm;r Illu '> t

I,
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I,
Il u\\ c\cr. il
hu \·c
gUilr,lntccu nf
b L:~ 11
: : I
t ' .', rating:
.~: 1\' hi
\ I
i !
1
,t
f,
""p,
,I',
I,' = llJfu, II lillI:
I- I' h ..

Th ~ldu re
I"igurc 9.4 . SCI-,ti Cl n throtlgh typi cu l di.'llrihulion ~ l )' pc power t lW r"1 :'1, r: c, distanl"C
bcl\\ CC n top:tnJ bOItOlll entry pipes: h/l ' height arcent/"!..' (1111 '111 r'II'lh. 1 hea lin g SUI ral

~
It quito. 1
j"
\1,; pro vided In 1I1t'd this Iil ni l :llinn : it mu s t also !lILT ! I I:<' l illl: 1 11111 11 t hat the of hl:i t
11[(.: 111.:

av era ge winding h;nll'~ I"tllJ'C ri ~c Illu s t 1101 cx~ccd (15 C. Si~ " .: 1: \,' luw "o1tage o
\\i lh " lIow:w c
wind ing ha s :1 11 an.lage winding temperaturc dilf~ l cll~·1.! ill' },). ' C to the fi gu re 9.4, \\ 1 "';
su rrounding oil, the a\ cragl: oi lt cl1lpcratun: rise t\O~lIIllU I. t. 11 !,' 11 [nrc. 110t cxceed possible 5 111
65 - 25.7 = 39.3 ' CO ' Til e tnllk '"
Fro m chapter 2, MI, = 0.7 M , rand 60"" = 0.85 x O. ·I,li'", 1<,,. a lank wilh , t1
radiator-type coo ling. wh ere Mer is th e :Iverage Ihclll1al P t'l\', I' 1 di '. ip:lkd fr o m
uni t tank S UI r:t cc area in \\;l tl S !},; r square me tre. [J1.:cau 'c
S, Inc al lu w
1\0"" = 0.85 x O. 7 M ~.~ = 39.3 ' C HUi llgof c:lI ' ;
thi s. Thacl '
The rero re
/I f er _ (An .•1I /0.S5 )( 0.7) I. H ~ 18S.J W III

Tile top 6i l temperature r i~e is

anu thu s
60" = 60,,,,/0.85 = 39.3/ 0.85 = 46.2 (
This is wel l he low the ~ pccirk:lli o ll limit or 55 ('C \, Ilklt lI'illfl' I\;CS tile
sugges ti o n made ill sub-secti o n 9. ll.l that the low-vo lt age "~' i ! ling h'll1l'c ratufc
di lTcrcl1 cc to (l i1 should be rcdtll.:ed. This wO\l ld have th e (' :1'1.'1' ( ~, r itH r. ..'; :sil1£ th e

... - ..-....
,
•
"
"'- ,/" f
DI S" RIIJUTIO N 'fRANSFOltMa;ns 241
I
3cceptable average oiltelllpcrature rise and would reduce llit cost of the cool in g
/:, , ,.j. radiators. The possibility ofeco llo mies of this type would certainly be ex plored if
•
the design was for a transformer to be produced 'in large quantit ies .
. The tota l power to be dissipated is the s ~m of the no-load ami 10"" losses at
con tinu ous maxi mum rating. Unless the purchaser states o therwise. the I C lllpcra~
.,
·1
turcrise limits, for a transformer with a tappillg range not exceed ing ± 5 %, apply
to th~ principal tapping only. R~ference G 1.7 recogllises that the tempera ture rise
lill1its 'may be cxccc<;lcd in other tappings if opera tin g at contmlloll s maximu lll
rating, bu t this is deemed acceptable for a transforme r with a lapping range not
e x.~ccd ill g ± 5 %. Acco unt lIIay be tak en of th e fa ct that the losses may be lower
thall th e guaranlt.·ce,11oslics, :lIlU the coolin g provision may be rcdu\,;cd accord·
ingly. However,losses may be higher than the guaranteed value, but they I1IUSt not
exceed it by 1II0re than 10 %. .
Th e temperat ure ri se limits, of course, apply to th e fini shed transf'OIlllcr. The
designer must consider the possibilities of dep;l rtllrcs from th e guarantced losscs.
Il owcvcr, it is :lssumcd hcre that , ancr all design and nlanllfncturin g tolerances
hayc been Ii:lk CI1 into account, th c total losses PI(!I will be the SIIIl1 of the
gua rante ed no· load and load losses. PFeand Peu .! at th e contin uolls IIl:l x il11ul11
ratin g:

PIIK = P Fc + PCU . 1
= 14 20 -t-9500W = lon ow (9.18)

.~, 'r
c, di stance

that Ihe
lin g
Thorofare
surface area required = 10920/ M,T = 10920/ 188.3 = 58.0 Ill '
It is qllile practicable to ob tain a cooling surf:!l'c of abo ut 0.48 m1 fur every
lllc,; tl'C orh cighl ofa radiat or which wo uld occ upy a pl;w arca orO.02 m x 0.0,-15 rn
Jowtvoltn gc :' wi th allpwancc mad~ ror ~l d eqlla t c spacing between each radi ator. it' we refer to
loq to the : fi gure 9.4, wheree is 1.2 III, the total radiator height could be 1.3 Ill. This lI'i li give a
,. 011C;":CCC(jI
)
, possible surface of 1.3 x 0.48 = 0.624 m', fo r each sillgle radiator.
The tank itself will have a surface area AT of
I ' ark with ,
A'r = 2(lcngth + width) x oil level
tcd from ! I
= 2(1.l4 + 0.46) x 1.3 = 4. 16m'
Some allowance should be made from this arca for the dfective arca lost by the
fi II ing of ca ble boxes and the rad iato r pipes; a deduct ion ofO. 5 m' wiII be Illade ror
this. Therefore
Ar = 4. 16 - 0.5 = 3.00 111'
To tal arca req uired = 58.0 11\ '
;'lIld thus
I
:HCC5 the arca or radiat or required = 58.0 - 3.66 = 54.34 III'
pc r:t III rc
I..: 11'1

;rcr1li in g Ihe
1Iumbe r o r radiators required = 54.34/0.624 = 88

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242 ""'l O DERN POW ER TR,\N:-i l 01{ \ 11 It I'HAt, II Ct?

Th !.!sc Il1ay be arr:mgcd in a number of grnllps <:\1('11 ;l S shown in fi gure 9.S. It rchllillG to no is
should be noted that provision has 19, be l1Iade ro r fiLlillgs such as ex ternal lel'el ror the I
term inals,tap-se lector control, tempera ture imliGl lor and 01 1 leve l indicator. considered a!!
wou ld co nron
..- i .-
spc.,'cificat io n,

l·
"
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•
• 'j
,!
, \
.~
, . 1- II. K . I I "Ill rray
" ' to publi sh th
.. I
I =
Jl EFERENC"

L
(Rl..'fCfCIl (;t..: rWl
2
• , • I. III iti , h F
(from 16
•

ri gllrc 9.5 Phln o rl}p ica i dis lr ibution -type po wer Ir :l l~ 'u I lllcr: I, lad: 2. hi gh-vo lta ge
(ab le box : 3. low-voltage l'ahk h\1, : t. l ;t di:l ltl n;

9.12 SIIOHT· ClRCUIT REQUIR£I\IENTS

f\1L'nlion ha s bee n made in sub -secti on 9.9.4 o(III( thul1la ll imiLltions imposed
by :-; hor t-cil cllil requirell1ent s. The tmn sformcr I11H ' I ;11 ' 0 be huill to witltS I ~lnd
the 111cchanicn i rorces produced und er sho rt ·ci n:iJi l conditions, The meth ods I
d l.!$cribcu in t.: h~llt t.: r 5 111ay be used , The Iype l)f trall . . rPI! llCr dc-; i::;, ncd here is f; rirly
st ra ight rorwarJ in this respc'Ct, and the applica t in n o r \\ ell eta blishcu standards is
norm:l ll y sHn'icicnllo ensure thallhc windings a1ld (PIl Ilt.!C lil )1l an; mechan ically
I
!
S:ll isf':u:1(lry, It \"o uld norma ll y be SUtliCil:I1 t. fl) r n; lI l1 ple. In ensure that

I
;lI' plI)\i m:ltcly ~OO " u f th e ci rcul'nfc rcllcc uf \\ irHlilli,; is suppor\l:d , A po int of
\\'Ca ~ tl l.!SS ofte ll lies ill I he en d s o f the hclic:d Ic'l\\" \ pl\ ,Igl.! wi lid i ng where t rS)lI ble is
occali ionally cx p,r icllccd fro m lack of adequa te S\11p l'ort or the connectio ns as
thcy cnter the cl;i l proper. !
I

9.13 NO ISE LEVU-S

Chapter 8 dl.!al s wit li qu es ti o ns of tran sfo rm er I1lli,I.!, ['l lt: l't.:: is ;; \..) n.:quircI111.! f1t

-...... - ..
 ~r~rw....~"'" '.. '.

D IST IHIIUIION rRAN SI' OR .\ ' F ltS . 243

,. r..:la1ing to noise levels in rererence G 1.7. Rererence I lays dovJn limits for noise
Ife 9.5. It
lel'el for the range of diSlribulio n Ir:1I1sfo rl11ers covered. These levels wou ld be
-. eXlcrnal
',dic.,'l tor. co nsidered as typical, and it wou ld be ex pected that a dis tri bution transrormer
would ~o nro rm. alth ough it Illay not be $Iri!..: ll y in accorda nce with lilal
speci fi ca t iO Il . "

AO,r-:O \\,LFll GI::J\ I I::NT .,

IL K. I JO lllff; 1)' wishes tll lh:!llk GEe Power Engineerin g Limited rll r perm iss io n
In pll h lL :-. h th e illfllll11 :1 Iio n l'o nlaill cd in SCC li(l Il S 9 . 1 10 9.!:L

HEFEHENCE*

(Rek, cllcc numbe rs ('reccued by Ihe leller G arc li sled in ' eel ion 1.14.)
1. nrili:-. h Electricit y Suppl y Industry. ESJ 35- 1. Di.\friIJIIliol/ 1"/'{/II.\/orl1l(' rs
( frO /ll 1610 IOOOkV,I). The Eleclricil y Council , Londo n (1 97 1)

1- 'ollagc 1
I

~ imposed
Iilslalld
. ",olh ods
:rc IS. I,lair
. Iy
J~rds is
... II]icall y ,
slIrq that !
oint of
, nlble is
. I
~c tl nS as

_.:Cncnt :::icc ali,a chapte r 12. references I to 8.

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10,2,2 Cell
Th e fUll c ti r
gCl1cr:l 1o rs
su..: ll tra nsfo
"
Power System Transformers and Inductors the hi g ll '~\'()
ch a nge r, jf

It rc in bcrg* al~d ' R. J. Grc Icy*

II cutral PI.I ;.
• ch:1I1gc r is r
" '
hrl)lI u, ht Ol
f fl c.: qll l' 11 11 y

.( 1 I
,
c,lch end u r
Vo ltage ;'
" s in UK J1
to be able I II
limi ls ror I
10. 1 1i\ T:tODUCTI ON- TIIE GENLHAL I' OIVEH SYST EM t ra ll sro r nH
th e st:lti o ll
Modern powe r suppl y networks arc usua ll y very co mplex, willi many gene ratin g Til l! (knll
. sratinns, often a va riety o f tra nsmiss ion voltages and :1 hrgc Ilumber of iL'i!d cune
irl! c rc nlllicc tio n fi nd distributi o n point s. Q uanti ties o f CIll.: rgy trans mitted arc culatcd fre
g L' l1~r~d \J r p
brgc. alld :-. hort -circu it fault leve ls arc hi gh.
lil,HI \("1/1 . ,,,
/\ ( any poin t where there is a change of voltage a tr:llIsfu llllcr is req uired.
Usu; l1l y the la rge r transfo rm ers a rc eq uipped with o il -load tap-dl:lllgi ng 'fli pping r
eq uiplll ent fo r vo lta ge co ntro l purposes. Quadrature booste rs may be ncctl cd for ucsi red li lll
lli l' (.:('1111'0 1 o f loa d now, w hilst, to co ntr o l r(,active pO\\c r, (Hiler dc\'il;c.s such as Illldc r lcadi
lI..l
:- li UIl I illl:lu<:!ol's o r sY llc hro nolis <:O lll pCll s~lt L) rS may bc CO IlIl L'(lL'd to [h ~ ~yS [ ~ III . 1lU - l lI;! (

+2 to - I
Sho rt -circu , it levc ls, if no t suflk . ic/1[ ly Iil1lited by [lie in hcrl.!Jl t impcdan cc o f the T ile CllOj,
system, 'nay need to be fllrihcr reu uceu by th e usc or se ri e' indllctors, All these
itcms of l'qu ip mcnt cxcept ge ncra to rs and sy nchro ll o u$ cOlllpensat o rs arc dea lt by ge nera '
with in thi s chapter. regard,c d il
"bo lll 25 I
I: t rilJl Sr(,"Irlll l '
I trtln SrOl1ll
IU,2 POWE ll STATION THANSFOHl\l En s Il1<1cil i ncs,
l11a ;l(i ulUlll I
111,2, I
I(;cllc rlll The chi

!J;I~ic
req uir ed :
Trillls fu),lllc rs fo r usc in po wer sta ti o ns cu mp rise [wo types , th o"c ro r :l ll :ltl t;l' II1 c.:1
tran s roll1li ng the gC llcr:l tcd po wer to a vo lt ,lgc suitable for th e assoc iated dl,Hlbk -c c
t r:l n, m 1,;s ion sys tem and t hose for su pply i ng Ihe sta lio ll wi t h [ht' power I1 CCC$~:1 ry t \\'0 p ~ ' rts
for il uxilia ry ~ uppli c s, The laller arc simila r to th e tJ'nns forlllc rs dcscribcd in Olher l' l' 1,:CI II ;lgt.:
eh:l ptcrs! dc s irl'll «:<1
mus t be

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..:; - 16 - 12 -8 -4 N+2 cool
II ,
% Ti\rpl~I G POSITIO N
b. ;\
(c) dclai
Fi gure 10.1 Winding arral1t c ll1ctllS; (a) d oubk -Cl'I1(1'1I111l' \~lIldi Fl l!: (h ) l\ tIlH' 1l1;(111 :d
,5

..
i •
:lrrnngcl1lc llt: leI impeda nce \;Uialhl!1 for fa) :u1<1 Ibl I'\C I rap pin g ra nge io; CI
mea I'
,:q
,. windings, particula rl y in relatio n to the ~(rCS"l'~ rC~lJlting rrom atmospheric O\e r· C('-'[
voltages o r surge-voltage tes ts. I In \1'
T he doublc-('o ncc ntr ic cOlls tructi on te nd s 10 ha\ c iJ ig he r winding losses than \ cur t.~
th e conven ti ona l arrange ment or
wind ing ... shown in fi gure 10.1(b). bu t it grea tl y th is i:
red uces shOl l-circuit mechanical for ces. II h:1S a ru rth t r advant:tgc in lh;lI Ihe ta :
rad ial stray nux entering the co re is rl'dtlccd. th creby Ic,,",cni ng th e circ ul ating \ al ni
eddy currents in th e o uter 13Inin :Hi (lns o f th e ('ore ;lntl thl' ex tra hC:lIing \\ hic h ;i\IU II
lie ' . c
they ca use.
Typic(.! 1 rC'a ctance variat ions over th e tapping r~lIlgc :lrc .. 110 \\ n in fi gure 10. 1(e) C:l t t

:1 '.VII
fo r both types of windin gs,
Since th e lapping windi ngs arc clcl:tri(.'; lIl y adjacent h ') the nc ut ral poin t. th cy tll""c
:. may be plneed ncar th e lo\\cr·\ol ta gc parts o f th e high -\Cdta gc windin gs or ncar 011 HI
I .,
1
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POW Ell s r s rEM TR ANs r O R/-t I;RS AN D J NJ)U crOIl~

Ih ~ low.vo lt(lge windings. However, attentio n must be paid 10 the meth od of

strr ge-voltage testin g to be employed beca use;\ direc tl y applied o;; ur gc vo ltage o n
Ihe lo w-voltage winding llIay result in all o\'c r:-.I n:ss ing o f th e lappillB winding as
ca n never be met ill service (sec chapter ·v).
II is usua l to usc lh rcc-plHl SC ge nerator Irillisfo il ilcrs Irall spo r taL,I!.: ill one piece.
Without o il. a transport ma ss o f 2241 /Iell ha s h(,1.' 11 ach ieved fO I ,I 600 M VI\.
v ,HXI k Y UC ll c ral o r transfor mer._ Wh ere tran sport f;rl,;i l ilics ha ve pl: l l1litl L'd hcavh.: r
' units wi th co nsequent lower l osses, transpor't masses o f 3050;. 1 h:l \,~! bee n found
pussible. T ra nspo rl is dcalt wi th mo re fully in secti o n 10.8, bU I it ma y bl! remark ed
,. in pa s<: ing Ih<11 the above transpo rt l11asses ha ve o llly beel! possible by lI si ng hi gh
• core flll"( d l! ll si ties.
Fulur" unil s arc likely 10 bc o f cven larger ralings. for cXillnplc ~IJ(I M VA. and
in suiwblc in SI:l llcCS three- phase co nstru ct io n may still shuw CCtllHl lllic a u va n-
ta ges. ill first cost. over sin gle- pha se unit s. Il o wever. single-pha :;c units offer th e
pnss ibi li I y 0 f 11 sign ifi ca nt reo lIcl i OIl 0 f o u ta ge [illie in th e en :llt (l f ,I f;1Hu re, !'o iIH':C a
-s pare I.:a n be kept readily a vailab le for quick replaCClllcl1t o f a d;lInagcd
trans former.
Tank s for so me large gencra tor Irans for llle.: rs have bee n COII"l rlrl: tcd from
atu min illll1l o redu ce transpo rt Illass and stra y losses. Where tan ks ;1ft.: mad e fro m
aluminium, care must be tak en to prevent co rros ion al jUIH.;lil111S wi th e1ec-
Iroc hemically dissimilar mClals. for example Ihe copper carl h elecll udc. JI is also
esse ntial to design the tank to limit stresses du e to tr:1nspo rt, li nlng. elc., since
a lumi ni lim is a 111 uch wea ker and so fl er ilia Icria II han steel (sec SlJ b·:-cCI io ns 10. 7.2
and 10.8. 2).
A ge nerat o r trans former is rarely run al part load; thus two -s l:t gc <.:ooling. for
"",mpk ONII N - OF II F. is nOI I'C4uil·cu. Ii is lI sua l locmploy 0 1";\ 1- o r OFWF
coo ling; the lattcr method has mlvantages bcca use it requires <l s llla ller space for
'I the o il - wate r heat exc hange rs cOlll pared wit h th ose ror o il - air Irlli ls alld ;.\lso
I.
hl.'(,::nr sc of tile gC llcw l a vailabilit y nfl'oo ling ";rter in th e powel .. ldt ill rL Further
i dct:lils o f oi l- wa ter heal exc hangers ilrc given ill :-lIh·sl'Clioll I ~J .7, I.
'11\''':111 jUllal As men t io ned e:l rlier. th e low-vo ltage e ll n en t 0 f a la rg..: gC Il Cl<1 ttlr t r,ui s funne r
ngc
is very hi gh. If the deltil co nn ectio n is made ex terna l to th e t r an~foJ"/n c r, this
I, means thaI smal1e.r bushin gs can be used. altho ugh six lil t: thell requ ired
Icova· <.:U nlp:trctl with three if th e delta cO llnec t io n h:ld lx:c n il1t e rllal. rhe str ong

cs th an
I magllctk fi eld o f it heavy-current bushing ma y give rise 10 la rge drc ulalin g
e ll n e n ts in Ihe to 11 k which may COl usc loca lised OVt; rhe:!1 i ng. A met hod 0 f rcd lIcing
grcady th is is to mo un t the bushings in inserts o f no n·lllagnctic stee l fa stened int o th e
Ih al Iii" lank covcr or, if uushin g Ilirreis arc elllpl u)'ed, Iheir lop-pl"l cs lila), be of
; -'~ ul a l il1g
Hluminiulll, brass o r no n· magn cti c steel. The lI SC o f an exter nal ddta co nnecti o n
i ! \hkh and th e resu ltan t need for two bus hin gs per phase gives so me c1 cen: .: o f ma gnetic
I Ik ld ra ncc l1:rtiOIl sillce th c current direc ti o ns in th e.: tw o brr"hill p" ::rc o pposed to
,r" 10. 1( ~' I c:l(,: h o t her.
Whilst it is usua l to ope ra te o n th e basis o f om: g!.: Il CratlJr. (InC tlUll s fo rmcr.
\" ,nl. Ih ~y
g~ o r Il('it r
th ere ilre so me i n ~w ll ; lli o n s, no tab ly ill h)drocll.."l,: tric po\~c r !-! ::: l" :l'i. where the ,.
~Hl tPllt o r {wo gj;I.I/;la \l..... rs is rl:d illt o n ile Ir:ttl sfllrrl1 !.: r. Suc..: h ;r n ' II r\ 1I1 lll: r1l c nt is

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,

iug a
shown in figu re 10.2. It has the a(h;~ntn gc O r ~ll'.. lillg less·a nd nf havin g highcr~
Oil li lt I
sys te m s bci!!
(' mc.:il!l1 c), I h:! n i r t wo t ra 115fo rmers \\ ~ rc used. S rkT ia I \\ iuding 'H I a1Igc1l1cnt s must
" rrectin g the
he ~ lIl l'l o)L'd to :H::ll k w th e rcq lli fc~1 n::II.:l ;tlll"'''. :I IH I p ro\' i ~i() 1i b II" uall y needed
Ap, lrt ["
It.! p...:r mil (.)pcra l io ll o f o ne gC ll t' l':I~o r \\h il ... t th e (.ll hcr is d 'M.:o nllcctcJ fur
I I a ll S rO I Illl,; t
lIlain tcll ;JlH.:C o r re pairs. T hus a sw i~ c h 'is prcH'id cd ht; !\\ ccn each t'.c lll.! l'nt o r nnd il s
, :l sS l1L'iaICU low-vu ll ilgC wi ndings.'!Thcsc swi r. 1""0; arc l1 u l lI u IlIla ll y ca pab le o f
I ItL: Cll lirc ~, lIt
1, !
I II the 1<1 r!.:'_ r ~
i r, h' l';Iki llg r\ fa ult l:u rrC Il I bu t arc o f·the loa d 111:1 ' c I ) pc :IIlU arc u ... cd fo r iso l:ll ion
~t;l w. lard l\ ;11
,!
,
pili P(.I SCS :111<..1 d uri ng ~y l\~hr o ni ' ' :.0 1\ ur the: 1 ' ! l ItI:l(il i n cs,
Since" Il1,.
l(l l illg. (lnd
r CU!lllnO Il pi
ron.:cd cool
all J reducill:
I [v olta ge
E AR T HING solid ly 1,;;11 1'

-]
TRAN 5F0:1MER
gladL:d ill ,, "1
or ~ize illH.I I
\\il h 1\,.0 · \\

10,3.2 /\ 11 1

HV l The genc! ;

, <
J a III o~ I fa II S fl
l.·l) IlIH.: l.'til)I'

1 With ti l'
h.: l wt:c ll pi
couplillg t\
1,li, hcd by
th en: is Il(
G i ll be I;tiJ
Fit!u rc 10.2 Gcnc r:l! ur I ntn S rll rlll ~' 1 \~ilh \ \ \ (1 illpu t \\ind ill p.s t\\o-willd i
c.:.xa mplc :
Toc llsurc the co rrect volta ge with r esplTllt \ l':ll lh o ra W illd ill~ whcn sc pal'a lcll l l\: n ni s~ ibh
rro ll1 it s 1I1aehinc. it is necessa ry t o U"C il il t' ;! 1thing tra " ... rl..H'1I\1.; r (It!r ma nclltly An alit,...
l:O llllC..::lc:d to th e \\i ll di llg. O nl y o ll e c:t lt l. ill' 11"II,;flH' llIc r i .. Ill'l'd c: d fo r t he t wo fnu nc I ;lli
low-\'oIUt gc: \\ ill d i Il gs', si IH:C co rn..:ct vo 1t ag~o.; 1 "; 11 Ih are 111:1i 11 1.lln ..:~1 0 11 bOIh i rn n tr ansfo rll il
is made fro l11 o ne corner III' 11I1C delta COH IIL·I. l io n to th e lik e
;nlL'I'I...'tl IHl cc ti o ll rccoll nt.:C\i.
cor ner o f th e oth er, : ... rc main in ;
I Ir \\c

relation I'(
111 ..1 't IUi'S .\ II SS I ON '1'11,\ NS FO 1(.\ II' :(~;
Th e q U '1 1i

10,'\, 1 C 1..' lI(, ra I ...:10!'i1.: 1)' I II

rl'-lln l.! I ;'
TI;I mllli:;:.",ill!l 11it no.; for mers lI1 ay be :lu tu- 1'1 1\"·0 .... illding ! raI! l, h HIll er s d...:pt.: nd -

r.
 :~,

POWER SYSTEM TRANsrORMERS ANI) I NOUCI ORS 219

l. .J Iligher
1t.:l1t~ IllUst
IIFt:d\.'(j
,I
I
illS Oil a number o f faclors, some o f which rel" le 10 Ihe characleri' lics o f Ihe
systems bei ng co upl ed and so me to economic cO llsidcrn ti ons, The main factors
afft:ctil1g the cho ice arc given in sub-sections 10.3.2 nnd 10.3.4,
Apar t frol11 the larger sub-stations, 'Illany sub-s tatio ns (lrc u J th e two-
·Ied for
tor ~I~nd il!;
!, transfo rmer type, where the tr(l ilsforrncrs arc o f suc h ralin g that cach can suppo rt
·,,,rlc of I thc cntirc sub-s tatio n load if the o ther is out o fci rc llit for main tenam:c or repai rs,
iOla lion III the la rger sub-stn t io n, <I lid depend ing 0 11 their illl pa rtance, evcn hiehl!f security
standards ilrc adop ted , for ex"~\lnple by th e use of lIlore than two tral1srormers,
I Si nce;llonel is allllosl al ways,s hared by at lcast two tr;ln sfonncrs, not run a t fu ll
rnting, and since the load ofte ll varies considerably during a 24 Ii period, it is
COJlJlllo n pnl(;licc to install tran srorme rs with tlual ratin g, that is with nil lUr:II and
forced cooling, Ihus avoid ing Ihe runnin g o f coo ling planl al limes of lighl loa d
and reduci ng any possible nuisa nce value due 10 no ise from Ihe cooling pla n!.
I rvolt ages of the high- and l ow~vo l tage networks a rc in phase and the ne t works
so lidl y earthed al lhcir neutral point s, it is possible to II SC a uto-trallsrOIIllCrS wi th
graded insu l;l tio l1, For la rger transformation ratios tha n about J 10 I, the saving
o f siL.c and cost by using au lo-transforlllers becumes margina l wh t: Jl compared
wilh Iwo-winding Iransfor mers (sec sub-seclion 10.3.2).

lO.3,2 1\ III o- lr:IIISrOfl11crs

The ge neral princip les o r nuto-trrtllSrOrl11Crs nrc covcred in chap ter I. T he type o r
aUlo-transforme r a lmos t always used 0 11 la rge power S),S ICIll1' employs slar
COllllectioll, although other connections arc possible I.
With the conven tiollal star-COllIlectcd a uto-t ri!IlSformer, t hl!rl.! is 11 0 pha se shi ft
betwee n primary a~1d seco ndary voltages. Therefore it s usc is rc~ tricteu to
coupling two nctwo'rks whos? voltages arc ill phase_ This ca n :11so be a"':cuII1-
plishcd by using a two-winding tra nsformcr cOllllccted star - star, ill which C~ l se
there is no electric in tercon nection between the ne tworks. No hard and fa st rule
ca ll be laiu down for when a n a ut o-transformer should bc used in preference to a
two-wi nding unit. Various co nsidera tions must be taken into acco unt, ror
: - ):1 [lIed
example sys tcm earthing, ratio, lapping mnge, ava ilabi lity o f lap change rs,
paI11issible tmnsport masses a lld dimensions, etc,
III ' nlly
An aulo-Ir" ns formcr has Iwo ra lin gs: (I) Ihe Ihroushpul ralill l! and (2) Ihe
• Ih two
frame rating, The fo rmer is the megavoltampercs fl ow ing into or ou r u r the au to-
.:'lo th if a n
tr<lllsfo rl1lcr, whilst the latter is the rating of the :tuto-lransfol mer if it ...wcre
!lC like
reco llllected as a two·willding transformer, winding cu rrcnts and vo ltnges
l elllaill i llgclI i\ SI:trll , tha t i s the rfal ll e I'ati ng is Ihl: tlil ll SrO l'lncd I1H'g<l\'o lt :tl11pel'es,
If we t;lke the tl :1I1Srormation ratio as 1/ = !ligh vo ltage/ lo w vo lwge, the
relatio n between fralll e a nd throughput ratin gs is give n by
. fram e rali ng = Ihro ughp ul raling x (I - 1/ /1) (10. 1)
T he quantity 1 - 1/ 11 is sometimes know'l as the auto fac tor. TIlus, the morc
close ly Ihe low voliage "pproaches Ihe hi gh vollage, Ihe slIlallcr beco mes Ihe
dcnclld - fra me 1':l lillg for n give n throughput ratin g, Co nve rsely, the "ima ller the low

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250 MQ OERN POWEll 11( ,\N SI'Olt I'-ILlt I'RA c n CE

"ullage, lhe nearer <.foes the fram e ralingappr o:lcll the throughput ra tin grl lld th e
lower arc the econo mic 'ldvantagcs of Ihe aUlo - I ~'lIl S rOrl11cr co mpared wi th the
two-windi ng ,un it. In practice. the frallle rating is tl s u ~~lry large r th ri ll th at
Glku i:l tcd by t he above met hod, since alluwallcc Il1l1 st be: m :Hlc rOf 1:l pping
willd ings. dclt il -cOlll1cclcd s ta bil i s i ll~ wind ings, etC. ~.
In Great Britain , it has bee n fou nd feas ible to usc aut<H I:a ns (o flll crS o f up to
1000 M VA Ih roug hplll raling bclween Ihe 400 and 275 k V Ilelll'o rk s. Ik l \I Cl Il lhe
400 and 132 k V net wo rks. sma lIer LI nits a're rcq II i red and a uto-! I a nsr\ \ 1 IIl l ' l '\ ha\'e
been fo und ccon o micali.Y practicable eve n at this 1';llio. .!rliculars o f :\lI to -
tra ns fo rmers lIsed in Grca t Dri tain arc give n i n tab le 10.1. T he llJost appr(lpri:l!c
v:l l ~t cS fu r o th e r sys tems' may be differcnt fro m these.
Tappi ngs i n aut o- tran sfOr m L: fS may be Iflc: tt cd in various p os itions n.: hti \c 10
Ihe olher windings; exa mples arc show II ill fi gt",c 10.3. The cho ice o f I ,,' ping
POSilioll ,Iepend s 10 a maj or CX leil l o n Ihe "u lin ge which;1 is des ired 10 ct "tl rol,
but o ther fa cto rs Illllst be tak en i nt o accolln t such as the availabi lity Of Slli l :tb lc
tarc hallge rs. Whi l s llapchil ll g c r~ have b..'en 11I:H.lc wilh insulati oll ro r 275/J 1/2 kV
10 "':11"111, th e pro vi sion o f Ihis inSlli<ltioil 111:1kcs the tap dwngc r vcry bUlky.

I.
HV HV -<> HV
I :q
•
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to l tb) Ie)

HV

r-o LV
IIUJJ

=
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figure 10J Loca ti on of tapp ings in au(O·tr an <; ror mcrs: (a) l appin ::' in 'l·ril.:s \\ :t1 'li ng:
(b) tappings to provide \'o lt:lge \ill'iati Cl Il on 10\\ \'o ltn ge side: (e) "r\l l k" ("'/lIlIl CL l illll 10
fU IKl ion as for (b); (d) tappings in common WillLl il1g: (e) tnppingo;; ill $t:l'{'lhlary wintl ingo f
...... i n
.. . : parat e boos ter t raIl Sforme r; t I n ppin!:s 10 J'lrO\ ide variable \'o lta L'c In c: n c rgi ~c <;C p:1I ale
J!,,,
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I b O()SI l'f l ril m rl-'flllCr
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1 .',

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"0-
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------[ -.~ 5'~ ~- ~~'--~~ ~ . ti~ Co -.
~ -5 -- ].---:'~E.' !" ~ ~:-. ~ ~~-: ... P-~
n ~o .. "'-:00;-'0- 0 ::;_ ;:. 1
_ -J
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T A.BLE 10.1 Characl(!rjslics oj Quro-!:::."l![ormers used on the British Central Eleclricily Generating Board System
'"'""
~
Volt~~ trluu!orm.Glion R~acltmC~ on TOPPing rang~ POl/rion
ThrOlJ(hpUI -<
~
C 01 high l'oflOllr /0 (010' rollQgr Tariff1- IIlI'oughplll r atinv 0/10 ... of ~
\"oIlagr ,'. ~

'"~)
( lcV) ( MVA) ( :;) Idppings· ;=:
..;
400 to 275 1000
I' 00 ups "
>
z
400 to 27S 75. 12 DO taps ~

d
400 to 275
"'" 12 no ups
-"
400 (0

17S 10 132
1)2 240

2.;0
20

20
TISto - S

± IS
(alar (b)

{.}
""'"'"
~

>
115 to 132 ISO II %11 {.} z
215 to 132 120 II ±" (.)
"z
c
(a) T.lppings loca ted adjactnl to I3H.V terminals: (b) tappings located adjacent to neutral point. c

II"
&AII units ha\'e 13 k V dcha-(:onnected stabilising windings suilabie for supplying an external load of 60 M VA,
~

..., ri_
~
V>
Xb~~"'" ;!cl
_ __ =--d . ~::N
~ !V

'.
~.f~4
t:~fX~'~~~~

J'
, l' = = ___ _ . f~1~f1
_ ~~~
~ ~~.~':4~~.~ ':.J- .
-~". ~' ".~.;,.:x.:~~ .~ ~.
..:: 1 """-=' :::::: - #0-

....----.--.'QV- '""' .

,~-],£fitc.C~=';;'r~;~~Z¥~~l'~i$~~f:~~~~'!~~~~';:'~~~;~i~~;Z~
fWIQ .. .. ......
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:, J" t
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'J
252 - MO/)c ltN rOWER TIlA NSFORME IlI' RAc.:1 [ E
I
Intern ational ' practice seems to htlvc tak en 220/ J 1/ 2 kY to eart h ' as about the ,.. in o l'da I)
maxi mum v(.l~tngc al whic h tap chapgcrs ca n be cCO;l on~ ic. :~ T hus Ih
In figure 10.3(a) Ihe la ppings are show n in Ihe se ries windi ng a nd Ihus arc ,'<! Co nscqm
principallY'of lI SC when the low vo ltage is co nstant and when prov ision is to be . ~l eco n Ol1llC
made for va~yin g the hi gh vo ltage. tr(ll1 sfo j
The arra ligcJ11 cllt in fl gu/'c IOJ tb) is frequently lIsed on :1I1l0 ~ (raJi S rO rIllCrs on becomc
the British 'net work and is mai nly of lise where the high vu lt age is rairly co nstant An au\'
and w~cre:\ ' lhc ta ppings are rcqll ir~J. to prov ide low vo lt age Viii ialiol1 to
co mpcnsa rOf vary i.ug loa ds, etc. The arrangelll e nt in fi gure IO.3 (c) is also u ~cd
close I I
f n
sur ge v'
:lnd pcr rl1JiJ l'S si milar-fu lll'tions. II is sonlc1imcs kn own as th l: fork C\)lI Il l"\,: li o ll. Ihe lull' -'
whilst Ih,lt' :s!l own ill li gllrc IO.3(b) is kn own as the linl:a r o r pO lent io meter a lld (e) 'I
co nn cc ti (. n; ~n bO lh th C~t! 1. " ~ l n ll el: l i o l\ s',.thc llulI1ber lH turn .• bl!tw(cil hig h vo ll age Wi ll '
tenll i na 1and li e u I r:1 1is l'(' ll slalit ir n.!s pec l ive 0 f ta ppiI1 g posi l ion. :I no I h tiS I il L' I: ure vu lla gl: v
nu x density and the \'olt agl.! o l'thc sta bilisin g windin g rema in constant if the high for cxnm
voltage is constant.
in fi gure 10.3 (d). the tappings arc ill th e: CO I11I1l('l 1i winding, and it will be seen
I b OOS IC
seco nd
I
I

that the alteration o f l:tl'pillg :t il ers Ihe lutal tu rns bd wce n the hi gh-vo lt:l gc mallll ~ r

termina l ;:lIld neut !':d as \',ell :15 be tween tlie lo \\.'·yo hagc telln inal a nu nelltral. If Ilcgati\
ei ther the high yol tage or the low vo lt ngc is kept COllstalll, !he co re flu x density melli o ' I
will va ry with tappin g pn" it io n, This would a lso be the C~lse with the arrallgclTlell t lab le 10.
in fi gure IO.3 (a) if i t were' u ~t'd to vary the lo w vo lta ge when [he high vo ltage \\'01S
co nsta nt. Because o f (h ~ r: lri:ltioll o f co re flu x den si ly, th ~ (\)fe is not so fully
utilised at o lle end o f th l: l:tpping ra nge as the o th er, l'e~u Jl i l :g in the nceu for an
increased fralll e size fof' iI give n th rou ghpu t ratin g,
T ocalculate th e varia tion o f nux u c n ~ily ;tmJ the relati vc turn s in the respec ti vc
windings o f a n <I uto-tran sformer wit h neut ra l-e nd t:lrpi ngs, the foll owi l1g
formulae 1l1~,y be used.
I
I
(10.2 )
)i

i! ( 10.3)

,.Q-"'
'I 1J!~ = I~"!" {"''..IIU - 1) ( 10 tl J
I, 8,nl" II ",~J'~"I" - I) Fi gl
whcre Nso Nc ailli Nt :Ire rhe fulillul11bers of turll S III SC I I ~·~;. ~ 'HI I01on :l nu 1:II IPlllg I
windings. I'CSlx'c tivcly. aiH I 1I ...:,.\:1I1U '~"I !\ tHe Ihe lI1ax i lllLHI' ,Ind lII iniullJlll l alio!>. Th e I

Tappi ng turns and nux] dt:llsi ty at any po int 0 11 th~ l'II'ping ,'a ngL~ III<:IY be rl'gu l a t j ~
determined by ~ tlb S li [utlll g t hc appropriate ra ti o ill the 1 (~ r ! II\1I:l e ."" windi,"',
T o illust rate Ihe ill L'II,:ll :-'C i n fr:II'n c si7c. a cO lll paris{H) is Ina Li e below o f t wo
designs ofauto-trilll sfo, !t\('( .l.:ilch for 400 10 1J2kV f- I 'l ~·". - . 5 %. olle had llg
• Ira nsr
un its ,I/t
ta ppings as ip ngurc Ill.3t h) or (c) :l ntlthc o lhcr nCllt,,!! '-'11" lappi ng!l as in li gu rc fH)1n :111
10.3 (d). Ii is 1Issll ll1." 111,,,1111" high ·\'o li agc Icrill ill al is ~I" C() I ~ I""1 '100 kY . I r. ror alway
either design. th e limiti ng fluI( dcn sit y is !li ken as 1. 7 T, th e rnr lllcr uili t IlW)' be T h, I
desig ned rol' this /lux d ~. : II ~ it )' si\H,:c jt does not vary with I dPpi ll L; positic!l l, r OI the low· v r
1:1 ttc:' design. I he nux J CII ; i1y on th e III a xi III UIII pos i li ve l;q.1 ;,; I:g COl II onl y be 15 1T
I
The ~ I

......... .' -~ .,
I,
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h. , f,.,
,
. "l··,}'~ " , , .,'I
-.... ., ......... ..... ~ ..
.~ ','-
V
, .
,,I' ~I
\ '

POW ER SYS f H t 1 RAS SFOKMERS AND l NDUCl"OnS 253 "

ill o rde r tha t th e limitin g nu x J cnsily is 110 t exceeded at th e o tllt: ( c,x{rCI1lt; tapping.
r
lIe
i
j
Thu s thi s unit Intl st have a co re abo ut 10 % larger ih" n th at o f the form er unit.
,',
II
!: .. , ' ..
arc COIlSCq IlCllti:1i sil\'ings in o th er direction may make neutra l-end 1 ~l pp jll gS
"

IUS
1 II, ' I
, 0 be cl:o ll ullIic ro r thi s rati o, but th ey beco me less attractive on lowe r-ra tio au to-
I Ifalls fuflllc rs wi III 1<1 rgcr I;, pping fa ngcs when a In lIch gfea ter dcra Ii Ilg 0 r t he co re
I
lers On bccOlm:~ necessary.

An at!villlt;I£c or ta ppings in the co mm o n winding is that th ey can bl! loc;:lted .·t,

: 11~"'~ cll.1!'oe to the neutml poi nt alld ca n therefo re be pro tected, to SO llie ucgrce, [ro m .; 1

;0 u,s '<I surge \'o lwgcs, The currcnt in the 1:~mI1101l windin g is less than th e line current at
cr ll n, th e l ow · vo lt ~l gc terlllinal ; thus, co.mpared wi th th e a rrangcJll!.!l1ts i~l fi gure IO. 3tb) ., ..
, eler and (el, ;1 Slll:1l!er less highly insul ated lap cha ll gc r l11ay be used. ~,,(!. , '.
>'""I ilge
he c(.rc
dgh
\V hcn IK' tltral -clill t;lppings are employed, it is somcti mes I" cquill.:d tha t the
volt age of Ihe au xiliary lI'i nding be kepi eo nSlanl despile nux densil)' V'"ialions,
[01' exa mple when ~In cxtCI nnlloa d is to be supplied. T his can be ac hit;vcd with a
I'
,I
, ' ...
" ,',j
'~

;,
,'.
1
,

<"
"
boo ster I 1"<1 li S[0 rli 1(': I' fed fro lll nxcd poi nts 0 11 th e tapping windin gs ami with its
,
)C :-'l'c n

, d" lf
!.Igc
second ary win di ngs C0 l1111..:c ted in series with th e auxil iary wind ing in such a
mann er llia t tilt.: ph.lsc o f th e volt age o utput is un:1rfcc teo by th e posilive o r
nega tive boost npp licd. O lle wnyo r achicving thi s is sho wn in fi gure lOA. h is the
I
iI
:, . ,
"

Jc n ~j ty meth od ro und o n so me o f th e Uritish 400 to IJ 2 kY Iluto- trllll sro rlll c r s lis ted in
,,
table 10, 1.
,, ,
; ,~nlC Jll

I was , '. ':~.~'~

HV
o (u lly
,I ~. I ',,~,
,.
.'.~ ;.

<
for t n
I
MAIN ~ LV BOOSTER
BOOSTER .:..-~\ I
?.. _ tIVC UNIT ' PRIMARY SECONDARIES
I, {!." .~}
:
I ~ \ '>+:1 ,t'

"d-,-----, .
10 Wi [ g CONSTANT
~ VOLTAGE I ,
,.
0,2) JTERM INALS , II ' .. ,·to
"'.:1'
~ ,\~

.-

"0 3)
1 DEcrA / \ / I

/
HV ' LV
STABILI SING \;
WINDING
i
I,
(10/4)
Figure 10.4 Neufr;d-end l<tppings 10 energise separate booster transforme r
i
1,. 11 Ig
'I
,I
ratj~ s. The arrangements in fi gu re IO,3(a), (b), (e) and (d) arc kn ow n as direct
be re gul ati o n unit s, the tapping windings arc link ed ,by t he sa me core nu x as Ihe 111~.in
wi ndi ngs. The arra ngements in fi gure 10.3(e) and (f) employ se pa ' ~ l e booster
of 111'0 tran sformers; the main core fl ux does nOllink wilh Ihe regulaling windings, These
I' 'ling units are called indirectly reg ul ated unit s. The booster trans ro rlll cr is energised
~ u, rc
frolll nn a uxilia ry winding o n th e main tr ans fo rme r which is usuall y, but no t ,, ,
", for
li' Y pc
a lways, th ~ stabilising winding.
The sccolld:HY wi ndin gs of the booster tran s rormcr arc ill se ri es \\'llh ci lh ~ r th e
i
Ihe !!
"j'I'T
lo w- o r high-vo lt nge line and may be arranged to boost or buck th e li lle vo ltage, I' !,
The employment o f se parate booster transfo rmers is po pula r in EIIf(Ij)C, and , by
'I 11 ...

ill
I· .

. : '.
I'! I'
--... -
I ~. ,,';.
..,.,--"~'- ---,. 'I, 'I (
I
I'
I I I·
,. I
I.
 " I ' ' 1'
11 ,~,

,
., . " '.

." ! ,.. •

,. '.
~.-
'''' "

'"

254 M OI) I: H N I'U\\ ' LI{ r I( ,\ NS J !l H:o.IFtt I' R"" li v e

sui table choice of intercon nec tion bctwCl:1l main lInit and boo"tc r, a degree o f tilc , c phas,
q uadra ture as lI'eli as in-phase vo ltage co ntro l ca n be provided lis th e lila in and the phaso r \
boos ter units C1 n be tra nsported se para tely, the Illctho<.l kllds it selF to CO n~ rcqu ircmcnl
struclio ns fo r si tes where limited I ri\l1Sporl masses arc pCfmi %iblc. ~ onlpc n si1 ;

Beca use o f the interconnection o f wind ings, both di rc(;lly a nd indirct: tly device "In
reg ulated allto ~ l i':\llSrOr m crs arc mote prolle to damage by "urge VO!t figcS ilnd Figure 1('
sho rt -ci rn lits th an a rc t wo-winding tr:l Il Sro rm c rs. In d cs iglli ll p to withstand con sist o r
.,
.~ sur ge vo ltages, parlicula'r cn rc mu st be take n WhClllb c lap pi ng win d ings arc flC\lr
a hi gh-voll age lerll1illal, fo r example as in figu re 10.Jib) ",\(1 (e). ,i nce IIiglier
booster UI
fur each ph;
I
a t high vo lt
,i voltages l11ay be de\'eloPed between tapping sec tio ns.
Another poi nt o f da nger fr u m sur ge \\dta gc.:s is wlll:n l it e 1:lli(1 nf th e aulo _
,I, transforme r is So mali. tha I is tile se ries win ding is of ,d" II \'I.: I), lu\\' \'l)!tagc :llld few
,
lurns. In this case a surge ar ri vin g at tile high-\'oll:lgc Icr nlilwllflay he distributed
'j ". allllost entirely across the seri es winding because the low-vo ltage ICI'I11lnal is kept
at mo rc o r less ·<:o nstant vo !t;l gc by th e COlllllx t(' U netw o rk . I\ s ;t resu lt. hig h
- ch.:ctric s ~rcsscs ca n be set up in t he series wi lid i ng. Lilll i ta Iion 0 r t he su rgc volt age
across th e se ri es winding Illay be effected by a su rge ar rester. pi ovidcd the nurma l
vo lta ge across this wi nd in g is no t large. Tapped windings o f or associa ted with
booster lrans fo rm ers (r.gure 10.3(e) and (I)) a rc a lso liable 10 be slIbjecled 10 hi gh
surge volt ages and frequentl y arc protected by surge arresters co nllected a~ ross
Ihem.
Shor t eirel'lits nrc particula rl y o llero us to the series windin gs hct:ausc full high
,,. or low pha se' vo lt age may be illlpl'csst.'d across thclll in Ihe t,,'\1..' 01 of a l ow~ llr
hi gh-vo ltage f:i 11 11 . Apar t fro m the Il1cc i1nl1 icf1 1 slrc'\scs d uc 10 the' o\'~r - c.: lI rn: nt.
there will be electri c stresses because o f th e ovcr-wl lt" gc On tilt.: winding.
i
I Sta bi lis in g wind ings, " hell not used [(')r .111 illlx iliary 1\lad, need on ly he
des ign ed for thc for..:cs due 10 Il lccircu la ti ng CUITc nl \\ hk h ;II1 :..C fl'<lll1 a single li llc

[,, II
fault to earth on the hig h- or low-volta ge sys tem . WhclI the.' 1\ indings '-II C also
ili lcnu cu Lo supply a n auxiliary load , th e J' i:-. k illl.:lca:;cs gr..:;111y uw in g 10 th e

I, I
poss ibility ofa three-phase short circuit. A balance lIlust be foulld. \\ hell t:hoosin g
values for reactance betwee n the stab ilising wind ings ;lIlU ot her "<inliin gs.
between limiting the severit y ofa three-phase fault :11ll1 yet cll \ uring suOi cie lltl y
sma ll regulation o f ou tput vo ltage. The litller is particula rl y im portant whc n
slIpplying capacitive or indu cti\'e COl11pcll ~a ti oll cquip mcll L :-. ilH: c the loatlt itkc n

.,
~ "
"
by such eljuipmcnt is proportio nal to the Hluarc of the \tl llilgC. (Fo r furlllt::r
conside rati o n o f stabilising windings, see sectio n 10.6.)

10.3.3 Quadralu,,' buos lr rs

A q uatl ra ture boost.:r t ra ns fOI Iller is (I !' p.:l'ialca "c o f a lit 0 -1fini " f'tl llllcr i II I ha I the
boost \'o lt age is arranged to be in quadralufl.: to the supply \ \l llHl:;C inst ead of in
phase with il,:lS is the case with the cOlI\c/ltiolla l aut o - trall ~ fc 1 rI1lCr . I hi .. :I:-.:-. is ts
\v ith th e con tr·o l o f load !l ow bct\\ ccn in terconnected cirt.' uits.
Idea ll y. a qUHdl'tllurc bou:-.tc r sho uld al ter the phn <:e dirfcrl' Jl cc hcIWCC: 1l the
phasClrs o f inco ming. and ou tl:,) in g \'\I!IOI rc with nu t ;, rrr l'ting th e IIW L~ lIitlJde o f

......-.-......._--,...-
"
 ,
I
,f
roWER SYSTEM 'rRANSI' OR ~I E ltS AND INOUC·' UR S 255
'/
ree o r these phasors. As the boosting voltage is injected with its pl1asor HI righl -rlll gics to
IIlp th e ph:lgor o f th e incomin g vo ltngc fo r any v.ilue o f boos t exce pt zero, lhe above
,I on, n.:qui l'cmc lIl ca n o nly be mel ~l ppr'OX ill1nlCty for small v: llu cs o f boost. To
CO lllpcnsalc for phase difference would r' cq~irc C~I.:css i \'c cU lllplicaliolls in a
.""cllyI dev ice already rar rrom simple. .. ' ,Ii ..
Figurc 10.5 illustrates a lypicalquaclralun( boOS lcr dcsigll which wi ll be seen 10

~:~j:':
. ,11 r
co nsist of two transformers, a stat - stne-coo' :ted c.'\cilatiollll ilit whkh feeds a
boos ter un it with de lt a-connected primary atld,indcpcnd cnl !:-t:co ildary wi ndin gs
ro r cilch pha se. 1n this des ign, the variati o n Qrboost VOII :Illc is cfrc~ lcd by tappings
at hiGh volta ge \"HI th e inti l.' pcndl.:l1l seco ndary' windin gs or the bLl o ~ l c r Ir:ln S ro r~
a ut ~
I fc iv (
lied INCOMING
s kepi 62
, 'l igh
( age
orma l
~ wilh
( ligh
.h .. &"Q S AI

I li&h SIIUNT
UN IT
) - be COREl
:rrcljt.
1 ?c
~Ic line
'. "I~O
I t ~le
J~s i ~ g
0..1 ~I -CI
Idl nI,s,
: nl y
a;2 {,-2 2
"h n
SI.::RIES

Ilr
lak n
I II UNI T
, CORE2

A3 63

l.tI I?C
J orm

en Ilhc
I
.1
ars A4
OUTGO ING
64
11
C4 !

'c or fi gu re 10.5 TypiC<ll qu aJ raturc bllo:. lcr d t:~ j g n

1

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;1
256
'1, '
~ I UI)ER N POWhlt I I{ \ :-':$ 1 nit \ 11 It 1' 1{ \\. 111 E
,':{
me r, but stich a method 1ll<.IY no t be practicable.a t very high vo lta ges owing 10 I I:
com r ~
insulation lililita tio ns o f availab le tap chan ge rs, Ma llY o ther me thods of, :,~':,h\ 10 gi\ ~
co ntro lling the boos t voltage arc available. limit ed ( 111 )' hy th e inge nuity of th e 'r't A \I '"
designcr ;lIld the dl:lr:li Icri~lics of tIll': lap I.' han gers ;I\; ,ibh lc, It should l\c no ted
Ih" l lhc booSI ""~Ie orlhe ucsi gll show il illli gurc 10.5 Illay be ;i1l crcd so Ih" llhe
:1
iI
sul' p·
enS' ,
I
ou tgoi ng \'oltngc 1;lgs or leads th e incom in g \'(Jltagc simpl y by rC\'crsi ng th e phase
o f thc boo ~ t .wind ing, facilit ies for \\hich arc pro\'idl.'d ill lI1any tap cli:lngcrs.
Plohl clllS in conlrol of sur ge vnlt:lgcs arc . . illlilar to tho:,\! dCSl' lihed for
.,'J, SCl,;lJ r
fOl'111
co nventi ona l allt b: trali s fu rlllcrs, and tjlladr:llul'(': bCHh lcrs nrc \'CI'Y pronc to
dinic IJll ies under short ·tircllit Cllndi ti o ns, p.trticulall y \\' hclI th c :1I111)1I0t lJf
U III
"
bonstc: r win ding ' in circuit is sllIall. F o r Ihi " rl':I"on , it is o n eil pra c ti ce 10
cn uncct a n ill(hlctor in scric~ wi lh the b00slcr ill order t{l lillli llhc silon· l: rrclJil
level.

111,'\,,1 ' J' \\ f) ~ \\ indirrg tr:ln .. rUI'lIIt.' rs

,I
I\s c>. pia inctl in sub -sectio ns 10.3. 1 and 10,,\,2. if th e r;rtio o f tr:llls fo rn w tioll is
large. th e Hu\'all ta gcs o f th e rcdu <.'c d cos t :IIHllosscs o r an Dllt cHra nsformcr llIay
be small when co m pa rcd \\ it h or two-w ilid i ng t ransfol'lll t.' " \\ it h c iCC I ri c se pa I':r I ion
h ~ IWCCIl it s wi ndings. If a \.'Ilan gc ll fplw so r I'dati(ln ~ h if" i ... Il'q ll ill.' d hc t\\Ce li thc
hi1.! h- and I nw~vo lta gc netw or ks, th ~ n a two-\\ ind ing 1I :t1bforrllcr is nl'cc<;~ar y , r
T he c:lcl' tri c sc: p:rratio l1 o f the \\'indin!;s reduces lllc dl· ... ig lilimit;lIio ll s. silll'c to
so me ex tcnt. but Il o t cn tircly, cac h \\'ind ill g ma y hl: !rc·;lIl.'d indcpclllh.'ntly. C:tre Dua l
Illll st stil l be tak en, ho wc\'cr, in Hl11pnC lui'll b, t1 aIH': c ;\Jld in ;rlhm'illg ro J' \ ull age sho\\
stresscs dlle to ind ucti \'e :Ind '<'lp.,t:i ti\ c co upl ing ht.:t \\ l,:c lI windings, va n l
Lo\\, ·\,o lw ge co nnec ti o ns o f t\\' o -n i ntl ing t l"l n ); fOlm Cr~ lila)' bt.! lk lta or :,(;J r. two 10\'
depcnding o n th e ph a~n r I'c liit ion~llir rl.'q uilcd. Wli clI ;r dt:lt:t ~ l'ol1lll.'l.' l cd low· vo lt "n-;
\'0 1tage wi Iltl i Ilg is CI1l plo)'c::u, Ii 11 k SllW) be i I1 CtJl pur:! I~'d \\ IIII i 11 1.111.' I !'aU'" fUI ulcr to
enable th c \\indin g); to beconncct cd furaltclllati\ e pha ... ct! grtJ lI!lS. I hi" is lI"u:1l1y
advi:-;: rhlc·o n a large netwo rk 10 secure a et.) 111111011 t.ks ig n fUI I)lOSt it1 tcl'I'Ut1l1ec tin n
poinls,
If tlie low.vo l ta ge windil1g is star cn llncl:led, it is u:> ual. for thc Sil hC of
I. standardb'":ltion, 10 specify an additi o nal dcltn ·colllll:Clcd ); ta bi lising \\inding.
altho ugh th is ma)' Iwtnccc::s:-a ril y he rcqui red "i tll ce riain ... )'tc lll cond it ions (sec
secti o ll 10.6). a ll th e.: 1; II'gl.' r s i/es pf tW\ H \illdilig qal' ,1:11' tl:III S rltlIllCrS, tile
dclta -(.'o;lllcc tcd sta bili si ng \\inding rn:!y rn)\ide " ~lIpp ly to rc:r~ ti vc power
com pensation equipmell l ill th e sa me II1:1llnel' as 011 th c 1:llgc :1l1l0-tr:1 n"rl lll lterS
described in th e prev iolls s{'cti on .
11l1J1c<!a ll C'cs lIIu st be Ch O!'>l' ll 10 prC\C III c.'4:L'l',,: ding llt ,,: !,> \\ ih: lr gl.';tl' l':tting. In lhe
1:l l gc r s ub- ~ tati o ll ", \\' hen mo rc than I\\'0 tran sfo rmers ma)' be cOllm'l.' t ~' d to a
hu . . ha r :In<l \\' h ~ \l th er" is uflc n a fur th cr jnfc~' <..l dl !e 10 1(I,:d t!l· lh' l;rlit ll1 . it j..
rl cLj Il L' ntl y the.: l"a ~c Iha l irl1pcdall ccs wo uld liced 10 he \0 hig h lha t \p lt;lgc
Il'glllati (J n would heco lil c cxccs~i\'c, Wlll' n thi s happcll :-, !11 1.' bll . . ba r:- llIu st be ' plil
ill to ~cc ti olls, thu s perlllittin g lOwer illlpt:'d:lIl('('s \\i th <\utl.' \ I.'c:-.si\·c ); ho rt ·t:ircui t Figu
h;\'cls. Dcpendi ng 0 \1 the shor t-dlell;t I C\'L' I ~ "hl.' l1 1',lIt of the 11 :ln ... rt ll rnCr
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, . !'O,WER SVsrEM TRA NS FO RM I~ R S I\ NO I NDUC I O RS • ,257
o wi IS to co III plcllIcn t is ou t 0 fc ircuit for mai ntcllaJll.:e or tcpa i r I he sect iOlls 1Il:1 y he joined
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" ~ll S of t o" g~ \lc i ncn::I sl.:d sec urity o f supply.

{ ( Iile I I . lI ~dlllll a n . . rU r I1lCI' ar rangc nw nt . the dual -low· vo ltage windi n!!. j'l: ll ll i I S t wo
De nOlcd i 'surjplics to l:adl h.il f o f a spl it busba r antl thu s limit s sho rt-cir cuit k\'cl whilst
'" I hal , the ensuring cOlllirllJi ly o f supp ly in the eve nt o f ;, tran sfor mer fai lure, Fig ure 10.6
: pha ~c :-. hilws two ~1IL' h un its fcedin g <I split busba r. T o achieve [he S: lm c deg ree o f
I. •. a nge rs. ~ If i ! ), wit h l '\llln:r lli o na l (wo",w inding tra nsform ers would requ ire two [ IOIIl S-
ribcd (or , fo rm ers J'l!f bu ,,(J;t r, eac h fa (L:U at hal rI he prima ry fa Ii Il g or11)(' J tl a I-It"lw-vo lta gc
0pc 10
of
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.. lIlIits, a nd Wl)ldd IH:ccss it;l!e ex I ra space 0 11 the sub-s tat io n site.

rae' icc to i 32 " V 132" V

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-'e n the
lCl'~r':;lry. Fibllr~ 10.6 T\\o dual-lu w-vo ltage wi nd ing t r,l lI s ror mcrs reeding a ~ p Jj t b usbar
1I1('C to
)'.1Ca re Du al-low-\ () II :lge tra ns formcrs have a n equ iva le nt i mpcd:IIH:C nL'lwo rk, as
) r q) lta gc shown in ligurr.: 10.7(a), in which th e appo rtio nin g o f impcdalK("s bl: lweC n the
\'ario ll s br:l I H.-hl'S may be a ltered by varyin g the degree o r jI1 1 c r ka\'ill~ bd wec n the
II' Sia l', t \\'~l !U\\,· \,Ollil l·.I..' \\i l1 di Jl gs. A possible a r r il ll gl..' II H;n l o r windin gs in :L d,,:II -h.1W-
... lcd low- r ol lag\,; lI llit i:-. , 114..1 \\, 11 in fi gure IO.7 (b). The hi gh-volt age llI ain :l lld IlI p p ing
forl11l.: r 10
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Irl-I..'i n.:ui t Figurc 1n.7 Dual low-voltage win d ing tra ns ror lllcr: (:1) cqu i\':lIcnl rtllpn lan cc nct\\(,I rk:
fOI me r (b ) \\ i nd in g 'I rra n!.!I.'lIIl..: nt
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258 MO IJ t; RN I'OWI.:.R !lt /\ NS ! O R:-'IER ! 'RAl' ! H. E

wi nJ ings arc in two parallel hal ves, tlili S l'l1$ uril1 g COf ICt: t i.11ll 1;C';'C I UI'Il h;d:lrll'c '~
bctwecn th ese and th e lo w-vo lt age windillgs ullder dirrerin g 1 0 w - \'o l l ~l GC loads,
Impedan ces o r dua l-lo w-vo lt age ttnit s t11I1 St be choSCI1 wi th .c;\rc sill L:c a d Cl' iUIl ;}1',!
," with a hi gh va ltlc o r 2 11 and low \'illltes of 7. L will give hig h rl'g;liati o Jl uw ing to
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I he lar ge com mOll ji l l pl.'da Ill:Cilllq Ill(! Y ll('l·t:~~ i ' ;lt e i t 11 ex 1I: ,, ~ i()n, (J f t i l ppi Ill; 1':\ ngc. "
!
Corwc rsely, if Zl is hi gh, rcglll:tlil1n d ro ps \\;11 bc lar ge i,j th e l\lw . n!lr ;tUc
'i
wind ings,a nd, with dirfcring 10w-\'('III :lg<.' Ina din gs, co ltlro l " flhe vp l' ;IL'l',\ nf lll !! h
windi ngs may ut.'collle din kl !!t w ith Ihl' \ ingk tap t: hall gc r \\ h;~' h Cit ll hI..' lil l l'd 10
the hi gh· volta ge winding.
Whcn Ihe uu al· lo w. \,o lt<t ge win din gs arc delta (.'O Il~l CC I Cd . it is pos"ibk II' 1" I~ a ,j
single ea rthi~l g tr:ln s'fo rm ~ r, as in fi gure 10.2. I
;
JO.3.5 Earlhing Irli nsfofllH.' fs
I r an canh rault occ urs on one linc o r an iso lated system, usually Ol1e r"d by a
dclta,coll ll CCICd main Ira llSrC'l rm cr windin g. 110 relurn pat h ex ists fo r th ~ cal lh
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raull ('urrcn t, ;Ind hcnce no CUI r..:rll fl o ws. Tile "yslclll will cont inue 10 opera 1f:, hu t
Ihe o th er Iwo lines will ri:-.c in \'oll:t gc rr'o lll JI/ J 1 12 abo ve ea rth to JI a buvc r il l Ib,
I wherc J' is th ~~ysk lll vo lta ge. O\'cr~t l'cssi llgofinsulal i o ll ,\ill result IH11 1i ill Ihe
Ir:tn ~ rlll'ltler :tnd 1,) 11 Ih c ~ ) :- ' c.: llt. ... tar lk
.,1 w;th t\'-
To prc\'cllt sudl illl occ urr":ll t:e, II rdlnn pat h mu st be plll \'idcd for I he.: " ~ I ll h
cu rre nt. ,lIld Ihi s is usuall y d o ne by co nllec ting ~ln ea rthi ng Ira ns for llIel II' Ihe stati ol
':; 'I sys tcm: Ihe ea rth ing trall s follll c r ha s a n c;tr th ed neutral PI) :;t1 throu gh \\l1 i, II rll e Clli.lbk I
fau lt t.: urrctll ma y now. gru up 'l..'
T he si mplcst rorm orearthing tra ns ro rmer. in this ctl se 1I10 le str ic tl y "I 'l':I ' ill!.! pha so
an cll rthing inducto r, is a s tar-co llilec ted three-phase \~ in d iltg , Il o\\c\l.: l', ,,',, 11 a may I ..

," , device, i rit is not to take:ln excc~ ~ h c 11l:1t;llc tising current frolH th e ~)' S l c nt d llt illt: intcrco r
no rmal operation, mu st havc II hig h illtped:tJlcc. II thu s cOllsiderably rl':-. tr ill' lilt.' th e sl.
current nt th e time o rr" ull. I Il ~ un h,: jcll t currclllllla)' pass to opa;!t!.! thc plllt "j\~ TIl<
equipment, fo r cx,lI llple eart h fault relay, particularly if t ilt: l ', U th faul! i ~ " , 1I, t...: ""ilhill 1
fr o m th eea rth ingdc"icc. T o redu ce th e impcdance 10 faul! t' Ul lelll.a ,.: 11 \\\,'11 I lIa over· \ ...
"ind ing ma y be fill cd to th e in ductor, Illilking it into a n cal'l lt ing tr a ll !'o fll l ln,; r. insul,l
A low-vo lt nge $UI)pl y is o f tell required in :l sub·sta tip tl ror ope r;lti l.' tl u r termi ll:t
auxiliary cqui plllcllt , :tnd, "illl'!.: this supply Illust a lso be cu rl bl..'d, it is cu m Llli l~lll l y What
pro\ idn l h) :t n 1.'\ I ra ~ t:t r I.· t' 11 II 1..'(.: It.' d " j IItli li t.!. O il t It e l': t r tlt i Il!~ II :l iI \ fl 11 It a' l . I 11 \I ~ :1 cross
fcasi blc C(1 III hi Ilt.'d I.'a rt h i Ilg a lid 1\ II .Xi li a I y t t :11l!' r(JlllICr \H1 ttld lIa, e I hr ec \\ i I Id ; II;.:'i l'arr y ~ ,
CO ll l1lx: tcd Slar de lta - stnr.
A s illlpl e ~ arrange ment (fig ure 10.H) lllay be ach ich'J by th e It .\C llr '11t
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int erco nn ec ted -star Winding in pla ce o f the star an d delta \~illd in gs d i.':-CII ' d WI
a bove. Thc inl CrCO JlJlCCII.'d · slar winding ha s :.J much lowe r irnped all l't:' '0 I' I ). su pply!
sCl.1u t.: Il CC cur rell ts, owin g to th e canct.'il alinn o rth e nu xcs ~c t lip by th e il li\ i,1 II \\ ind; '"
ha ir-windings. /\ delta \\ind ing is thu\,h) Itlnge l' rcq ui rctl , :1thollg h it i\, /11 11 :,:11 11 II Clil .
I
gen et ,11
" prac ticc to ,lit a :-. 1;l r-\.. 'O Il Il~l.' t cd a uxi li:! 1y "i nd ing to slI p;.I) auxi lia ry II'ad ... :
atl xil i: ll
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I\n added ad\:trltagc o flh e int ert:o llJt ct.·tn l· qar co nll i.'c lr ( lll lompal l.:' d \\illl I hI..'
s t :lf CO ll llccti o n is that, wl ll.:' n u!,cd \\I th :t ma in (I':lll' r'l'lncr CI Ilrl't..' tcd ill ror ~l
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I'U\\ k R SYS I E:-.l TRAN SH ) R:-. rI: RS ANI) INI)UC I ORS 259
lee
loads.
it,;n
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", 111 '. f igure 10.8 Ea rth ing tr:III SrOf mcr wi th inte rconnected ·sf:1r win ding
jn I Ie
star dell.l, the a uxilia ry wind illg vollagc o f the earth ill g trallsforlllcr is in phase
.r h wi th the primary vo l, ilgC o rthe main transfo rmer. Th is is lIse ful in " IIL'ding sub·
to IIC station philSC relati onships during commission ing tlmJ subsequent opcrat ion. To
I 'e enable phase rela tio nships to be mnint ui neu if provisio n for a lt ernative phaso l'
group co nnec ti o n is lIlade 0 11 the mai n Ir.ll1sfor mcr. p ro\'isiu ll [(.1 1' :Ilr crn:tli vc
:ahil'L! pha sor gro upco llllcclio n II1l1st a lso be provided outhe earthillg tra lls ronoe r. T his
S'lO'/ :l may lake Ihe rarm o r link s 10 ena ble reco nneclio n o r Ihe pam o r Ihe
ii,,, "
i nt4.: rt,:oJl nccted·sltt r winel ing. or a 11 cqu i \':lI cn t ca n be obta iIICU by rc<,:ollllc(;1io n o r
-, \ ' ! 'I.: the star luw-vo lt agl! wi ndi ngs.
1{,I "c T he latt er mct hod is prdcraulc bc(:tll se o r ovcr· ,·o l! :'gcs \\ l1il.: h l ' ,t ll ()cc ur
Ie wilhin the il1t c l'co nll cct e d ~~\la r willdin gs ;'IS a result o f sys te m lrall'.. i~ nt l'l. T hese
over· vol tagcs arc bet ween the 'kllce· poi nts· ::t IlU rnay cunsidcra bly c.\c.:I.:l'd the
:,)111 1 'r. insula ti on leve ls o f rlic wind in g even tho ugh Ihe Ira nsie nt volta !,;cs a t the
; 1 of tel mi nals a rC within thesc limils.
" I)' Wha tcver connct'lio n is used ror th e hi gh·volt,lgc \\inu ing. Ih~ ulnduc lor
rh ll ',, 1 cro:;;s-scc.:tio n must hI: chusell sO that the tcmpcra llin.: risc o r Ihe winding . . , when
r.lt in u carry in g sho rt -cil'cli i t e ll rren t. is no t excess ive. T'ilc max i III U III va Iu!.: 0 rl'.11 Ih r~lll1t
current is us ua ll y give n in the purchasi llg specificat io n; he nce Ih!.: \l llue o f zcro·
of ti ll s l~q u c n cc impcdnncc required may eas ily be calc ulated.
:Jri lk tl Whcn th e earthi ng tra nsforlller is opera ti ng as an :\II;..i liary tl: tll ~ f(ln n er,
'1°- supplying a load 0 11 the IOw-\'oltagc w in o illg. the curre nt de nsity ill Ihe pi illla ry
.,"II I I.' windi ng is usually vc ry low in co mpari son with Iha l \\' hl! n rau lt (III !t.:11 1 is passing,
JIll J '( 'n Iknce tile land loss o f :t ll e;ar lh ing Ira ns ron ncr le nds to be SI!1:111, ;'lnu it is
I
ge lt t rn ll y possibit: to em ploy <l plai 11 1311 k. Typica l fa IiII gs 0 r Cit 1'1It i rt g II :llls ro rm er
a uxilia ry loads nrc 120 10 150 k VA, T here is a tCIllIc Ill:Y fo r these to b!.: increasctl
f{lr ~ \Ipp li cs to the large r sub-stati ons, an J cool inu luhes (JI' ra d ial!}!" illay then bc

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requi red. Com mon practice 'is fo r the low· \, o ltagc siJc tu' be Cl' tlIIC .... h.:J 10 Ihe "
10.4,2 G:qll'
~y!' l e lll via a swil ch· fusc uni,i' whi ch pro \idcs a tcn nin:l li o n ror [he low- \'o lt agc
. . :d>ks.. Ili gh-vo lta gc lermi nati o ns may he hl l"hill gs or cable bu"Xt.:s, [he I;IIkr The "nrc' or 11
being 111' rJll:llly o f Ihe thrc6- plJ:lsl1 t) I~c. 11 (1\\'c \,cr, 011 L'arlh ing [1:11l\fOllllers I1tilt \.; ri; t1 since
conncc ted to the delta stab ilisin g \dl~dillgs o f la rge tw o -winding or ,Hllo- too !: 1t, nil
transrormers, whcn th cs~}J,' i Jldill gs arc l·."XII.: rllally II,:rm irwtcd fu r :-. upp lyi ng ind it,. ·, · ,:s the b;
l:olllpc n:--ati o ll eq uipment S,e pa ra tc C;Ihlc hoxes o r ones employill!; irlll'l"pha ~e
shielding arc filled . T his n·4uces Ihe pu!->'. ibi lity o r phase fault s ami . . on~cqtlc ll t
onerou s mec ha nic:1 1 s lrc~ o n th e stahi li\illg windings. · <0

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10.4 'II UNT liNO UCI'ORS
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10..1,1 G,'ncra l
In urhan il reaS, powc rtl istr ibution is freq ue lltly by 1Il\d ~rg r:.oll ncl L;l bks. Owing to
th e la rge i Ilc n.:a ~c in COIlSUIll pli o n ill fl.'cell t ) 1.':1) " , a need has a riscn 10 !- i te pri Ilw ry
~ ilh - s [ :t ti {lI1 S as cl ose as pO $~ ibl c to the 11l;l d \o..' ll trcs wilh Ihe I'cs n lt [ha l exle nsive
iJi gh· \"lll tnl,!.('" cable ne[" orks arc bu ilt lip. I he t'harging l.:~rrc lI[ s uf :- Ul'll Ildworks
ca n be vcry co nsidera ble, ror CX:'lI ll pk .~ 2. 5 ttl ?3 A pen :ire u j I k i lo met rc o f 275 k V
200001111 2 ca ble, cquiv;t lcnt to 1710 17.S 1\ l\',l r. II is apparent [hat , if un colll-
pC II ~ a t c d , only a few k ilo metres of (:a hle \\Pl il d take a cO ll sitl t: l "b lc c harging
t urrelll, resulting in illt..:rcascu IH:a tin g :rn d .t " il,; lIiil( ;llI t dccrca\c III [he dfct..:t i. . c
cable throu gh put c:1paci(y. fu rt hermo rc, Ih ~ I." fec t 0 f these erl p~l c i t j \ l' ell rl'cnts is
to prouuce a rise o f s),s tcm vo ltage und er lil:h[ 11,.1;l d co nd itions. Allo t" l. r diITic ulty
wit h 1;lrgc capHci ti ve current s is that , b;;,il1).; OUI o f pha se with tli!.! vo lt age. th e The ,di sau,'"
c~kn S l vC 111
,'
i nlt.:rru pi iOIl d II ti es placed on the ci rclI i [ ,bll' l l ; rrs a re made rn lIch lIl u n.: Oll l'rOliS. ,r
\ ' 'b·
1 raUlHl, ;t,
~I\' cuu nter th e :.Ibovc erfec ts. shu llt ind l l l·tnrs lIlay be in.\ taJJcd ilt inlc!" val :;
bCI VoCC Il th el ll
a lo ng th e L:ilbJc Ih.: tw o rk , A shu ll t inJ llo,.[(lj" i" :t n inJu c t ivc t1cdce " hidl, ir we
. I . .
IIqdn.: 1 t h. . :-. hgh [ dfec t 0 f l os~ e s , Iii kc" a 1'1 11 I ,' n I \~ II u.:h b gs t he :I pplt t.: d vo lt ;Igc by
cxactly rel 2 r'I(.I. 'rhus th e laggi ng cum..: nl 111' lilt.: .. hull t illJllctor 111:1) he d loscnlo 111,,1.3 ( 'lI r
:I
r.:o l1lpt.:Jlsatc fur t he Icadingcurrcnlt ilJ..cll Ly tllcl":,hlc. II is usuall y ufl ncccssal'Y to
11;1\'C l'~ l/ll plcte compensat io n rrom th e \\it" hgca r perrorman ce ct' ll sid cl'nti o lls. A co re · k i, V
I [ :-. llolrld hc Il o tcd Ihalthe SilU ll t-illl llt':11 1( I Itl l l ' rlt is P~ ll P lll til)r w J [0 th e s)':-.1l: 1ll r·aps <Ife 1 [
\'o lta ge as is that o r the cable; thu s a c ~ l1 tl ~litt : r[i(l [\ o f Glhk ano :-. hlltll induct o r is return li lllU . . 1
~c lf-l'olllpCllsat ing, a ri se o f lead ins curn.: :,! ill 1,111 C bein g CO lllll er h;rl;tIlCl'd by a rise puin t or t' ll tr y
or la l~gjng curren t in the o th er. l where il c(' I
Shullt inducto rs may also be uscu ill :h!'ooci:l li oll \ 1. '\)ll g-tJi!-l:lllt:C o\e l head !-i llli Jar pn. ' "
li nes, \\ here agai n capacit ive current s n{;t y re:l dl </11 11 0.. hig h v"lues. (i l F:> I ht
Oil \,\.; ry · hi gh-vo lw ge sys tems, s hUll! i ll '!U I.· l nl ~ arc in va riab ly !- Iar <:o r1l 1e.:e l eu, Ii II I /'
thc :-,!ar poinl~ he ing I,·art hed. Th e ba .. i . . p f a "hu llt indu . . to r is:J l'oi l CllIIIlCl'[cd till '
bClwc l: 1l lin c ;tnd earth: th e required iml'~~l.tll ~·e i. . at..: hic\·I.'u by th e d ia meter o f\h c LIt ~ M.:
l'ui J rOnnel". the 1111m ber 0 f 1urn s n Ild th e.: IpI'\ ) jh II t i{l ll S 0 f [he f1 ux r ; 1[h in i rOil :lIld 111 :-
;lIr. be

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26 1
roWl: R SVSflM TllANSFO IUl I ERS AND I NDucrORS
I',
I. tile 1004.2 Capped-core inductors
~ , ..l g C The corcs o r Ihese induclorS arc divided inlO paekels separaled by insulating
la licr
matcriai' sincc, ira CO ll lp1ctc co re were used, the indud:1I 1CC of the coi l wou ld be
~ ers
I, I9-
'
lOa great, and insumcicn t rnagnclising Clllr~nt wou ld be taken. fi gllrC 1O.9
)Iying ind ica tes the basic nssc mbly o f one li mb of a gapped-core illductor.
I
I' ose
," I GAP PACKING
e c 11 I

I! "
JI I

i -~ IIO
I tlry
zilste ':
;VOf
h..v,1 1 ~
.... -. - l:
;i .-- - _.... .. .
.........
lrgl g
Figure 10,9 Oa sic assembly of one linlb or a gappcd,(.:o fC in d\lctor
( ir e
: SIS I,
icu l,ly The disadvanlage of gapped-core induclors is Ihatlhey lend 10 be noisy unless
Ihe
,
~ IUS, I
I
extensive measures arc taken to counteract the C(luses wh ich ;Ire principa lly the
vibralio n. al lwice Ihe s.upply rrequency, o flil e packe ls due 10 Ihe attractive forces
ervtls
;r 1'e
II bctween thcm ano the fri nging of the nux al thc gaps bL:1WCC Il tht.! p:II: kcts:

'fIf
Sl: 11 0
arv 0

}
is
III
I
I
I
10.4.3 Core-less induct ors
1\ co re- less induClor' may be co nsidered as a gapped-core induclor in whic h Ihe
gaps afC I..:xpalldct! to comprise the whole Icg. In n gappcd-l:orc inductor thc'
return lim bs gu ide the co il nu x fro ll1 it s p~)illl of exi t fl'oll1 the \: oi1 ha~k to the
;10
' sc
I
I point o f entry, thus preycnting flux from cn tering the tank am.! oth er !Ildn J part s
whe re it could ca usc over heati ng and incrcasco losses. In a cure-Jess inductor,
similar prov isio n for nu x con trol mu st be made and Y\.Ir;o us possibilities exist.
rhead
I r (i) Each co il may be surrounded by a core-like sc reen wilh yokes alld relurn
I
e ed, limbs but nO centre limb (figure 10.10). To form a three-phase inductor,
lccted

ort~'Cd
I I
II
!
three sllch uni ts afC mo unted in Olle t;lIlk. A variant Oil this tnelh ud is that
the screen 'can have a four- limb co nstt'uctioll, onc ph\.lSc win di ng being
insl:rt cd il lt o each window, Another variant is that each phase.: \\ ind illg can
be t.'llt.:lo . . cd in an annular screen consisting of radial corc-plah.: seglllent s .1
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262 ", t o[) I ,HN POW ER IH ·\ :-':!) I ()Itll ll'!t I'R A(.' I IC I'~

;
MAGNETIC
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SOlEEN VIINDING

,
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Ficure 10.10 1\ l'o il o f a co rc-less indtll:l(J r wi th an illd i\idlla lll1 agll ctic ~I:rcc n

and with top and bolt o m mosaics o f core- plate It) co ll c": l th e nux leaving
the enu s "f the coil.
(ii) The screcni ng may be app lied to th e tank, For a , il\ ~lc · p ha se induct o r, the
cons tru ction wou ld thu s be similar to th e lal-:t \':II'ia I11 menti oned in (i)
above. but, for a thr cc- pll:l SC inullcto r, a co n ~ tl IICli(\ 1I is po\:; iblc ill \\' ie h '
three unscrccncd phase willdin gs a rc enclosed in n t:1I1 k with ~cl \:I' !l i llg 0 11
its inside su rface. In order to IIwinlai n sylllll1t:lry. i1 ft.dluws IIWI ti lL' phi1!'c
wind ings arc arranged ill [rdoi l pilttcrn: thus r~'t' h winding is a ffec ted
eq ua lly by lIlutua I ",:ullpli ng kl I ill: 1\\ 1,l :tdj ;H:i..' 1l1 \\ i lid iII g ... "nd Hll ha 1;1111 I.:' is
preveIl ted .
,
" '_Such a con stru cti on b illu ~ l rilk d ill ri gurc 10. 11 . It \\ i ll be !\Ct ll t o Ila\'e
,"
,"'
,'l ll'1miniuln nux scree ns nt t op and bOI to III instl." ld ort he c.:o rc -plate scrcclls
used in ot her typ es o rindu cto rs. AIu Illinium ~crec J\ :- havc the adV;II\Ul gc o f
light ness and. inlhc co nstructio n illu strated, 01\ oiJ tI ll: prov isi II o f Ih:avy
structures to suppo rt the compli r.a tc.:u arrarlgcllh': lIt o reore-plat e SC l cc ns
whi ch would o th erw ise be Ilt.:ce,,"a ry.
/\s th cy arc in shunt with th e sys tt.: m. shullt illdUl.:tors do Il o t 11\I\'c 10 Slls tain
rorces due \0 Ihro ugh , ho rl circui!' rh e \\' indin g <to:sign need cater o nly for
su ffi cicll t 'Illccha 11 ica l stren g t h to wi 1hsla IllI th e ckc t rUlllcc.: h;lItica l rorces in vo lved
h,\ \'1: l :
in 1\01'I1lai sc n 'icc.
10"'::lI CIi .
T\\'o principa l types o r winuing <bi&n ex ist: (I) th e di , ' t) pc a"d (2) th e laye r
o fl!l (,'!'\
type, In tile disk-type uesig n. it is COllllll u n practice to pl. l!..'1.: the hi gh-yolt <l ue t.: IHJ
t ill 1·
of th e coil itt the centre and to "ind o ut \~ard s tv th t.: end . . \\ hk:h, as tit e), ;lrc at ,I
1'1.' riP I '
1
earth volla Ge. need ita\'e o llly notlJ inal ill ~ tl1atioll ,
nlll " " II . ..:
\Vhcn la yt.:. r windings arc I:l11plo)'t.:d. ucrallsc the o ut "'ldl: o f til t; ~l) il is ,Hlj:h':l: nt
\ (' 11:1:
10 ea rth ed Inctnl. it is U5\1:1110 make th e I1 c tJlral o n Ih ~ i.! ul ,ill!.! ;1111.1 ru r Ihe l'uil l 0
,,

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I'OWER SYS I EM " RAN Sf'Q RMEKS AND I NJ)'UcrORS .263
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~??21 ?222

PART SEC TI O N O N AA
crcc1
n

I
w ing
I MAGN ErlC
s enl eN PAl
'I\~IK
I"E~S
: ' .... r. the
e in (i)
n which
:ning on
lhasc
.~. , ~c t c d
t!;.\il CC is
I'
I i
have
: screens
,," 'geor
) Icavy
screens
PLAN

~'" 4'
Istain ~ 'J ~'l
)n ly for commo n magnetic !'crt.:t! n \, '
/'
r "o lved ,h
,...'
·

he layer ,,
;

:l1gC end ~. '

lrc at

tdj; cell t
JilIn

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MODEHN !'OWE R TRA NS I t)R\II~ 1< I' RA<.' fI ( I:

cO lilu be a !l oise tlUi "';IIll'l.' ;l( linH':S of low alilh ic l1{ n o i se level.
":ull l i ll IIC)II !' l y illid i" lc.:rClHl l
l3ec"" se o r th is, many in ductors are tlesigned ror ONA N cuo ling dc< pite the <lmJ di rct.;'
CIICU111 bra nee 0 r t he very large cooling ba n ks o f rad ia l ars rcqu i red. The i nduCl o rs loads on th
may be des igned for Ihe fitting o f no ise enclosures, as furth er described in su h. , upp ly "cr.
,ecli o n 10,7,2" in thcCVCJ
An ill1port:lll t po int to be rC Jll ~ l1Ihe rc d in cO llnecti o n \\;t h shul1 l· induclor so as not \"
coo li ng is t ha t I he wi noi lig loss is pro pOI t i0I1.111 0 I he 5'1 lI<lrc () 11111.: ~ ) .s tem vo ll agc. dura tion o f
Thcn:forc. s hunt ind uct o rs may need to bc des ig ned to compl) \\ il ll te mperature cil cuil w i
I'i ~c c. ua ra l1!ccs ;It high~r thap no minal S )' ~ t C Ill vol tage. c,xamr1e :
Shullt inductors may be subjec ted to switc hing sufges or ~ ur gc VO ll il!;CS o f s)':.1\ o!~ pru
.lll1l os pilcric or igin ;1119 shou ld I hen.: fore be dc"ig ncd to ha ve the ~a ll'l e in "u l:ltion 'I lie dc,-"
I, k\'c ls as olher equipment o lllhc systell1. Stl rCc:- \,o lra gc lests o flil e usua l type 1lI:,y \\ la: 11 n I'l.
hI..' ;, pplic.:d to vcri fy adc:q tla c..:y 0 f i n ~ tJ Iii t ion : ftd 1· \\ <I VC Slll gc-n>lta gc I c ~ t s may al\o be lII :It! C \\ t
he appl ied in liell o f induced -ove r - \'ollage tests which are alm os t impossi ble to give n theo r.
arr:lngc o n thi s type of dcvice. :-.ystcm il
Meas uremcnt o f losses on shun t indllc tt rs is vcry dillic"lt since, in c0 ntrast exists all .....
wit h transformers. it is not poss ible to mcasure no- loa d anu "load losses 0 11 a sy~t{
scp;l ratciy. All that can be measured is a lotalloss co mprising wi ndillg. screcn nnd in tercom '
,1'1
'

"
st ray losses: furth ermore. so mc o f Ihese losses may be non-linea r with voltagc. fo und Ilt.:
Th lI Sa c urvc a floss aga ins t vo lla ge. up to 1;lIcd voltage, shou ld be cs tnb lishcd for inc reascd {;
I
I an indu cto r be fore I'cbti vcly low-vo ltagc tests ca n be accL' pted for subscquen t inlpcu:lll ,,·n
"
I inductors. This is the id ea l which in practice Illay 1)(1\ he :H: hic\'cd ow ing to It is ,
,, , I lim itat io ns o r f;tclory powc r su pplies. It m,l)' bc poc;siblc,; to n':lc h fuJI volt ;,sc for a indica tes t
"
hrief p~ ri l' d to 1J1I::I""n; f,, 11 Inss. hut nlH.:ly \:;," Il'I1lj1L'la l llll": I i . . c t L"!' I ~. \\ hich rein fLJlTC n I
rc quil·c all ext ended les t pcrin d. bc calri ed oul :It fu ll \ ull age. Atltliti ol I
A ru rther dimculty in loss I11casurClll (' nl is c<1l1scd by ti le vcry I\)w p o wL'r r"cl ur transfot .. _!
o ft he curren t wh iell rcsult s i n gross i naccu r:lcics C\ Cll i r sp('cia I !ow- powe r· fOl elor is a limil bl
wa lt meters arc II SC{1. A powe r fa ctnr l,fO,OO.1 j" a t) pil'al , ; !lIIl" ror;1 \ cly-hig h· l"ilc lIln :-. l I
volt:lge inductor. Frequcnt recourse has bec lllllndc to blid gL' Illcasu rCl llc nl s <l nJ ill1 ped'l]
calo rimetric Il1c tholic;, bo th or \\ hich. if l'arcfu ll y L'arricd PilI. ca ll gi\i..: IC'l ults r hcsc ;11
c(-rla inly 110 Ic~s ilwccura tc tha n Illl:lh od s il1\ oh ing the li M' \,f \\a ttrnelcls l , J, .1, th e cqlli n'l
Seve ral 100 I\l\'ar Ihrcc- ph" o;c shunt iJldtl Lt or s ,H'C .drcad) (lp~ ra t illg o n Ihl.! nea rl y a
Bri tish 275 kY' , ::' t, ," , whilst ru lu re intiucl(lI S ror Ihc 400kV 'l,t,1I1 may be of Togcthc , \1

100 M var rating. In uther co ulltri e~. prubab l) I he highest-, o ll ;tge ~ hun t il1d llcturs into th rt.:e
in "c f\ i..:e arc the 7.1 5 kV II OM\'ar c; ill L' l c . ph a~c unit s of 1he ll ydro·FlL'ctric magne ti I
(\lI llrn issio /l of QllL· hcL:. Calla da , iJl ~ I ; "l c d ~I S .UO ~'''ar h;II I\..". A rOl I
may also I
pract ice
design :t I
10,5 SElUES I NUUCT OllS low·ill ,pcd
type 1l1 : I V I
10.5. 1 Ge llel'al for indl
T tl hL ,.1

At L·:lt.: h vo lt atl! lc\'cI o f a tr;'ll s Jl1i s~ illll :-.)" IL·rn the Ip:,d i'i ~lJ ppli cJ fro m a so 111 :1 1 it ,
llum her o f gc ncratillg SO \lr..:cs thr oug h ' ;Ir)in g degrecs lIf t:all~fo rlll a t io n \ia the ' ,' !

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I'OWER SYSI EM TR(\NSFORM EltS ANU INDu c.:r O IlS 26 5

.r .
J ise I vel. iI11 C rCOlll\C~ t ed circu it s, Unde r co nditi o ns of healthy sys tem ope rati o n, t he size \'
,,'
ile Ihe 'i';,.
and J ill:c tib n o f tile po \\e r nuw is determined by the valu e and loca ti ll l1 o f tile
IIClo rs luaus o n lilesc circui ts, Th e co nnectio ns bct\"'ec l1 tlie po int s o f gl' /H: ra ti o n a nd
•
, "I

"
d ill $ub- s uppl y arc/c hose n lo nHl.intai n a balanced system. Ca rc is also take n to C Jl ~ tJ/ c tlia t,
in llie c\'cp t o fil fault Ull the system, th e power nowin g to tl h fa It It ca n h.; lilllited
JUClor so a!; lHll Io cx(.'c,,' u Ih t. : rllpturingcapacily o f til e circ uit brcakers. The PCI tll iss ible
n vo lta ge. dUHlti ul ra full \ hon ..'in.: ui t upon an)' part o rth c systcill is uictated by ti le.: shurt·
JncrJ lurc cin;ui t wi th ~ t and c:tl';thili ty o f the sys tem plant. In practice. oil is t:Jke n, for

.... 8,s of
I c,<:lIl1l'lc as I s ill " '100, V or 275 k V s),slcm a nd as 3 s in a 132 k V ")"Iom: Ihe
S)':-.1l: 11l prol l:(.' li (,n i" '.i ·t In dea r a fault no rmall y in mu ch less l illlC t !t;tll this.
nsu/,ltion The deg ree 0 f fa 1111 i" feeJ ea n be ca lculated by I he relic,, 1alla lysis 0 f llie syslem
,e h,ay \\ hen o'peratin g und cr \ario us fault cond itio ns, thus perm ittin g 3 compa riso n to
olso
I)' be nwde with till' know n f;lult withstand capabi lit y o f th c system plant. fo r any
"s ible 10 gi \'c ll Ihco rcticll :-. ) ~ t C lIl ftlu ll co ndili o n such co mpariso ns 111;'\Y indica te Iha t the
s)'~ t c ln il11 pcda nl'l.! alolle is no t sumcieot to limit the fault in feed and th a t th ere
)Ill
fa st c.xi .. IS a /I ced rol' ;tLl .. h.:1 1 rlll !t·limiting im pedun cc, Ot her simila r situat io ns occur
td losses llll a s)'!' lcm ll\\ illg tn Illao groWth o r as a result o f additi oll,li system
; " "'~ Il ~I Ill.! illtcrl'o nn ec tio lls In 1'J'l\ \id~ glcatcr IU:ld sharing by pl:llll.ll1 cilllel ,,·<lSt.; it 11lay be
..) Itagc. fOllnd nccl:ssary to r~illro[cl: th e sys tem impedancc a t selected point s to limi t the
.. oed fo r increascd fau lt (,lll ['ellt II I alt!.:l' llali vely to provide it bala nced nct\\'ul'~ o f sys te m
h!'c<j uclIl illlpcdali cc 10 tll;lint.lln a Itlli l()1'1ll s hari ng of load,
i nl; (0 II is CO tllllll)1I ro r ." Udl :-. ilual io ns t o Hrisc, Ana lysis o f tlte 1)/\/1 , 1 '111 uftl: lI
>;,C ror a indicates Ihat it is /lot pl'at:tica l to o btain th e rClluircd degree of i:n pcdancc
IS, II'h ieh reinfo rcem enl silli pl y by incrcasin g th e im peLia nce of sys tem l:qlti plllcnt.
Addi tiona l ~y~1l'1Il i!ll!, 'dalh':c Illay be ob taineu by increasi ng th e itJlj'l'da ncc o f
f;tclor t ra ns fo rmer :t ti d gl:lld;1 r q ' pia Ilt whe n the sys IClII is a I I he ucsign ~ 1 :tLl'. hU I ti le rc
1 ,
a- fa ctor
C "'-high-
is a limit bey o nLl .\\hk:lllltis bcco mes illlpractic,lbic 0 1' ullI:cono lll ic. l t i.. inlhl'sc ,.'' '

ci rcumsta nces and "wst..: ;lris in g o n it ll t!sta b lbheJ sys tem tital 1111)' ;;ddilio na l
Its and impedance is pro\ id l.:d by ins talling st.:ri cs indu ctors.
res ult s Th ese arc employed at a ll sys tem voltagc leve ls and arc usually 10':;lt e<l close to
1 (~rs2. J, 4,
th e equipment Ihcy 1.\ 111 11.'1.'1. Me th o ds o f d es ign and co nstru ctio n \,ary, btl t in
.) 11 th e nl'a rl y all cascs :-.e l k''i illdtll'lO rS a rc designed 0 11 th e basis o f a cOl'c - l es~ indudo r,
1/ be o f T oge ther wi th :tdditi 'l ll:!l n lllstrll cti o nal fea tures, se ries inducto rs I.::ttl he dh idee!
Jlducio rs int o three funtl:lI ll! ', la ll ) pes: (I) air-coo led cast-ill -\,;o ncrcte. (2) oil -illlllll!l'sed
m:lgnctically scrcc nl,!d :t lltl (3) oi l-imme rsed no n-magne ti cally scree ned ,
A fourth type kn l,w ll as an o il ~ il1lmc rsed scrcc ned magne ti c-co red inductor

'1'" may also be u ~ed. hllt , l t he types listed above arc th e most coml1lolll y fo und in
pract icc. 0 f Ilwsc, 1hI.: (1iI-iI1llllcrscd screened i nd uc ta r is widely Ij ~L'd siIH':C i Is
d csign [I nc! COilS !I' w ', [ i'Hl j:-. adaptable to almos t any app lirat io n t.:,x(,.Cpl PCI haps for
IOWo j 1llpctla Il I"C 10w -,' "r I:t t~e hC';l "),-c lir re III :1 ppl i..,; t I ions \\ hl'1I the l ·:I .. 1- i II -nllh.::rcl c
t)' pe may be ra\'ournl. .\s will be seen Ial cr, all l\ lIc t. ; typcs r ail bt: ill;tIlU ral'lurcd
I f'o r indoo r or oUldiip r usc irrespecti\'c of th eir coo ling arraIl Ce ll ll:: I11. !'
T o be SllcCl:s.;; ful :1 .. a 1.."111 1'l' llt -limilingdc\'icc,:I "C I it,;s induct,,) f lilt ," hc J~ s i gllcd
" fr om [\ ,,I ~ I) Ih;1I it dt"l l'" 11~l t ik, ·rl'.I:-'r.: in cffct:ti\'cn ..·.. " :IS Ihc ttll· r e l1t . lh rI)IJ~! h it int:rr.:tl ses to
io n \ ia I Ihc \ ;!llIc pI tll:l\il1tl1l t1 fau lt l'\11 I't.: II I. I hi .. ttll,;II1S Ihe n.: I:ll i'"I 'Io' p he l\\l'c ll
II
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... -.-- .......-.-.---....- ~ .. -~.-,- -
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.....
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.... &-...... -:.; • .:....• ...:. .• •:..,~:. ..... -_ •• .~

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266 ,\ IQDL R".J I'O WEK IRA NS I t ill .... ' LIt I'RA C: l iCE
.'
through-current tll1J reac tance should be as show n by· fi gure 10.12, curve a. This CO lluuctors
rclationsllip is representative or a core-less inductor witho ut i:ny fo rlll of .ma ximum ..
magn eti c st.:f'cc liin g and si tuated aWilY f!(lm illl)' IIH: I ;dlic struct.urc o r o lher in sulatio n a
appill':tIU S whic h may be affec teu by its high stl il)' Ikld. O llly the cast-ill -co ncre te bottom nOr
a ltd no n-Illagne t ica II)' sc ree ned illd~l(; t o rs ha \'i.: :1 " j III ilil!' dla r;lc lcri ic () r cun en ! r, A runile
against rcaC\;I IKC since neillier design in co rpo ral eS ;t 1I1 ilglH.: t ic drc~lil o UI ~i d c the .con uucto r i
winding to pro\'ide a rellll' lI pat h for l ht: 1I1:lin nil \:. Slh.:h:J path is prov ided ill Ih\.: loa d CO ))lr "
Jlla glleti cally :-c rcc llcd ,typc ill order 10 I'cs tnl i ll lh ~ nux fHI ll1 L'I " rillg llle I :lII ~ to Ii mi \ !.
,. wall ,111(1 frol11 inducing eddy current s wilh COIIs(,ftlII CII I Wilt. hCalill L! :111«1 s h('J' I-ci r(.'Ul
incrcasL'd losses, The L!fkc l of 111is scree n i ~ to IHl lducc a IWI1-lill l'ar:chantl.: h.li<:tk sq "" rc 0 r
or CIII 1"1': 11 1 aga in st rCHcl'lIIee, as showII by li gurc 10.12. CUI"\'C b, 'I h'is is du /; 10 th o,,: . di s ... il':lt c t
ch:t ll!;i ng pCl'l11cn bili ly o f the screen 1,lInillalcd -t:orc- plat c rnall.! ri ~l l :IS ti ll,: 1111\: a ve ry r;,tp.
densily in thc ~c rl'cn increases with increa sing current. th e ')ho rl ci

. , "xcoed 5 s
/'; ,. ilJ'C slorct:
P' , ·l.,tl k ulat t.: J

w where () f
U
, z deg rees (
" ,u«- dUJ'a ti nll ,
«
w
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CURREN T THROUGII THE INDUC r OR III 1.\l· 1

ro r CCOl.,
Figure 10.12 /I, cha r.t\."l cr isl j~ o f f":" it\."I:II1C.:l' : I ~a in<;1 cu rrL' nt ('I f l·P f C- k \ .~ i 11\..1 UI:I\ II : I. un l' :1.
\\ hich IC:I
wilhl'UI rnagnc liL' ~ ac\: n : CIIf\C b. \\i lh l1laglll'IIC 'I.rl'L' 1l
(· ircui l.

A rca Ilin..: that is common 10 all illJu c ll 'rs and IllII !>! l be L: i\cll rulll:u l\ \jdna ti ll ll
, in :11 1d es ig ns concerns Ih e I1IL'C h;l lIh.:al :-. tl L' ngth :ll1d lil c rlll:ti pl..'r ro llil :ll1l·C (lrtl :l.! 10.5.2
,I 1
\\im.ling, The r(l n.'cs ih.: tin g upo r th l' \\i lldin[! a rc illt.:r ca:-'l'd in pl"llpl'rl itl ll h i Tilo te
, I I '
"! .! ( /~ / J !II) l. wh cre J~ is thc currl.: nl 1J 1l , 1c r r,r tJit l,.·l'llditi ("l IlS:IIHJ lor, the 1I1Irmai frdl II1 ;rd CO I1 ~ tn , ..
I cU I·re nt. TllCY may he grl'; II Cr "i lll IH.1I1-1l1 :rgnl·Iil': l1ly \t.: r.... c!ll' u illlJII Cl(i J'S if ;I' I~ Sr lpP(lI\'·
111;rgnctic lIll bala rll"c c .\i~ l :-. hct \\ \.:" 11 Ih l' \\ illd in g (qld thl ..;c n:cl\ . T ll P l t'\! II I i 11 I ~ I:,j
'. 11O\<: lhh: d:1I1l:1gC III th e illdlll' il)J' lJ llI...kl r 11 11 l(l l1ditil lll '" ,It ~ \\i l1d ings :11111 "\,. 1'1 II t( !ll ~ 11
III \1:-.1 be :,cc "In~ 1 y da III )'lcd . I II add i 1illll t hI..' \\ j nd i n g ...·t' lid I11.: 1I II III 11 :-. 1 hc (I f "' lIlli~ i.. n I
,' l." ross-scclioll:d a rca to 1:1\C it til l' 111 l'l· h ,11lit.·:tI :-OUI· I1 FII· In \\ ilh \!and the
t:o n dlll,..: {
di . . ~ "
~ j'

) ,. I I'O IllI'I"l!ssi\l: r{!I'·l·. . l'xi'\ \irr t: d11llttl! ... 11(11 I LlIL·\1 11. I"h ('\c r\ll u' ~ ·t.-l iI'\i ;dl ) 111'" 1111 11; v 0 l1 a~

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 powl! n SYSI eM '1 RANSFORML: t-lS 1\1'11.) IN I)UC I 'llS 26'1
co ndileto rs, intcrlurn an d inLcrdisk insula tioll , th eir cu muhlLi vc dlcct ucillg a
max imum at th e cen tre o f th e winding, T o preycnt movement u f till: major
ins ul atio n a nd turn s, th e wi ndin gs arc sec urcly damped axially be t ween top a nd
bot 10m non-magnctic fram es by mea ns ofb,ass or o lher non-ma gne ti..: tic rods ,
A fw lhe r impor ta l1 t consideration ~Irfcc li llg th e cross-sec ti olla : "r;.::t of th c
co nductor i,Ii th e th erma l pcrformanc(' of Ihe wind in g, The losscs Iind er 1101mal
" .. load condi t io ns :I rc u!'u a lly slIwll and, hCI(! rO I cO N euoli IIg is geneJ,1 11)' 511 flicic 111
t •~ ,
I to limit the windillg t ": 1I11'~r'l t l,lie ri:'I: 1I) willl :n th!.! pcnlt ,
i s~ i!J<lc lilldl C;, UlH.h:r .
! silo I t-cin.:\l i I co ntii ti(lIls, II m\lI :\'cl , lI :c'iC h)'):;cs :11 t ilJl.:l'ca:a:d ill prv po J~hll by 1he
~ lIl1a,.e of the s h ol l ~c ir~ui : i.l t:l" ~h : H i ~ I/d /,n}'-, 'lhe win diog ;:; '.JJl a blt: to
'1 dis~ iratc Ih t..'sc tp lic kly l'ilutll..:h lu IIlL\ e l\~ I hI.: windillg tl' J1'pe..: IUl rIl C r fll .. ' ri!.jllg at
1 ~l VC IY r;lpid rale. rhe max iIllUrll'P4.: lllli:;sible willoing tcmpcl at ll rc a t th t' t.'IH I uf
thcsh ol'{ circlI il i!' take n as 2') 0 °<':, whil .. 1 th c dtll :lti(1 1l u fl he..: Slrl' f ll 'ill lIil is n\) lt o
:/ c~cccd 5 s, On Ihe as!itllllJ.H iull 111:11 aJll oz.,s{'s in lh e inducto r d UI illg .. i")11 ('i l'ellil
I
arc :., h.1rcd wh o lly il) the windin g co ppe r, till, wi ndillg lill il l te m pe l,.II'I, e call be
c:lIcul ateo I'ro lJl th e following rOlIl1U!~1.
j
I (, '0,,) + 0
I ( IU.5)
" I

whe re 01 is the fill ;]! Icm pcIll llll C in {.Jc g J ct" ~ Crl'; iu ~, OJ the inili(d IClll jJ:"[.I tulc, ill
dq; rccs CC;lsillS, E>( Ih c;lh solu te in iti,, 1 Iclllpcl ;IIurc ill kdvillS, (k Ille -: h!\i lL"i rt..:uit
...1\11';1110 0 in s Cf:('II1d r. , a th e 1':1 1;0 or eddy CUI I I.:ul f\l J' (~ loss ill ~:5 C, '

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= 1.1 (
~ h\ln ,c in 'I l (;Ju lt t' \I1 I <.: nl in ;tmpt' l'cs ) "
t.:o nductur L"r o~\ st'c lion area ill <;ljU; \I ~ m illilll et rC$
1
'i and
I:, b .,.; 20J . , . Peu '.
I I In ge llcl" I, ind uc't 01 wind ill g!:t a' t.! ~k~igHcd IV lJa ve sl11;lI ! 1(1:,W'l .It i1 l1lll1al lo:tti
~ il)\ C;1, ror econo mic reasons, 111 l'OIl~ I:q ll C' ll(:e they 11:1 \(' :.J :;; llu~,1a!l:i , d lIlI' J': r );('<.: li o l1
i which lellds nal ur all y tv ilJ'Ilrf.)vt: , It ~ IhcrJn:1!Gtl'a c; il y nl" lhc wi nd 'l!g 111 HIr.:,. ,·dlOrt

II
l~ k r; H iOIl
l'i r( uil.

I 10.5.2 C4Ist-in-t:OItt'ft lc iwJd(luf:--

uf the
I
I ()IJ 10 The tt:fl n u .. ..;<1 l{) dc ... o.: ribe Ilris \ )" P~ of illdu(:It' 1' : lIi ';e~ (rolll Il lc I1l tl h od (lr
f1l II -II lold CO ll strll l' tion :;Illplu)'cd , I\a'ii...:aily il b ;' 11 ,li' -l\)II !t..'d "' \lH.: k'<;:~ t'LJiI \'.' ! i ll "~ 111111:; :uc 'I,
\;if ; I I1Y s llppon~J and restl ai ned ;111)" ItH.. Lhiln;, :1I ( li ~ p l :I ' ( lI h' l lt U) !--t.;':? h, Id ",o lidly
rr (J tll
q'L' COl
in PO!' ilion \dlh (O! fCrc IC pkc. (li g Ule 10, U). l l!\\la ll) th e \\i IllJ;I 'l' ! .~ ~~ l ' h ~k-t~ jlt;
I~I l'
'Cf..' 1! l."o ll sl n u,;ti o n wi lh t he! nppn..llJli, il C lltilltu..:r or s<'l lid n l !'> tl:til ,,!t.'.J h.1I1: c.\lp p<: r
u II i je llt conductors r')1" the t:1:rrc nl mllllg, [In' dr;lnItH.:l;S l'..:I "'l'c..:J l t ulll.', 'd id bctw!.:(,' 11
ld Ih~ lIisks ,Ire g r Ctl lcr II\ ;JI1 th ost' c rll plo )'rd il~ oil -illlnl cr:;cd unit " I"~ .. : " I ,':!If Ill.; I.) \\'
, )1)1 the voltage wi t kt~ nd st l'en:; 1h I) rlilt.: Lv ll 11.1 t' "Ild in:-. u 1:_1iu n. I ri "t f..' l\ ,l/!,; ie,l (JII t<.h H)r

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'j'~ :., "t upon ~jr :
.' ) 'j' ra ting to 1
LOl11pde \'
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10 Il wn; t
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q 10.5.3 0
"l Ce/1{'l'Iti
This Iypc
of syo;tclll
co n\'cntiOl
wilh huo:; hi
indica tnr,
de'·i.. ..: :111\ ,
c\:ls". and
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Wh en
he nl:l '
\.'. ,11
.' I ! \~ il11 ... I<lII I,,'
'I \\ inuings
( . .... , rc,ISO Il :-, 11
IdglH.: . . t sY'
'1nl u 11 :
'-
1. 1)<: r - l) 111".
1 'll1i Io.' d I
wimli ng 1
Figure 10. 13 Thrcc-ph3 SC air'c(l(lkd I I ' II!!'s '-'list-in {' ('!tlL" fctc inductor quantity
CI\\j " ag,; d,
o f"ith sl ,"
usc, the wind in gco ndtlctors ma y be ;I1 SII1:1',(." \'. illl it cla ss n ill" lI l;ltio ll (,'omdst ing o r il s (..'11
of biIll IlH.:n-impn:ella tco asbestos o r sillli! II' i11:1ll'rial, though this is no t il lw;IYS l' lln ':: 111 d ~
cons id crcti lo be essential. So mc.timcs ill S ~d : l( c d ,-able is u:-,cd as the conductor. lircl1it, ~'i
o J1 C met hod 0 rrna nu ract II ri ng th is ty pc ~, r ind Ilcto r is to btti lei t he wind ing on a Th~
\\ i
former whic h also serves :ts a l1loldJ for ("~ ,. tillg the spcci:llly prc:parcd t'O/H.: rctc. ...lalllP pI ..
'I'll\,' L'0 I11pkt t..:t! cast in g cO llsists o f ~o l i d " If II 1I'Ie pi crs \\ hiLI , 11 01ll th e turn s ill the lank 1
place. rhe size. numhe r and spacing o f II .:;': piers is c ho ~ c lI so that :-,unicic nt ,~ h:l: 11i...: l'
streng th is available to res tra in th e I III'll. ~"" tl allY l11 o\t:l11 c nl whic h migh t be '. ', ithin tit
.. j by th e compressive str esses d i ll i l'~: l H.1I 1 circu it.
C:IU St."O . 11 i\ in g ll\ \

, I The L'0ll1plCh.:d windings may be nll '.1111 . 111,11i/ Pll lall y (l r \("1 tic:d ly. Fo r three- The ai"
1 , Ir,; alml' ll
,1 phasc induc to rs the individua l ph asc~ t.::111 be ;l1l\1l1gcd sid!.! hy side or in ti ers.
I' Whi chever mClh od is adopted, th e i nsuhtill!1 ( ·r'h~ windin g l'ithcr rroll1 ca llh o r . urni l1llt.h,

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r OWIJ R SYSTEM TR ANSFOR MERS AN D INDUC ron S 269

Ot: lw\,:1.: 1l ph :lscs when Ilceessary i ~ , in ge neral, l1laint Cli llt.:d by mC<t ns or pnn.: clain
insu lators.
Th;; met hod of co, nstructi on is ex tremely robust, but because of its relia,;"e
upon air as a coolant and the low insulation strcngth it is res tricted in size and
ra tin g to,low-voltage nctwork applica ti ons. Thi s, togc Lh cr with ils inab ility to
compe te with the eco no my o f space a ffordcd.,by oil · immersed inductors, has led
to morc genera l use of oil-i mmersed inductors.

J0.5.3 O il -iJ1 1I1lCrscd scrccll cd ilH.lu ctors

•
Gel/ua /
Th is type or in dIJI..' (I ,r c.::ln he lllad c.: suita hle f, )I' ind oo r or out door u!\c at a ll leve ls
o f ~)' !'t IC Il1 VO IIi1 ge. It is in many respec ts silllilar ill cx tcrrHi I appc: ll il ll l'C to the
convellti onall ra nsfo rm er ill that it iscolltai ncd in a steel lank which mil)' be fitt ed
wi t h bushiIIgs or ell ble bo'xes. oil -coolin g tu bes or rad ia tors, wind ing tempe rat ure
indi,'ator, gas·ac tuat ed dev ice (Bu chh olz relay) protec tion, oil ·pressure relief
device and oi l brea ther, In almos t all cases the incillctor coo lin g is o f the O NAN
cla ss, and the ind uctor has a th erm al per formance in acco rd ance with reference
G I. 7, .
When \:o mparcd with cast-in ·colI <.: rclc inductors, th e oi l · i m rnc l ~c d inductor
ca n be made physica lly, sma ller for a given rati ng beeallse o f the greate r vo lta ge
withstand strengt h an d b" t ter cooling properties o f the oil. onl'en ti ona l types of
wi ndi ngs C: 1Il be used, :II H.I int ernal cl eara nces cn ll be reduced. For the sa llle
reasons, thi s type of jlldw.,.- Ior 1.: :111 be ucsignctl ror I1wc l! highcr ralin!,;." ;-Ind the
highes t sys tcm vo ltages.
"
I ntern ally th e co nstru cti on cO Il!': ists of a co re-less rap~r- i n s u la t c d disk- or
la),l:r· typc wi nd iIl g w il h d ia mcter, Icngth, r:l elia I dept h a IllI 11 UII1 be r 0 rI ur ns 0 rthe
Icq uirc.:el ma gnitud e to give the desired value or H.:ac tance. T hc tk"ign o f th e
win ding llIay be va ri ed as to co nductor size, number or turn s in para llcl and
qua ntity of insulation acco rding to th e volt age anti currcnt applica tio ns ~. .
ell visaged . Howcve r, it must ultimalcly res ult in a fu lly in sula ted \\ inding capable
o f withstnnd ing Sllrge voll ages appropriate to the designated ,'olln g" cla ss at ench
l1 ~ i Xing of its ter lll inais. The size of the win di ng co nductor is chose n 10 main taill a low
t 't ays curre nt dellsity at norma l current and to have :-Ill ig!1 th er mal capacity undcr shor t
~u "' r t or. ci[c uil , as (,1c~\:r i bcl,riJl sub·sec ti on 10.5. 1.
Ingon a The wi nding is seeun:Iy cla mped <IX ially' by means 0 f Ilon-nwg llclit: I il.! rod s and
( c etc. cl:lInp-plales. Th e assembly, togeth er with th e induc tor, is fi rmly locat ed within
I ., S in th e tank to prevent any poss ible movement untl er fault opcrn ti on. Adcqlla tc
lim ielll ell'elric c1c;lrances 't11u st be provided be twee n th e win ding and all Iw.: t.ll pa rt s
n' It be wi thin th e inductor; :lS tll esc arc so lidl y ea rthed to prevc nt allY illdlH.:l'd vo lta ges
nrising owing to slray fl ux,
)I" II rcc- rhe air-cooled inductor ha!\ b;-lsicall y an unrcs lr;t:h,:u fl ux pa lll. bu t spec i:!!
;., tiers. trcallJlcnt has in some ins tan ces been J) ccc "~ .. ry to prc\'cn t 0\\,.' 1 hl'atin g in
( rth or su rrounding safe ty 1II 1.:1 a I screens :l nd co r; structiorwl s((':I,: lw(1 rk . A ser ious

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1'1' 270 ~ 1 0I)E R N POWE.R TitA NS I (lR,\\Ut pl{ AC nn; ,1
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I I..'oll ~ idcra(io n in the design orallY o il·i mlllersed inductor is 10 prevent Ihis nux I sa tis fa ctory' \
frntll pass illg int o the steel lank whe re it induces eddy c urrl' ll h "l1 k'l! ..::t ll!'l: loca l :.. ubjcl.: t c;rt.: h 1"
healing tlll d illc rc:I $cLi load I ~sscs. To OVercollle thi.. Plll bk lll, two d ifferellt sys tem wor
11'1
"~l .'\1 "
lllCl ll OUS of CO llst ru ctio n arc to be round ill COlll1110n usc, eadl cI ~s i g ncd 10 res t rai n , b ushing ter,,, ;
"

,Itt
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the fl ux fro m en tering th e ta nk, T he first employs a magn e tic d rcui t ,lboU I the
.
1

li,,< " wind i ng 10 co ntai n the fl ux. amJ the seco nd pn': \C IlI S the nllx frp m (Illering Ihe
'I " I. l tll.:. by c!->l ab li $hing;\I1 opposillg nl~X in a ll o n-1I1,lgnctic -:l'r('1'1l :-,u rrlllt li dill l; the
1n.6
'.\iIH lillg. To d iffe rcntia te onc method I,l f l'UIl Slrl1ctioli rl ~l lll the o the r, oi l-
illllll\.: r~cJ in du c tors nrc di,!sc ri bcd as ei ther o r th e l1l:l gnL' tira ll y ~t: rcl.! llcd Iype if
If
"
! Ihe rO l"l ne r conslr uction is employed o r u r the llon .1l1<l gm: tit-:i1ly ~c lcL' ncd ty pe if

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t, th l? 1;lIter con~;Jructio n is ad opted.

' f (/lj ll(' fic SCI'('f llillg

10.6. 1
The U$C o r :.. 1;
" suppressio n \1
" I I his co nsists of a lamina ted co rt.: -p la tc SC l'een arran ged a boll t ,Iii.: \\ indin!,;. Thi s th t.:sc I wu .. . I I

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:;C I I.' C IifOfn;s a low-reluctance pa th fo r th~ flux ou tside the win din g. thus
Ilf"""'l ing il rro m enl erin g Ihe la nk, T he co re-plale a ll he lap a nd ball a m a r il,e
1\ indi ng is usuall y support ed on Slou l 110 1l -mela ll ie pi'" rorms, whilsl Iha l
stahilising win
mers. Somc I
stabi lisin g \ ~
"
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. ,i ~'l l n o Olldi ng th e wind i ng l1l :l y 1;1kc t he form o f a cy lill u r ic:.1 SC I L't; 1I o r a Itemat ivcly 111:11 il1erc 'ls ing
. \ \ ',; 't'-'
, . fI . i td , dS o r corc-pbt c ca ll be boil ed to til e insidl: tank wa ll. Thl.: 5Clcell is designed 1'J':I<.: tk·c a t r" ';
fi < ; ll:!r- 'oJ :':I \C n lo w nIl); density o f abo ut 0.4 to 0.5 Ta t 11 0r l11<11 current. Under rau lt cOIl , idcTI.;d ( l,.
I IJ' d iljO IiS it .becollles ~atu ra t c d, :l no th e inductor th e n fU fl c.: tions as a core less to three plw :-...:
, "I iIH' \I\' tOr. As cxplaincd ill ~ ub - scc ti o n 10.5. 1, owin g to the varyin g pe rmeabi lit y o f I'datc to p:lI·tic
:,1 :1 rl H' ... crcc n mate ria l wit h incrc;lsing Cl1ITC IH. th e cha ra cter istic of c ur re nt :1 gai nst the type o f ;
r 'j:-
, 'III 1'1'"\~ I'uu..:c o f the magnc l il:all) sc ree ned indu ctor is th ere by !l () 11 linea r, stabi lising \ .\
. <i,I
, I,,: 1)\ pc.:ndi ng upo n sile, three- pha se i nducto r's may ha ve c;c p:lratc plwsc I:oils \\ i lid i IIg!:i h ) po
'i' , 'lIl;l ll ~l'J side by side in a commo n tank o r Illo un k d ve rt il:;tll ), (;11 a co m moll nccd ror , 'I

.' ti~!;1
·.·.:n dillg mand rel. I n bo t h cases. each ph:lse can be sc ptlra tcly :.: crc(, llcd. or ill tile changl:ahilit
I',. " bIll er a cO lllm on screen COIll be provided fo r all thrce pha ses.
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~ I~' I' II 1/1fIljlle tic ~cr el!llifl!J
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Itlil I il ! " i. . design. a llo n-1ll3gnet ic sc rce n of solid cop pe r o r alulllini [I III is arTa nB~ d as
a ·. ho)rt-circuitcd tu rn about the insid e surface o f the tallk . This a rrangcllll:Jlt
The
Pfl) d
1\\0 fU h . ,a
u( e :11'1 ) f CI
~,
,
Ii!, ' :'111 I'S the pat h of tllc nux link ing the wi nding to lie who ll y within th e.: screcn, th us curr..: nl . as r
... 1. ,
;,1 ", pl .. \\. ll ling it fro m cntt.:ring the tank w:1 11. A se parate nOIl -I1l Hgllctic scree n is also \' (l lt:lgc.
1 1 -' ~,
li ikd at eac h e nd of the winding. An a lt er'native meth od o f moull ting th e Illain Whe n the Il l'
'\·;hl nu x b sirHr l:.C! J.
,I, ,nt:C II is sO ll1 cwmcs used where a sepa rate screen is ~cc llr e ly cl:III1I1('(\ abollt the
·."I )
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l;il\.'tllnfcrclice o r each pha se windi ng, \Vi tll either mt:thod o r cu mt l'l ll.: ti OIl. C:IIC 1ll .1 g l1~l i si l1 g
~('I'i es of odd I
.I

~ f·',·, IUttst be tak en to en sure. Ih<l t the magnc tic centr es or the main ~c rec n and the
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I 'd l ~I \. ;illdin
. g arc coincident; otherwise any unbu la llcc will grc:ltly increase th e prc:-.cnce nr the
l forces aCling upo n the winding and Ihe screc n und l'l' , l lO t h: ir~ ui t cx t:i I ~lli o Jl .
T .
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nr't.: I<ltroll . 1l0n ·linc;lr IJ ,
:Irc du e to til l! II:
; t\ 1':1 I' t fro m the co nsid era tions ell umerated above. the dcsifll , k l:. t in g, (Ipl; r-
"./ 'I~i 1'1 nlh'!l nd Inai ntcl Wll l..'e nSJlccts o f series indu ctors arc si mi l;l r to t IH} I:.C r r po\\ cr corrc<.; pond i r .
,, Itl Il'nl1 . . f,q Ilrc rs. From the poi nt o f view of I c~ t i llg, 11\l\\'c\cr, il i:-. 1I ~)t Ilo~ s i ble 10 f"vfln c;\ n h
;1 1' 1,1), ;r ll i!J cl u cc d - \'u lt ~l gC l es l . :IS fo r tranSrl !\'lllCf tes tin g. 1"0 t,: 1l<.; ure that a sinu soida l \.'In rc
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PO WEH" SYS I eM '1It A NS I QRM CRS AN D I NDU(i OR:S 27 1

sa li"rac \ory vo ltage wit hsl;Inu strength has been attained/ one Illcthnd is to
,- / subjcd each se ries inductor to a ser ies or stlrgc tests at a Icvdap,; r(Jp ri:l!t: l u rh e
i rrcrcnt systcm worki ng vo lta ge. This applies equally \0, i lH.l ucto rs' w ilh cahle hox o r
I .
• t /';11 11 hu . . hi ng lL'rtll in:1I ;IITa ngL' l11c nt s.
( (I the
"
'ingl ' hc
1: '. g' th e
1
( II (" . I. 10.!, ST AIl ILl S If\:G WINDI NGS ,t!
,.
type if
(y/le if
IO.G. 1 " ,'nrra/ ' ,~ .,
I ril e lise o r stabi lisi ng windings ill trans form ers as a IllC:lns bUl h or!
~ lI p p H..:s ~iol1 ;111d u ( (,Hi lt co nt ro l is u i sc..: t1 ~scd in th is sce tion . IJcf0 1c \"
p'o nic
idc ri ll g
'I

Th is th ese two aspt:l.:ls in detai l it may be useful to note that .it is usual I') ii1dltdc
L. Ih us :-i ta bi lisin g windings 0 11 aut o- tran sfo J'll1cr s cHHJ all slar - star-COIl IIl'l:! :': c! 11,( I1-; fo r -
I uft llc llh: rs. SOllle star --star -COllllcClcd th ree-phase three- limb lra ns fo IIlI L' I'i \I, ;l l1 o ul
th aI s t;\ bil i ~i ll g windings ha ve bce n llsed o n distributi on networks. II a pr , : 'r~; li kely
ivdy tha i incrc..:asi ng usc will be ma de o f til is ty pe o f lInit in I he fut ure, I 10\\ C\' r, t;clh.: ra l
: sigll L'd PI:lf.: tiL'..: at prese nt i ~ to lI SC s\:1h ilisin g wind in gs. Vari ous arg llll1":llb !':I\C bec n
('" {a uh cOIl "i idc rcd qll est ioni ng I he need fo r stab ili siI1 g windi ngs, p:11 I i<.: u 1:11 1)' \', i1.1 , II'U" rd
; c1css to threc-p hase three- limb tra ns(ol Illcrs, but the fa cturs req uirin g \.'li it idl' l dti{) n
I
olll(yof rd il le 10 part ic ular si tuati ons where Ihe cha rac teri stics o f the circ uit iJl \ ! 'h ' " ' nd
L
aga ill s t thl.! t) PC o f t r; lfl s ~ rlllcr to bc lIsc.: d ;lrc kn own. The effect o r c1i lll !n 'I ;n ... !JlC

L
I.
calls
:-i t:l hil i:-. illg windin g CWI tli l.: 11 bc ~l llti l:ipa t c d . T he purpose o r lil tin g :.. I ,jl j', i ng
\\ intl ings to power sys tem pla nt with o ut disc rill1inati o n is, 1hcrt: ful'l.: , 11. 1 oI\\litl the
(
) 111 Jl1 on need for s uch co nsidenllio ns and to ;I(.:hievc stanua rdisat in ll :d ll l in ter-
I n III . l'l1:l llgl,:ab il ity o f the equipmen t.

10,6. 2 Iiarm ull ic ~ IJJlpr ('ss i o ll ..

\
t .: uas Th e 1\\ 0 funda l1lcrll:l 1 charade ri slies o r cu re sled, perm eability ~1I1,j h ~', k H:s i s.
ge illL' 1l1 pn.Hluce ap p reciab le di sto rtio n ill tli e w;I\'c fo rm o f Ihe tran ~ ft) J'l ll \.' 1 I,; l..' lll,th. in g I
ell , thus curren\, as nux or induced \o ll ages depcnd upon the wave rorm nr 1: 11': ;ll'plk:u .w'J·
." r~
J iJ : ' I~ o \o]tagc.
~
\\' hL' 1I th..: a pplied \'o l la gc is sinuso idal . as it u:' lIa ll y is in pra ctice. ti., " :~ I1 I\a lll
,. J",,"n
IOU the nux is ~inll :-iv i da l , but th e lIl il g ll ..:li ~ illg current is no n-si nuso id al. A 11,11 ) j " 'o f th e
H
: . ca re I1w gnel ising current w~l ve for l1l shows lhHt it cons ists o f a fU lld;Ull' \,1: 11 plu s a 'f
:.' r th e !-c l ies (l r odd harmo ni cs. l)r whi ch th e third har mo ni c is tlw I~:i !;·i p: d, The t~ "
3SC· th e P'CSCl h':C (,r tl ll.:sc harllloniL's is d l lC to th e b ~ h:l\' i o ur of th e co re .. \I'~ I 111Idel' ;IC
lrcuit excitatio n, The third an d o th er tripll.:n har ll lO lli <.:s ar c gc nerat eu :t~:1 I, 'dilt \,r t ill.;
I'
5. opcr-
r " Owe r
, lire to
I III )[l · li 1ll':1 r 13 !f clla ractcri st ic u fl he co re steel. and the rcma ini ng od ·! 11:11 11111 nics
;11..: d lie to Ihe h yslc [' e"i~ crfect. 1f \ he l!l ag n i tude and w:I\'d ll rm (1 r I! 'I ' P II ~ ~I!lt l the
,,:ull'c,,; pulidin g h ys t e rc~ i s wavcfo rlll ,HC kn o wn, the Illan nclisi ll g lI Ht lll l n ave -
f()nn 1.':'11l be represcnted by a Fourier sc ri l:S co nsistin g or d rll l 'd>l Jl h: ll ta l
I'
t\
(,
11 '
ll/al a sinusoid: iI current plus the sinu so ida l odd ha rm on ics. Thccfrcct (If II:, t, Ic..; is is to "II' ,4
,
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' 72 t- IQ I>EHN POWER T It A NS I ()ll.\l LI{ I' I{ /\ C IIU~ I,.
1';t Il SC the lIo ·lo"d cu rrellt to IcaLi the trw.! il wg lld ising currell t by a n ilngle windin g, TI~
depen din g upo n th e l11 i1g l1illlUC of Ilk h yslt.: n.:~ i s IH C':II.:II I , hU I the trip/e ll Hll d i nd lH.:lj '
I
h;lJ"l11 o ll ics remain !\ tlb s t ~lntial/y in phase with the (1I1H1;lllll' llla l. rc:sonance c
The ampiillH..lc o f the harm onics and hence th e degree of J isto rti o n o f th e
11l ;lglIL'l isi ng cu rrent waveform is dc pcnd c: nl IIpon th e pc;,k nuX. densit y i n th e
t.:o (l..·• til t.: ty pe 0 ( co r c slee l cmpl oyc.d, the mcthot.! o r eon; (O ll slrtlc t io n . The
;1IIt!
,'i the system \1,
may be high
lJl ea kdown
in troducti on o f grai n-oriented core steel, toge th er wilh \'ariolls lI1eth ods of i
to conditi o_.
im pro\'ed core urs ign. such as mitred corI1 C( !\, l1l:ltched leg and yoke sCl,ti o ns and J
'~
The Illall!
hll ltlcs$ Cllll stJ'lI cti o n (sec chapter 4), has k d to co nsidcr:II)ly reduced valu es of I
con stru c t in
mag nct isiI1g cu rren l comparctl wi th prcvious t rails formers 0 r !:I inl ila r rat ing using
IH111 -or icntcu core stee l. T hcsc redu ctions arc du e to th e be tt cr cha racteris ti cs o f
. , flu xes, csta
phase wit h (
the gra in -o ri ented core 'steel. Il oweve r. t he no n· linear l11a gll t.: tic e rrec ts a rc sti ll type and tl"
pl'es..: nt. and the l11:1gnc ti sin g current Intlst st ill cl) ntain the odd -har mo nic harmo nic
compo nents ir lhe ind uced vo ltages ami Ilu x arc to rellla in ~ ill\l so id a l. har monic t: 1
If we lIeglect the higher-o rder triplell II<tr ll"Jllics. the cerect o r the third- applied ph :
harmonic current s lies principnll y in th e ra t.: t that in a three· phase star·con nected constructi <
trans ror mer the thinj ·lwrmollic current s in c,lCh phnse a rc in pha se with eac h ro rlll a tIll
ot her a t the nell tr<1 I, th e rundam ent;l] and o ther odd -ha rmonic co mpo nents ea rth ing th e
slHnmn ting to len) a t th e same point. Unless a pa th is pro vidctJ ror these currcnts For tim
rro ll1 the Irnns ror mcr neulralt o the nelltra ] o rthe supp ly :lIlLl henn: baL' k int o the the hig!J -r<
system, the current in each phase wi ll be ~ illll s o idil l , :llld Ihe li Il L'· tu -lw utr:t1 C::Oll1p:t cd \
"olltlgcs a t th e trans rormer will in co nscqut.! l1 cc co ntain a tliird · hanll o nic harmon ic 1/
co mp o nent. Thesc wi ll be in phasc with c;J(,: h o lh er at the nt.: utral poi ll t, c:lU!oo in g it These e
to shirt :l ml th..: rcb y increasing th e vo ltage strcss on the windings, Un de r th ese Ill in im i"'cd I
..:o nditi o lls th e I1l:Igni tuuc o rtllc third -hnrm o nic vo ltagc \:o lllr\.,)IIL' nt Ci lll be 50 /(1 1
pro ville a
of the pha se ,\' olta ge, roregoing
Such a path as th at requireu ll1a y be pro\'ided ror the th ird · harnwll ict.: urrcllt by term ina ls,
~'art hing the primary or seco ndary winding. If the hl tta method is used. th e adva ntage '
sl'co llda ry system must be ea rth ed clsc\\ hl'rc hy 1t 11..'~l n s o r an carthed star lh.: lln star star,
trans fo rme r o r. a lt ern atively, o r a ll canl1in g trill1:o.rlll'lllc r ( ~cc ~ ub · sce t io n 10.3.5), excessive
Whiche"e r neu tra l is used, an e~lrth rctu lli is provi ded fo r the th in.l -halillonic causing ill '
ell rfe n I, IIIlU t he pro blem 0 r thi rd -ha I"mOI1 il; \'oltagcs 0 11 t ll\: II a il s ro rlllt.!r a nel the ad van tage i
systcm is n;so lvcd, Two co mplica ti ons, ho\,,.·c\ cr, can ar ise as a result o f earlhillg o r three-Ii
the transrormer neut ra l. The triple-frcqucncy currcnt th ut passes in thc circu it
co nsistillg o r ,the c(lfth pa th, source nt.! utral :lnd t ral1:o.mis<.; io n lilies may
in du cti vely arrect para llcl co mmunica ti on ( ir( uit s :111(.1 ma y 1"l': ~ lIlt in interrl'r(,lIcc,
10.7 AL
Control o rthis e rrCt' t ca ll be very diITieult to ;I l..' hicvc in prncticc since it is un liJ,dy
that ~l system will ha ve only a single so urce ea rth. In this Glse the third ~ harl1l o l1ic
curren t pat h ca n be co mple x, ~- 10.7.1 C"
,
"
~.
Depend i li S upo n th e systelll characteristics. :1 st.:co nd (0 III plica t io n Crt n OCCHr as
l lll r odlf("I_ ~
n resul t o r ear thin g th e tra ns rormer ncutr:d v.. h e ll no source cal th is available or,
10 n lesser ex tent, when the ean h retu rn path presc nt s <.1 hig h impedance to the I n respect l
fl o w n f thi rd -ha rl1l C'ln ic Clll'I'e n!. III thl' ~ e d r(, IlIll." talH.l:" IIll: Ihird · hal l1l o llic into I\XO
\'tllt a ge a t th e n Clllr':i1; :; il1lpres$ed oil a ci ll·tli t <..'t.l lll pri ,i li t:. th l' lim: l;ap:lI.: il :llu: e 10 (l c n cr'H l l l
cart h ill ser ies wi th 1he open-eirc u it t h inJ · hann o ni c i nd U\..! j1l1 1.C iJ rIhe i " 1I1 ~ fllfllh.: r nee d ro r L·C

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rowr.R SYS r EM I RA NSFOR ;\ II'RS ANI> I NDUCi'ORS 27)
) )' an an gle wi nd i ng. Th e co nd i t ion C:I n be co mc ve ry da ngc rou s when t he va !\le" 0 rC:l p:lci live l
Ul I~'C Iriple ll a nc! illducti\ c ((';'ld :II1 t'C or th e circuit arc almost eq u;tI. In th ese dlClIll1 ~ t :J!1..:es
I
I'
reso nan ce Cilil n~I.: 11 r, C:I usi Ill; Ihe t "ird ~ lia 1'I11 ~ HI k n l! I;'gc a I I he III.: Ut n t! , a lid hence I:,
1'11ioll or lhe Ihe sy:)'tell1 \'o!U1ge, 10 increase to a peak valuc sudllhal Ihclinc· lo .. cartli vo ltage
~. ": I ~ il y ill the Illa y be high enou gh 10 ca llsc a flashove r alth e trans fo rm cr termi na l and po ss ible
Is tn clioll . The brc:11,dowll o f tile winding. Int erm cdiat e v:dlles o rlll e cirellit P:lI ,lll1ct crs give rise
n\cll lIlds .or to cCl iHliti n ns \\!ti l.· !t arc k ss o ucro us bll t' whi ch n..: qui lc eqtt;lI ':i) lI sidc r:ltin ll .
,~ I'" ion s :1111 1 Th e ll1 al~!l itud c ll r th e !.!ffeets .,h:sci' i\)l't1 \':\ 1ic.. :s ;Icco ldin g In tli e type or core
lH.:cd \"lu c.: s or cO II!'l ruc tioll ,.: 111pl o y~d . Wilh Ihe tran s fu rm er IlI..: ulra l is(1 \akd liIe third -harm o nic
.. - rrll in g u:-.i ng nu'\~s, establi shed in cndl phas·c .by their iI ~s od at ..:: d vol t:lge ,Hid eurrcll l, ;II'C in
,JI ~ris lj cs nf il h ; ' ~c with one :111 1)1 111.: 1'. Wit h three-pha se core rn n:-Irllcti olls, sil ch as the shell
CII C¢IS arc 'ti ll IYI'" ,I lid Ihe li \I' ' illi h (o re, iI hi gh-pc rm e:lhility path is p ro\id rd for the third-
('Ie Id ·11:1 rnl()n ic hanhOIlit: nu :\cs. !\' l; \lI SC· o f th e lo w l1l:q;nctising impcdanLc 10 th e third-
\I
J'd, h:lrlllo nit.: ClIrn:nl . ti le Ihini· harm o nic vo lt ages may bc abou t ~ O to 70 % o f the
" r1lhe th ird , applied ph a.;c \ t' ll iI!,;C. \Vh c ~~ slnr·co nn cctcu Ii\'c· lilll b { Ir she lJ · \ype corc
J,

sla r !t.;OIl neelcd CO fl ~ \ru di(\lI~ arc lI'Ied o r where single" pha!)c tra ns ro rmers are ~ I :tr co nnected to
""
.c \\ ! I h l' ~ lCh ro rm a Ih rec .. pha st.: ban k, particular attent io n must be paill tu the mcth od o f
:\~Ill; \ o n cp c'lrth ing tilt.: neu t!';" po int if the efrects d esc ri bed :lrc 10 bl.! minimised.
$i !
. tl h':SC l' u rr ~1 For IhrcL'-pll<l!-t.: 1hree- limb cores, th e th irtl -hal rll onic nu x p:llh s arc thr o ugh
. " ;Il'k ill tu I I th c high-relucrance :Ii r palh o utside th e core. The flux is th erefo re much smaller
.1
~fI\I ' III.. lItl.;J 1 com pared wi th n th ... r Ihrce - ph ~lsc (;o re cO ll structi o ns, :Inti th e I'csi dting third ~
n i rd · 11;1r lllOIl ic
. I •.
h;lI'Illonil.: \'t)l!agl's :l It.: o nly aho ut a few per l 'l' nl o r th e applinl \·t) l lagc. i
I, "I
,"11

(' ''lI,I,::IIJ :'> ll1 g II T hese dfecl s, tot;d hcr wit h th e tli fTcrc lKcs du e 10 t.:ore co nstru ctio n, :Ire , j
Und er th ese minimi sed if th e tra ns for mers have t1e ll a-co llll t.:c tt.:d stabi lisin g win d ings. These I
I 1 '\"
lI r[' "bC,sb"" provide a lo\\,-illl l1L'd:lll":C circuit to the third -ha rmo nic \'tdlilgCS, and Ihe :' \

forc.:going third -h:ll ll111 llie e ffccts. which ot herwi se ilppea r at Ihe 1r:tlls fol'lllcr I ,I,J
icc urrc.: llt by Ic.'rm inals, nClIl n ll pl'in l or o n th e sys tem, beco mc Ill·gli giblc. III gc neral, tile iI I,
.. is u$cd, the
heu Istar (kIln
advantage o f II~e , t.lhilis ing winding is to achi eve ro l' th e :\lI 1 0·tla l~ ~ ro rl1l cr and
star - star -conncd cd tl:lIls for1l1cr a stabili o;ed ne:u lral po int. fl Ce:d o ll1 rro m
L:" ,
, :l j0 11 10. .1 .5 ).
·d·h:lIlllt1I1ic
c.: .H·('~s i n:: tl·all !' ft\' .1 h' f a nd s y ~ kl11 third ~ h ; lIl1l o llic vo ll ;1gt.'~ :i ild rlcctlon l rl ( 1I1l
causi ng i ntt..' rft..' ,I,'p'"c ,\ il h ,,:o llllllun k'ati o ll circu its. Thcir U <"(' io;; o f grl..'a test
I;;,
J
f
lu rn;'CI'ilIHi lh..: ~I th all ta gc in II ;1I1 '~ f,!j I, h: 1'5 wit h Ih'c" !lnb o r s h e ll ~ t)'pc co rc!' ;1I1d k:l~ 1 in til e cao;;e
.,
I""
; ' t ' If ea rlhing or three-li mb COI~·S .
n the circllit I
) 11 linl!s may
in interfere nce. 10.7 AU XII.L\ :: \' ,1:i PECI'S
1
d.
it is ull likdy ,j
III' .. halllHJllic
10.7.1 Conliu!; :; ~I )j ' l::I,' l lI c nts ',',
I.,
,
; II,
as
C 111 Ol'cu r
" a 'ail"b lc or, IIi/roilIlC/iOIl ! , . , lj'""
t l'
j ll' d II h:C to t he
I .( -h:Ir11 H' llie
Ill l'cspe:c t of th e I ) J'" 'I r l..'oollng used, powe r ~Y!-i t {; 111 tr;lIl s f~'lllh ' I'S 1ll:' Y he c.hvHled
inl o two l;({) Ups: (I) tlilllsm i.;sio n Irans fo rm ers and (~) gc n..:ral u( tt a ns fo l'lllcrs. It, :
pa· :1:IIK'l! to Ge ne rat o r IraJlsh. rn t'IS t' P lat e primarily al full load anti th cldl)rC have sillall
II..! tr :1n~r() rl11er need rorcool ing 1'1.:111 1 \1. ;lh ;1 11 illl crlll ct.lia te rntin g. Abcl, th eir h'l';l\i o n al;1 powe r II I,
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' I O I !l I{:-I I'UWi" I{ I It A1':\1O]{\ II I' H.II~ · E

... l illlUII \\her..: th t:r c is usually :11\ abundan t :lnd leliab le ~ upply tl f t:ol ding wal e r
pl'u \'idcs 1111.: fa cility to usc oil ·· wata heat t:,\ cha ngcrs wit h the (.: 0 Il SC qIl C Il I
Cl:U I1 11 11lic sa vings in space over th e conve ntiona l o il air L'oolin g CC,JII iplIl c nt. The
,!!" l i rH: lion bl; l wc cn th e IWO uro ups is, th ere fore, tha I .,ge nerato r Ir,lllsfunne rs
bI :1I )(; Ii "s, '1'1
ala llll wi
pl cs~ ur c ':
l'l
111:1)' , i f i'C Ql1ilt:t!, L' lllploy O F\V coo ling. wll c rl';I!\ t r:III~lni s" i o ll I l'itll , rll l1J H: r ~ arc wal er d iflcrt'
"':l ll dvd by :Illy (If th e.: alt t: 1native standard 1l1d lH lds. I-'UI'1111 IP
,
" nratio n l ;u

~
(;ClIl.'f o/ u r fru ns/Oymer coolillY 1ll'N m gt!l1Ifll ts '/
< T wo Iypes ,
(/l' IlCrillor tr:1llsfo rl ncn:. if eq uipped with OFW cO(l li ll g. m ay have . three inlcrcoo JN a
o il wa I cr Ih:a I t:xL' ha ngel's CO lill cl'kd ill pa Ia I k l ilnd e;\ . :h 1' ;1ted a t SO1:1(1 f llle ful l- a t WO -Sl ,e
lu, u.! losses o f the tran s fo rme r. This :H ~hl1gcIllI.: 11 1 permits the transfo riller to
npcral c ,I t it s l':1 tL'd o utput with o llly (wo hea t t.!xc hangers ill service. lhe th frd hea t
1 \\at er-t o· \yal
s"p:"a lt'd b)
cxcha ngc!' sefvi ng as a stand by 10 I11H inta i 11 sccu ri ty 0 f stlpply in 1he ev..: nt 1,11n t o ne lu be.:: 11I.'tl \:H
heal cxchan tt.: r f:.li ls or is take n o ul of st.! l'vi..:c ' l~ ll1po rari l y for ,;..:rioliic Iq-wa ter e..t
Ill;lin tcn :lnce, ., d c~ fa !lee bt
T ill': heal c'\ cli;Ill gl.: rs :Irc,designed to have a specific ht.:a t di ~s ip:lti l1g c ap~ bilily illlle.::r tu l II
rll f ddill Cd oi l illHI wa h.: r r:ltcso fn ow:l l1u I Cl11pe l ilt llr~. The n ;lot'i ly and qll:1l1tit y Wa l eI' p: t · ~
o f oil rcqll in.:d 10 JIlail1l :1ill th e ma xi mulll tra ns fo rlller ol h.: rating tc m pe l a[ulC ··il lt..:rrwti\ l's:
within the pt.! l"Illiss ible lim its is a fun cti on o f the avcl'i1gc wiml,ing-to -l, jJ o f Ihe Dr;I ;,1
h': l1lf'era t ure d i rrcrcllcc and I he dyna mic hend 0 f t he oi l ci reu it, as mcasured across I
~I fc:gllar ; l
\ he i Ilie l ilild (1 u Ikl n f till' oiI pu III p, Til is is th e lo inI 1'1CSS II rc d rop ill t he oi l circu it Ad eqlhdc
i~ whe n the pumps ~I rc op"': l'a ting anti inclu th.:s the pr ess ure dro ps across the ' : 0 III pos iii 0 11
:, windi n g~, pipcwork. heat exchan ge rs and pu mps. Simililr ly the \·.. : Iocity :ll\d for lite t nil
" qUi \IHity o f water requ ired thr o ugh a gi\'(' nll!.:: n 1.:\ ... 11:I11 1,;c r in Older to o ht ;t11l th e .0\1.:1 a ll ( ,'g
,, des ired tl'i1n sforlllcr oil i ll k t tempera til re , <I rc " fll Il"': Iio n of Ihe CXC h:ulgc r o il iI1lel ilH.:u mill g all
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.j anu ol lllc! ternpel'iltun; d iITcn..: ncc, tile wall'!' tel llp..: r<.ll ll fC ;111<.1 the d)!ltllllic head th e heal .H.
:tCI'OSS' tile w,ltcr side o rth e heat exc hal1!; cr, In pi ;1I.:ti cc, the rate o f no \\' of o il and rC,t! lJ i rc( ;!) /
the pump ca pac it y requ ired to ci rcu late Ih is thr o ug h th c oi l t.' ircuil arc de termined
" 'iI
fro m elllpiriea l ftlrlllll la...: o btailll.:d from \ \udi cs 1l1:lde o n cn lllpickd coo lin g
I
systems where oi l fl o\\' pallern s. parlku larl y tll ril1lj; h th e \\'inli ings, :lJ'e kn o wn . In pract .!,!
The wat er side ('I f th e pro blem is usuall y comidc red . firstly. in 1'~ r ll1.s o f utilising 0 11 an G.M
!-1;Indard hea t exc han ge rs of kn ow n 11\1.:1' 111 a I p..: rfOllll;\ I1Ce under specified Trall s fol'l
hyd rl 1d Yl1 ill llit.! ilnd l elllp\.'lillur c l' ondi\i l )IL ~; (III ', il..; III', ,"eI.: PIH lI y, by d l:,,;jgnillg a \\ hole (I II I
he<l ' ..:x d wnger to IIH.:c t Ill...: parti\.'ui;Ir ol'c r;n illl,! pe rfUf'JI1; IIH:C leq ui red, Il ut 0 111 : III
The typc o fh cnt exc.: h ~lllge r cO Ill!11 o nly us..:d is knu\\ 11 as :.t IWO-p:lss cross-no w t'OIl ~i .l j\..)J l lll
hl.'a l cx dwngcr, sincc th e water pa ~scs twice th rough th c cooli ng tubes across \\ hen II' fn
\\ hieh th e o il is circu la teu, Eac h hl.:a t exchallga is mo unt cd ill a \ crlic:11 pos it io n T he I :11i
;lIld is cq 1I ippcd wit h a rel1lO vablc headcr a I Ilie II p pe r cl1 d to allo\\ Ihe tube ncst to tra ns fo rm er
be wit htlraw ll .IS required . Whilsl C\'cry precau tio n is l:tkt'n to ensure that Ihe o il f.:Jctors ",IIi \.
:IIlU wat cr systems arc kept se paratc, fa ilurc o f til e oi l \~ a lcr se para ti o n ITlU st be Dcpe ii i
all ticipated. :1111.1 aLicqll:lle safcguard s must he pro\ iuetl. The eq llipmc nt is approxi , .. al'
dcsigned so that the o il press ure is gn.:a t..: r than the water press lIre, thu s ensurin g lank , Th is
tha t any leaka ge bel \\CC Il Ihe two !o,yslelJ1s \\i ll be frolll 0il to \\ater. Pr ~ss llrc cil culllf ell
t.!:llIgcs arc fitt ed 6 11tllc oil and wa ter inlet brandIes to maintain a \ j"ual check 0 11 ~ h ow n i yr
the ...:on ling s)'s t~: 111 pI'C~s urcs. in additiu ll to [iI..: ilutulIlatil: ... afegu:1! d pl uvilk'd hy 1l 1lHInt ed l ' it

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I'OWER S\' S r EM r RA N!) r Oln. 1I It $ A,!'JD INPU( lOllS 275
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a dim.: rcntial pr cs~·.l lrc g:w L:c rnlll1 L'c ll'd :I CI() SS til e (Ii i (I\lrkt all d \\'all:r in k (
n ;lll: r
,,
ur alH.:llcs. This illl:Ol po l'atcs clcc..:!l ic·;ll:irl1l conta cts whii..:h :II !..! sc.; t Iv initial!..! an
.
.: 1\1'(j ll t' lll
r ~ I\I.T he al:l rm when the hea l cxchange r oil outlet press ure docs not excced the w~tcr inlet ",
~;t', I

,:..
a I1 S rOI Ill~ I'S pressli rc by n I leasl 20 k N m - " Tli is reqll i rell1enl of a 20 k N III - , posili ve oil-IO- "

fer, arc wa tcr JiITc rcl1lial pressurc :1pplics to bo th sla tic and dynami c oil pressures.
II J7urlh cr preca uti onary ll1 e;] s ur c~ C:III be tak cn to Illa int ai n oi l wnte r sep-
ara ti on by adopting alternative and more so pliistica teJ types Hf hcal exchanger.

,Ie t hree ,1 Two types o r heat c.'(cha ngc r, designcd spccilicully to ,lI; hie vc this. ~lfC the
int cfcoolcf and the doublc wa ter- tube hea t exchange r. The il1 tercoole r co nsists o r
: .... ,·'thc fu ll ·
,- ) a two-s tage heat cxchange r co mpri sing an o il -to- wat l.:r hc.; a t cxchanger aflu a
sforr!l L: r to wa ler-lo-wll ler hl.:a t exchange r, the dynamic oi l <l1l L! ~\'ntc r ~y~tc l11 s thus bcing
Jird hea l se paraled by an interlllcdi;lt c wa ter systcm, Th e second type, the uO ll blc wa tef-
'! " 111 1Il C tu he heat cxc hi'l ngc r, is similar ill c.:o llslrm:ti o ll 10 th e j, :OIl\ Cllth 1n:d t.:foss- flow oil -
11' ~ .! if,d ie lo-waler heat exchangcr bu t ha s un add iti onallu bc over C.il L: 1J wa k r tube, with a
d ea ra nce belwccn bOlh lu bes, The cooler wa ler is circli ial cd Ihrough Ihe
j tj',:d') ility innl.!r tube in the no rma l1 nnlllle r. When pUllctu re o rthis tube ol.'curs. the coo ler
HI , tt.tld ilY wat er P;ISSCS int o the oul er lube wherc it is ve nted to atnK. ~ phc rc . Blith these
.",' j 1:1 1lire II 1t !.! 111<1 t i w s :1rc ma rc e,'( pens ivc I ha n th e l'U fI \'(! Ilt iOlla I hei \t C.xl'll:ll lgC r. Ex pcrien l..'c
I 0 to ("i l o rlh c Br it ish prn clice indic\ltcs that thc la tter i ~ eminentl y ~ 1IL:c!.! ss rlll with addcd
III 1; 11 iO:; 5 sareg uards o utlincd above.
H': t il ~' iH.: l! jl i\deq uate preca utions mu st be ta ke n agai nst the poss ibility o r corrosio n, The
'11'i~ t he co mpos it ion o r the coolin g water wi ll c.il:krmine \.\'hich 1ll,lkri :ds wi ll be sui tab le
' i t)' :11 1(..1 ror the coo ling lubes and, since it ma y change. must be ch ccked J'cgu lar ly. Th e
t)hLlillthc ovcra II des ign uJ I he sys tem, i Ilcluui ng the pipc \\'ork, mu st I:d:r: ill to cO ll si<kra t io n
I it ;~lIc t
incor n ing an d o iltgoin g Wil ler specus nnd prcss lJl'cs so tll ;1I rh l";c arc . . oi lable rur
1 I,i,: h" <l U the hea l excha nge!'. Carerul in stalla ti o n and maintc nance prl" \.·cdu rcs arc a lso ," "'I.. •
~ 1)1'
, I'i t ,11 )(..1 req uired, especially to ensure clea nliness in the heat e.xcha ngn tuhcS.
I "fl l lli :~" d ,
, 1\ ,1i lg '(I' (I/ISll l issi u lI f l'(IIl ,\jumu',. ('ollli n!) lI r rmI Y t '11It'lIfS
\L t.!j ' ': ~I'\ n. In praetke, tlt t.!sc units o ft c nlta vc a Ini xcd coo ling r:h.:il ily th ilt I'e llllll ... 0 IWI:l tinll
0(1 lili' ill£; o n an ON AN r: lt ing and on a rorce d-o il ra tin g as either 0 1 .\N or OFAF.
I -J. 'dried Tra ns rormers which ha ve ONAN cooling lllU .') t be cap:!hk u f di:-. . . ip<l ting the
... ,;i:':lI ing a who le o r Ihe rull ·load losscs, IV.hcre rorced -I,i l coo lin g is ,,,,'<I.
lli c,c<'o linl' pla nl
'cd !l ot o nl y muSI be des igncd to ca tcr for the rll ll ·h.l:ld l os~cs IIIHler the rurt,:cu-o il
L:.·;. nuw co nd ition but must also be capable o f di s~ ip:1tillg not less t1 1:111 50 u o f Il lese losses II

I::;1 :'C i' t)" S

.. ' when the roreeo -o il circu lation is no t in IISC.
:<1 1 \ n,-1110 11 The meth ods adoptcd to lit the requ ired a/H Oulil :111 (/ t)pe (.I f coo ling to thc
I >'\1.' n,'st to t rn ns rormer \'a ry cO llsidcra bly, Th ere a rc, ho we \. cr. Cl: r 1:1 i 11 rUlld :1I n e llt~1! C0ll11110 n
I" Ihe oil ra clors which per mit some gencra l cont.:iusiolls to be d",\\ /I , :;'
0 111. 111:-. 1 he
. II
P' 1)ll11.: 01
.
IS
Dcpc noing upon the :1I11 0 UIl! or cool ing il\\.uh'l:d. 1110 .. 1 IlilllS fol' lIlcrs up to
approxil11:1t d y 50 M VA call Gl fry the I'eqllircd il l1 HHlllt u f cll ~"illg surfacc 011 the
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tank. This is uSlia ll y provid ed by IllCiJ ll S o r l.h: I;u.:l1a bh.: ladia lors :IITangcu
circumrcrcn ti iJ ll y :Ibout the lill1k, as ~ Ir UW I1 in fi gure 10. lfl, rile ill'I':tl1gC IllCll t
nl :dcd <'by11
, I
f'hCC' sho wn is ty pica l roran ONi\N trans rorfller .... hcrc by thcadditill!1 ofai r-bla :-. ( rail S
mOllnt ed ei the r bencath c[ll.: h pair o rradiat o rs o r al each end vr t h ~ radi ato r ba J1k,

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FANS ARR ANGED Fon VU ITICAL COOLING
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FII NS ARR ANGED FOR 1. 111 [I1I1 L COOLING I
ALTERN ATIVE IIm~AI'G[ ME NT
I, Oil-eire 1/ 1(1 / i,,{/
------~----------~
!' ri te lype 0 HI
Figure 10. 14 Tra nsmi ssio n trans fCrlne r coo li ng"; j' " ':';,.'lIlcnts wi th rat! in 1\'1'<'; dct acha ble "i lh ;I SqU cI
from ta nk I pipe so as to bl..
ll f l1l o unl i" ";1
the rating o f th e transformer can be increased ,1~ 1 tha t o f ONAF. An a lt c rn~tt i vc a Iso be pre <II
arrang'-.:mc nl is someti mes emp loyed 10 t;a in a f,![t hc: r im:rc:1scd rating WllC l L: by til e nl:CU tu rc
th L' in dividu al radi a tors a rc CO llll l!C ICd , top :111.1 h ,. !tllll1 , 10 sc par.lt c headers o n pum p :tnu it-; i
c<:\ch "ide o f I he In 11 k. Th ese arc arra n gl d to reI:!! ;1 II l ' I hI.! Iii nk \ ia oi l p ll111 1'5. T il is I h (;r l1lo~) r I II
allowsl hc trans fo rl11er \0 be ril l ed OFA I'lof 01 \ F' .I'd lcsi rc:o, Wh cll l lLc fc qu ill.:J i~ rcqu ircc. .
:u ea 0 r('onling 5\1 rfacc is grcn ter Iha 11 call be ae ·,.', '111 l\lOUn leu o n t he fa 11 k o r w herc :\11 illlpo f i a
a tr;lllsfllrmcr no ise enclos ure is to be ll:-icd . II ~e Ll"to ling plan t is 1l1Ou IlI eu on ~l d l'W Il o f II 1'1

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rOWER SYSTEI\-I TRANSFOR!l.1ERS AND I r-;UUClo ns 277

se parate strw.:ture (sec fi gurc 10. 15). In plm:e o r the d C I ~\(.: h ;Jbk rad iat u rs sho wn
.here, an alternative co nstruction is sO ll1ctirJl(.;s used CO lIsbling or two ban ks o r
tubes betwee n top and bo tt om head ers and ex tcllding th e len gth o rtllc s tru cture.
Whe re o il-ro rced co olin g is cmployed, it is
co mm on pra ctice to have a d o uble
pUlllpalld pipcwork layo ut 10 ensure Ibat a t lca st 50 % coo lin g is availab le in IIle
evc nt (hal olle heat exc han ger, o r pump • fnil s in serv iceS.
DETACHABLE
RADIAronS

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AIR BLAST COOLIN G O IL CIRCULATING

FANS PUMP

F; l.~urc 10. 15 Coo ling p1;111 1 Itwunl cd 011 ;1 M,:p:II'atc s l n l l' t\lr~

Oil-eirer l/alil/!J ('lIlIlpS

The I) pc of pump cll1p l o )'e d ~ is the totally o il .submergeJ irnpcl lcr pump" lI 'ua lly
lac wble with a sq uir'l'el ~c;l!;e inducti o n mulo r. Thi s is fitl l:d into Ihe heal ~x l.: hallgc r GUild
pipe so OI S to be all in teg ra l part o f;t witho ut rcco ursc to exposed shaft $.l..'o uplings
or 1ll0llll ting a r'r:lllgcmcil IS t ha t rcq til rc indcpc lldcn I rou nda tio ns. Fae iIi ti cS ! 11 Ust
:," \live ~d so be pro vided III pamil th e pump to be withdrawlI rrom th e o il cirCll it willw ut
,
,' hereby th e need to relllove oil from either th c Irall sfonne r or the 11(';11 cxt.: han ge r. Th e
( (5 on pUJIlpa nd it s impdlcr <Ire des igl1 cd to o rfer a lo w im pcdance ullLkf conJi tio ns o f
I This tilcr mosy ph()rl oil nnw as occurs when Illy th e ONAN fatin g (d lll c trill1 ::;f{lri Il Cr
cqu ired is l'~q\1in: d .
. . . hcrc An impo rtant C'l)nsid cralion ilri ses in cOJlIH.:ctioJl wil h th e ~ t : 'rt - up nnd ~ Ilut ­
011 a do wn of thc pump s. Depcnding upon the overall pump capadly and th c type o f

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.' IX /lI OOERN POW e R r RA:-'S I ()R ,\ Ir1t I'ltAc n CE ,'

Jd d i.1I0( uSt,;d. it is possible 10 ca lise llJ:d o p~ ra ti u n ufthe gas '1l,.; lu<ll c<.l prot ec ti ve williou
(Ilu<.: hh o lz) rclay \v hcn starti r'IS o r slopping th e PlIJI'PS t),...·ing to the suude n 10. 11
dlallgc in oi l movement. To overcome this. the hea l exchanger co ntrol circui t :.I rc 11 I

I
-hlHdd include a schcl1le [o r seq uenti;!! start · "p and slnJt ·d ow n of tile oi l· fo rcing l1 ecr.:~s:

rq niplllc lit. Simila rly. Illal opcra li o ll o f llle relay du e In \'ibl:"ioll rfl' llllhc heat bo:<(.!
n .c hil llgcrs or f'lll1lpS l11u st a lso Dc avoidcu. Mos
cqu ipil

I
FUllS Ir:lll sfr
rh e addi tioll-.ofair-bla st cooling to ~lll ONA N-dass Iralls[nl rna ca ll incrcase the lall k
J:l ling o f thal lr:lI1 s[ormcr by abou t 20 to 30 :%)' The inc reased rating obta ined by
the addit io n ora number o f fa ns is no t dependent solc ly upo n the rate u fair now
hil t a lso ul?o n the cni<.:ic ilcy of I,;oo lill g. Variolls IIlc th od s of ;\I"Iall ging the fan s
I
abo ut the hea t cXf,; hangcr ill stullatioll ha\'c bee n tri ed ill I!/dl! r to rlla~jllli se the
effec tive cooling, Howeve r, ill practice two rnclhod s arc l.I:>;cu: (I) vcr t ieal too lill g
or (2) lateral co.o ling. "s shown in figllre 10. 14. Many o f the preca utions applied
to the insta llati o n of oi l·cin.:ul:lling pllmp s app ly :lIso to f;lIls, par ticula rl y with
rq;ard to no ise nnd . vibration~.

t 1).7.2 Tai,!;s
Wi th th e except ion of so me cas l ~ in · co tl c rctc !'c ri cs induclors designed fo r
in-.tal1a lion in cn closures. a ll o th er tran sfurm er ilnd indlll..: tor plant is conta incd in
, p ille fo rm of m etal lank.
I'he simplesl kind o f tank is o f mild ske l l'o n !' lru~. :l hl n Hilh a ~c p:llatc (over
III ,lIed to I he 1;1 n k :t I a le vel <I bovc I he to p yok e () r tilt.: "':(H·I.! :tt)!..1:1 tty c.\; tcm .1I Ii II i ngs
~ II' cooling lubes. Th is pos i Iio n 0 f co n Il C( 1iUrI ht. : 1\H'1.: 11 la 11 ~ ;!ll(lco \,cr is Ctll l1l1ll)r1
III lllilO)' u·ansfo rlll cr!;. irrespective of si7c, ~i ll l: c il allvw s t' t.: lI1oval o f til t.: co\er to

I gin: :Ic...:ess. to I he "':01'1': :1lIJ wi IIdi Il bs \\ it hl'tl l 1It..·I: d h ' \\ i I lid 1.1 \\ a I.lIl~c q 11 :1III il )' (l r
11 \l il fro m the tran sfor mer.
;1 A ~ regards mnl crial, transfo l'llH.;r t: ll1 k" :II C f;lbri l'al cd in IH":;lrly all t.·;I"CS fro m
," milJ )) tcc l p,1 ale. There a rc excepti o ns, J'<lrti<.:ularly 0 11 br gc Il a mfOlllll.!l' s, \\h C l~
alum inium is uscd in o rder to redu ce ll1a ss or 10 a\ oi d l:)..t.·I.!~"'I \ C lank hl.!:t tin g uue
to induced eddy curren ts. Carefu l cOI1 !' io crali on Illust bt: gi\c n in th ese C:l ses to
aSSl!SS the ad\'antage 10 be gaillt,:d frolll u'li ng aluminiulll, silll.:e the IIHlnll fa c tu re o f
il t:l 11 k 0 f Ihis kind fCq u ires spcl'in I Ic,,'<.: h J1 iq lies :t lid sk ill. p:t rI iell la r! y wit h I q;a I'd to
\\ddillg, which arc not IIlcl in Ihe fabJit:atiull u f stccll anks. Fllrther altcrna live
Illc thods of tank ocsign and co nstructi on arc (I\':til:lblc. by u . . illg hi gh· gradc skcis
;111d pre-sl'rcsscd pane ls to Icouec Ihe O\Cra lll :t nk Itla ss. III Ih(ll.,c.; im:l:tn t.·cs. \\here
\. \ L'css i vt ed dy Cli rre nl he;1 Ii flg i s II n tit.. i paled, al tllll i II j til t1 llr L P I cpt .. Ie SL' t c,,'C Il ~ c,,'a n
he fin ed 10 th e inlcrnu l SUI facc o f ..I slt.'d l"lllk 10 CO Il IIO I thi s.
A parI frol n t h<.:sc cOll sidera I ions, t hI.' usc 0 f sll:e lor a /lI lll i n iu 111 Illil kcs \ 1.: 1)' Ii II Ie
~l ll
dirfel'cnee to th e fundamental !; ilapc pf the t:lnk . A IHlIllhcl o f hasic tank shapes
:11"<': Sl't..' n in pl'acl it.'c. The a jill is 10 :I(' h ie\ l' :t I1ll,t.'h:1II it..·n II)' sl nll1t~ \·<.:s .. cI ( :I 1':1 Ilk , II n qil I

\IIlC hand. o f suppo rtin g Ihe mass o f lite cnr<.:, \\inding\ ;Il1d oi l dll l'int~ tl :l mpo rt rie iJ '
ilnd o f lifting ~lnJ . on the o th er haud, oft:ontailling th e ltlitlillll im \'olulllc of oil qn ;11'!

...,........ ,- --
 I'OwER SYSTEM TRAN S I ' OIl. M EH ~ ,'\ ND I NUUCI()I{S 279
! .
with out detr im en t to th ~ safe and rcl i:..tble opu a tion 9,f tl H~ l r ;Itlsforlll cr. Fi gure
10.16 ill ustrates SO l11e common tank profiles . Modificai)o lls to these basic prollics
arc necessary ill order to fl ccOlllm odate the various addJti ona l fittings that may be'
Il ccessary to th e ope rati on o f the tr;I ll sfo rm cr , Tlics'c incili dc bushin gs, cab le
boxes, rad in tors, ta p cha ngc rs, pi,Pcwork, i nsf rtJlnCnl ~,~, ud pro tcc l j011 eq u ipm~nr,
Most interna tio na l and Cusl0I11Cr spcc itil:a tions includ e dCI,Jils o f the type o f
equipmen t co nsidered esse ntial for th e sa fe an.d 'j.rC li~l bk opelatio n of the

"" i .ta_~"sc
lrilllsfo r mcr and fo r which so me pr ov ision ,mu st' be 111 ;1< 11.: i ll o r o n th e ,: '
tank G I.7,G2,2,Gl2, .... , ", ~
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. i the fnn s
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I .' a pplied ~,

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1"lI1 ed ,n (a)
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~ Ildsc cases to I: , I
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: ra,ic s t~c1s (e) (d )

tf :s, '~ here
;,.; ~ cells ca n Fi gure 10,16 Com mon tank profiles
-r
i J ,cry little The usc o f rounu -c lld cd o r co il-cont our tanks fur large tr:lll :, rnl'!ll l' I'S lead s to
~_ t~ k Sh ;lPCS so mc sa' illg or o il and at the same timc pcr mits a r ct!uc l ill ll ill tIl\! qua ntit y o f
I( ' 1 I~'IP; L blc. .on sti ffellin g that is o therwi se I'cqllireo o n a rc!.:ta ngula r lank ill (lIlit:r III Illake it a
ri gitl vessd , Il o wevcr, the nc..:cd fo r ll1 t.:d l<lllical rigid ity doc.;»' 110 t <lh\i,IYS dic..: ta tc the
! r ~ ' II anspa ft
quantity nnd posi tion o r s tifreners, since an impo rt :IIl ( \,,'l\ Jlsidcr: tli o n in this
11' Ole ufo il

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280 MODE RN PowER TRAN SFORMER I'RAc n CE I.
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res pect is the nexibility of the tank p,'nels and the adl'erse e ffect 'th is has 0 11 i CO IlCCI'I)i lt
limiting noise radiation. Genera ll y. the large r tr:.IIlSfOflnCrs f:ldia tc the IOWCf 4
.' and ins ,1
freq uency noise at a high level. This wou ld be tran sl1litt ed easily to the is lirnih.. J
surrounding air if the tank panels were o f the size equiva lent to the waveleng th o f former be
these frequ encies in air. Stiffen ing by mC;lI1s ofra1led chall llt.:ls or bars welded to strell Ul1 ~
the tank is essen tial to redu ce the o.ffcctivc overa ll size of the tank to a se ries o f s)'nl het II
panels o f smallcr dimensions and to provide Ihem wil h a degl'ee of bo undary I the clcc tri,
. stiffness. A com prol11 isl! is inherent, since the amOunt of tank stiffening req uired ~.~;
to obta in the minimum of rncliutcd no ise wo uld be fa r in excess o ftlwt necessa ry r
intr od u ~;
effect tl ~
! for mechanical reasons. '" sy"thetlc i
A third faclo r concern in g ta nk stiffenin g is the prov isio n o n ,the tank of lifting transform,
bo llards.jacki ng pad s, iranspo rt suppo rt s and draw holes, Ihe la ller bei ng used to arc ca ll f
;dlo w the transformer to be hau led or sll.: wed in any tiireelio n. These are features ' Ther. . ,I
Ihal arc 10 be found o n " II lank s in one form or ano lher and Me an inlegral part o f ncccssitati
Ihe lank design and mechanical sliffening. result (
The problems associated with transport nnd in s lall ~ ti o n of the transfo rmer on tra nsfo ~
a plinth must also be tnkcn int o cons iderat io n, Two mcthods of construction Paper is or
requiring specia lly des igned lank s arc discussed in section 10.S. The more IIsllal mokcu'''r
mel hods o f Iranspo rt either by platform ve hicle or by side-bea m wago n arc temp!,':!'; J
ge nerally lak en into acco unt when designing the t:-lnk , togclht: r with any ~ p cc i a l Th e ten
req \J irCIIlCIl ts l.:oIH': l! rnin g dcsign 0 f the u lIucrbase. Frcquently (h is is it pia i II II h.:ta l lo:rdillg h
basc-pla te whic h is o f a thickness to permit movcment of th e c('I lllplc: tc 1t11it by inte rna
usin g rollers or slide rai ls although nei ther is rcquired to be placed in a 10 a spc
particular pos itio n under th e trans fo rmer. all slllHller un it", :In ul1Cicrh:lse o f I hi s corre'
rolleu ·s tcel channel constnll.' ti on we ldc.:u 10 thc' tank ba :-c 1'1:111.: is o fh~ 1l II $CJ . , 1.7). "I . ,
f'l cilitics can be provided on such an underbase to ;)ssis l the movemen t o f the the in s ]
transformer o n site and may incl ud e bi -d irecti on::ll plain or n:l l1 gcd wheels and r e ft.: r c ll c~
skids, though Ihe lallcr are to bc founu mainly On srna ll tranl.i forll1crs. a t whic h I
Fina lly. with regelrd to lank tesls, it is necessary 10 subject the cO ln plclcd tank s prolo lll t
to both routine and type tesls in order to determine oi ll ightllc:-,s :l nd ri gidity. The dc tc ri Oi al
method o f testi ng and meas uring each o f these qualities va l it:.s acco rding to the insulatio n
I
custo mer's requ irements. Tank s designed nnd con structed for transformers on load cy, ~
the I3ri tish power systcm arc subject to a routine oil· lcakil gc lest at] 5 kN 111 - 2 OX),L "
(lbm'c normal press ure for 24 h. during which time no Icak;l gc shall occur, Type acccle rat il
tests consisti ng of J low- pressure lest at 6.u k N III - 2 and 311 oil·pressllre tes t Ihe PI'''' ,
cor res ponding to \\\'i (..'c the normal Iwad o f oi l, or 10 Ihe norma l press ure plus vaClll1If II
35 kN 111 - 2, ~\hi (.' h c.:\'c r is the lower, arc mal1da lory a ll one Irnllsform er of each pri or 10 I(
"
sil(! a nel ma nu f'a l· t u re. In c:l ch case, a fter co mpletion of either tcst, the pcrl1lancn t the inSl1tf
ddkl.'tion of l1:n plat es is Ilotl o cxceed:J specified \'a lue t::xpr cs~r.:d as a dimcnsion am ~ un f
aL'I.'ording to 'he h o (i i' ~)lllal Ic.: ngth of O;1t plate.5. dUl'ln !; III
.i
prcs\!lIl:c (
ca n ;lis! )
10.7..1 O il prese ""tion
tra nsJo 1
O f th e 1I1;lI1Y probj ems associated wit h transrormcr cngincl.'r ing pra ctice PCI haps The' hi!
nOllc Iws been su bj!,':ctcu to grcater ill \'cst igation or di ~l.· us~ i o n than that :.lIlJ oil. ....
 ~. "",. ,~,:" \t,~;~,:~ <

.f 'I:,,'l~' :": I .-
.(; . t' I f,.~ •• '
, ~ " '>fi,V~p' . .(, ' ,
" ' , ,'~::F~' POWE R SYSl EM ~RA NSFO"M.ER~ AND I NOUCrO RS 28 1
a 0 ',le
co nccrni n ~the prcscf' va t io n rt in sulat ing pro pert ics·Qrtrans/or!' ;(... insula t ion
) nnd insula'ting oil. Wi tho ut a liquid in sula nt, a tra nsformer o f g i Vl' l~ physical size
, I is Iimitcd "'111 both I1lcgavoltampcre rating and voltage withstand stre ngth, the
former bccaus-:.: of in adequate cooling and the latt er becau se o f :hc h; vI elec tric
!
I, sl rc n ~l h ?, r a if' tlllO 0 r 11 (111 · ;III pl'cgil'atcd paper i nsuln t io n. The usc 0 r :\ 111 i!lCral or
ies Vf sy nthctic 'liq uid insul allt prov ides improved thermal pCrfOrtlHIIlC': BPe! t: l1h nnccs
:1rl~ fY the e l cct r1 ~ pw pe rt ics of t ra llsform cr insulati on. At th e sa me tim!';, ho wever,they
I 'cd introdl~cb' odwr probknls because b Uhcir ow n inherent c h nra c t ~ r i:ilIcs a nd the
:~:. My
I effect t~ ,e have o n other materi als,"'pa rti cularl y paper insulation. 'f he usc o f
synthclio:j'nsula nts is 11 0 1 di scussed h e r~, si nce they a rc not us·unlly em ployed in

:.l~
, I

Itur s
I
I

I
a
transformer plant instal led on powel system, The present discussio ns, th erefore.
arc conc~ rn eu onl y wit h mineral-o'H-filled tra ns fo rm e rs.
There are two a peet' arising fro m the use o f mineral oil as ~ n insula nt that

'r
;: ~:
" necessitate tbe mai ntenance of th e oil above a minimu m qu ality. TI::;sc occur as a
resuit o f the deterioratio n which the oi!' undergoes during :hc life o f the
tran sformer, a nd the d red th is deterioratio n has o n the life o r r"i-"': in..; ul:\ tion.
Paper is a flbrv us " ", [< rial whose m a i~con stitue nt is cellulose. It Ii"s a co mplex
molecular stru cture whic h ca n be affected by a number o f f.. c!urs, ~ ) f which
l' I II 6
n :l e:: tcmpcnltu re, ..::xygcll "nd humid ity" are th e' 1110s1 irnpo rt ant • .
The temperature (J~ til.: in sli lil ti oll.-in a part ic ular tran srormer ~ t.:p:..nds 0 11 the
)eC~1
r I loading history o f the tra nsrormer and o n the ambient eC I1 (ii{;·.nls. Most
. international s l a n d'\f ~s rclate the continuous ma ximum rating of ;\ transrormer

":r
l:
I
10 3

,
f
'.", to a speci fic thermal per fo rmance and expected life. It is ge nerall y ·:~:: ': I 'J d e d that
this correspoJ1ds to :l!1 ill s ul a ti o ~ ho t-spot tCl11pCra tul'C o r 98 C ('-Ct· rcrc rcllcc
to

G 1.7). The elT"et o f exceeding this tempera ture is cumulati ve, the ,a ,., of agei ng o f
the insulatio ll bcirig do ubled for eve ry Goe increase in cxC~:;:; r,f 98 °C (sec
) f t Ie
!""'1 d rdere nce G J. ~ ), with c:O llscq llent reducti on in tran srormer life. "' br jl': Inpcrature
at which the lra nsfo ,,;i,er ope rates also " lTeets the life o f the oil , O' i",cially with
prolonged oi~ l emp\!~a turcs in excess o f 75 °C when the g(;llt.: r~1 cau se o f
I'
ta II s
( T lC de terioration is o>-. i d ~ ltioll. The effec t or tel1)pcra ture all bo t!, :. p.: I:rc o r the
, I '
:' Ihe insul nlion and th e o il is thcrefo re depend ent upo n details o f tr.1i':-'[('II mer design,
:I . ~n load cycle and il mbi c.;:! ,1I co nd iti ons.
lill i ' Oxygen th:!l has b'' '~''':I.!l n c dissolved in the oil is also a con l ri!Jli: o ~y rac tor in
accelerating the ",IIC tif de tel'ioration o f the insulation and the oil, pa! titula rly in
e the prese nce o f \V" t c r~:ll,d ullder co ndi tio ns o r high opera ting tClll paal urcs. The
va~uum and.heat I rCi.~\nl': 111 a lran.s ronner undergoes foll owing In;,.t n ~! rac turc nm.!
poor to testlllg and e\cntual se rVice (see cha pter 7) red uces the "'':::0' co n ~£lll of
the insu la ti o!l and j!r.;parcs it ror impregnation with dry dq~;!~~,:,d oil. The
amount o r di!'".solvcd ~) xygc ll in th e oil allhis SInge is ncgligib!l.: uut '.:J!1 increase
du ring the service I d~ of the tra ns rormer o wing to oxidation ,) : If,l; oil in the
presence 0 f copper ~Il (<< I iron, wa ter a nd ot her ma terials sllch as vr. ~ III "hcs. Oxygen
C.'U) also bcc(. rllC d iss(\I\·..:d in the oil if ~ti r- bor n e water vapour is d : d ·.V ;' in to the
tra nsrormer with cycli.,; changes o f the load.
The th ird fac tor arrcding tra ns rormer life is the wa lcr co ll tc nt L, I !h\: in'iulalio n
and o il. T he.ra lc o r lhennal deter iora tio n o r pape r is direc tl y p'·. .,p()I" Ii'Jlla i to its
 282 MOUERN POWER TRi\NSFOf{~ILR I'RAcnCl:;
. (
wu tcr co ntent. After y'3CU Um and heat trea tillent, paper i n:;uhtioll may contain
, ·
between 0.5 antll %res idual water by mass. Pradica l cx'pcricJlcc and cxpSri mcnl
O.,"
"

show. howeve r, th a t lhe wa ler co nt en t o f the insu lati oll and o r the o il ir~crca scs \
~
,j " /'.\
during the life of the transfor mer, par tly as a lesu lt of th e 11.l llIl al cJ ~ l c rj ora lill g , .
processes CU \l SC U by temperature ano Qxitlal io ll bllt partkularly :lS a res l1it of the
c nt ~y O,r 1ll0 iSlllfC fr~ 1l1 the almosp,librc. . "',.'1 '
1 he Ingress o f mO isture to the a ll and eventually, throu gh migra tion , to the
. ·1· ...

ll'
pape r arises fro m lhe need to per mit a tran s fo rmer to breat he, IIlld"~r cyclic
load ing. This, under the normally spccified opera tin g lcmpcl"!\ lurcs, \' ; C4WSC a
6 % change in oi l vo lum c due to thcrma l expa nsion,,", To accolTIlI;vclate the
•
u
increased oi l vo lu me, expansion chambers or conscrva tors arc bu ilt all 'into the or
tra nsfo rmer either as separale vessels, as on most med ium and large transfprrncrs,
or as ~In air space wi th in the main tank , as Illay be found on slllall tra,ns rorl11crs. lJ
This expansion space then exhausts either direct ly to the atmosphere"or, , more
usua lly, ind irectly through sO llle rorni o r breathing device. This limits the intake
o f moist ure by ex tracti ng water vapo ur from the air entcring the lra l~ s rorlllcr
du ring the cooling peri od o f its load cycle. T hese devices are co mmonly k now n as
dehyd rating breat hers, Some small trans rormers arc coi, str ucted as tota lly sca led
units where th e oil expansion space is normally fill ed with an inert dry gas such as
nitroge n (figure 10,17 (b» .
I·
The type o r breather 1ll0St cOlllmonly round in service is shown in fi gure 10.18,
h consists o f a vessel con taining a qua ntity o f im pregna ted silica gel, usually
cob;llt chloride, over which the a ir entering the transformer ra~ses a nd is d ri ed,
']'
L·..'
the moisture in 'the air being absorbed into the desiccan t by rea.,r;;o n of it s sub·
, )
microscopic capillary structu re'. In reverse, the air whic h is ex haus ted from the J'
':1j. , .;;
transrormer during the hea tin g period o r the load cycle is vented to the
,
i "tillosphere through lin oil bath seal in the brea ther. The clTicicncy o rthis type o r
,
brea ther is dependent upon a nUlI1ber o f factors', o f which humidi ty and
temperatu re of both desiccan t and a ir, togcl lwc wi th the ra le of air flow, arc the
1110St s ignifi c~\ llt. T he rate o r absorption of moisture by th e desicca nt rnpid ly "
)
( ,

,
.

reduces when its wa ter con tent exceeds 23 %by nlass G2 .16, a t whic h stage it s ho uld
I
li ,
II
he.; rCl11ovco rrom th e brea t her II ltd shOll Id be react i va ted by d 1') i Ilg ill :10 ove n. The
I T I.:'
;1I110un t of moisture absorblid by the des icca nt ca n be observed by the degree o r II
colo ur chllnge or the cobal t chlorid e impregnant. or the air t
I\. type o r breath er known as a freeze r dehydra tor or au(ul11a tic insulation pcrmi\- g ·/i
dryer' is illustrated in Ogure 10.19. It is bllsed on the Peltier errect o r 1n lI . lit
ther moelectric modu les to ,obtain low tcmpera tu res within an air duel so that give n to Cy,
mois t air passin g through the duct is d ried cont inuously, the ".Yo :or vapour being
collected as icc on the cold sur races o rthe modu les, H the po larity or the power
s),stelr
degree r
tlfl
su pply to the modu les is reversed, this increases their temperature and ca uses the illustrated
accumulated ice to 'Illelt and drain to at mosphere. The derrost cycle o r the (b) all d ~(C:
brca ther is about 81nin, dependi ng on the ambicn t condition3, and is rcpeated arc n( 0
automa tica ll y by 1111..::1 11 5 o f a time switch cvery (j h. In addition to e fficient dryi ng flgure ,1 I

of tile inco l1ling air,this type ofbrca lhcr..:an be li lt eu to the con serva tor to form a (l3uchhol/.:
closed loop with the nir in the co nservator. By this means, thcrrnosyp hon actio n vessel
F"
 POWER SYS rI: M rHANSFO IU.·tEIt S AND IN I)UCfO RS 283
', '

0-- ;:=;-,
_-'- -'-n =::- ,,~ ~,,
---- -::-
-- ,
'0'
'.-
~.

, - -
- - I 1
lli e ",
~. "dic
nusc a
Ih e
Ihe
r!TIers,
\-Cs, - -
I re -
~
IIJta c
'0 1'11 cr
--
n as - -
}\".•I ,,':0 (c) (d)
,uch as
~
(j
I
1.18, : ~~
- --
- -
A IR
~ """
"

'''''Illy ~
-
, 'ih l , ""
"
,Ib- 2 "
)m ihc -- - ':-r-,' -' - "
rO"
-- ,,
In Iht.! -- --
---
1,,~J!
,~

y
--
---- --
arc he !
l
"- -:-
~ ,
-I 1- -
- ,i II~ ' (e) (I)
,,)f'ld,1 Figure 10.17 Oil expansion systems
; n,}' he,,1
, : or I

,!Ial (Hli
II of the a ir between th e co nse rvat o r and the cold air duc l o f the hl cal he r occ urs,
pe rmitting co ntinu o us drying of lhe air within lh e co nse rvator,
r-' I 0 1 In addit io n to d ehyd rating brea th e rs, a great de.d o f consid t; l(llio li has bee n
6
: I l ~tl l ' given to evolving mo rc efficient methods of oil prolection , A nllm ber n f di rrcrcnl
} bi ng[ systems nrc avai lu'blc which provid e for the expansion o f oil and ;dt. o reduce the
no vc~ degree o f poss ible atmospheric contamination. So me of tll l.:,)" ttldh od s arc
, s Ihe, illus lr<l tcd in fi g ure 10 . 17. or lh osc sh ow n, th e Il1 clh o u s s how n in fi g ure 10 ,17 (a),
, I I
r~ ' I )C' (b) a nd (c) arc generally applica ble to co untries whe re at l no ~ pJ:..: t i~ cO luJilio ns
:pc~ lc"l afC not so cx lrCn'lC as to warrallt thc morc sophisticat ed 1I1cI IH,d . : illll str;llcd by
figu re 10 . 17 (d), (e) and (f). " furlhcr po i,,!, a ri scs if a gas-ac,,,,, I,' d pro lcc li ve
'Ylllgi
, (Buchholz) relay is to be lIued. This practice requires a sc pilr:\l ~ oil ·expa nsion
IlpH' 1
. actiol1 '! vessel connf..'!Ctcd to the main tank by mea ns o f [Ill oil-nllcd pip,,·. It there by

"I" "
'1' ' I ,~.
r· "
, "

~r' .
I I I~

.
,'-,
I.
" ",'",

"
l' , '

I. ..."
",)
..
~.,

'I
!,
,'
J
I
TRANSPMENT I" ~
,\
CYLINDER TO ,- I'
OBSERVE STATE ",
OF DESICCANT

DESICCANT
(SILICA GE L)
~

TRANS~RENT C-
OIL CONTAINER to b,
Jr
may
OIL LEVEL c? lk~_ _L~ =l== r('gcl'

:i trea tl
I,!,
" ci rcu
fal- iii
"
tank s
Figure 10.18 Transrorm er ! ~ rl '; H her
Un
, \' '
i ngre:
excludes any oil pro tection system employing •.\11 itll' rt U;l'= ('lIslii on simililr to that evt:ry
shown ill figure IO.l7(e). \ read.
finally, wilh regard to checki ng oil quality and ,arryi ng out oil maintenance prodl
progralllilics the details o [ the tests and proccdurc~ arc, considered essentiaIGl,ll.
or,
There arc 110 hard and fa st rules [or the freq uency ",11 <' IS, but these should be
calise

made at such intcrvn ls as to permit the observa ti on ur ::lI), : ..' lId enc), o rthe oil to
deteriorate . The principa l rcco m~l~ll(lcd tes ts al~ l. ) { ! c l ~ rmine tile el ec tric 10.7.4
strength, acidity and water COn tent of the oil. A lIsdu l '1:-. t i:i Iha t o f checking the The 11
resistivity of Ihe oil, since this gives an indica ti on o ,j' it s I.) \ \.: ra ll cO lldiliol1 U t.l8, If tl'~n s f
we plot on a graph the results Or SUC!l tests, it will t.:nahl r' :Ir:y rhange in cond ili on (he us'
, I "

, j

' 1'1I
1
, 'I
'''1
" ,
,h
1
 POWE I{ SYSTH'I TRANSFORM E RS AND INDUC I ORS 285
Con sc rvO\tor
Dryer

i
\

A ir
\/
I

l. ,
- -
- -- - -Oil -- --
•
--
,'
. . - -- -- -- - - - - - -
Ii -- -
--
-
--- ---- --. - ----- --,
-
51CANT - -- -- -- - - --- - --- --
- ---
I.ICA GEL) I.t

Fi gure 10.19 Dryro l iWI Olll:ltic insll l,llioll dl )'cl'

'f-, OF
,UIS , U~E
",DENAIR
tobe <.lctcctcd and remedial ac ti o n to be tak e n.
I rille oil has beco me co ntamin:.t{cu 10 n degree which necessitates trea tlllent, it
may be replaced with new oil , or alternatively the oi l may be purified by so me
rcgc ncr:nivc treatment. Th is lIsually con sists of filterin g. drying and vac uum
trea tment and may be carried out 011 the trans rormer at site by lIsing continuous
circu lation of the oil through the puriner. O therwise, if suitable oil storesc
L fa ci lities arc ~i\,ai labl c, the o il mtlY be passed through the pl.!rifier into the sto ra ge
lanks and back again into the transformer as required.
Unless the oi l has become co ntaminated by some internal fault or accidental I

I to that
k. il;:..
ingress of moisture or as a res ult of prolo nged operation at high tem perat ure,
every ca re should be tak en to ensure that so me ac tion is lak ~ n to prcvcll llhc 'oi!
'1 I reaching a serious level 0 f deteriora tion. Ot hcrwisc it is likely tha t many 0 f t he by··

f'~~i ~;~;';~ products of this deterio rating process will impregnate th e insulation and will
cause irreparable dama ge and permanent red uction o f transformer life .
. ,' C should be
,. tL~ oil to
..le :lcclric 10,7,4 Bushillgs
',iheCK lng the The me th ods el1lpl oyed in bringing ou l the en ds o f the \\.' iI1C:i;l gS thro ug h the
iO Il G Ll lI, If trallsforlncr (;-Ink fo r co nnection to the external system il1 vu :vc in nea rly al l C:iI ~CS
Ct' iditi on the lI SC of e ither bus hin gs orcablc box es, An exceptio n occurs wi th h C:lvy ~c urrc nt

i
I'

1
L

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, .'
'~,'...
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0'. ~.... t. ..: ,~'.4!~~1:~1~ !iFt,'~'~~ 'l'~l' ,I I, .\~' I ol} ·d'~ ...· ~ 1<'~~: .;',-.' . ~.J~·t)),l.:·~ fi:' : ~ ..~;
.,' " • , 1\ ~,\',. 1:1' ~L! .t-\' '~1\' ')~~ ~\'ij ~ ~ ,I' ! !' (,,", ~I
~<tIr • ":It~ f J {,I~ 'it, ~ ( 'r " ~.'I" .. ,.~:l
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'...... ,,~ '~, 1~ .
....... ~ .. :. . . .. ~~X~:~ ......J~llij. ,.~... .. ,_.:... .......!-._ _ ... "~, :..\...::h17 iJ ',' -I· I ~!

-"~f-'" -
"
I
'" ",,,,,,, ro',," , .. "" ","" .,," ,,,' ... - - ..
! () \','~ vo lt i1gc
terminations, as used fo r fu r nacc Ira Jl\forti:~ ; '" \\ her\! llle low- ',I
,I \ 0 11 nge bllsbar CO n nccli olls nrc made d i rcct Iy tIll ou glllhc ur.k. ,,' 11 to t he wind ings .
.. ' Whe re c~'lblc boxes arc lIscd, the co nn ection frolll the winJ ir.~ is u3tw ll)' brought
through lhe tank by mcn ns o f a plain porccl;.jll bU.!ohin"s into n ch:l mber
cO lli n i n ing t he COl ble ends. III pr;J cl icc, cab le box tcr:nill:lli0ns H\! fou nd chil.:ny On
clj ~ triblltio n' ;tnd rn cdiurn -'{Io lt age tran sformers, th ough lh;!~ are to be fou nd also
011 some trn nSIl1 issiol1 I rn Il S for mers wherc direct COll licl;tion t,,''::1 bles is clcsira ble.
Genera lly, however, where slich connecti o ns ~Ire re"luircd. th~ practicc ado pted is
10 iii oil-Io-a ir ]Jushings inlhe I,"ns fo fln er and 10 con"ecllh",e b) mC:lnso f shorl
ove rh ead bllsbars 10 separal ely mo unl ed cable scalin g ends..
In ge nera l, Ihere arc I wo Iypes 0 f bushi ng: ( I) Ihe s) nlhd ic·resin-bonded
paper bll shing and (2) Ihe oi l-impregnaled pape r b" , :.ing. These arc bO lh o f Ihe
conventio nal ca pacit or co nstru ctio n, in which ti,e stress is £:rJdt:d throughout the
bus hing insulant by means o f Jistriblltcd electric screens (\.'nlainl'd with in the '" j

,< body o flh e bushin g. They arc bOlh po rce lain clad. til 33 k \' and abol e bOl h Iypes I
an! oil sc lf~co nta i n cd :
Th e majorily o f bu shings for 275 kY and above arc of Ihe oil ·impregnaled
\
!
"1pcr type, Si;lCe. this h ~I S a cha ra cter istica ll y low('c \'a lu e of ro\,:cr facto r a nd
.itlid ,\' nnd in consequence grcn (c r thermal st;Ibi lity at these voltage levels ,,
"
.' , ~~ in:~ondcd paper type, Improve ments in ma terials arc. howeve r, being
~ hl co nslanlly, and il is highl y pro bable Ih :l i. a more & 1Iisf,elory resin paper
illS lllan t wi th lower loss and power fa ctol' c h ara c t c ri ~ t ics " ill t:-e founo eventually.
! Thermal inslabilily can occlir in a capaci lo r bushing iflhe hea l ge neraled in Ihe
illsu l;l nt duc to its losses is not dissipa ted nt a su1ntic iltly high r<lte \0 limit the
ill"u l:lIl t tempera ture. Failure to ac hi eve a n adcqu ;.l lc rate o f hC:l t di ssipatio n
n.:sul1 S in incrcHsing the undiss ipatcd part of th e losses curn ulat i\ cly unti l the
;lccc !t.; ra tcd process 0 f thermal det erio !'a t io n 0 f the i 11 3ula lit c-auses brca I\dow n. In
;, dd it ion to the in hc rcnl t hcrl1l~ I co nd lie!i vily a Ild ci1 ..: I':tclcrist ics o f power fa <.: tor
;~ua in · t tempe rature o f the insula nt, o th er rclat"d fa ctors a ffecting thellTlal
flabi li ty o f the bushing include the a m bie nt tCll1 pt' ra!IJrc, npp lic<.l \,ult,, £,c and
r6o lin g.s lI rfacc area ·o f the insulallt. Th e prob klll bt"co ll1cs mo re pro no unce d nt
II It.: h iuiler-vo it:lge Ie \'c ls sinec the loss(.'s ;1 rc a ru tld i l ll! 0 f I hc square.: u f Ihe" pplied
~l)lla!.)c. At voltages o f 132kValld below it is no l so seve re; y.ithin this ra nge, the
;'0< ; 1 bo nded paper bushing find s a lmos l unil orsa! applica lio n.
; IIs hings o f66 k V and above usually rcqu ire the '.:on neclion ~ t \\ce ll the cild o f
I' windi ng and the line end of tile bus hin g to b-e made by mea ns o ra nex iblc pll ll ~
\:i l !HI~ h lead whic h ex tends frolll Iltc winding t v t]l C bushing)lclrnet cO lln CC li ? l1.
Jhe oil <.: nd o f the bu shing can take o ne of t wo [ "' I I no;:, :md, d~fc ndillg upo n whi ch
i~ used, thc bushin g is referred to as being of lh o:! re-entra nt or COIl \clltio na l typc.
I Ilieh-m llage bushings for 275 a nd 400 k Y are of l"e re-en lranl l)pe as shown in e
,I s
Illl''''e 10.20(a) "nd (c), This melh od o f co nslr""' i';n pro' iJe, it , hOrlcr oil·
i nl\' 1 c r ~,ed end cO l11prtred with a conventi o na l ~\l s :,ill g for the (~1IlH': \o ll :lgc iln d I:
l ir'll:'~ requires less l'pacc wi thilllhc I ,Ulk , T h ~ i,;l\I1\"' nl i ~ I! !;'I 1 [) r~ ur"'OII'.\ llI c t i(l ll . r
illS " IIlI WIl ill figuI'e IO.20(b), is CO llllllo n tll 66 nn ..l 13: k V bu \hing"', th ough in the
1 ;~II t.: r in st3n ce the rc~c nt r;'111 1 type is so mct im es lI'>t,tL Whe rc th t: re-entran tl ) pc is g

, ,
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 287
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rOWER SYSTEM TRA NSFO RMERS AN D INDUCTORS
.
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ill the E !-'-l ,~ " TRA NSFORMER

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\Q ,
I Jipa tion ,
~~~~~t~l~ ,I -'--
(0)
GAS BUBBLE
OEFLECTOR .;
:. n~ ra ctor
~Ileflllal .~WINOING
,Itagc-and
L' I .~ 1''"0
(c)

Figure 10.20 I-li gh· volta gc oil -imprcgnal cd -papcr ca pncitor-Iypc bu~ings

I cmployed, the flexible pull. throu gh Icad is fitted with a gas bubble deflecto r, as
show n in figure 10.20(c), in o rd e r to preven t a ny gas released by the trans fo rm er
being tra pped within the b ushin g and thu s not beillgdctected by the gas,ac tu ated
pro tecli ve (Bli chholz) rclay, ir filled . To prevent ual11agc to th e porcelain by a
power arc rcslIili ng fr om an ex Ie mil I na shovcr, arci ng horns or co-or<.l in3 ling rod
gaps arc usuall )' litted to all bu shin gs (sec, for example, Jigurc 10.20(b)).
 .' I

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288, MOIJr ltN i'OWI~ R '1itA NSFORM I, R 1'ltA/ ' n CE 1
,,
The bush i Il gs arc Sli bjct.:l to (QUi i Il C a fld type tests, dt:lX: II~1 ing 1I p O ll whl:1 her Ihe roau witl
bllshing is'o f new or estab lished ,design. The routine tes ts arc mandat ory on all routes IlC
bushings' :lnd include amongst o thers oi l leakage, vC'Itag~ withstand. internal to I'CdlIC'
d isch;J rge; surge-vo ltage and power fa c lOI' tes ts, Type tes ts me made o n olle genera to
co mpl ete' bushin g o r eac h . dcs,ign sc lt.:ctl.: d fr ollt thuse ",hidl have prc- to alll.!
vio usly ~asscd the rou tine ft ests. The sc heduled tes ts carried oul include , pCl'Il1itt i
thermai' stabi lity, wet \'oltage withs,tand. surge-volt age. visible corona: tempera. III o il
tur~ rise 'a nd oi l-inlll1crscd voltage withstand test, in additio n to co nfirmatory i nstJ nh.:i,'
power" itor and jll tcrlla l di sc harge 'I~sts , The sequeJ1cc and methods o f testing Ag~l ill. r
arc outlined ill the rd;: \ant spccificn !ions 5. G I,II. G2.J.G 1 24. designs
In addi tio n to fuctory tes ts, it Illay be necessa ry to carry o ut power fa ctor a nd :.Issc lnbl
capaciw:ncc IIU:;l S llrCIll\' I1I~ 0 11 a bushin g durin g its, service life in o l'del" t o dl cc k cquiplll
the condition of the in" lI ll1 nt. Such tests arc usuall y reqL!ired to be made on si te, l: li oil:1.! r
nnd for th is plll'PO'" " II ca paci to r bushings for service nt 33 kV and above nrc For I

fitted with a l apping bro ught out to a term inal on die bushin g nange, The
cOJlnectio n also provides a convenient po int for t. ,~: il1 g inlernal dis(;hargc (0)
measurements durin g high-vo llagc'tests on th e Ira ns lorrner, (b)
The develop ment o f the prescnt higil-voilagc b\lshlllf!, has taken place over a
number o f ye~lrs ~ll1d Ins inco rpora ted new and improved manufacturin g and
design techni ques whh: h resu lt fro m- both research amJ the experience ga ined in
servi ceS. (c)

10.8 THANSI'ORT AN D S IT E ASSEMBLY

10.8.1 Gellcral
I
/.
, Transport frolll fi1\·t\, I:)' lU , ill.! is a lways required. A<.:t.:t.::-.s 10 si le may hI.! lilllih.:d by
load restriction on LHlid:..; ".I,:ulvc rts. etc., ~ r by ga uge I :.:s lrictio n Ih rolll;h bridges.
tunnels or narrow It!~' r!" . Alth o ugh so nic reloca lio n of sit e may bl.! pussib le fur
tra nsmi ss ion l r<.ln sfn l: I s. lhis is not so with gCllcmtor Irans fOJ'llll.!rs, ln the latter

,,
..·r ,
case the sitc o r,lh c lii,,'.c r slat io n as a whole will be the do minant f.. ctor.
In considerin g the \ ';1 1 illUS types o r tra nspo rt which !lp y be used illlllt hccffcc t
o f these a nd the ... ar1olls limi ts they impose, the o\'clu ll (ksign and cos t o f the Fi
system is the o\'t:rndiIl S fac tor. Thu s it may be jll ~ tiliablc to lise a re lati vely
expensive type o f tli :n·;fl,rmcr co nstru cti oll if this produces overa ll snv ing. ~II
I -" , dime
fcasil
!
" .. 10.S.2 Trnn:-;I)O II

Res trictcd IO:H.!ing ga\ lgcs o n the railways ;lIld the fact that it is lIsua ll y necessary
•.1 i1\; "

w lll l'
to employ road tra nsport for at least the last part o f li le rOll te frolll the place of W
manufac t\l re to:l sllb ~s t;tti o n or powc r ~ lnt io n ha v',: led to the UK pI ;u:ticc o f th ;,t
using cit her road Ira nlspo rt for Ihe whole jouJ'llcy or. :)v llh: t i mcs, a com binat iOIl 0 f ~ IlCL

road and sea tra nspo rt. Loads no t exceed in g 152 I gro ~s may be trill1 spurted by pro\
 'I
'.

",

l'uWE R SYS 1EM TRANSFOR M ERS ANO INoU e COkS 289 I,

hell he .. road withou t special authorisat ion; above Ihi s mass. perl11i ssion is,req uired , <.Illd .I
j on a ll
internal
roul es need 10 be carefu ll y selecled. To minimise dimcu llies in roule seleclio n and ), 1
', "':.
to reduce road congesti on, much lI SC is made o f sea tran spoJI, parti cularl y for
) 11 o lle gCIlC fi.l tor transformers and th e larger tr;l Il Slllissio ll tr<lll sfo fOl Cr!i. Access ro utes .-) /'i '
I·.,.1,lr'
'.'
e p re - to an d from suitable port s have bee n cs l ~b li s hcd for heavy- loa d veh icles,
include perm ittin g in so me C;l~c.;S loads up to 305 t nett. ,"
, ,
npcra- In ot her territ or ies. tra ll spo rt is frequcli tly by rail . since roa ds afC oft en

I.i::II1
in sumci cnl to carry Ill Q"C than li ght load!- parti cularly ill I css ~ d c \'c l o pc d arens.
Again, re stri cted load ing ga uges are n sigl '/.'anl ra ctor and lIlay rC4uirc SPCCi;:11
designs of tran sror mer, th e usc o~ single·pi ..I sc units or evcn ~(' ''lC degree of sit e
I o r and
" heck
assembly. Whcn tran sport into a co untry is by sea, cr:lIles or otl:e,. IH:avy lift ing
equipmen t arc requi red either on shore or 0 11 th e ship. It is o ft en fOllnti that the
!.,"
" I t

choice o f design is co nlrolled by lirting fa cililies al Ihe port o f o ff·loa ding. I

Fo r road or raillra nsport, Ih ree ba sic me l hods ex isi.

(a) On a nal·bottomed low ve hicle.

over a
Ill g and
Ib) On a v~ hi,l e wilh side girders suppo rt ed al each elld o n bogies, Ihe
Ira nsformer hanging bel wee n Ihe girders frol11 approI" ialely pos ilio ned
suppo rts on Ihe lank . Road ve hicles o f Ihis Iype arc ava ila ble for loads lip
.;'I'
,:

;:
r ned in 10305 1, the largest of s ueh veh icles weighing 75 1 (sec fi gure 10.21).
(c) Wh ere the Lran srormer tank it selrrorms th e girder stnu,; tu re bctwcc I11he I, '.
!:' l'" "I

111'0 bogies (figure 10.22). .t

i j.

., :I
;:f.
"I
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d,,, led by
bridges, ·• Ii
I
, ble for ; }
I , Ial ter
'. 'mcto r. ,· i.
. docit,"oeffeCI
f the
, I
, ,I'

I k :I\ }'.loau r('l:I(I. lran!'pOI'l ,"chicle wil h huill 'lIl llinkr slru..; tu rc ,: I
. .;aj :;~ Ii vcly Fi gu re to,2 1
I: I
.!i'<l v lng.
Melh od (a) is applica ble 10 Ihe smalle r sizes o f Ira li S former ilnd pr£.Se nl s lillie I' j
! l . diOkulty. Met hods (h) a nd (e) arc used for the larger transformers. Method (e) is
feasible fo r slightly hi gher loads Iha" (b) owing to the savin g o f lolaln",ss by Ihe
q
ollliss ion or the vchicle side gi rd ers, despite sO llle increase in the mass o f th e !<Ink
which mus t be sli ffened 10 wilhsland Ihe Slresses involved.
When co nsidcl'ing tran spo rt or heavy trails formers, il should be remcmbered
H
.,I'.
f j r.

th at th e pri me function or lhc (;ink is to co nta in th e oil du rin g the Ilorma l stresses
cncountered in service. Thus the tank nwy be of relati ve ly lighl t'o l1 ~ tr u c li o n
I
,I
,i
provided tba t mea ns are rOll nd to min illl be ~ t rc sScs i 111 posed uuri Il g tra nsport , ror , il'
I, i!
1 t .:.
, '
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'il
290 ' /-" IOLJE RN rOWER TRAN S I ' O l t~ I ER PR A CT I CE ,1
l
~
~
I

, TRAN SFORMER
OF TANK j
TRANSFORMER UPPER TANK SIDE
BEM1 IN COMPI1ESSION
------~.---------~
________ REA CTION
- PA D :
CA NTILEVER
~~WE I GHT 4 TONNES
~ --,~~ 1

,i ~======\-@:@ ~ -@r-@-
LOWE R TANK SIDE SUPPORT BOG IE
BEAM IN TENSION PIN PIVOT
Fi gure 10.22 Tran sfu lllI cr 1,l nk forming girde r stru cture ro r 1"0:1<.1 o r rail tran :-; port

example by arranging for the core and windin gs to be slipport ed directly from the
ve hicle rat her than thr o ugh til e ta nk . Gne meth od o f acili('vi ll g thi s I'l:quircs
bra cke ts 10 be built o ul fro m th e ends of th e co re fr;;[ll!'s . T hese brack e ts projed
',I
I' into ove rha ngs on the ta nk ends; the mass o f the co re is tlwrcby S\l ppo rt ed by two
I
cross-beams lying across the vehicle towa rds the ends o f the side girders. The ta nk
:1
is no t in vo lved, th erefo re, in ~ran s m i ltil1 g the lirti ng fon.:c fro m th e veh icle to th e 1
''i,il core and windings. ,I
Th e method ment ioned in (c) above in vo lves extra sti freni ng o rth c Iilnk sid cs so
~ -that Ih eY~lc l in plilceo fth e side gird ers. The weight o f lhe tra nsrormer is ta kc n by
i, -
pin s th rough lugs at th e bott o m o rth e .')\ irfcncd tank sid es and co rres po nding lugs
o n th e bogies. The resulta nt mome nt o n the bogies is cOllnteracted by forces
transmitt ed through pressure pads towa rds the top o f the tank side stifrening;
thus the lo..,.·c r par t o r the tank side is in tension and the upper in I;omprcssio n.
tn Europea n cou ntries nnd the USA thi s type o f \·chide is Illade fo r mi l lise,
\" hils! a road equivulent has been deve loped il""! GrC:11 Bri lain. The European mcc
transformers designed ill this way lise the spaces bct\l'C\' 1l the ~~lk sicc stiffellers pha:
for co nt ro l equipment, hea t exchangers, cle. low·
Aluminium ttlnks nre co mmonl y used for large generator and transmi ssion 152
tran s for mers, For eXilmple, Illany 400 k V, 570 Hnt! 600 M V;\ gt:m:nl! Or tran s ror~ T,
mers for the Centra l Electricity Generating Board ill th e U K are o f t.:o l1\,cnti onaJ beel
thrcc · pha~c co nstruction and have ,liuminiulIl tank s, Two stati o ns h:t \~ tl an s fo r~ tlsin
mas wit h steel tank s. As illustrated in fi gure 10.23 their [hr ce ~ p I Hl s e Ct)lIsti tH.:ti on IIIiII i
embodies the usc o f three id ~ nti cu l 200MVA single-pha se tran s fo rmers, th e i
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rowER SYSTEM TRANSFORMERS Af\'J) INDUCTOj{S 29 1 .r
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TCO L GEAR LV CONNECT ION CHAMBE R

-.r.:=t=1L-.rtktl;6~~·(l
~ 0 n Ihc
s . e~u i rcs
I .
:IS proJccl
by Iwo
, hb
tank
icle roIhe
1 sitl es 50
5 la ~e n by
p"" ing lugs I
I lrorccs ~~~===~-=-.:- 1111=-
~)S.::===3>
s\ ,frf n!"g; I
llprqsslC 11l. Figure 10.23 Th ree-p hase bi'lIlk' l:o mposcd of three d l'l1 lk al sin gle-phase tra nsformers
) d il usc, I .-
_ Jrbpca n mechanica ll y and electrically co upled toge ther on :<'c to form a 600 MVA three-
! stdrcilcrs phase bank. The della connectio ns arc made ill a l.:(tl lIlI lol1 lrull kill g on which the
low-vo lt llgc bushin gs arc mounted. These uili ts h", 1.: a lrn ll sport mass of und er
L J iSSiOIl 152 1 per phase, exclud ing o il.
rl" j'nSro r. To ra ci li tate moveme nt o r tran s fo rme rs, two s pc~' i n li ll t hods o f transpo rt h ~ve
r" ci ti onal bee " evo lved. Tile Hrsl o bviales Ihe need ro r hea vy lini,, " laci lilics all he po rl s by
, r 'ns ro r. usi ng a vessel designed on th e ro ll-on - ro ll -orr p, 'inciplt, Such a vessel requ ires
I,~t'~ction min im um dock H1Cili tics , They arc casily provided:1I ma ny port s and rorm part of
n s f~~rncl's, th e installations at so mc es tu aria l and coast:!! PO ~\C I' stations, Th e tran sporter,

, ... "

" ,.
' ,' . ,.-
 292 MOUERN POWER TRANSFORMER
'to
-
complete with transformer, is driven aboard, and the transformer is lowered in I Ie
"
the hold for the voyage. Two such vessels Me in comm ission. , pn
The a t her spcciailra IlSPOrl met hod is an ;1 ppl ica! iOIl 0 f the ai r~cll s h io ll ve hicle
principle. With a conventiona l hcavy· !o:ld road vehicle, lire lim iting fea tures a rc a s~

Lhe ax le load and the loading on a bridge when one bogie is on the span. By " tU I
prcss urisin g the space under the trans former, the axle and bogie loading can be T\
reduced, th ereby allo wing heavier loads over cst:.lblisllcd rou tes or th e lise o f some ' po
.
roules previously fou nd inn'dequate, The ve hicle is sim ilar to th::l! sho wn ill fi gure ,l!
- be
10. 21 but wi Lh air·retainingskirLs fi tt ed to the side '1I1d cross-girders a nd scaled to
the transformer. T he Sp~ICC under the trans former is prcss urised fro m a separate Lh
com pressor vel) icle. Ir:
EXira mecha nical stresses to those o f norma l sc:-vicc arc associated with any r~

meLhod o f Ir"nspon. The design of bo th the intor: ,,,1 t nd eX Lerna l parts of the ot
transformer Illu st bc suitable to wit hstand thcse, Spedal co nsidera tion must, ce
howcvcr,be given to extra strcsscs which may be im posed by a pa rliclliar form of C
transport , fo r example shullti ng forces in rai ltr all ~ pl.' rl c r the rolling a nd pi tching v(
of sea I rll llSport , Cases arc known o f considerable Il;.lmagc which has en sucd fro m
disregard of Lhese ha7..:Jrds. To check on conditi",,, dllring a parliell ia r journey,
cs pccia lI y when in sura'ncc liabiIity Illay ncctl to be !l rO \,j~cl, it may be ad va nla geous
J, P.l
tr
;1
10 fiL shock or roll recorders. , .Sf
I ee
I
'j in
t 0.8.3 S iLe assembl)'
Vi
• Where transpo rt limitations eit her ent irely pn.:'/c :':! the use o f a th ree-phase n-
transfo rmer or place seve re restricti ons all th t. des ign. alt crnat ivc forms of
co nstructi on mllst be soughl. The design rcs trictio :i:; II wy be ph yska l in Ihat ve ry
high I1lct:ha nica l or electric stresscs must be ClIl pki'iCd or 1I1olletary in that the
combined cost o f the trail s forme r a nd it s loss"..; L,'::t'':t me uneco nomic.
d'
, I " Two alterna ti ves are i'l.vailablc: (I) the lISCor si ll t:lc-p hasc transrorm crs to form
a three- pha se bank or (2) the partia l disillantli nl.! (I f. a three- pha se tnill s foflllcr r
afICf r'llanu fnclurc nne! il s subsequent n.:assc l11u !y a l site. I'
'.
CU lIlpared wit h a 110 l'lna l tlucc- phasc Iransfp rf'l\:f, the cxlra cos ts cll I ~lil cd in c
lIsi ng !\i ngle- phasc trnnsform c.: rs or ill sile assc.::I,lb'), arc o f th e same order bu t c
\.I cpcm.l on the degrce of lli!' l1lantliJ1 g requircd f(/ 1 tilt; Inller unit s. Eithe r me thod
cnn pmvide lower losses. The rel" ti ve advanLn Ues "f Ihe two ",ethods depend
greatly upo n the loss evailia Lion basis el1lployed, t)" "'Ulsport restrict ions a lid Lhe (

cmph:1 sis to be placcd on the facility o f replacin g a damaged transrorlllcr or of -, c

remov ing to ano thcr sit e, If i'l. sitc-assc mbled tran .. f\./I mcr is chose n, sll bseq uc nt
"J .,,' failure o r remo val may Ilecess itate site disl1l<.HlIl il:g prio r to l a~ ill g away,
Experien ce on transfo rm crs ,for use within Gll'a ; Bri ta in' has shown that cve n
JOooMVA 400 to 275 kY allto-Lra ns form ers arc fai ily readily tran sporta ble as
threc-plwsc units. It is principa ll y ror gcne rat or tnll1dormcrs th at sitc-assl' ll1bly
techn i4 ues co u Id be employed, since these t ransfI.Jr :n..::-s ha vc do uble- \\ i ndi ug a Ild t 1
are, there rorc, larger thi.lll aulo-transformers, In iJ(~dili o n. they Icnd 10 ha ve
higher va lues placed on their losses becau se ti, .:;/ t1: 'l3l1y opcrate a t full luau,
 ,I
u
I
into
./ POW,ER SYSTI': ,"'l TllANSFOR"'''I! I~S AND IN[)UCTOi(S

) -Iowever, Brilish pracl,it,e for gcncru lor Ira n's forme rs over 6VU MY II I", s been 10,
293 I'

,
,I
" prefer !'illgtc-p h;1 SC co nstru cti on fro m spares cons iucra ti o ns. ':
I / Neverthe less, ill o rd er to gain expe ri ence with poss ible methods o f site
j
, ~' <l5scmb ly, three.: such traJls fo fmcrs have bee n co nstr ucted by British nWl1ufac-
:, " , IUrers ro r li se o nlhe 27'S kY syslem'of lhe Cen l," 1 Eleclricily Ge nera lin g Board,
, , . " Two llC l' 275 k V transformers have been illstalled ill th e Cruachn n und erg rou nd
i: PO\\ \ (nl i,) 11 in Scotland ; th ese lIllits were dis mantled t o a co nsiderab le ex ten t
n figure ~, been 1 : uf \'cry severe l;i..J::iss nnd d imens io nal restrictions ("'HI the access rout e.
j, nd sca led 10 : ~ Wh ctlc.: \'(~ r tlH:lhod o(s{t~· assembly is empl oyed, a pnralll ou nt req uiremen t is
II
In epa rale :: Ihal lhc inlcgri ly o flhe insulalion eilher shall nol be "ffecled by Ihe dislllaniling,
, tran s!'!.I !'! :1I1d ~ ubscquc n' l reasse mbly or shall be Ici nSI:ltcd to i ts facl o ry
"j, e? wilh allY cOllditil) 1l lIy PIt1t:cssi ng·u fI ef fe -erectio n. Because it is lIo t usua ll y c;lsy to ma ke
p~"s of Ihe olher Ihan si lllple sile lesls, il is prefera ble 10 ado pl. where possible, a
ra , 11 must, conslrucliun which limiis ex posure of insulalion 10 alm osphe re, although Ihe
!U ~II lrornt of Crutlchan trail s formers mentioned above were slIccessfully subjected to surge-
jH'l'd pi lchi ng voltage tests 0 11 sit e after fe-erec tion nnd rep rocessing.
elll cd from Apart fl0111 c:o.te nsive di'S l11antl ing o r reassembly, two basie cons tructiollal
dk..joUi ncy, method s ~ .\i s t fo'r si tc-a.ssemblcd trnns formcrs9. Both invulve a division o f th e
!d 'untag<o US trans fo rlller into pnrtsconvenient for lra nsport. ln one meth od thc transrormer is
sp lit vertically inlO seelio ns eacil comprising a pari ofl he wllk, a phase leg of Ihe
corc, to gc;ther with part o f the yoke an d a phase win d: i1g. The o ther IIlcth od

I invo lves hOI i/o nt;l l splitt ing o f the trans for mer so that tht;! ,\'j! ld ings arc retained
wit hin a Sl';llt:d cen tre sectio ll o f th e tHllk, whilst th e cO.re i ~ di, m:Jnllcd as far (IS
( II ,~ e- phase nCI..,'cs:-';II'Y 10 p ~ nllil trilllSp0 rL.
'I i\'~ l'Orl115 o f
' 1 1~ n thut very
I
iYL lhallhe 10,9 l' l ,I I IIU; l)EVELOI'~IENTS

·JI n ers to rorm

s}~t/'11l Irill1sforlllcrs~::;nd ~nicil'llt
, "
"lf~IJSformer
) ,It enlailed III
Power inductors touay arc \'C l j and rcli;lule
pieces of~quip lTl c l1t. As sys tems conti nu e to grow in Si/.C, \u llage and co mple xi ty
of desig,i ' alld opera lion, Ihese characleri slics of cnicicilcy alld reliabi lilY wi ll
, me o rder bU I conli,~uc: !o be dCI,nanded o f Ihe lra nsfol'llIers alld indllcl0rs collce rned,
, : i11 'r mel hod II IS pul anllclpaled Ihal Ihere will be much challge 111 power sys lem
,ll h~ ~ s depend transfo rmers or inductors in th e foresecable fu tu re. Co re steel with improved loss
;: :;110 115 and th e charactc 'jstics wi ll con tinue to be introduced, but . with si mi lar fundamental
. jS~j mer or of cha ractc 'istics o f j)crm cability. hysteresis and tllagllcl o~ tric ti o n•.Jhe need to
'j r\ ~ .\bscquc ill suppress th ird-har mo nic effects and to red uce noise output will remain. Dcspi te
....... ~' :I way. sca rci ty 1:Il'ld rising costs. copper is like ly to remain the lIsua l Illatcria l for
" t-
n
th at eve n
rlablc as
co nductbrs: the usua l ma terial for insu la ti o n continuc:s to be pape r, ot her
ccllulosib l11i.ltcrials r\ nd tru nsfor mcr o il.
':l, s ~.asscl1lbly U It i111;\ h.: ly, any fu rth er increase in the capaci ty 0 f a Ira Il ..·.fo flllcr may be Ii mited
"'" c.jwi,ndi ng ",nd by the tlH;c,;d to provide it wi th <lue,qua te sho rt -ci n:lIi t streng th ami to have
IU, j 10 have available s uitab le testing stations.
,l ie IL-' full load, I
I,
It ca n :bc :tnl ic,;jp~lted th at site asse mbl y will be ad v;lll[ n!.!~olls or eve n necessary
; ! '
294 MODERN I'OWER '1 I{AN S I ' OR~H~ ll I' '. C'l ICE
~ I '.

marc frequently in the ful ure. Severa l me thods of achicYing,h have S tlixl:~s rll lly ""
been delllonsiraled . Thei r adoplion, logel her wil h auva n cc~ forlll s of I,an' po r.
(a{ion, afC likely to m eet all futu re req uirement t-o . .)
The tra nsfo rm er or in ductor is on ly one item in a n ~c l pc lr ic power supply
sys tem , although a vi ll.l l one, It is certai n tha t tr;lIls (o'rtl1Cr (k signc rs and ".
productioll enginee rs co ,;\ inuc to mee t any fUIlIr!.! I'cq ~ir'"I"mc Il1 5 of th e !-iYS ICIll
ellginee r.

.
'.' ; II
'l". ,

ACKNOW LEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to express th eir thank s to GEe Power Tra n sro r ll1 (';l~ I .illl ilcd
for Ihe pholograp h in fi gure 10. 13 and Ihe illuslralions i~ fi gures 10. 11 anu 10.19,
10 ferra nli Limited for Ihe photograp h in fi gure 10.2 1 and 10 Messrs F. C. I'ra ll
and A. C. Hall o f Ihe UK Cenl ra l Electricily Genera ting Boa rd for helpful
informa tion.

:,
IlEFERENCES'

(Reference Il nmbe ,:s preceded by Ihe leller G arc li sted in seclio n 1. 14.)
I. Ri ppon, E. C., Problems Pet lllial' 10 Large /! I);h-I'olfag,' AIIIV- II I',IIj'O/II/('I"S,
ClGRE Rep ., No. 140 ( 1960)
2. \ Vil ki nson, K. J. R. , and, Ca rter, O. W ., A met hod of measuring In:-,scs in
rcaClors of low power factors, BTH Ael., Seplember- Oclober (1 ~39 ) 2
3. D eutsc h, F., Measuri ng th e ac ti ve power losses of large i·c:t "I~JI <s. OrV l\'1I '.
Bol'(,/'; Ret·., 47 ( 1960) 268 ,:
4. de Bourg, II. , Jenk in s, R. S., Slcllcumark , I. , Teugslwud, C. A ., ,,,,,I Wesler,
C. E., Ca lorime fr ic Loss .\I('oslIn'mell1 all AII(~l'fIaIOI'S alld Nt'Clt I("\,~,
ClGRE Rep., No. 11 9 ( 1% 4) /I
5. Brilish Elec lricily Supply luduSIry, BEBS T 2, li'clIIs/ormers (I/ld /I('(lelurs (34
parts), The Eleclricity COli IlCil , Loucl on (1 %6) I! ,
6. L utz, I-I ., 7 i 'Ul I S./O/'/IICI' Ot! Pn',H '/T(I{iUII S),,\I( /IIS find Associa/('d l'r()h/t'lIIs. Ii
'CiG II£ 1I,'p. , No. 134 ( 1960) I I.
7. JJ rown, \V. 1., Ke rr , H. \V ., Sillgcr, D. E., tlnd Wa lshc, L. C., Accc.',\'Ol'ies (lfld <i
Parrs fo r Trallsformers , ClG RE Rep ., No. 10 1 ( 1966)-
8. Barker, J. H ., Ma rl ow, J. I-I " 'I ud Me llor E. J., 400 k V TI'!III.V(JI'III'T {/I/( / IV"I!
Bush;/lgs, //IS I. £/eclr. Ellg. COllI I'llb/. , No. 15, Pa rt I ( 1965) 20 f
9. I-I "selfool, A. J" Il arlili. E., Ker r, 1-1 . W., Pa llller, S., a nd While, E. I .. , OC"';S",
COlls trllClioll and Trallsporl vf I.ol'ge Tralls/oruw /'s Suitable lor R('(/,~·.\, 'l}/IJ/), 011
S;le, ClGRE Rep., No. 106 ( 1%4) ,

• See also the lisl orreferences in chapt er 12,

 .'•.
,:0
Uf l.'css l'u!ly
,, f,

Specia l Transformers

L<: T. Kelsall*
I ,-'-, "

.,ll.illlitCd
"I and 10,19,
11 c, Pra U
f«--' helpful
;1 11.1 DRY-TYPE TIlANSfOIlMER

II
o 11.1.1 The case for drl'-type transform ers
In supplying electric power to la rge ollice blocks and Oat s, the supply au thority

II n'
, L ,)
would naturally prefcr to install th e distribution tl'an sform a in the building itse lf.
so as to reduce the length of low-volt age cable runs, which wou ld res ult in lower
cos ts and fewer problems with voltage reg ulati on, Th e c uli~cqu c ncc of firc in
I 1II."./i 1nllt'rJ.
J, multi-slorey buildings becomes more and morc serious ;\s the population dcn~ily
,
nsscs In of the building increases. The installati on of an oil·filled transformer in the
2 building is held to increase the fire risk, ' '
The trall sfo rmer is not condemned as a so urce of firc out break. bllt a 500 kVA
tra nsformer (3 reaso nable ra tin g for thi s type of in stall ation) wi ll contain about
0.9 Ill' or o'il.lfduringan outbreak o rfire the lank were to split , this oillll ight add
disastro usly to the fire, To prevent thi s, oi l-retain ing wa lls orten have to be built
round the transformer, or the transformer has to be removed rrom the builJing
l<<L.J1ors(34 altogether, the installation costs increasing in either case.
An air·insulated transrormer needs no special prea l"tions in this respect;
altho ugh the transformer itself will be more expensive than an equivalent ON
transform er, the overall cost o r the installation can be apprc.ciably chcaper,
"
J1.1.2 Insulat ion lind tCIIlJ)crnlure .'
I IISll ialiorl c1assijic(l[ioll
The life of a transformer is determined by the life of its insu latio n which, "part
rrom mcch,lIlica l damage, is dependent o n th e lClnpcra turc at whic h it is maJc to

• GEe Distribution Equ ipmen t Limi ted .

 I
, J
l I
~ ,
296 ' t-olOnLHN POWER TltANS FQRl\ II: R Pit A n CE -~.a! l,
work. JnslI,lnlio ll ma terials arc class ifi ed acco rd in g to their maximulll sa fe ~ : .
working tet'hpe ratllre G1.9. 02.10, .: " , I~'-
Based oQ lthc specifica tion ror m'aximum working temperature and if we t akc _i;"'~~; ';1
into accoul} t the ambient temperature which may be ex pected, the permissible ;..;,1" ":
fat ed 1Cml)CralUfc risc GU. G2.2·: 9~.:.2 for windings for the insulation classes 1
recognised in Imll s fof lll c r Illnnufacturc lllay be SUllill la ll Scd as fo ll o ws, ~'.1
,I . '
" II JIUU/tUjOIl d(j.~ s
I·,
J"';lUling tl.'ll !1' Cf(lflire rise (OC)
-----. .-
, A 60
,," E 15
"
13 SO
II 125
i, C 150 scm
---- - . - the
or sl
In practicc,'fcw 111 ;111 U fal: l urcrs differentiate bct wCl:il clnss H and class C. Most the
ai r-insulated lrallsfCl ! Illers made in Great Drilain nrc to cla ss C specifica tion. insll
Th e materials cO lll rnou ly associated wit h cla s~ C insulati on comprise mica, S
porcelain, glass. quar tl, trc;l\ed glass 'flbre textiles anu built ~ up micn wilh the usc I k'
of silicone \'arnish as ;:I hond ing and impregnating Plcdiu m, \. Lr ~
i Sp .11
Temperatllre scri
The winding tClll pcr:t Iun..: t i~cs listed above rc prc~\.: llt tile average tempc ralure of pre l
Ihe wi nding. Naill rnll y, IIllt k r work i ng c O IH.lil ions lill.." lila I gr;l(li cll ts c;.. is! \\ i Ihin
the coil. It is essen ti al that the coil be so designed that the hott est spOI ill the coil
structure does no t exceed the critica l temperature ror the class o f illsulation. WIH
Cooling duclS are provided in the coil to enable the t.:\Jo ling mcd ium to ci rcilla tc the
within the co ils a nd to "!CIllOVC
-j
the hcnt ge ncrnlcd with in them. It is rOllnd that a ;.tn,'
layer of stagna nt nuid·ii·some times ca lled ". bo ullda ry l:tyer- is present over the \\' II
surface to be cooled; tIi ll s heat has to be ti'an smitt ed across this laye r before the has
nu id noW. cn n remove i(The t hick ness of Ihe bounda I'y laycr is depe ndent , a mOllg r ill!
other frlctors, on the flu'id. For air, it is abou t 1111111 . Th(' re lati vely narro w cooling a l~1
ducts'fc Ind satisracto rY, whcn oil is th e fluid, arc tota ll y in;I(Jcqllate for air dw.:ls. the
and wkJths or 15 Illlll ()'r mo rc are co mm only used , (r or cmcie ncy of' the du ct
width, sec ngllre ILL)!

Electric stress I ._ II.

The electric strength of Ihe insulation in an ON t<'all sformer is little tlilfcrcnt
whcther the tral1 SfOrlll~ r is ("old or at its ratcd tcmpcla tu !'c. Il owcver. the electric Co
strcn gth o f ai r is propOlliol1a l to it s density whi r h i ... invcrsely proportional to
abso llit e tempera tllre. 'i'hnefo re, at work in g temperet ll rc the electric strengl h of Cl
the a ir in a class C lr:lllsformcr is only abo ut GO i'o of its va illc at rOO Il1 P"
temperature. I ch.
\Vhcn a vo ltage is app licd across a mi xed insulati on, slu.:h as so lid insulati n in Cll

~'~· ·" -<;: ;:--;· """"· · I -

i .",

-( I ,<
t:
~.
,
u
a XlIllUI11 sa le
,

nde we lake
e permissible
1l til l classes
110
1 ."
20 ·
'l l
~------6~------'~2-------1~ -
IL width 0 1 coolinQ dVC l (,n,n)'

Figure 11.1 V;.rialio n o r du ct cnil.:ic ncy " il h widt h

.,
I series wilh an ai r space, Ihe voltage dislribution wi ll be in versely propoftionallo
........J _ Ihe perm itt ivity or the two materials, The relative permilli vi lY of air is I and that
of solid insulati on aboll t S. For equal thickness orai r and ~o li<.l insulati on in series
Ihe c1ew 'ic slfess across Ihe air will be nve times as greal as lhal across Ihe solid I ,
class C. Mosl i
:~cdficali o n. insula ti on.
11 1 ,;c Inien, Suppose a gap or 25 111m is 10 wi lhstand a vollage vI' 25 kY, The slress or
1\\1. .1 th c lJ SC I kY 111111 - ' l11ighl be conside red 100 hi gh ror air, and il mighl be proposed 10
'strengthen'the insulation by inscrlinga barrier DrS mill solid insulatio n in the air
space. The in sulation system can be co nsidered as two parallel-plate capacitors in
series, and the voltage appearing .ac ross cach l:ap;lC.:it o r will be in vc rsely
o/l p ~ I' atur c of' pro portional to the cnpaci t<II1Ces. Thus .
$ c.) ~ ,[ within (11.1) ,
V.lV = 1/ (1 +c"J'!""J,)
lO I ' Ihe coil I I, "

.) f ihsulatioll. where JIll is the air gap voit:1gc, V is the total vo ltage, e," = I for air and Cu = 5ror I.
to cin.:ulatc
Il the solid insuiant rue the relative pcrmittiv itics, ilnd (5 ~ - 20 111m an d o. = 5 mm I
rOl d that a arc the res pecti ve thick ncsses. Thc eva lu:1tioll o f equation I 1.1 gives V = 2J.R k V,
D i'
,~C ll . .)vcr the \\hieh meanS an electric stress of 1.1 9 kY 111111 - 1. Inserti on o f the soliJ insulan l I,
'cf bd'ore Ihe has only increased Ihe electric stress in Ihe air gap, This IS likely to break down, 2 , ...
causin g the stress on the so lid insulanl to increase to 5 kV Illln - I at which it will I'.
l Ie . alll ong
"0 coo ling 'also rai l. far rrom strenglhening Ihe insulation, Ihe mixed inqllalion only reduces I;'I"" 'i
, /o r air du CIS,
" of ' he dUCI
the safety ma rgin .
The on ly !'afe app roac h is to cnsure that the air space alone, irrespecti ve of any II, " ;,j
" atiti itiOllil l solid insulati on, is 1.::lpablc of wi th 5 t~IIH.ling Ill!.! rull vo lt age. ,f
h
I'Hie Construction
I
iITcrcn t
11.1.3 II, >I,

r . d . cl c\,.' \ ric
~ po r[i ona l to
COl'es IP /'
~~'
Co res arC usually cuI from cold · rolled grain·oricntcd Sled , th e phospha te co nlin g
:c s' ngth o f
Pll t o nlo the sleel duri ng m:IIlUr:u.:tuI·c se rving as int c r! a lllil1~r insulation (see
lue [ roo m
ch:'1)ICr 4). All iron s pace fa cto r of abo ut 0.95 or beller i!' ar hievcd. C o res may be
I cut to have either a mitred or a lupped jo in t a c:t..:ordillg to individual
 ,,.,
,
"

"

, '
! 'I
i ' I
( .'j 298 MO DE RN PO WER " RA :-'S I OR \1 1 R 1'1(,\ ( l iCE
"
"·1 '
:, .I', rna n uraCi l! rer's p rcfcn.: ncc. "ftc r l>ui Idillg. I Ill: I.: Ut ccl gc:-. :11 1.' U ';I (cd wi I h a sui Iii hIe
Coils
• "I heal -resistant ,)ain! or va rn ish ( 0 prot ect against r u ~ ti n g . .
, I.
Alth ough simi lar in co nstr uc ti o n to co rcs for ON !r: IJl "fo nJ1crs, co rcs for class The sill' l
•
,I .' C transformers nrc genera ll y large r th:11l for ON I f all!- ro rm crs of equi valent volt ugc (
rating. Since cl eara nces and ,oo lin g du Cls tire 1lc(:L'ssa riiy ~o much lal'!;c r (I lid since J I O WCVC I
current densities usuall y lowct il1i1n (0 1' air-cotlico t rH J1 " fOf'lll Cr S, the I.:o re window t lL rns pc
opening must be I:I rgcr th:11l (or nn ON lr:lIl sfo l'l llc r of equ ivalent ratin g. The insulatic
lar ge r co il implies :1 ' rea ctan ce. T o kee p d ow n th e (c" cliln ec valu e, Ille vo lts subdivid
'1.: ' per tu rn is gellera l; II cr, and thus a large r CO I C t:russ~scc li o n is useu. T he above til
,~. ~ 'operati ng nu x dcnsi , a rgcJy gove rn ed by the nccessit y to limi t the temperatu re stress is
rise of lhe co re, alth ough low noise level requiremenls l11ay also Iimil nu x densilY. s ur gc ~ v l..

be taken
pa rt icu\.
Low-
,., duct bel
over the
s il h.·U I . ~
space II
The
insul:\ {i
board i
ca refuli
va rnish
Thes
the cos
I.:osl.
On a
I
ri ngs a
.\ '~, I~ fraill es
I
; I.,' • J
.,• I Ell e/os
,1' ~
The
~," ,,;.: cnclosl
CI

steel v'
Wli tlc d
, I :lIH.I o u
';1 •
bCllI'ec
In 11'
a hi gh
compi.!
•I Irlh
I
•'I
, , . " '
'. '."'''- in .I l ,)
t,:. il S !<o U'
Fig.ure 11. 2 Typical ! r all 1:o rOf m Cr \\i th \'1;1 ... '" ( ' im:u]nli OI1 loss 0 1

,.
oJ
,
I '~
" 1

'\
 SPEC I,\L TRANsrORM£llS 299

Wil 'a Sliltable

Coils
.I
,,\
..::s for class - T he simple helica l co il is co mparatively che~'I) to wind, It ha s a ravo urable surge-
o f equiva lent vo ltage distribut ion; it is genera lly ad opteq ro r ON di"lriblition tra nsformers,
"'1 · 1<l1l0 since
( . 'e window
I fo wcvcr. such a co il used for th e h igh-vb lt.igc willding. willi i l ~ grca t..Illllllbcr of
turn s per la ye r, proo uces :111 npwcc~3bl c; elec tric Sl1 1.' o.; S a (.' IO~S th e int crla yc r
III 'a ti ng, The insulat ion, The high-vo ltage wi nding or/ the cla ss C llil ns rormcr is usua lly
subd ividc(1 into a number o f individuul ,co),ls of few (1I11l S per layer. stacked o ll e
,, '
\'all ,t he volts
Ci Jscd. The abo ve the o th er and co nn ected in series (sec figure 11. 2). 1IIIIlis wCly th e inlc rl aycr
1_ Illpcraturc stress is grea tly reduced, Un ro rtunately, ,.I is " ssc lllbli' ha s \lILIeh lesS- uniro nn
li t ' \X density. surge-voltage dist ribu ti on than .the h c li ca l; ~vi l1 dillg. and , n n~ id t.· l ab l c ca re ha s to
be ("ken to ensure tha t the co il wi ll wi thsial1d the s urgc~ \'o lt auc lest requ iremen ts.
p;Irt icularly at the lapping sectio ns. I:~I
Low-vo ltage coi ls arc usua ll y simple I,icl i ~a l co il s of two layers wi th a coo ling
duct betwee n lhe t\V O laye rs. T he high-vollage stack is HS!'oc mblcd concent rica lly
over the low-voltage coil, again leaving an annu lar cooli ll~ duct. Spacing strips of
silicone-i mprcgimted glass-lami nat e boa rd arc di s p o5~ J ra uially in I.he ducl to
space the hi gh- and low-volt age co ils apar t.
The conducto r covering is ge nerally highly refilled glass hI aid, whilst the maj or
insulation is usually mica or woven glnss bmina tc. Si lit.:one.i lllprcg'111l 1Cd glass
boa rd is used for spacing stri ps a nd wedges, Th e \\'li c'k co il asse mbly. arter
II carcrully drying o ut and shrinking. is vaCLlUIl1 im·pl'I.':t!ll:l tcd with silico l)e
varnish. !
These insula t ing materia ls. particu la rly the si lico nc \ ;, J II i ~ h , <l rc ex pensive. and
t ' the cost ofi nsulati oll in a class C transforme r is a Sigll ilii..';llI t po rtion o f the tota l
I
L cost.
On assembly o n the core. the hi gh-volt age coils arc r1an1 l'cd betwee n stecl end
I ' rin gs nt top and bot10m, prCSSllrc be ing cKcrkd by I I I ' il 1 11i ng bo lts from the
I
l f'rallles. ",

",
Ellc/U.'i llre
"
The completed transformer may be intcnded fur i l1~l . dhljo n wi th o ut any
enclos urc whatever. It is pcrilal)S Illorc usual to 1l1 UUll l ,lh,' ' 1! ;111,·, formcr in a shcet
stecl ventila ted housing filted wi th detachable pa llels tl\l (lIIgh which access is
g3incd for inspec ti o n ;tnd adju stlllent of tappin g l ill~\",: I II"'u Ii hu u:-ings the inlet
and ou t let ven t ila t i ng gri115 sil o llld be as 13rge as possib k," lid Ih ~ vert ica l d ista nee
betwee n them as great as cn n be obtained. I
In more a mbitiolls installations th e housing ma)' be des igned to accciinl1l o<.ia te
a high. voltage isolati ng breaker and low-volta ge d~s tJ'ibll tio n fuses. A very
cO lll pact packaged sub~stat i on is formed. I
If the tra nsformer is to wo rk in a corrosive ntrno:- I'licp:, th ~ 1l it may be en closed
in a completely hermetica ll y ~cal cd enclosure whieh it is u !--u~ll t nil with all inert
gas such .I S nitrog~ 1l und cr press urc, A prc ss ul'c g:Hl gl.!: IS II !- o:l ll), fill ed to W!!l'n of
loss o r pressure. SUl: h a n arrangemcnt Ilaturall y add :-! gll'.l tl y to thc exp~ ll :-;c.

l
 '"
, 'I
"j •
300 MODE Il N POw l: R TI{ANS r OIlM' It PRACTICE

ILIA Limil:llioJls
The ury- type Imn sfo rmcr is esse ntially 311 indoo r lIni'l.. for usc in rclnti vcly 'clea n'
co nd iti ons. Attempts to II SC it calls for im:rcCls'.!d costs in protection tlnd
maintenance. .. ;
ti Sslirgl: strength is o nly .lho ul half tha t ora n ON transro rm er. Thu s dry- type
trnn sfonllcrs ca n o nly be IIsed in ck ctrically UIl CX P OSc..:u situBti ons wh ic h a rc nol
subject to li ghtning strik es.
Beca use of the large electrical dC;lr<l ll cCS rcq '.li rcd it \\'o uld nppca r Ihal the
highes t practical system vo ltage ro r a ur),-type tr',nsrormcr is 15 kY.

11.2 BUlli ED TRA NS FOl!~IEl!S

J 1.2.1 Gc ncml
In urban a mi suburb: ul d is tricts it is beco ming increasin gly dillicult to obta in
suitable sites ror th e inslnllali on o r tta nsrormers tha t suppl y th e dis lribu lion
network s. One so luti on is to put trans formers hdow ground when Ihnl! i ~ not
rOO m ro r Ih el11 a bo ve gro und .
. Tra nsrormers ha ve bee n buri ed di rec t ill th e gro und ror man y ye:11 1111 the
practi ce was restricted to slllali tran sro rmers orabou t IOOkVA ra tin g, ; I,is was
the Inrgestt ra llsrormer Ihe losses or which co uld be dissi pated dircc t lll .llgh Ihe
soil. T he act ua l th erm a l per fo rm a nce or sti ch a Imnsfor lll cr IllllSI always be
eo njcct m:ll. si nce th e tempe raturc rise depc nds on [Ilt,; th er mal conductiv ity o r th e
soil. This pro pcrl yci1 n be expeclcd to vil ry rrom p!:Jcc to place tl il d rrom seaso n to
:, . season acco ru ing to the humidity or t he soil. In ve , y dry conditi ons t he so il co uld
eve n shrink :lwny frc) 111 th e transrorlll r.! r tank , k:1',illg:l n air fillII IllIoll1;h \\hic h
th e [r;l llsfo nn cr losses wou ld have to be diss iJJ:lh:d.
Mode rn in teres t in buri cd tran sforme rs has bCr.!11 d ircl.'tcd [0 lar ger sii't's.
500 k VA a nu u[1\\," ,<ls, "nd the design philosopliy has bee n to uis>i!,ale the was te
hea t 1101 th ro llgh the surro und ing soi l bu t to til t.: :Iil abo\'c ground. Two distinct r
types have evolved acco rd ing to whethe r the oi l air heat excha nge r is located
ilbo\'c o r below grou llu .

it
11.2.2 ('(Jolc r " bore gr() ulld c,
Sl
Desig ll
n
The tra nsro rm er ta nk is buri ed direct in the g ro un d. mo un ted o n a COJH:l'ctc raft ,
., tl nd the radi ato r mo untcd abovc th e lJ ansform cr so th a t th e bo tt om of the
radia tor is at gro und le ve l (sec fi gu re 11 .3). T hc r:l(li:1tor c.:nrrics an oi l Cllll ~l: r \':l l or
), I I
o nlo whic h (":I n be mo unt ed fi tlings slich as oi l ga uge, Illcrmnlllc.:lc r pod\c t a nu
silica ge l bn.::tt hcr. Alte rn a ti vely the radia to r ca ll be design ed to pCll1lit with in

,,
I

.,~·I
;I
.,•'j
 SPECIAL 'r RANS f-QRMEKS 30 1

, . ,,
:IY.'c1ean'
and

dry- type
arc not

that th e
..
A:

'ult to' obtain

: ei\ 'ribution c o
r I rc i~ not

lea s. but the

I this was

J
II
t .. ( ,)ugh the
st ways be
i ty of the
( 1 ' ~aso n to
Ihe oi l cou ld
r - l - h which
II
I
la rge r s izes,
ate th e waste
Figure 11 .3 Buri ed tntn sro rmcr wit h above-gro und coo ler; A. ;ICCCSS duor to lap sw il ch;
, ,1[ 'distinct
B. hcall cr lank ; C. hig h-vo lt age cn blc box: D. lo w-vo lt agl! ca ble box
;l.. .. located

itself expansion or the oil , thu s elimina ting the co nse rvator. The radiator housing
ca n be made to acco mmodate the rati o-adjustin g switch and ca n also enclose a
standpipe into the transformer through which the tank "an be emptied if
necessa ry.
on~ 1 etc
rart, On occasion, sil e cond itions arc such that the radiat or ca nl1 0t be loca led
""m of the immedia tely above the transfo rmer but must be moun led some distance away.
This will entai l a loss in cool ing efficiency due to increased resistance to the
, 'I crvato r
' pc (e l Hnd thermal syphon now o r the oil. It will necessita te either a slight red uctioll in I,
:rl it with in lransrormer out put or the use or a larger radia lo r,

~ .• '. "
.. ,-.> •

,_-':':l~~ ": 'T.-r,.'

;'~~,, ?' ·'.a;':'· f"t;", ·
" ..
 302 M OOERN 110WER TRANSfORMER PRA ( T ICE
,
,
.. Alivatllages (lml disadvantages
over the
QOllom (
The obvious adva ntage of thi s type of cooler is Ihal th e cxca va,lion is kept to u in lOthc J
minimum. In certain situat ions this fac tor Illi~hl be d~c i si\'c . [lccausc of the hcud to en sure
of oi l in the radiat or a ll transformer tank joints arc below oil. with a slight po si ti ve design lil
pressure, and water will no t enter the transformer. The radiator bank is probably wilh inle
more emcient than in the buried tran sform er type. Agnin st thi s mu st be sel the
strong "
ve ry rea l danger of wha t happens if the radi a tor hou sing su ffers physical (hllnagc, trall sforr
say, as the res ull of a trame . !':cident. Shou ld this occ ur. 1I0 t on ly wi ll . la rge T he p
qu an tit y of oil be los t. but the transformer mu st be tak ell out of servi ce quick ly th erm on
j"
before thi s too is damaged ow ing to overheating co nsequent on the loss of all it s
coo ling. Following such 3 n accident . it is high ly desir<.lblc th at th e trallsfo rm er Advllllt a ~
<Jnd tank be cleaned and dried OUI to ensure that waH! 1 lind dirt ha ve not ent ered RClllova
the tran sformer through fra ctll ieu pipework. immcd ia
without
advantal
11.2.3 Cooler below gr,oulld break en
no dama
Design come ou
In this type of transformer the ra di ator is carried di rcc lly from Ihe tank ill Ihe Since
conventional manner, except that it is usua l to mount the entire radiat or bank on hermetic
o ne side of the tank to facilila te air ducting (sec figure 11 .4). The rad iators are co urse, t
surrounded by a stee l housing which serves to duct the air. The tank and coo ler It is n,
arc bur ied direc t in to the grou nd , and a ventilating pillar is erected above ground

11.2.4

The cor<
coo led d
the size
compau
corrosiv.
essential
cxcavati.
through
Thed·
it can b
accumul
:=
also hav
planninl
., ,
,.,
• I
,.,
dimcnsi(
It we
'.; transfer
t Figure l lA Buried tralls rormer wilh below-gro und coolet: A. access to tap sw it ch and by a fal
dip Slick; D. high .vo ltage cable box; C, low-voltnge cable box rc1iabilit

"

.J
 ., .
~

SPECI AL TRANSFORMER S 303

over the coo ler. Cold air enters the pillar al Ihe sidcs and fl uw~ dow n into Ihe
I,s to a
bDllOIll of the radiator housi ng. The air then flows ove r the radiat o r bank. back
in lOIhe pillar and oullO Ih e air. Large ducls are essenlial. and car" mUSI be laken
: head
-to ensure that hot air is not drawn back int o the cooler. It is al so essentia l to
design Ihe ven tilaling pillar to be independen t of wind direclio n. A simple pillar
r~ ~robably with inl e t o n one side and out le t o n th e o lh er would be of 11 0 li se at all. si nce a
'Ie c t th e strong wind on the ollliet sid e eoulp SlOp ci rculat ion comp letely and the
(l mage.
" transformer temperature would increase rapidly.
viII H large
I The pillar ca n also be designed to give access to a lap sw itch, oil ga uge,
i('~ t lick ly
t I hcr m(l mclc.:r, clc.
( "I I it s
ollsfofmcr Adval/tages Gllti t!isadvamages
lot ntcrcd
Rcmoval ofthc vcnti latiug pillar, whil st causing a loss in rad iator efficiency, is 110t
immcdiately scrious, and the tran sformer call rUll cti on normall y fo r se vera l hours
wilhoul inj ury whilsl awa il ing replacemen l of the pi llar. There is therefore some
advanlage in designing the pillar sot hat in Ihe even I o f an accid enllhe pillar wi ll
break easily and cleanly away from Ihe Iransformer so Ihatthc mo un ling suffers
no damage. A new pillar can Ihen be readily fill ed, and Ihe transfo rmer need nol
come out ~)f service.
k , the Since Ihere is no externa l head of oil, however, th e transfo rmer lank mUSI be
b: Ik on herm eti cally se~d ed to guard again st ing ress OrW<lICr in th e event of noodi ng, or
'ialors arc co urse, thi s constructi on demands an apprecia bl y larger excn'.';'lli on,
.. :t, )oler Il is not rea lly prac ti cable to moun t th e pillar re rnote rrom the radiat or bank.
I
e, HInd

11.2.4 Crrlcral l'ullslrlll'tioll of buried trali sfu rlllCfs

l l The core and windings of a buried transformer a rc as for a ccnven li onal ON·

J
coo led design exeeplthat Ihey mighl be uesigneu 10 have lower losses to reduce
the size of radiator. Cable boxes arc designed for hori zon!al entry _and arc
compound fi lled wil h all j oin Is below compound leve l. Becallse of Ihe high

~I' corrosive nalure o f mosl soils special prolecli on of all buried sleelwork is
essen lial. II is usua l to zinc spray and painl wi lh an epoxy I'e, in. O n fillin g Ihe

~
excava ti on, fine sa nd is used again st the tank wall to cnsure th at stones do not cut
",.iIi Ihrough the protective paint and do nOI expose bare melal to co rrosion.
! II C
The design of Ihe pillar or above-gro und radiator ho using sho uld be such thaI
it can be eas ily clea ned or street litter and moreove r shou ld b(: such that an
accul11U lati on or Ii Her will not Cli t oIT a ir circu1<1 tion . Ae st het ic co nsidcra ti ons will
J also have to be taken into account in design ill g pillar s, and town and country
planning authorili es often ha ve to be consulted over th e appearance and
dimensions of the pillar.
rl It wo uld be poss ible to increase th e kil ovo lt amperc alit pu t from the
tran sformer or alternati vely to reduce th e rad ia tor siz.e by circ:u!al ing cooling air
,I
te and by a fa n, .There is, however, little interest. in thi s 'approilch, !'.Iincc th e sys tem
:1 reliability beco,!,es dependenl On Ihe reliabililY of the fan.
i '

4"·1- ,., .. ,
.,
(t'
"'.
-,.:

, '.
: .,.•
- .;
 ,

I'
i
1
304 MODERN POWER " RAN SFORMI.H{ PRA CTI CE

11.2.5 Buried dry-type tronsform ers ilT

A cOllven ti onal class C transformer ca n be buried in H vault, and a coo ling pillar th
can be mounted above it to direct co ld air to the bOllom o f the wi ndi ngs in a fa
man ner similar to the below-gro und radiator Iype. However, the exhaust air is'so in
I. '
.. much hOlter owing to the higher operatin g temperature or lhe class C transformer
that means have to be provided for mixing the hot air with co ld air in the pillar
to
\~,
before exhau slinp. it so as not to inconvenience or end anger th e public.
Such an arrangeme nt docs nol have much to recom mend it. since regular II
. maintenance or the cooling ducts wou ld be required and since th ere arc obvious
G
difficulties in using a dry-ty pe transformer in what are essentially outd oor
condi tions. T
2~
SC
v(
11.2.6 Testing of buried transformers
at
No special problems are encountered in the routine testing of buried transfor- w
mers, si nce they arc to all intents and purposes conventi onally designed d,
transformers . The temperature ri se tes t, however, docs present prob lems. It is
essential (hat the (est simulates the site cond ition in that virtually all hea t Inust be m
dissipated by the coo ling pillar and heat loss from the tank itse lf must be st
prevented. tr
Different manufac turers will have th eir individual so luti ons which might range w
frol11 actua l burial of th e transform cr to the cnclos ure o f the tran sfor mer in an
insulated shell that errective ly prevents heat tUllls l11 ission. Th e dfecti vcncss of 11 '
such a shell is casil y chccked by measuring its sud':.lce temperatu re :I nd by seeing 8:
that (here is no temperature difTerence between the shell surface and the air.
. A well.designed buried (ransformer should be capable of opera tin g in exactly C
the same manner as a conventional transform er as regards overl oad ing, and it s C
int ernal temperature differences should not be signiOca nt ly different-from th ose CI
. of it normal ON tran sformer of similar size. Owing to the blanketing efTect of the t(
.. earth fill it ca n, however, have an appreciabl y l('I nge r thermal tim e constant. o
t(
It
1t.3 COAL-M IN E TRANSFORMERS CI
c·
11.3.1 Introduction
d
A transformer in a coal mine is in nn area of high explosion hazard; th erefore, I(
it must be flame-proof. However, there is furth er considerati on. Alth ough they
are flame proof, oil-filled tra nsformers ar~ a t a disadva ntage, la rgely because of c·
the poten tial fire hazard of the oil they containGI.'. Gl.l. Gl.19. For example, the Sl
British National Coal Board has iss ued its own specifica ti on 1 for dry-type flame·
proof transformers for usc undergrou nd. Am ongst olher th ings, thi s specifica tion 1
lists· stan dard kilovoilampcre ratings, primary and seco ndary voltages and E

, -;-t"_rIoo_:';'
.! .~~:,:: .:~ 1.~ .
,. -,-'.,.,,,,.:' ';,.::;::"'''';.'',,;'' '~!'; ;. ,;)~ ....
-:'~'... ',>!;.~~~;\~ .. ,,':':;~Ii' .
 SPECIAL TRANSFORMERS 305
impedances. It is usual to caIl for tappings o n th e hig h-vo lt age side at - 5 and
- 10 % of no min a l voltage to ca ter fo r th e vo ltage drop o n the prima ry leads as
· ng pillar
ngs in a
the transformer is moved further and further away from th e pit shaft as th e coa l
face advances. The impedance is set at 4 %as a compro mi se bel V.'CCIl too Iowa n
i'"
air is so impedance which allows excessive short-circuit cu rrent in the event o f a rault and
I ~sformer too high an im pedance which ca uses an excessive vo llage drup.
I 'Ie pi llar "

11.3.2 Design and co nstruction

I,
reg ular
ar' ::> b\'io lls
GCfJf.'l'af
.11) ) u td oo r
Trans formers arc th e three-phase type, supplied at o ne o f three vo lt ages: 2200,
Ii I 2750 Or 33OO V. The stand a rd seco ndary vo ltage is either 565 o r I 130V. It is
so meti mes necessary to acco mmodn tc morc th an one primary or secondary
vo ltage in thc one transfo rmer. This is done by ta ppin gs Or by series- parallel
,'edI ansfo r-
arrangements on the windings. Such arrHn gc!'ncnls arc,. however. to be avoided
wherever possible, since the space restrictions make it difficult to achieve a so und
I), f ~signed design.
pplcms. It is Maximum dimensions arc specified for height. wid th and length, and mass
1ea' -nust be must be kept to a minimum. Transformers arc usuall y fitted wi t h wheels to acce pt
)) f L lus t be sta ndardised rail ga uges. Each liftin g lug must becapab le of supporting th e ivho le
I transform er. The core and windings arc rigidly braced to th e tank so as to
~lifh t range wit hstand such han dling cond itions as lowering end on down a mine shaft
Hr: r 111 an
I.I The transformer is limited t O:J temperatu re risc of th e wi ndi ngs to 150 Q C as
;tn _.less of meas ured by c ha nge o f resis ta nce, bu t th e tank te mpera ture mus t no t exceed
ldI by seeing 85 <'C in an ambient of 25 °C, thaI is a risc of 60 nco
?\ '''If. .
g " ;xact Iy Core all(/ wim/illfl8
I '
ling, and its Cores arc of low- Io.ss co ld-rolled gra in -o ri ented sil icon stee l, or sim ilar design and
' tr~'''1. those ,.
, cons tru cti on to a normal dry· typc lransrorll1cr, with bo lt ed yokes. It is Ilot usua l I I
: rr~ of the
,

to have co re bolts in the limbs o f transfo rm ers of the ra tin gs co ncer ned. Because I
:;onMant.
I
or the dimensiona l restric tions th e design may appear to be misproportioned, I "

tending to be long and low, with large core ar eaS to achieve high vo llage per tu rn. I
It is not gcnera lly round necessa ry or des irable to use th e flve· limb co re I
construc ti on which, th ough it saves heig ht in I11l1ch larger trallsrOfmCrS than arc
! ,
I

considered he re. d oes so at t he expense of length and o ft en mass.

I' Coils arc constructed or class C Of H materia ls as descri bed in the sec ti on on
I dry-type transformers and a re usua ll y of rec tan gu lar shapc to save space. T he
low-vo ltage coil is commonly a two-layer helical win d ing of m ult i-stl'i£ pa per-
covered co ndu ctor. High-voltage wi nd ings are disk type with exte rn al brazed
connec ti o ns. Thecoil asse mbl y, after ca reful drying out, is fully impregna ted wi th
silicone varnish.

Tanks
Enclosures must be cer tified n'll11 c·pI'OOr by th e appropriate tc:-t ing au th ority..
 306 M ODE I{ N POWE R TRANSFO RM EI( IJkACTICE

The gu iding princ iple for cc nili cali o n Iha l Ihe)' arc flame-pro o f is Iha l, if an and
explosio n lakes place within a n enclosure fill ed wilh Ihe approp riale gas, il sho uld jo in
- not be tran sm itted th ro ugh ,the encl osure to cause a further ex pl osion ill a gas- twO
fill ed atm os ph ere surro undin g the enclo sure. Tho !' a flam e-proof j oint is a joint is sv
,. I
, I
between two faces oran enclos ure, slich as tank cover to lank flan ge. that will no t met
I ~ i permit a flame to pass from the enclosure to the at mosphere when an explosion or 3
, I
, : .
.. ,
occ urs wilh in Ihe enclosure. It has bee n es tablished Iha llhe critica l fact ors a rc Ihe join
lenglh of th e ga p a nd Ihe separali o n of th e ga p. T herefore, flam e-p roof j o inls T
require to be machined to 'uchi evc tight tolerances. give
,
In addition to preven ting the passage of flam e. the tank s must also wit hstand caS l'
., , I
the internal pressure resultin g from an explosio n. wi ll
!J
The design o r encl os ure must. also be such as 1('1 preclud e lIi e p/lr.;nomcn on
t • known as press ure piling thaI can take place if th ere arc tw o or more thai
•, I compartments in res tri cted gaseo us communica li ol1. LI nder th ese conditi ons, an th e
~~ Thi,
,; ~, explosion in one section of the tank ca n result in co mpression of the gas in
" ( anoth er sec ti on, a subsequent explosion of thi s compressed gas givin g rise to melI
• excessive press ure on the tank . th e
In "ddi ti o l1 to providing a flam e-proof e nclos ure. !he lank ,i,usl also dissipate T
.~ the hea t generated in the core and windin gs. Vari ous types of ta nk are in ge neral vo ll

'~.
usc from cylindrica l tanks with solid ends to co nvt;;ntio ilal rectungular tan ks. To Ihe
dissipale Ihe hea t, most la nk s require an eX lended s urf'lCe arca oblaincd cilher by bel,
a corrugaled tan k wa ll or by we lding ex lerna l fin s 10 Ihe lank wall. Th e design of po"
fin s or corru gati ons shou ld be such that th ey do not collect dirt to such a ll ex tent strc
th a t il wo uld redu ce Ihe Ih erma l efficiellcy of heat di ssipa tio n.. Such din as docs Ihe
accumulate should be reg ular ly bru shed away. imp
'. cun
Ha'ldho le covers in the la nk arc prov id ed 10 give access 10 link boards for
adj usting the voltagc tappi ngs. U SlI:tlly one end is n:lllgcd for at tachmcnt to the
releva nt switchgear. All th ese joi nt s and flan ges arc of co urse flam e-proo f.
11.4

In_t
.' 11.4 WELDING TRANSFOHMEHS res i~
nex t
,lnd
11.4.1 C lassification slag
ruli(
,. Weldi'ng lechn o logy ha s made co nsiderabl e and diverse advances, pa rl ic ul arly dul l
since Ihe end of the Second World War. Wilh Ihe d evelopmenl of new processes opel
po\\'cr sources have themse lves become more sophb licatcd. It will be cO ll venient VI
to consid er power so urces und er the tw o bJ'oad hCHdings of resis tance weld ing co ni
nnd arc we ldin g. load
In resislnnce welding the pieces to be welded logelher arc pl nced bel ween two mul
suili,bly shaped e leclrodes made o f cop per a llo)' I n give bOlh good electric int o
conducti on and high resistance to wear. A current of hu ndreds or evcn th ousands expl
o r a mperes, depending on th e jo inl to be we lded, p::,;,c, Ihro ugh Ihe eleclrodes cqu i
,.
I
[I SPUCIAL TRANSFORMERS 307
ir an an d the workpiece between them. rai sing the temperature tit Ihe interface of Ihe
j o inllocally to rusion value. AI ru sio n lempera ture hyd raul i" press ure rorees th e
IwO eleclrodes lowards eac h olher. exerting press ure on Ih e joinl; Ih en Ihe currenl
is s wilched Orrlo allow Ihejoi nllo coo l. The re s ull is a spo l wc.ld bel ween Ihe Iwo
no t me la ls o r Ihe workpiece. The whole cycle. whi ch is a utom a ti ca lly co nlro ll ed. is 2
on o r 3s o r even less. The cycles of current and press ure depe nd olll hc nature or the
. he jo int. 'i

joints The dislance bel wee n Ih e SpOI welds c.o n be redu ced untillh e SPOIS ove rl a p 10
give a co ntinu ous weld. Diffi culties can th cll be ellco unt ered if'thc cu rrent finds an
titS! ,d easier path through a previously made joint instr.;aci or acr o~s tilt.: desired pa th.
with Ih e res ult Ihal Ih e weld is ra ull Y. .
Imc"'[n . In arc weldin g an arc is st ru ck between an electrode. and th e workpi ece such
r n {C Ih a t Ih e ~i~pyoughl 10 ru sio n lemperalUre by Ihe hea l of the arc. In general.
on1:., dn Ih e weld is reinforced by Ihe add ilion of filler m e tal inlo tile molten weld po·ol.
' gas in This is m OS I common ly done by usi ng a co ns umabl e rod as Il: e eleclrode whic h
IrjSI~ 10 melts away und e r Ih e aClion o rlh e arc and is carried inl O Ih e w~ld poo l 10 prov ide
Ihe filler mel.al.
ssipate Th e vo ltage required 10 iniliale the arc is bel wee n aboul 60 ;;nd 100 V. Iile lower
I
sen . 1 voltage being sare r bUI causin g more difficullY in s lrikin g. The vo ltage 10 mainlain
l, ks. 10 , Ih e arc d epe nd s on Ihe Iype of e leclrode and th e c urre nl used: il genera ll y lies
Iher by bel wee n aboul 20 and 30V. The c urre nt used is d elerm ined by th e size and
'
Sigj M pos ilion oflhe.weld Ihal is being made. It varies fr o m so me ~O A ro r Ihin -gau ge
I d'v":sIt
. ex ,!
li S
sleell O 600 A ro r Ihi ck sec ti o ns. Curren Is above 600 A a re tec hni ca lly possible. bul
Ih e we ig h I orcablesa nd eleclrode ho ld e r and Ih e int e nse heat rrom the arc ma kc il
ilTlpracticabtc for manll:11 welding. The elec trode diamcter is chosen to suit the
'd s L,r current; it varics from 1.6mll1 to 8 mm.
to .e
~ r.
11.4.2 Dul)' cycle

lJ In bOl h resislance and a rc welding, th e process is esse nliall y intc rmill e nl. In
resistance we ld ing current pa sses ror 2 or 3 s and then is switched olTwhilst the
nex t weld is set up. In <lfC welding an elec trode rod may be used tip aner 2 to 3min.
[ J and a new rod mu sl be fitted . Time is also needed for th e relil oval orlhe solidified
sla g Ihal is depos il ed ove r Ihe we ld and comes rr o m Ihe electrode coa lin g. T he
rali o or aclu a l weld in g lime to lotaltime is known as Ih e d Ul y ('yc le. The ove rall
'. ula! dUlY cyclt..: or a res istance we ld ing ope rati on is typ ic::tll y 50/.1 and or an arc welding
CCSses o pera ti o n 36 % ove r a wor kin g day.
:nienl Welding eq uipm en ls arc designed 10 m eel Ih e raled lemperalure -ri se at a
,Idii con tinu olls current eq uivalent to th e long· tcrm hea tin g effect oft hc intermitt ent
I load . Strictly, th ere forc, the co ntinuous cUl'renl is equal to the wel ding cur rcn t

roClttwo multiplied by the square roo t of tbe duty cycle. J11 prac tice thi s is J110diflcd to tak e
, inlo acco unl th e hea lin g lime conslanl o r Ih e Iransrorme: and Ih e ge neral
Janl experience ga ined over many years in th e design, ~n3n uractllrc a'nd use or the
i odes equ ipmen t.

.1 I
 308 M OOEKN rOWeR TRANSFO ltM ER "RA t I ICE

11.4.3 Resistance welding

Trans(ormcrs to supply power ror resistance wcldin g(; 2 J ~ arc essentially short-
ti me rated and are designed to give hi gh current s of scvc lal th ousanq amperes at
'o ltages o r 5 to l OY. Taps arc normally provided on the primary wind ing to
enabl e the secondary vo ltage to be adjusted , For a give n electrode configu rati on
and workpiece the welding current is determined by the seco ndary vo ltage. Thus
the current control is achieved by the primary-windin g tapping switches.
The construction generally tak es the form o f sa nd wich coils on a shell-type
co rc. Wa ter coo ling is used all a ll but the smalles t tran sfo rm ers. The seco ndary
coi ls wi ll normally be sin gle- turn co ils co nnected in parallel and illtcrlc~lvcd with
th<>di sk-wo und high-voltage coil s. Low-voltage coils arc mad e rrom solid copper
bar o r arc ~t in(copper. Water cooling is usua lly achieved by brazin g a copper
:! tube to i1'i"C"Cb~pcr coil which is cheaper in manuracture than. making hollow-
section coils. Because o r the close proximity or high- and low-voltage coils
resulting from the interleaved constru cti on, the wa ter ·coolin g tubes extract hea t
from th e hi gh-voltage co ils as well as frol11 the low-voltage coi ls, and it is possible
to opera te at current densi ti cs in excess o r 5 A mm - ~. T he res t! hing transformcr is
very compact, an important considera ti on when multi· il ead transformer unit s arc
required ror high-speed wclding in mass production lines.
In opera ti on the clcctrodes arc sho r! ci rcui ted th rough the workpiece. and the
I
l, curren t is limited by the impedance or the secondary Clrcu il. The rcsultin g pulses
or high currcnt cause mechanical rorces to be exert eo 0:: the coils. The sa ndwich
construc ti on ca uses th e forces on the illl~er co ils to i;c ~cl r-can cc llin g. On ly the
o uter coil s need to be brnced to withstand mechanical ,hock: they tend to bend
ou twards where thcy project beyond the core.
The design of the lo w- vo ltage busbars or cables laking current to the weld,
wh ilst not strictly part or the transro rmer. needs .0 be cons idered wit h the
tran sfor mer. At th e currents which ari se, th e rCi'l CI:ll1('C vo lwgc drop in a bad ly
designed loop can be 'an appreciable perce ntage ol'thr.: tra~s fo rlTI cr output, wit h
.:onseq ucnt reducti o n in welding current.

j 11.4.4 Arc welding

; .1 (Fo r a genera l descripti on o r arc-welding plant equipmcn t and accessories, see

ti
1
rererence G2.8.)

M mlllal welding
. I

I I
r r this ramiliar process, which uses stick clectrodes, a' drooping static
..Ifac lcr isti c is req uired. With a powe r so urce or lhfs natllre the var iations in arc
\'ul tage that result rrom the inev itablc variations in ::!rc length have very little
efTect on the value or the current (sec figure J l. 5). The open-circuit vo ltage is
substant ially higher than th e load or arc voltage, which racilitates striki ng the arc
while th e short-ci rcllit curn! "t is only about 20 to 30j-~ higher than' th e we lding
current. It limits the danger or burning through th e plate to bc we lded .

•
 U SPECIAL TRANSFORMERS 309
100
I i
,short-
eo
, (
al
to :,1
"

ralion I
00
Thus v. 'I
40
II-Iy pe f
111dary -, "

Ileavedwit h 20 -- - -
1011i) ~opper
;', 'opper
::ig noll o,w- so 200 4()Q 600 AMP

)lta.Re coils' DROOPING CHARACTERISTIC

:x; tr. t hea t
\ is ~vssibl e
40

- - ~

' nbeormcr is
I I ,
er u ts are
,I 30 ~~
~
-
~
~

~
I
I !_
- --
~

I v. I
~ cc, and the ~

-
.. "' ...,
20 - "L.
It in " ?ulses
e'sd :Jwich ~vo
~ , ' "",
s- -
;Jd~:tl~'~ "I"ci3F-TTIN<'
-~

II
? ItL weld,
100
LEVEL CHARACTERISTIC
200 300 AfA'I

d, wilh Ihe
I
in badly
utp , with
Figure 11. 5 Power source: static: char:u.:tcris li cs

,I ~ The di fTerence be l ween open·cireuit vo li age and load volia ge is absorbed by

I th e impl.!dancc of the welding ci rcuit. It is usual to pro vide the bulk o f thi s
impedance by means of an added induCllIll CC. Apar t fr om absorbing the voltage
I difference with minimum power loss th e ind~cla ncc also serves to produce a
~ sor i es , see lagging power ·factor of approxi mately 0.3 5. This is a distinct ad vanta ge in
! I ' weldi ng, since at a current zero there is adequate vo lt age imm ed ia tely ava ila ble to
rest rike the m·c. A t unity power factor a vo lt age zero would coincide with current
!: ze ro, and the arc would remain extinguished until the voltage had recovered
li nE' static sufficiently to restr ike, This would have a deleteriou s efTect 0 11 the w-efd qualit y.
,ion in arc By provid ing means of adjusting the inductance to (ln y p re~dc tcrmin cd value
'1
' ~ery lillie the weld ing current can be selected. Variation of the inducta nce (and thu s current
yo"1ge is -co ntrol) is ac hieved in many difTerent'wa ys. A tapped inductor may be used in
irsl Ie arc conj unction wit h a ~e lcc t or switch: the more inductor turns in circuit, lhe hi gher is ,
I he reactance and t he lower is 1he Clirrenl. AIl crn ;nivcl y. file ~Ii r ga pin the ind uctor

'fI "";'"
I'd,

i
mi ght be vadcd by mcc hl.lnica l mCl.I ns, thus <Jilcring th e inJu·ctancc.

II
L
 310 M ODERN POWER TRANSFO KM F.R I'RAC'II CE

The added inducta nce is sometimes incorporated iDI O the transformer it se lf,
and the I ca~agc reactance is varied by allcring the ai r gu p in ma gnetic shunts that
bridge the core legs. Moving co ils in the transro rm er leg may a lso be used to
conlrol the leakage rea ctance which is determin ed by the relative positi ons of .
primary and secondary windin gs.
In o ther systems the cO'eel of varioblc reactance IS obtai ned with a de-
con tro ll ed transduct o r by v~ryin g the m agni tud e oft " c co ntr o llin g direct c ur re nt.
Whenever a sepa rate current-regulatin g inductor is used, the transfor mer may
be of norm al reactance (2 to 5 %) becau se the bulk of th e requi red rC;lclancc is
bui lt int o th e current rcg ulntll f. Alternat ively. th e tran sf'ormer ma y be designed 10
have a high reactance and th e t:urrcnl regulat or corresponding ly Jess. Some of th e
more co mm o n systems are illus trated di agram a tically ill fi g ures 11.6 and 11.7.
Fi gu
, r
A B

AU I

:\
I~
1
•
l Aut
wire
(see
so n:
l det'
hi gl
1 c bur
.i, th e
, Her
T
but
LLl~H-h abo
ope
aI"is'
F igure 11.6 Transfo rm er co mbin ed with cur re nt regld al or: (a ) I OW~ I' t!a c l ;'ln ce tran sfor- faci
mer plu s lapped rt!guli.lt or; (b ) high ~ rcaci .all cc tram-fo rmer plus lapped regu lat or; {e, l ow~
reactance tran sformer p lu s tran sdUclor; (d) h ig h -r caclan ~c tran sfor mcr pill S trullsduct or

11.5
For si ngle-opera tor equipments it is usual to combine inductor and transfor-
mer into one unit of whatever form it tak es. For large we lding shops it is usually
more convenien t and cheaper to provide a' thiee-phase della - star tran sformer 11.5.
whi ch s teps down th e main s vo lt age to the required weld in g v;lta ge (m axi mun,
IQO V line to neutral G2 ·,) and to utili se sepa ra te swi tched -ta p indu ctors a t each T he
work s tation to co ntrol th e welding c urrent. volt:
The lo w p ower ractor so des irab le in the we ldi ng equipme nt is o rt en prOhibi ti ve The,
in terms or supply. In such cases ca pacitors arc conllec ted acro ss th e primary bcc(l
term inals to impl'ove the .load power facto r. tt;l'm
 l
lcr itself,
3 11

lun" th a t
,:I u,I d to Ij
~----1

[ itions of :~I
11th Idc-
,f CloII 'cnt.
"
DC

im ~r may ,
Ibn, ;c is
I'
"
I

SIS' d to
j"e of the A
, . B
nd' ' 1. 7.
Figure 11.7 Variab le-reactance trans former: (a) ~,.~\t~s Wbl c .air gap in ma gnetic
l " I r
, shunt: (b) with de sa turati o n o f magnciic shunt

A Illomacic welditlg
Automatic processes in volve the feeding into th e arc of a con tinuo us electrode
wire. Although some such processes usc a drooping-characteristic power so urce
'I (scc figure 11.5), thc maj ority o f applications req uire a fla t· characteristic,
,I so metimes kn own as <1 self-adjust ing arc (sec fi gure l1. 5). The va lue o f currellt is
,
determined by the rate at which wire is fed into the arc, a high fCl!d ra le requiringa
hi gh cllrrent. Stability is ac hie ved when the ra te o r reed is equa l to the rate of
burning. If the wire feed is fa ster than the burn-olTrate, the arc length decrea ses,
th e arc voltage decreases, and the current ri ses to burn off wilt more quickly.
'I Hence the system tends to be self-s tabilising or self-adjusting.
The basic construction of stlcil equipment cons ists or a transformer, usua ll y
II but not necessarily thrce·phasc, with suita ble vallagc tappill gs over a range of
II I about 20 to 50 V. and a rectifier since these cquipmcnls arc allllost invariabl y de
;1
opera ting. The com plcxi ty and co mpara ti vc/y Ii igh cos t of t his type of eq uipm cnt
ari ~cs main ly QUi or tll e auxiJiari esa nd cO lIll'o l circllils built int o th e eq uipment to
I facili tate the particular process.
tra'''' for-
'j (c j ow·
InSC ;tor

, I LS GAS- I NSULATED TRANSFORMERS WITH CLASS A

'am INSULATION
·1
If-
•
usually
;foH"cr
. 11.S.1 General
l~ jn m
a t ta~h The application of dry-type air-insulated tr,l lls rormcrs is limited to system
voltages of about J5 I\.V owing to the limitati ons of air as an insulating medium.
libJ Ie These transformers arc also restric ted to electrically non-exposed cond itions
·rill r:y becau se o r their low surgc-vo ltngc st rength . Severa l gases arc !'upcl' ior to air in
terms orckctr ic strength , but, ir thcy arc to be used as till in sulallt illll':llI sfoflllcrs.
I
I
 312 MODE RN I'OWE R T RANSFQ RM l! k I' RACT ICE

several o ther aspects must also be co nsidered . Some or the more impo rtan t
crit eria arc as follows.
(a) Tox ic effect s. The gas must be no n-injuri uus to human we lfare.
(b) C hemica l effecl. It mu s t be inert to the mat eri a ls used in th e tran s fo r mer.
(c) T hermal effecl. It mu st be s tab le over the temperature ran ge app li cab le.
(d ) Economic effccl. It mu s t be reasonably c hea p.
"
I .".
Su lphur hexa flu o ride (SF,.) is fo und to be th e mos t s uitable gas in th e li g ht of
~lr!.) ~.~
th ese crit eria, wi th cert ain flu orocarbons al so of int eres t. T he growing int eres t in
~.,~. '{_i:. ,.
trans formers o f this type seems to be centred aro und SF 6'
..... 1 ..
;- ~ T he elec tric s treng th o f SF. appears to be co mpara ble wi th th a t of o il if th e gas
.' pressure is held a t abou t 200 k N m - '. It s s urge-voltage s trength is abo ut hal f that
o f oi l. There is. however. s till a grea t dea l to be learned abo ut the prope rt ies of
SF 6' Although its electric streng th ap pears to bc]:iftfp'(qf(i o nalt o gas press ure in a
un iform fie ld. thi s docs no t appea r to ho ld in a non- un ifo rm fi eld .

11 .5.2 Thermlli charac teristics

Alth oug h SF, ha s a specific hea t ca pacit y abo ut 75 % th a t o f ai r, its den sity is
abo ut five tim es greater. It is th erefo re ab le to absorb abo ut three and a ha lf tim es
as mu ch heat as a ir. Provided th e heat a bso rbed by the gas ca n be given up to the
atm osp herc. the tempera ture of th e t ransformer ca n be co nt ro ll ed by the pressure
a nd velocit y o f th e gas that flows ove r the coils an d co re.
The art of cons tructin g a gas-insu la ted t ra ns former lies in firs t circ ul ating the
gas thro ugh the windin gs and in th e n ex trac tin g th e hea t fro m th e gas. T o a chi eve Ii lice
the first part of thi s c)'~lc it is usual to usc fo rced circulatio n of the gas, pumps or WO lJ
blowers forcing the gas through duct s in th e coi ls and corc. Ho"
The seco nd phase is rather m ore co m plica ted . It is usua ll y found necessa ry to fron'
use a two-s tage heat exchange: the first stage is integral with the transformer; the l\wn
seco nd s ta ge is mo unt ed ex terna ll y (sec figure 11.8). the 0
Sta ge I o rth e heat exchanger is an evaporator fill eu wi th th e refri gera nt F reo n. an 0
Over which the hea led SF 6 flows after absorbi ng heal from the coi ls. Hea l from
th e SF(, is given up to th e FI CO I1 in this stage, and th e cooled SF 6 is reci rculated
through th e co il s. 11.5.
The Freon contained in the first stage is evaporated in Hbso rbing the hea l and Prilr
passes int o the second s tage which is an ex te rnal conde nse r art ifi ciall y cooled by is nc
fan s o r wa ler or ot her aV<..i ilablc mea ns. J Icre the Freun is condensed into liquid. insul
. and it returns to the evaporator siage. yhi s acti on is sel f-moti va ted, th e Freon vo lt!
system c irc ul a ting by g ravit y/ th er ma l head . . • . It!
. There arc thu s two sepa rat e closed hea t exc hallge cycles. Thcy arc isola ted from bell'
each o th er but depelld ul;on o ne another. expc
'. .!;I AI
.~t :"\'-1 p hys

.
• I
11.5.3 Overload cnpllcii y
- ~. :.j II
-- The time co nstant o ra gas-filled t ra n s fo nll ~ r is no ticc.::lbly less thallihat o f an o~ l - Ii fe.
;
~. 'I
:.;;;.: i
~.1~
•
,-
Il SPECIAL TRANSFORMERS 313
jimpOflunt

+~;:; EXTERNAL COOLER ,, --- ,' .,

he ight of ; .. " ..
1t !s l in , ,,
TRIWSFOOMER
I if,the gas CrnE AND :
, COI~S
" hr "that , ,,
"'I
:ssure
es of
In a
,, :i"
'I
,!
·- .iKC(
~

er, 'ty is
all imcs
uRtothe
~ P "'c;:sure
Figure 11 .8 Two-stage hea t exchanger
latiug: the
,o ac
I h leve
' Jilled I ransformcr. Thu s operating temperatures arc reached more quiCkly, and it
u f ,s or wo uld appea r that the gas·filled tra nsformer wou ld have less overload capacity.
H owever. th ere urc indica ti ons that , provided m oistu re is ri gorollsly excl uded
I
:es. ary to from the insulation, most materials can be run at sli ght ly higher temperatures
ml. : the than in oil for. the same predicted Ii fe , I f this factor ca n be taken into acco unt , th.en
the overload capacity ofa gas-fi lled transformer beco mes comp,,,,,ble with that o f
"nt teo n,
.-.1 from
an oi l filled transformer.

, 'cl lted 11.5.4 Advantages nnd disadva ntages

heat and Primarily this type of transformer offers a solution when an oil-filled transformer
01 I by is not acceptable, say, beca use of fire risk, and when the dry-type class C air-
.J I uid,
1C Freon
in sulated transformer
.
voltage ratlllg,
.
is technically not feasible because o f either it s size
.
or it s

Its surge-voltage strenglh is less than that of an ON transformer, although

:d 'am beller than that of a class C transformer, Therefore, if the system is electricall y
exposed, an auxiliary pro tection, such as li ghtnins arrestors. will be necessary.
Although li ghter than an oil-fill ed transforme r, it occupies just abo ut the sa me
physical space.
. It is essentially a scaled unit and must be maintained in that cOlldition durin g its
... ran oil- lire. Gas pressure must also be maintained.
I
I '.
"
 .\,
314 MODERN I'OWE,I{ TRANSFO I{M ER I'KA CT 1(1~.
,.
I It is enti rely dependent on th e co ntinued opera ti on o f th e fan s or· pumps used r!TISvalue a
for circulating the gas and condensing the Freon. increase in
num ber of

- 1.5.5 Properties of sulphur IJI' xll fluoridc co mpared willi air and nitroge n
The disc
much large
anode curr
JrO I'erl), SFl ] air ni trogen With th
IJc!tlsir y (kg m - J) 6.2 1.20 1.1 7 determine(
Bailinfl [l oint ("C ) - 62 -200 - 196 circuits an
I 'ism.';t)' (m/ lo ,\ ) 11,1) I ~ OO I ~~ O.()1 75
Thertlwl c(Jt/(Jllclit'iry (W", - 1J\. - I) 0.00.1.1 OW65 0.0065
Sp<'cijic hem w l'atir,l' (J kg - I K - I) 730 1000 960
11.6.2 TI
~~. From fi gu
I • SF 6 has been found to be non-to xic, but it is an asp hyxiant. It has been widely refl ected i
used without health ha7-"rd for many years in industrial and medica l X-ray th rough (
trans formers. conncctcc
the other
phase, th'
11.6 RE C flFI ER T1lANSFORMERS
11.6.3 1
11.6.1 General
To climb
The genera l principles governing the design o f rectifier tra nsfo rmers arc ve ry may be c
si milar to th ose employed in th e dc!'igll ~llld manufaCllln: of tran sfo rmers for phases (
, more norma l applications. It will be understood th at tra nsformers for rectifier
serv ice may be oil cooled or air coo led, ,lll d th e general engi nee ring considera ti ons
connccli
grea t as
appl y eq ually 10 rectifie r tr an sform ers as to other tran sformers. T he differences in
rect ifier transformers 'lrisc beca use o rthe pecul ia riti es which ca n be rc nected onto
th e transform er throug h th e presence in i ts secondary ci rcuit of th e reclifi er. 11.6.4
I n the pas t, th e mercury-a rc rec tifi er wa s widely u:;cd for power rec tifi ca tion . Thccirc
The suscep ti bi lity to 'ba ckfire' or th e rectiryin g clemellt imposed freque nt short
fl exible
circuit s on th e tra nsforlllcr. A primc consideration with tra nsformcrs ror usc wi th
COllnect
mercury-a rc rectifi ers is, therdore, that they sho uld be capable of wit hstanding trans rOi
repeated short circuits. Windings must be heavily braced and clamped to
wi thsHlnd th is duty. There is somethin g to be said for lhe lISC o f to il-wo und co ils
for this duty, since such. coils ca n be readi ly designed to ha vc virtually 11 0 resultant 11.6.5
axi al fo rce fr om electroma gnc ti c fOI'CCf.
The widespread use of silicon reC liners has largely supcrseded mercury-arc The Ci f

rec tifiers, Wi th th is type of rcctifi er, 'b~l c kfir e' docs not occur, and the danger of second:
short circuit on th e transformer in normal opera ti on is vir tually elim inated, out at t
The dc power largely de termines the choice o f pu lse number or ripple provid,
·frequency. It is well known that th is number governs th e ha rm onic co ntent of rC5ultil
prlll1ary curre nt and secondary voltage. T he higher th e pul sc number, the closer the CO l
th e ratio of th e rms va lu e ofllle fund amc ntal of th e primary current is to its total the COl
 SPEC IAL TRA NSFO RM ERS 315
fan~or pumps used rm s va lue an d the lower is the inherent distorti on of the secondary voltage. An
increase in pul se number, however, increa ses the cost o f the transform er and the
number of reclifier elemenls.
.It rogclI
I T he discontinuous anode currents c::..n result in a seconda ry win ding that is
much larger th an the primary winding. owing 10 th e cx tnPt healin g effect of the

nitrogen
anode current form . .,
With the above remarks in mind, the transformer p:Jrameters arc largely
J 1.1 7
)() - 196
determined by the rectifier configuration that is supplied. Some o rtll e morc lIsual
~

)
r 0.0175
0.0065
960
circuits arc outlined briefly below.

11.6.2 Three-phase single-way conlleclion

·- .iI««(
From figure 11 .9(a), Ihe seco ndary currenl cOlllains a dc co mpo nenl which is nOI .
I. []S bee n widely refl ecled in Ihe primary. One-Ihird of Ihe mea n de currenl in Ihe load musl pass
nd 1edical X-ray Ihrough each winding. The primary musl be della con necled . Wilh a Slar-
, connected primary the current in an active phase must relurn to the line through
the other two phases; since there arc no secondary ampere - turn s on the ina ctive '
phase, Ihe circuil would be unbala nced.

11.6.3 Three-phase si ngle- way inlerslnr 'collllection

r'l
To eliminate the effect oCs tat ic magl\cti sa ti on o rthe core,l he secondnry winding
; 1- ,lees arc very may be connected in inter-star, so that each rectifier arm is now supplied by two .
tra,lsformcrs for phases (sec figure 11.9(b)). The mea n raling is hi ghe r Ihan Ihe simple slar
, U
·.; for rectifier connection since the secondary winding kilovo ltampcrcs a rc no w 2/ 31/ 2 times as
r I .nSldcratl ons grea t as for a slar winding. The prima ry can be connecled in eilher sla r or della.
The differences in
h~ on to
11.6.4 Three-phase douDle-way conneclion
recliftcalion.
ucnl shon The circuil in figure 11.9(c) is one oflhe mosl useful recli fier co nn eclio ns. 1I is very
for use wilh Oexible where Ihe Iransforme r is co nce rned. Primary and secondary ca n be
I vit hslanding connected star o r delta as convenient. There is no de compo nent in the
lI1d clamped 10 trans rormer, and primary and secondary ampere - turns are balanced.
coi ls
11.6.5 Six-phase singlc-wny-colll1cc(ion

The circuil in fi gure 11.9(d) is an eXlcnsion o f Ihe circuil in figure·I I.9(n). Eac b "
,e danger of secondary is wound 10 have a vollage o f Iwice Ihe de ou lpul, a nd a lap is bro ughl
imina ted . o ut at the centre or each winding, All three ccntre taps arc conJlec ted toge th er to
or ripple provide a neulral poinl which is connecled 10 one sid <:o f Ihe rec lifier. Eac h o f Ihe
, conlenl of resul.ting six arms carries curren t ror one-sixth ofa period. Sta ti c magnc lisa tio n o f
r. thc closer the core is eliminated, but thc eq uivalent kil 6vo ltampercs va lu e is hig he r than for
10 ils 10lal Ihe conneclion in figure 11.9. .

"

~,,' .', .. ' • '100·

 ,F 'I
316 M OOI:.. RN POWE R T RANS f ORM l:R I'R ACT ICU

f:> s s
iI
II
c

~
" ,. c

• LOAD
+ u
+ I'
LOAD

~ s b ~~

~
C

+
0 [ ~
Dol
0
~

9 LOAD +
'1
I

E 51

i LOAD

Figure J 1.9 R c~ tifi c r circuit arran ge ment s: (a ) three- phase sin gle- wn y co nn ec ti o n;
(b) three-ph ase single-way inl crstar CO llll ccli on; Ie) th ree- pha se double- wa y co nn ec ti on;
(dj' six- phase singl e-way conn ecti on; (e) three- pha se si ngle- way parallel -com po und co n-
, necti on
 SPE IAL TRANSFORMERS 317

11.6.6 Thrcc·phnsc single· ",u), parnllcl-co nllJOlind slar COlIlIl'Clioli

Fig ure I J .9(e) shows the combina ti o n of t wo circ uits like figure 11.9(a), co nnec ted
in para llel with one o f th e tra nsform er sta rs turn ed th ro ugh n rad wi th respec t to
th e other to give a phase dis place me nt o f n/ 3 rad be twee n th e six ar ms. The
com binati on is in pulse number equi va lent to a six- phase sin gle-way ~ t a r
co nnec tion. ~.
In ord er to mai nt ain ind ependent ope rati on of th e tw o component circuits,
their trans former neutrals arc intercon nected through a ll interphase inductor
which absorbs th e instanJa neous voltage di fference between the star points. T his
has th e effec t tha t th e time o f opera tion o f each rectifier clement is doubled to 2n/ 3
rad in comparison with the time of Tt/ 3 in the circuit in fig ure J 1.9(d).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author expresses his thanks to GEC Distribution Equipmcl1 t Limited for
permissio n to publish th e material in thi s chapter.

REFERENCE"
I. T he British Na ti o nal Coa l Boa rd , N e ll 297. Dry. l)'pe Flllllle·p rooj TrailS'
jO l'llll'rs 150- 300 k VA ( 1962)

l.
•

l nncct! on;
~ Innect,lon;
m'. ,lun d con-

J.
 I,
I
12 ,
"

-- . -~

Transformers in Distribu t io n Systems

. .....
~
.,
,. L. Lawson*
I-

,
.'

12.1 TRANSFO RMER SELECTION- INTRODUCTION

T he customer's specifica tion (sec secti o n 3.2) mcels co nslra inl s set by the sup pl y
syslcm, lhc load to be supplied, th e envi ro nme nt al :I Spccts a nd th e need to pro vi de
a reasonably secure s upp ly ,by the mos t eco nolllic mea ns.

12.2 TRANSFORMER SELECfION - CONST:IAINTS OF THE

SUP!'L Y SYSTEM

'"
12.2. 1 C hoice of Ilhasor grollp
Where thl! tra nsfor mer is inh ere ntly lIsed for olle-way (fa me o f load and hence
docs no t need ne ut ra l ea rth ing fa cilities on the higher-vol tage windi ng, a
dc lw - star combinat io n is preferred, since I he della wind ing a nd tap change r will
ca rry lower cur rent an d si nce th ird ha rmo nics are shull ted ou t. Dy careful choice
para llelmg is possible with va rious combina ti ons of tra nsfor matio n (sec fi gure
12. 1).
T he star - Sla r tra nsror mer ;vithout tertiary d ella has been fo un d su itab le in
distri b ution net wor ks not closely associa ted with ge nerati ng poi nts. With
mode rn desig ns th c zcropscq ucncc impeda nce is so lo w that so mc lI sers fin d it
necessary to usc resistance in th e neu tra l to limit earth faul t cu rren ts to avoid I
unacceplably It ig h voltage grad ie nls ncar lite supply po inl (sec figure 12.2). . F
In genera l the cboice of phasor gro up is determined by th e ex isti ng system.
o
, • N(~r l h . Wc s t c rn Elcctl'icit)' Board.
 TRANSFORME.RS I N DIST RIB UTI ON SYSTEMS 319

_ ,_ _ _ _ _ _ _..:'T';:::
m:::":!.y.::':.:iST:::":::"":::';;::'"::...-_ _ _, -_ _ _ _, _ ,6
YO'
~DYI 'yO

I ~cc('lndo'y Od6
I
I

I dlstrlbutiOfl

! i.
I i

I,
Oy ll
~DYI
II
l iflOI d,s:dbvliofl

I, I ,e supply
u

"'~>t<:
id I provide

000
u v w
,
,,
,") ',

"f E •
w' ..' v
I'
'. !

a ~trl d hen ce
I winding, a u' v' w'
eft 1ger will
.urJ Ii cho ice Figure 12.1 P,lrall cling of transformers (the no tation is th a t of reiere nee G 1.1 2, and the
'm (see figure
last dig its referred to clock face indi cate pha se diflcrl:f1cc):*, with con ncc ti ons to lowcr-
voltage winding made non -s t:uldard to COllve rt lran sl'onncr 1t r:ld s hifl to system n/3 rad
II j table in shift (sec lower dia g ram s)
?oi nts. With
~srrs find it
12.2.2 Choice of ,' o lt~lgc ratio, lap runge :I nd tap step
lt ~ 0 avoid
ure y2.2). For prima ry dis tri bution transforme rs it is necessary to all ow ro r an input voltage
. '. ing syste m. which may vary bel'.I.'cen limits above and below the I1OJ .l in Ci I voltage, with an
I) outpu t required at or above nominal volta ge, T he im pedance on anyone tap
~ wi ll bc speci fi ed to limit the fa ult curren t to a specified l e~c l whe n delivered by the
I')
·1
f i
 320 MOIJEK N " OWER TRAN SI-O HM1.:. R I'R ACTl CI;

-. - -. _- --------

.,
- - -._-
V I IrQI1Sl Cttcd vQlloge.
_..1~ten \l Ollo ql'
COndvc lOf e Oflhetl
01 ~ ub~ ro l, o n
f'. su tls lOI,o n
eo r tl1

\ s erYiCe wIth In~ulolea

conoUe' Of eorlhed
0 1 one end
/
/
equiporenliol lines
dv ri nQ POSSOql! of
eo r lh laull CU Henl

Figure 12.2 E ffec t o f hi gh ea rth fault current s

maximum Ilumber of tnlllsfofm cJ'S in r:lr:IIIcI. supplied from a sys tem with a
specified ma ximum fault level; a manufactu rin g tolerance must be a ll owed .
Th e transformer regulation results in the expression ~

(J~/II)' = V5 + 15(X ,,/111 + X ,/ II ' )' + 2 Vol o(X ,/111 + X ,/II ' ) (J 2. 1)
where I f is the f~lUll current. 10 th e load cur rc n!.m the number oftrall sformcrs in
parallel. II the tra nsform er ratio on particular tap. J~ the input volta ge. Vo the
output voltage. X, the input reactance of th e high-voltage system lind X , the
reactance of transformer on a particl:llar la p. The fau lt current on the output
bus bars would be
• (1 2.2)
From these equations it is possible to plot curves of X n/m against 1/ for various
co nditions which satisfy the fault limitation requircments. The maximum and
minimum steps to satisfy the volta gc requi re ment ca n then be calcula ted .
There is a practical and eco nomi c limit onth c.: !l umber of taps and hct~ cc on the
·1 , minimum step. A step va lue of 1. 5 %is not no ticcable on network s with a vo ltage
"'.1I ,.•
"
variati on at the consumer terminals of not morc than ± 6 %; this va lue includes all
the system vollage variation .
.~ I
: :I 12.2.3 Choice of impedance
. r: The ma in advantage of ill he rent impedance is in short-circuit limitation. A furth er
;' (~ uSc is in limiting circula tin g currents when tra nsform ers in parallcl arc on
. : ,I II,:
'I) Ii d if(crcnt ta ppings. With One transfo rm er out of step for II tra ns fo rm ers in para llel,
. ~"
, ,1 !I:
 1 KANSFQKMER S IN DISTK llJ Ul lON SYSTI·MS 32 1
directl y co upled to the sa me hi gh~ and low~vo lt age bu sbars and each wi th th e
impedance Z per phas~, th e circulating curre nt is
1, = 0.0 I x pcr cenl la p slep x phase voliage x III - 1)/ 112 112.3)

J 2.2.4 Mode of ol'crllIioll

I J vOlJoqc,
I ~_(ldu C IOr earlhcd
"
As:.l general denn it ion di s! ribul ion tran srorm crs arc transformers wi l h a load ing
I
:' '1'''0' 0' only dClermined by Ihe load 10 be supplied. Thcy ma y opera lc al vo lia ges up 10
275 kV. Table 12. 1 shows an exa mple for a decisioll tak cn in rn :pcct of th e scc ur ity
I,
of supplies in " highly dcvcloped arca.
Il "~vIOle(l

j ".
w " K((
TA BU :: 12. 1

7il'%u/f.'i
Load Of/e/a il it Mot/{'

IMVA) LO(ld Restort/fiol! time Load RcstuI"(I.tioll lim('

lost lost
l_
up to PI all repair timc si ngle
p. to Pb all sw itching time sw it ched
dup li c:ll c
I. system With
. ;;1
Pb to p( " II ma nn ed control
of switch in g
swi tched
duplicate
[ " ' ,allolVed. p. 10 Prj nil 1111 repair duplkale
P d 10 p. nil 1111 pari swi tching. mu lt ipl e
part repai r
/1/ ') (12. 1) over p. nil part repair lime Inu lliplc
Ir . - -----
1 nS lormers 10
L_ lage, Vo Ih e
'm and X, Ihe The levcls of load P, 10 P, a re delermined by Ihe economics of supply, Thi s

lc' the OUlput includes the concept of firm supply. \.v hich means that a ::ystcll1 is Ilrm if at the
timc of highes t rcad ing it can accep t th e loss 0 1" the largest si ngle unit due to :Illy
one failure wilh oull os ing Ih " supply. Thc si mpiesl case for Iransform"rs is Ihal of
( J 2.2) duplication. Each tran sformer normally carries a maximulll o f 50 % of til e load 'I
i
rOt various bul muSi be en pn ble or carryin£ I he tola I load . " lSla II" Iions of I hrce I""lSformers
provide up 10 67 % ulilisalion (one-Ihird Sub-WH ion load o n eaeh lransformer j
_ JXlmum and
"cui. ted, under normal co nditions, cnch tran sformcr ca pable of o n c ~ lial r s ub~s ta ti o n load)
Icnce on the but at higher capilal COSI. The oulpul lilli ll level of Ihe parallel group ma y be
_th a vollage above tha t of th e switchgea r standard adoptcd . To avoid increased switchgear
lue 'nel ud esall costs whilc minimising coppcr losses, automatic sw itching may be uti lised, where
the lower-vo ltage busbars arc nor mally rU Il in sections and ..a rc co up/cd
automatica lly on loss of any onc tra nsrormcr.
The above are installatio ns co ncc ntrat ed wi thin one site with little, if <Illy,
interconnc'cti on be tween sites. An alternati ve mct hod is to utilisc one trallsrormcr
I ~.A furth er ' on eaeh Sil ~, wi lh Ihe lowcr-vollagc nCllvork inlerco nneetcd. Thcorclieally Ihis
I~CI arc on gives a hi gh possible utilisatio n, but in practice thc maxirnllm is about 80 %. This
r"
~. s parallel, altcrna tive method rcqllire~ heav ier int erco nnecti on between sub-s tations with

,,,, ~ -' "';",- \~ .;;.- '. ~~

-. •", r-"~ .-- ~.:'::-~·I .
 322 M OOERN POW I:R TK ANS I'O I{ M EK PltACTI Ci.:

less concentration of ca ble aro und each sub·s lati on. It is, therefore. economica ll y as
diflicult to chnn ge from one meth od to the oth er ill all existing situat ion.
Selectio n of the mode of o perati on is determined by the overall system
, eco nomics. w
f cc
InduSlrial fr amjor mers ar
Industria l lransforml!cs m:iy supply a mixed land 0 1' II single process. In both cases E
the load cycle is readily predicted. 2
b,

12.3 TRANSFORMER SELEC nON- LOADS SU PPLIED FROM J:

DlSTR18UTlON TRANS FORM ERS ., T
(j
a
12.3.1 Load
p
Di stributi o n transform er loa ds depend upo n th e co nsumer in stallation and u
habits, climate and degree of development of the co untry and can be split down \I

into th e following. C

I: t1
(I) Lighting. f
I (2) Space heatin g.
(3) Air conditioning (cooling). r
(4) Cookin g.
(5) Wat er heatin g. (

(6) Small domes tic power. s

(7) In dus trial (mo ti ve power, process li eatin g. elect rolysis).
(8) Trac ti on.

Li ghtin g has a predicta ble time of day and time of year variation. with
superimposed va riati on due to heavy cloud or fog. Space heating is largely
depende nt on wea ther, the peak occurrin g :'It low ambient tempe rature.
part icularl y with hi gh wind s. In a tcmpera te cl illlate an unu suull y high peak
develops aft er 10 to 14 days of co ntinuo us freezing conditions owin g to loss of
hea t stored in the fa bric of buildin gs, frozen coal stocks. ina bility o r distributors
10 mee t peak demand s ror oil, gas press ure drop and th e usc o f ad diti O il'II elec tri c
hea ters to prcve nt wat er pipes rro m freez ing itS intern al temperatures drop. 111
cold clim ates this additiona l pea k docs 11 0 1 occu r, sinr..:c this wca th er is normal,
since heat insu la ti on is beller, an d since the population is belter prepared i'o r low
tempera ture,
Air conditioning is agai n depende nt on wcather and is sensi tive to increased
tem pe rature and humidit y, givi ng a summer peak. Other loa ds listed are
reaso nably predictable.
", For load estimati on it is usual to red uce measu red loads to standard condi tions
" to assess annual trend s o r to use the estimated load a~scsscd rrolll a nnu a l tre nd to

~ .
,I
 ;

TRANSFORM ERS IN DI S'J' lun UTION SYSl EM S 323

, economica lly ::tssess peak loads. Fo r exa mple. in a temperate zone the peak load is
.1a tion.
) :nlll system Pm = P"" + K,(K, - 0,,,,.) + K,II + K , (E" - E,) ' / K. + K,vw (1 2.4)

where Prl1~ is the pea k load expected under standard co nditi ons. K2 to K7 I,
constants which depend on day or week. SC'l so ns and type o r load, Omnt. the
ambient tempcrature, H th e hUllli ~lit y, Ell th e pot cntia l zc nith solar illuminance,
J,) both CilSCS E f th e rorecas t illuminance and () w th e wi nd veloci ty. K) hos been mea sured at
2 %°C - 1 in one tcmperate si tu atio n. For summer peak , th e second term wou ld
beco me K 3{Orullh - K 2)'

J2.3.2 Load of final distribution transfo rmers

The load ing may v~ry widely in its dai ly pattcrn. Some examples are given in
fi gure 12.3 ta ke n rr om ac tual situati ons in' a temperate zone. Figure 12.3 (,,) shows
a domestic load showing storage heaters ,o n olT-pcak tar in', switching on ~ll a
predetermined time and tai ling orr as ind ividua l thermosta ts operate. An
lallation and unusuall y hi gh lunchtime load is due to the prevalen ce OfYOll IIg llliHricd womcn
rn split down who work mornings only in this pa rticu la r area. Figu re 12.3( b) shows an old
commercial area wi th a high proponion or sto rage heating. a mid ·day boost being
L more obvious on Su ndays. The 0600 peak is due to oOice and shop cleaners.
Figure I 2.3 (c) shows a mi x o r One· and two·s hift industrial work.
When a number of individual f1n al distribu ti on sub-sti.lt ion loads arc sum-
, mated at th e nex t highcr distribution level. the result apprux'illlates towards a
L
tota l system daily load curve such as that in fi gure 12.3td). Such system load
cur ves depcnd on cl imate, on state of deve lopment. on nallona l habit s and. if the
syslem is large, o n the exi stence of diITcrcn t time zo nes. This electrical summation
may possibly be used as the average shape ror nn,,1 diSlribul ion tra nsrormers. The
annu~1I curve of daily peak de mands will also differ with c1im:lle nnd lype of load
. (see fi gure 12.4) .
.tion , wit h
ng ' IS . lilrgcly Ii
~: 11pcraturc, 12.3.3 Optilllllm transfo rll1l'r rotting
I high peak Thc basic. sys tem design to secure the optimum economic l:ondi ti ons mllst take
I•• ,; to loss or
accou nt or the cost or the sys tem to supply the transformer. the ca ble type and
f,.l istribulors cost for distribution, the load density, the max imu m perm iss ib le vo hage drop (I t
! hi electric the co nsumer terminals, ou t-or- ba lan ce co nditions and how far practical
c. 'f drop. In situations'and des ign ma y vary fro m the theo reti cal maximuill . Va rious meth ods
er IS norma l, areavailable 1c , but a typical method. wi th all th ese rac tol s inst:rt ctl c9 uld result ill
r d ror low a simpl ified rormula
IO lincreased load/s ub·stalion = co nsta nt (kW IO- " 111 - ' )' 12
I listed are In 1973, in Britis h conditio ns, this rorm ula indica ted sub·sta ti on rat ings of 500 to

l. }ondit ions .
trend to
looOkVA per sub·sta ti on but , with overhead distr iblltioll and lower load
densities, a much lower result is to be expec ted.
The cabling 'and switchgear should n o rm~tll y ca ter ror th e ultimate size.
 324 MODERN pOWf;K TRANS I'ORMEn rI{A CTlCl~

1.1

,.,

1<)

, , tolol
,, • I
\ I,

I
I
' I

II' : 101
I
II
I
.,
I

:I"
I Figure 12.3 Examples of daily IO;l d curves ~

However, it may be ecollo mic to ins t,ill a Sl1w llcr rating of tra nsfor mer initia ll y,
cha nging to a hi gher rati ng as load deve lops.

12.3.4 Load in g of tra nsformers

,\,"
,I """, A tra nsformer is a thermall y loaded device beca use the hott est spot of the
,~ . J. . ;
, "

.!
 T RANSFOR M ERS I N D ISTR ln UT ION SVSTUM S 325

,i,

._41
-
I

!"
I
'I

il
:~
"
~ o,iOl ion $ due 10 liqhling a nd coolinq
~
:~
mid$ummer

Figure 12.4 Examples of annual curve or dail y ma xirn um 'demand s .I I

insul ati on is th e limiting fac to r. An excessive temper.ture sho rlens its life, With
paper. in sulati on, the paper becomes britt le and rca chc$ Iile final stage when a "
th ro ugh-fault current would litcrally sha ke 00' th e insulation. 'j
The winding temperature depends on th e Imld, o n the efficiency o f th e cooling I'
,I
sys tem, o n the coolant tempera ture and o n th e tim e from tb e app licati o n o f load , 11
The transformer does not have OIlC fix ed ralin g but, for convenience, is,given a
no minal rating formed by the product o f rated vo ltage, rated current and phase
)~
r·
factor, with' the principal tap 'in use, to give a specified temperature rise un der
, steady-sta le conditi ons, The intended tempera ture rise is designed to give
I~
'1
negligible loss of li fe with specified coo lant temperatures,
Those systems whi ch have peak loads during co ld er wea ther can utilise a
greater temperature ri scwithout exceed ing th e max imum hot-spo t_!Smpcrature.
This situati o n has led to the deve lo pment of transformers whi ch are designed for
runl1ing in pairs, with natural cooling. With loss of onc tr ~H1 S fOflner throughout:1
1 _ initially. peak load seaSO ll , uemand ca n be met by th e remainin g tran sform er by using
forced cooling without excessive loss of li fc on the assum ptio n th at peak load will
I not occur above a specified ambient tcmperaturc 1.
In G rea t Britain, WI th an average winter temperature r3.ngc of + 5 to - 5 °C
I and a system temperature sensitivity o f load o f about 2 %· C · drop, th e
,
, I of th e
nnt

- '::. I,' .
....
,

.. \ ."
,, " '"
 326 MODERN POWER 1 /{ANSFORMER PRA CTI CE

increased tempera ture risc (und er forced coolin g condi ti ons) due lO increased Il ccess
I load is appro'xi mately equal to the fall ill ambient temperature, The tem perature perf01
rise under na tural coolin g conditio ns is far greater for the same marginal increase (see cI
of loadin g. While thi s d oes not allec! paired tran s form ers, it is im portan t to no te It is
th ~lt a gro u p of three t ransformers require allxilj~lry cooling suppli es which arc chan g
individually firm since loss DC a co mm on coo ling supply ma y result in cascade where
tripping (sec I1gure 12,5), ' ambic

;.
trip !lCtlll'\Q
1- - - ' -- - - - - - - -
., 12.4
ho tspot tempera ture li mit

Noise
so un e
Th,

12.5

It is I
main
nom;
densi
over!
sta r -

12,6
50 67 100
load PCr Iron!'o!ormer 1%)

Figure 12,5 Requireme nt for firm coo lin g s uppli es to peak -ra ted trans formers run in 12.6.
groups o f three
The
These Ir~"n srorm c rs arc co -ordinat cd with th e preferred c urrent ra tin gs of toge
switchgear and have been desc ribed by vario us manufacturers as an integ rated coSH
system tran sformer, a continuous emergency-rated transformer, H tempcrat ure- mull
load ed trans form er or a pea k-rated tra nsfo rm er. The ra lin g is continu o us, with TI
so me loss oflifc, since a t th ese loadin gs the thermal tim e cons tant is usually mu ch gro \'
shorter than the duration of heavy load.
This principle was used in the past by the use of loading tables which ascribed a 12.6,
cylic overload capaci tyGI.20,G2,2J,GJ,26, With a more realist ic approach to loss of
life and with rega rd to load cycle, load growth during life and lempera tu re The
se nsitivity o f load, it is possible to exceed th e va lues givt;;11 in sucli tablcs, which of. diSCI

, I .'
.:~': ~ '~
.... ,. z,:"l" " ' .
l._
- ....::.:"'~
'
. ::.i..'! , ..:.;';..... ' ' ,'
~. ' .; ..";;'~ '~ : -. ..~
: .
 TRANSFORMERS I N D IST RIU UTlON SYSTEM S 327
! increased necessity refer to the general case. For a specific case. where ma nufacturers have
'he, 'WIDeratlirc performed a tempera ture risc tes t, it is possible lor dctailed calculation to be mad c
increase (see chapter 7).
t to no te It is necessa ry to consider the ratings o f associated cablin g. switchgea r Hnd tap
'plies which are changer in associa tion with transformer pea k rat ing. This is particularly th c ca sc
~Sl ' in cascade where switchgear is ind oors and docs 11 0 t ha ve the S::JO)C benefit fr om reduced ·
ambient temperature, '1

12.4 TRANSFORMER SELEC/'ION - ENV IHO N~IENT

Noise may be of co ncern ij1 ~11<R(~reas; hence spec ifi cat io ns impose a limit o n
so und o utput. This is treated in depth in c hapter 8.
The th erma l efTecls of housings are co vered in sec ti o n 12.7.

12.5 TRANSFORMER SELECI'ION- DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

It is beco ming usual to leave the designer more freedom hy specirying only the
mOlin parame ters sllch as ratio tap ran ge, tap step, ph:. s()]' group. impedance,
nominal load , a ti i'g(s) and a ca pitalisa ti o n figure for losses and by leaving nu x
densit y and otber design parameters to the designer. As ~l preca ution against
overfluxing, that is excessive flux densi ty, noise (and ilar monic output on
star - star tran sfo rmers) may be limited by spccil1ca tion.

12.6 ECONOM IC ASPECI'S OF TRANSFORM ER S ELECnON

AT THE PRE-5PECIFICATION STAGE

r
i - lcrs run in 12.6.1 Ge neral
The total cost of a transformer is in two parts: (1) the ini tial purchase cos ts, .
I
.nt fa tin gs of toge th er with mai nte nan ce, a nd (2) the loss cos ts throu gho ut life. Maintenance
: nt egra ted costs vary little, but rrom low cost - high loss to hi gh cos t- low loss there is a
'peraturc- multiplicity of designs with an optimum overa ll cost.
lmuous, wIth Thc cost o f] osscs depends o n tari ff, on daily ilnd annlw.l loau curve a nd on load
I I much growth over the life of the transfoimcr 3 . 4 . s, 6. '

ieh' 'bed a
12.§.2 Summation of future costs
T he most accurate sys tem of summatio n o f future costs is by th e me th od of
discou nted ,cash flow wh ich places most signi fi ca nce on the ca rly years when

"
, ~ .. .
-.~, .;.~~
.....::.:-
... '.
 ,I 328 M ODE RN POwE R TRANSFORM ER PRACT I<;I! -

rI • tarilrs and loads can be more accura tel y assessed. The reby th e elTects both of J
;.i, '~ ! currency inflation and of indeterminate life spall arc also minimised. In brief a
, ~
nett present sum of costs is es timated by theoretica lly setting aside a sum for each
J
estimated future cost; this sum, if in ves ted at compound il1lcrcsl at current rates
l.: -I" ",, of return on ca pital , would produce by the due date the sum required. The morc
, distant the date, the less is set aside and th e less th e erro r that may be invo lved by
.,
. i' poor estimation or changing conditions .

12.6.3 Tariffs
Losses arc casted against the cost of production or purchase, alld hence for oth er
than generation sys tems at the bul·i<·~Uj1'f1[J tarifT o f purchase. TorilTs arc usually
of two basic parts: a demand charge plus an energy charge, The latter may be sub-
divided into several ra tes, usually by time of day. Fuel price su rcharges and ot her
add itions may be made, so that the fina l tarin' rcnects the cost of capi tal
inves tm en t to generate and distribut e peak load, and the cost of gene rat ed energy
",ilh the mix of generators of various merit fact or wh ich must be employed.
I:Urlher complexity may arise where a number o f dist ribu ti on undertakings
pay a demand charge based on the proportionHtc demand of each at a time of
system peak met by a common generating und er taki ng. Jhis can only be decided
in retrospect.

12.6.4 Cost of losses

List oj symbols
Symbol M eaning Unil
Cr ' annual cost of fixed losses U year -
1ll
I

C (d compo nent o f an nual cos t of fi xed losses uue to demand

charge Um year - I
Cr. co mpo nent of annua l cos t of fixed losses clue to en ergy
charge U m year - I
e l
, maximum demand charge Um year- I
C, annual cost of variable loss Urn year - I
C", componen t annual cost of variab le 1055 due to demand
charge Um year - I
C" component of a nnual cost o f variable loss due to energy
charge . _". U",kWh - '
C wl energy charge at first rate for x h Y~1.r - 1 Urn kWh - I
C w2 energy cburgc at second rate for y h year - I Um kWh - I
Cw3 energy charge at third rat e for z h year - I UIIl kWh - I
D diversity of peak dema nd (see below) rati o
I load currenl A
I, peak load current , A
Ir rated current . /\

"',
 T RANS FORMERS I N D ISTR IB UTI ON SYSTEM S 329
Symbol MeaninK Unit
'fTe~ l s bOlh of
I ,. c urrenl a l time of sysle m cha rgea ble pea k A
d In bnef a
K,
U
E fo r each
K
overfiuxing constant
loss load faclo r
rati o
rat io
t current ra tes •
j.IT he m arc
P, fi xed loss al ralin g kW
P ,. iro n loss including overfipxing compunent kW
in vo lved by
P, variable loss at ral ed load kW
Um monetary unit Um
X , >,, Z see Cw ll Cw2 ' C w ] h

encTr~o~s~~~; Fixed loss

• . l y be sub· i. Iro n loss in a tran sformer will vary with 'flux dcrrrny·"IIrfd he nce with a pplied
vo ltage. The final di stribulion tran sformers wilh o O··load la p se lec ti o n no rmally
'ges la nd o ther I .
ope ra te within na rrow limits of a pplied vo ltage; Ihe majo r po ni on o f Ihe
pf capita l \, allowable variation of voltage at the consumers'term inals is ut ilised in the lower-
l ted ene rgy
I
: e mpl oyed .
"- d erlaki ngs
I ia l ime of
I volt age system. A typ ica l example is where total vOltHgc va riati on at the
consumers' terminals is limited to ± 6 %; this would usuall y be made up as
fo ll ows.
"I be dec ided
Co nlr o l dcad band 2%) 0 11 th e assumpt io n tha I no t all will be
Hi gh·vollage sys lem 3% maxi mum at same time, in any
Transfo rmer 1% one situation to tal not to
Low. vo llage sys tem 5% exceed 12%
Consumers' service line 2%

The res ull a nt cha nge in Ira nsform er loss be lween fu ll load and no load may be
. ., year- I
neg leCted .
L
A system including a tra nsformer with o n-loa d tap chunger is designed to
jJar- 1
opera le o ver a ran ge, as descri bed in sub·seclio n 12.2.2, where highest o ul pUI
,br-'
,dar - I
vo llage is req u ired a l pea k load wilh lowesl inp ul vo llage. This resu lls in a hi gher
n ll x de nsilYa nd hence increased iro n loss. Iypica ll y o f a bOUI + 16 %. Fo r prac lical !i
;;

,
pur poses it wi ll be ass um ed tha llhe va ria ti o n fo llows ~ sq ua re la w in relali o n 10 U
"YTr - , load.
u
u
Ifl oad is defi ned as a fun cti o n o f 1, Ih en iro n loss P F;will be inc reased by a n !J
'car - I
I am Ollnl d epc nde nl o n /(1 '). T hu s i:
,:, ·r,
,k\yh- '
Wh - '
, Wh - '
.-
If we apply thcefTecls of a larifT, wilh lime d ive rsi ly D (which is th e pea k load
(12.5)
I! II
I
I KWh- 1 divided by load a l Ihe lime o f sys tem cha rgeab le pea k de mand), th e COSI du e 10 I'
dema nd charge is
I
(12.6) I:,.
Ii
I'
:

.'

,
;: '.,::"r.'
" • .· f·,
 330 MODER N POWER TRANSFO KM ER IJRACTICE

where the seco nd term is th e Qvc rflu xing component. The cos t due to energy
charge is dCT

C" = P ,(XC~I + yCwl + zCw') +

K. P,
T{ Cwl Jo J(I
r 2
)d l
of'
the
ma
r~l C
+C w2 filI l )dl +Cw., l J (l 2)dl ) (1 2.7)
CO!
where the th ree componen15 of t he seco nd lerm refl ect the ovcrfluxing compo nent 01:
at th e tim es of th e varying tarin ' ratC!i. x +)' + z being tile hours ill a YC"T. op
It is shown in sub·section 12.6.6 th at th e rat io of mean square va lue o f load to i 11 ~
".
th e square of ra ted load may be represe nted by a loss load facto r K ,. The to tal cos t ac
of fixed losses as the sum of equa ti o ns 12.6 a nd 12.7 si mplifies -I. ·- . 'K«(

C: , = P ,{ C,( 1 + K.K~Cw ' ) + xCwl + yC w2 + ze w' + K.K ,C wl } ( 12.8) ·

Variable loss w

Variable loss consists mainl y o f res isti ve loss in th e wi ndi ngs. Stray loss, that is the
load-related losses o ther than resisti ve loss, co nsistin g o f edd y current losses, etc.,
Ii varies with currcnt somewhere bc (wccn a line:lf and a square law rclLlli onship.
I However, tolerable accura cy may be oblaincd by ass uming that total variable loss L
varies as th e square of load current for other than th e largest transformers.
At the time o f sys tem cha rgeable pea k, the load cur rent will ha ve a time a
diversity . T he ratio of load pea k to load al th e l ime o f syslem peak will be IJ
D = 1"11,, ( 12.9)
"f
The char&eable demand is the refo re th a t of losses' du e to I" ID and will be f
C.., = p.C,(I, IDI,)2 (1 2..1 0) f

The energy charge will be of th e fo rm

C"=~i { Cw , f,'J(l l)d l+ Cw, II(I')dl +Cw' lJ(l l) dl} (1 2. 11)

where JJ(I')dl represen ts th e integ ra l o r load squa red . during th e cha rgea ble
peri od .
.,
12.6.5 I\1casllrcmcnl of fael O~S
Ta rilTand rated loss quant ities arc kn own. The clement s to be measured relat e to
load and arc 1m , D and J(l 2)dl.

• Losses of the peak-ra ted transformers (sec: sub-secti on 12.3.4) ilfe usually sia led relative to th e pt'(lk
rali ng. Si nce: transformer peak load is normally only hlllf I hi~ f:J l ing (with pa ii'cd tran sfor mers). a
faclor on must be introd uced int o the denominator of peak load, resultin g in the staled va ria ble loss
bein g divided by fou r. Simi larly with three tran sformers a divisor of (3/ 2)' is required .

.'
 TRANSI·O RM ERS IN D ISTR I BUT IO N SY S II· M S 33 1
· due 10 energy Jm is o bla ina ble from a sim pic mil xi 111l11ll - UCma nd i nd ica lOr. Wh ere cO lli i Ill/ O US ••I

I demand ind ication s are reco rd ed, D is readil y avai la b le by readi ng demand a llimc
of sys tem pea k, For fin al di s tributi o n it wi ll be ad equat e to meas ure demand a t
the time or day and da y or week of anti cipai ed syste m peak a nd to relat e thi s to
m:1Ximul11 d emand during that week, prov ided th c re arc no unu sll<ll di s turbing

II (12.7)
fa cto rs o f weather, publ ic h.oJid ays, netwo rk tra ns fers. e tc.
Jf(J 2) dt can be mea s ur~d by sq uared a mperes ho ur meters swit ched to
., co rrespo nd with tarin' timc rat cs. Such meters afC nvailablc fo r mC[l surcrn cnl of
UXI ~ co mp o nen t ma chin e l o~ses o r ro r es tim a ti o n or tra nsfo rm er loss w he n mete rin g is o n th e
Jrs 1;1 year. o ppos ite winding o f a lruns for mer 10 th e (Ig rccd s uppl y terminal s. This
c va lu e o f load to ins trum e nta t io n ('na y be applied o n a saulpling bH ~ i s a s a feedba ck check o n th e
J'< "T'he to t;:d cos t acc uracy of es timating method s.
:5 I· As a cross-check, in thc average case 'li'_n«C(

~"~ C WI } (1 2.8) so urce load ractor = D K"

load + sys tem
loa(
I
losses
( 12. 12)

wher,c Kp is defined in s ub-sec ti o n 12, 6,6.

ay I-os, th a t is th e I
I'
Jffl t losses, e tc.,
12.6.6 Es timation of loss costs
Jaw relationship.
:ola l va riable loss list of jim},e,. '< )'lIIhols
tr~ , forme rs.
S)'IlIhol M e(mill{} U"it
wil : .lave n l ime
I peak will be

( 12.9)
pr o po rti o n of annual energy ass um ed at peak d emand
pro po rti o n o r annual energy assumed al 111ca n demand
anllua l load I~l c l or
power
ratio
ra ti o
rat io
kW
I
'D ,md wil l be

(1 2. 10)
mea n powe r
peak power
time I T""= I year = 8760 hl
kW
kW
h
i
1
Ow ing to lh e co mpl ex it y ordistribut io n load pattc l'I1 in iI ge nc ral s upply network
i
I ') r} (12. 1 1) it is us ual to simplify by acceptin g an approximation to a 10 i-ld c urve co nsisting o f
a proporti o n o f/ oad taken a t pea k load rate with th e remainder at mean ral e_ This
l the chargeab le is illus trated in figure 12.6, where a and b arc propo rti o ns o rthe to ta l energy p .. T.
This me th od gives a res ult based o n load fac lor, which may be 'meas ured as total
energy di vided by rnaxirnum demand .
If we d efin e the annua l load fac tor K.a s the rati o o rm ca n load PO' to peak load
Pml we ob tain I
;:.IS I cd re lal e to
K" = 1'"./1'", = (I I I'", T) 11'<1 r (1 2. 13) I
T he d efinition o r loss load fa cto r K, as the rati o of mea n load of losses to peak
I reI ve to Ihe (It' ok
' cd I Ilsrormcrs), a
load a f losses gives j
: s ta ted variable loss
cqu ircd.
r
K, =
'r
(I /P,~T) 1
f(l)')dr (1 2. 14)
I
,i
i
 f
It
!
!,, 332 M OOE RN I'OWER TRANS FORME" PRACTl er:

I, ::,,'Y'
/II

/I

'I
Q

o
Lo:
IOO d curve
nct
Figu re 12.6 Trnnsror mer annual load curve
'- "'K((
" .. ,, '0,.• , " Th
If ;"'e use the simplified load curve (figure 12.6) with the total energy area
sut
W ';' TP... the energy ratio b = (T, - T, )P,, / W and th e ra ti o
J
a = (T - T')Pn.lW = (T - T')Pn.lTP ... th e integ rati o n o f equation 12.14, with
rat
equa tio n 12. 13, res ults in

, K, =
. ,
b(P,, / Prn ) +aP,,/Pm =
,
aK, + bK, (12,15)
"PI
!,
The proportions a and b may be adjusted to all ow fur time o f day energy rates,
fro
T hey are es timated by experience co nfirmed by S<1I11ple stud ies as described in
sub·secti on 12,6.5, if we note equation 12,1l
The energy cost of variab le loss may be stated as
Th
C" = P,K,C., (/,/l ,)' ( 12, 16) th'
An example o f estima ti o n of loss load factor is give n in appendix AI 2, !. gr<
, i, ch:

12,6.7 Eff«:t of loa6 growth- changing transformers

i. Lis/ 01 fiu ther symbols

~
Sy/llbol M eCHling Un il
C any of the costs a ri sing annua ll y Urn
aiI c. annual cost of capital U
C, to tal amount cost of changing a transformer Urn"
," C, recovered va llie o f an exis tin g , joi
n U du
transro rmer
dl~i l cost o f a replacement '" in
...... C, capita
j t.
,,11
~ "\ .' transformer Urn

'/
l' "
•

:n"
I.~ C,
0
cost of changing a transformer
annual grow th rate (IOO y is percentage
Um

, grow th) rat io w

.Y
"l . :"1
• ::

. 'i ii,'
1
I
fm
f•
maxim um annual peak load
initial 3i.1nual peak load
A
A ro

. -( 6r!

1 lill' . I.;
 .,
TR ANSFO RMeRS IN D IST Rln UTlON SYSTEMS 333
Symhol A1 c(l llill~ V I/if
11/ multipl ier of cost to change to
a,nnuai charge rati o
II rate of return o n capit al (10011 is
percentage re turn ) ratio
q num ber of years \. years
Q number of years to payoff costs of
a change yea rs

Load, except 10 a fi xed process unit, wi ll change from yca r to yea r. In gellera l
ne tworks th e tre nd is a co mpo und grow th rate of th e form

1 = 10 (1 +g)' (12.17)

ltal energy area This leads either to change to a higher rated transformer o r to reinforcement by a
1 I the ratio elsewhere,
s llb ~s tali o n

, . 11 12. 14, with 1n th e general case of fin al distributi on rndi ;,\ll y from a single tra nsform er th e
I ra ting may be se lected from the preferred num ber series with steps of ra ting
approximalely eq ual 10 Ihe fiflh root of len, for example 315, 500, 800,1 250 kVA .
I (12. 15)
(I +1/)'= 10°" (1 2.18)
Jay energy ra tes.
• described in
0
from which
'I = 0.2/ log( 1 + 'I) (1 2.19)
The li fe helween changes is ind ica led by table 12.2. T he ind ividual lransfo rmer
(12.1 6) Ihcrefore , la ri S life wilh 10 ' 0;' = 0.63 of full load, ris ing wilh compoun d ra lc of
c. ix A12. 1. growlh to fu ll load. Fu ll load in Ihis co nl ex l is th"t load al which il is econom ic to
change a trans former to th e nex t hi gher ratin g.

TAIILE 12.2

100g 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
I Unit q 46 23 15 II 9 8 7 6 5 5
, J um
Um
Um T he costs of ac tually cha ngi ng a trans former (civi l wo rks, Iranspo rl , cabling,
joi nl ing) sho ul d be paid 01T we ll wilhi n Ihe li fe before Ihe nex l change becomes
Um due. The paybac k period Qmay be selected frolll lable 12.3. T he annual charges of
inleres l and repay ment will be
Um
U ( 12.20)
'"
rati o where C, is Ihe cos I of cha nging, excl udi ng Ihe capital cosls of Iransformers.
, A The cnpi lal va lue ora recove red tra nsro rmer in a small ind ustrial system may be
A resa le or even scrap va lue, but in a large sys tem, where the transformer is alm ost

, ' J

. -~
. __ ...._.
.............. .- '·~ l · .~J: .· .
_ I .;-.. , ....:
.. ....
~
.,u~,
'1
dU
,~
. .-. ". "; ""~
I ~ I "
r-: I'
 334 MODERN PowER TRANSFORMER l'HACTICE

:: '~. =c..;;;
' •, TADLE 12,3 If
til
Q 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
I~
III 0.576 0.402 0,315 0.264 0.230 0.205 0. 187
Ir

certa in to be re used. th ereby avoiding the purchase ofa new transfo rmer, it may
All o
chal
be given a 'notional' va luc eq ual to th e current purchase price of a new
tran sfo rm er. When reused it shou ld nga in be charged at notional va luc.
as 1I
equ;
The purchase cost ora new transformer is sp read ove r its life usi ng the constant
cha rge meth od ofcalculatiol1. Since the life may confidently be expected to be 40
years. the annual cost C. becomes
All
(I+ 11 )'° 11 bell
C. = 40 C ~ li e (12,21)
(I + II) - I fror.
con'
For example. if the interesl rate is 10 Yo.. the express io n becomes 0,102e, The tOlal accc
"
annual chargc'Cc of chan ging a tran sformer, therefore. becomes during the initial
pro'
period \\
( 12.22) afte
eno
The cosls of supplying tra nsformer losses at varying loads wi ll be as shown in F
figure 12.7. Curve A relales to a smaller tra nsfo rmer lhan curve B. The costs of
zero load arc equal 10 the COS I of fi xed loss of II," Iransforme r. T he vertical (~

intercep t CD indicates an annual amount avai lable to pay for change to a larger (\
rating' Or EF to pay for change to a lower raling. The economic decision mlly be (c
,I staled ,in the following way. (c
(.
A
(J
(I
(I

/I
B lilli,
tran
,
0,
/1
~
I will
I
1; I nec(
,F I
§ , I CCO I
I I jusl
~e I I
0 I T
I I give
,,
I I
,,
I
,I IH
lood
In t
I,ess,
Figure 12.7 Costs or supp lying trall srormer lo ~scs ilt \'al'ying loads
 TRANSfORMI; RS IN DISTlUU U1' ION SYSTEM S 335
If by changing II (mll sfarmer th e losses will he reduced ~ U l: 1! that the snvi ll g in
annual cost will be grea ter than the return required on th e ca pital em ployed ,
8
,. that change should take place provided there is no foreseeable reversal o f the
O. [87
trend of load grow th .

'mer, it may Allowance may be mad e ror load grow th a l1d optimum load ing round ror
' . :1of a new changing transfo rmers', but, if we w'ke a pessimistic vicw and a decision on fa cts
I d lue. as they ex ist, the following expressio n may be derived from equation 12.22 with
?C cOlIS talll
equa tion s 12.8, 12. 10 ,"d 12. 11 or 12. 16
led [0 be 40 (12.23)
All quantities may be measured or closely estimated. The widest variation
between sites is possibly the cost of changing a transformer, since this may vary
(1 2.2 1)
rrom bare connec ti ons with bare bushings, as th e chea pest example, to
eompound·filled cable boxes, additiona l cable per phase required ,and difficult
" . The total
access, as the m'ost experisive.1t is, therefore, convenient to modify calculations to
the initial
provide a value of C3 as the justifiable cost of change.
Where the exercise is repetitive, it is convenient to provide tables (recalculale~
(12.22) arter every tariff change) and a standard'rormat ror site ca lcu latio ns. In a large
enough system a computer programme is practical.
s shown in
Factors lead in g to change to larger rating arc as rollows.
T he costs or
- he vertical (a) Higher load.
10 a larger (b) Higher load factor.
isi on may be (c) F latter load curve.
(d) Low diversity of demand.
(c) Slower rate or grow th (longer to pay back).
(I) Lower costs or change.
(g) Lower interest rate.
(h) Existing tra nsrormers with high losses.
It is possible th at, owing to chan ge o r process, a n industrial load wi ll rail with
lillie cha nge of rcvival, It may be economic to change to a lower rating of
i'ral1sformcr. The Sa me format ;.lIId tablc~ will apply.
It can be seen that for the converse case ofa specific method of connection there
will be an optimum load ing a t whic h to change a tran srormer. This is not
necessarily at or ~lb ove the full·load rating. Lower·loss transfo rmers ·will be
eco no mi call y loaded to a hi g he r propo rti o n or th eir ratin g be rore a chan ge ca n be
justified.
The maximum economic load is esse ntial information in the othr.rcomparisons
given io appe ndix A 12.2.

12.6.8 Selection of initial rating of tra':1sformcr on II given site .

In this case, the method must bc onc of estimat ion. The basis of co mparison used
lessens the effect of future changes of tarin·s. in terest rates, eq uipment prices and
 •..,,"

I ,. .' ~ ....
" "
.'

II 336 :. 1CJPF IW "()\\"U{ "' RAN SI ORMEI< " ltA("TlCL:

J,
errors in cS lilllalu/ l 1,)[ flit 1I I'C growt hs by discou nting futu,·c costs to the prese nt th e s)
day. Theo re tica ll y, Ihe '" no unt at the present day whic h, in vested at compound
;nl,:rcst. will I11C~'t the future cost is used in comparison studies. This is the
j'
r. sl.? 'Hlnrd Icchniq ut! know n as a discounted cash fl ow study.
The problem reso lves to co mparin g different combinatio ns o f tran sfo rm ers, by in wh
,'.
m:ill,l.! the anllllalloss cost,s, and the eco no mic lmlo at which a change is made as beror
d ' , '.Io ped in sub·section 12.6.7. Such" stlldy is lIlllenable to computer treat melli, Th.
b:,: . sin ce it is a t most an annual determina ti on of po licy, it is not beyond th e kilow
hounds o f a m odern des k calcul:!llII .
J\ typical stu dy is sho wn in npP 'l lcli, /\ 12.3. show ing th e wort h IlIIder th e stated
conditions of adop ting a p rogl':lIli:nc o r changing transformers (0 mee t load
grow th and of usin g low-loss tlan SrOrl11crs. and I
equal
, i
12.6.9 Selec li on of (r :l1h.fM II :C'·'i for purchase
·1
,
..I.,..."
';~'
i!.
Specifica tions c:;;: : o'l ly .l~!-, ~ 1 1111.' tfls ts oflo:-.scs at one point in history and ror one
particula r load \·'It , ' no l!\' lug In the tim e una voidably taken in revisi ng A we
ii! speciflca t iolls. it it' P') ',' ,h. 1 spl . I~ ! lr ed loss va lues me not the m os t economic, WI
Given tila t t,:l' . rOt 'c r~ ;I .,\, :1V:,ilable with lower losses at a premium price. the mcth
ovcr<1lJ t~o. a ~~ h l'!l kl "'': 1;'..'1 1 .i:"'! "c.l II i3 use l ul to reduce th e cos t or losses La two load,
c:1j1l ta li:,JIH)i\ ftC. to : ;, by a I
Tk,,' ·:i l..! '! <: 1 C'\:H' b n,c process with known load characteristics. ]n
; li d l;,!o: t , l, d (sec t
I. t;r .•. .,,,!, I . . ': i : \1('1. .: ';; i I V I .... I · .~ timatc
the loss load rac tor, as in sub-section
'\~ f ' ....:\ i ~I\.!f.~ In '.I ;rc J(I:td annua l changcs. In genera l, the a nnual
' ,~
I 'J '.1,
, i\
I ,. ; 1\ 1 ' '.1 C' , I.I; .pd tl li:t 1\;lll:c; I'I.' rnH; r wi ll grow toa maximum economic val ue (scc
" I!, I",
ij .. !... ,.' (" ~l 1'2 .6,7 ) ;'11 ..1 ,h\ ' 11 will n:dl to a lower v~llu c when it is removed and

':'~
; " I 'll' ! d:\ "ht'!'p 10 n.li c "c th e next lower size. As described in sub·sectioJ1
l ) ,(\ . f \). \ h(' .'I(cf.:: l'l'cU nll ing series, this will be in a fixed ratio to the maximum.
J !~ ..., -IJ '.I II.!:11 ma xi mum dcmands will thcre rore rollow a sa w· tooth pattern, _.
I'l l<' cos t of losses throughout th e life will be the su m 'of the cos ts of the
1I'
".
0 individlla l yea rs. disco unled to the rre~c l1t day. ror the fi xed loss this may be
,
,~
obtained precisely as the sum or th e series
I .~
,., i q
1- (1 - 1/ )- ' TI
' .. (1 2.2·
,;:'{I
, /I
max
12,2
multiplied by th e t:'1.'1~ ' ! ~ : I:. "Il!' i in 1..:,11.: 11 yea r. to a
, Fo r the variabk: 10\\ I: ! ....., ill caL' h individu al ycar must 'be mu ltiplied by the tran
tcrm of th e abo ve !o.1: t jr·s. \\'hik ;1 i ~ r o~s ible to WI it(! an estimated load pattern Ii
calcu lat cd ror each YCill vI' life ;1Ild ~ urn rlJ a l cd, the ove ra ll accuracy is relatively sud
low. It is usual to as~css the mea n s qu ~r re va lue, to treat this as a co nstan t ulll1ual may
r.:harge and 10 summa te as ror Ihe I;xed loss. • F,
Tile lo.id grow th is us ual ly of the form give ,; in equation 12. 17, with J s13rting shou1
,. <! ( i' ri-;illg 10 a lliiJ xi mlJm "'1,IJld 1111; 11 res1a rt ing at 10 , rorm ing a s~;w- t oot h . With
ulilis

I,
... -. ..
,I
1 ~ ~

',. ':
..~. ' ..' ...\'.,,:.1.::'' .. ,+
~:

,,
1
, "
l
 TRA NSFORMERS IN DIST RIBUT ION SYSTEMS 337
as (h e present the symbo ls listed in sub-secti on 12.6.7 the m ean curve sq ll ~l rc va lue J'~l' is
e'; ( compound
j This is the I' = l 'r~( I + 2'd _ J5(l +g)2 - I =
Q
f '- J ~ (1 2.25)
"" 0 0 Q g) q - Q 21n(l +0) ' 2In(1,,/ 10 )
I
tr? nsrormers. by in wh ich J",= / 0 (1 + (I)Q. from equa ti on J 2. 17, wh ere /m is th e ma xim um curren t
I J:c is made as before a change o f transformer. This va lue is independent of grow th rate.·
~ .. l~r treatm ent. The co mpletc expression for the 'fix edM Joss cap italisa ti on fac tor K, r per
no beyond th e kilowatt is, th ererore, with eq uation s 12.8 and 12.24,

'5
('r tli e stllfc.:J
to meet load
K ,, -_ I - (I "- II ) - QC,p ( (1 2.26)

and tha t for the variable-loss capital isa tion factor K" per kilowa tt' is, wi th
equations 12.10, 12. 16 and 12.24,
,
,. I
K = J.-( I '- n)- ' i' C,.+C" I
Iv , m~ l' (1 2.27) I
and for one /I •

(Cn in rev ising A worked example is shown in appendi x AJ 2.4.

I,
1
l'lo.~ economic. . __ When rei nforce mcnt is based on the ad9iti oll of another sub-station, one
n m p ri ce, the method is to assume that reinroreement stages are firstly to relie ve two fully
c. .. sses to twa loaded subs ta tions by one adcl ition, next to reli eve these th ree when rully loaded
by a furt her add it ion and then to-consider the four resu lting as Iwo separa te pn irs
:tcriSlics. In (sec table J 2.4).'
sub-sec ti on
T"IJI-I'. t 2.4
"al, (he al1n u:1I
I- it value (:-'Cl' Sl(l~(! 2 3
moved and
in sub-sect jon Nf.1(\\·ork 0 0 .0 0 0 0
Ihe maximum
0 0
t [,a ttern. ® 0 ® ®
'" osts or the
Lo((d before 100 % tOO % J OO':~
'ss r 's may be
.. . " LOOlJ a/fer 67 % 75 % 67 ~n

~!t:.:..!.~._.- .. !.:.._~~:..=.:." , ,1.

:·'v ;:,:':.;This makes 10 alternately 67=~tl-d;I~~:..()r"}" T'-: th e 'mea n sq uare va lue o f annual ::
,.
•i .
/. (12.24) max imum demand becomes 0.723, wli ich may be used in equations 12.25 a nd I
1"2,26 for ca lcu lation of capita lisa Iion factors, Th is Idcn liscd met hod is eq uiv:J len t
to a tra nsrormer util isa ti on or 85 % (42.5 % o r peak rating on each or a pair of
\ iplied by the transfo, mers). . .
: 1),1 d fW. {(ern It shou ld be no ted tha t, where voltage variation is reasonably slllllil ( ±2 %)
ICy is rclativt.! Jy sHeh as on th e illp"t of fillal distribution ,trall sfo rlll ers, th e O V~ I illlxil1g fi lclor K ,
~ stan t ann ua l may be ignored by making it eq ual to ze ro in equat ion 1 2.~,

• From equa tio n 12.25 Ihe rills value ma y be obt ained. Wi th idea l uliliS,'l!iu n ur transrormers this
" Ih 1 starting should be equa l 10 the sum or maximilnl demands dj~idcd by the inst"llcd c:\padty, tha t iscqua ll o the '
IW-(O O l h . With ,
utili sali on fac tor,
i'

'. ,
,,
, ,.
 338' MODE.RN POWE R 1 RANSFQRME R PRACTI CE

12.6.10 Reduced voltage drop in fra nsfornl(.' rN

12.
The' change to <l larger fa ting o f tran sformer will red uce th e ' vo ltage drop in
meeting';) gi ven load . For a supply au th ori ty th is wi ll mca n an increase in dema nd Th
al peak pe ri ods. E nergy sale s a rc o nly marginall y a frecled o n s upplies 10 coo kin g, ad(
wa ter hea ting :md stonlge- typc hea ling but will increa se 10 lighting, direct-ac ting fro
hea ti ng and iron loss of tran sformers and machines. in (
The improvement ill energy s~dcs will be hll'gcly sc lr-ctl llcc lling with the lila
increased demand charge and has been i£fl ored. particularly since indicatio ns are sys
-. tha t th e eco nomic loadin g of tran sform ers should not involve excessive voltage
dr op s.

12.6.11 Capilal ralioning 12.

The economic judgment must be based 0 11 th e cosI of ~Ipital. This is no t always
the sa me as interes t ratc, since an undertak in g may have capi tal res tricted by
po lilical or econo mi c p ress ure. T he eOS I of capi la l is Ih e n equ iva lenl lO Ih e ra le or
return o f com petin g projee lS. .
,
"

12.6.12 Rl·lations to other mcthods of using fncturs

II is co mmon in th e USA 10 ulilise ralher dilTerenl fae lo rs, whi ch may be eq ua led
as fo ll ows, wilh Ih e symbo ls give n in th e s ub-secli o ns 12.6.4 a nd 12.6.6
(sys lem in vcs lme nt / kil ovo lt a ill pere peak load) x (res po nsibilil y
faclo r) x (disco unl fa c lo r) x (carryin g charge ra le) = C"I D

ann ual load fac to r = K p

annua l loss fa clo r = K ,
eosl of e nergy 10 ulility = C.
where
8760C .. = xC .. , + yC. 2 + :C. 3
In the situatio n with sma ll er fina l distribut ion tra nsfo rmers transformer
regulatio n is of grealer impo rl wherc th e load i!) ofa vo lta ge·scnsi ti vc form, that is
direc l-a clin g devi ces (sec sub-seeli o n 12.6.10).
Parts o f Continenta l Europe usc the principlc of wo rking hours per annum , 12:
that is the hnul's at fu ll lo ad to incur tbe losses act uall y incurred in a full yea r with
Ih e a clu:iI load T h·
hUl
.. Working ho urs pe r annum ro r
K, = 8760 ciT<
co ,
Al so
gra
Simullan eil y fac lo r = I I V Ih e
D lhe; fa clo rs arc de oned by co mm On mel hod s a nd s hou ld be ~ea dily tran scribed. ad,

,"

, '.. • . ,. -j. .., ;1:"·

 II TI<AN SrORtIo'IEIt S I N DI S IIHIH ITION sr STI MS 339
II - 12.6.13 S)·stem losses
Iv.tage drop in
lcreasc in demand The lranSrorrr:: ~ ' ~'SSCS thclllscl,vcs present a load to the supply syste m. causin g
r '"l I'sto coo kin g. additiona l CNU : :"line and tra ll sformer losses in that pan of the supply system
t Ii. direc( ~;.lCl ing from the po i n t~: ';" hich energy is mctcrt:d lip 10 the termina ls of the transforlller
I in questi on. It I:'. ~:t:rcforc. normal pra cti ce to jll c rc~l Sc th cca lculat cd loss costs of
1ce" :ng with the that tr<ln sforr.~;,~:-y a fi xed fac tor of abollt 2 to 4 "')' depending on the supply
dicalions me sys tem .
..' cssive voltage

12.7. TEMr[R.~TURE Ef'f'EeI'S Of' ENCLOSURE Of'

~hi s is no t always AIR-COOLED TRANSf'ORMERS
, restricted by
List of "Ylllhois :"~'J
.J 10 the rate or SymiJol Mco,'-..; Ullit
A wall 0' roor area Ill '
A. ventil.:.:.' r area m'
" c'
t!n'l\: t i\~ height between in let and outlet I'll
" may be ~q uot ed hi inlet h~:E ht m
'--:1-.
2.6.6 Ii, QUilt', r ~ ig ht m
1\_ ~spoqsibility Ii, heighl :.'1 top or trans former coolers m
, Cb/ D K. head 1.-" ractor or venti lotor
P, po\\ a ~ . )s ip::lt cd by convection w
Pd po\\ er .;: . ~s iptllcd through walls w
P, totalt,.:.cs ro rmer loss W
P ran pr,;; ure head N m- 2
I ' V ran di,.,-!13 rge ms- I
I. 0, tcmper..:: urc at inlet 'C
0, t cmIX~:urc at outlc t 'C
/),0. Icmper.!: ure ri sc al OUl lct 'C
/',.Ow tcmpcr..:.:urc difference through wa ll 'C
'__ .. tran sformer
A wallth,:mal conductance Wm - 2 °C- 1
iti e form, that is

( per annum ,
12.7.1 f'ore~ord
n a rull year wilh
The contents or t::' secti on, excl udin g the paragraphs on extreme cold and
humidity. arc bJ..~': on reference 7 and arc in mC lricalcd and grea tly abbrev iated
rorill. This rcr""'.:e shou ld be consulted roc fuJI detads and d iscussions or the
eficcts or sulrst":vn layo ul, caicu lations or vcntilation and tempera ture
conditions, the eff:-..-....) of ambient and varied loading conditions. cLc. Th e author is
gra te fu l to the E!=-.::dcal Research Association for thei r permission to publi sh
these brief cxtr.!:".i and to Mr M. R. Dick son for his personal help and
II' .tra nscribed . advicc.
I .

I-
 I .. " ,

; . ..11) 1'1 " ' ; I',. ,'f ,lt t ' ~ \ ,"': I III' 'il l> I' tt.\ C , ., I

,ll, ~I" :: I L.'.' 'd'; ,11,,"" l ot hc

''1 , I; , :10,( "Ili d! 11~ \', tl h (I, " 1\ 1;11"; 1, "lin : r, ' \' 1/ tO u '" /"( '; 1 ., "'" II l ila ), be
"','r. 1 ~ ,:' ;l r," I ' LI ,;1, ).';,.! ,I 1I:r I ,~ l l" "it " I I U~ I 1: ... 1\. illl~ I hI.: , di('"! I" ,( Y u : .P li l i n g and
Ih~l d,' r. (" lcing t~ ~c 1 ~ llin r : ' ,,1, 11 :111 " J\:,,~t h,JI r h~ ' ";' li ll. Jd:lx in1um
I.

!i! I; ":'~ ' 1 ·It: IL' :i ~('. Til \ ;'I;tjrHi l ', ( ,," l:' rgr, tr:\ f: ',:.' 11I 1:'\ i l l l,.: ,'" 1'(1/" .." I~r \'. it h a t
!c"~I I J,c ~)i i all h V;ll l.!>. ~ h :II1 L" I " Illd ,' ; q~ \':ill, :, i' :l·Il·H, I: ' '!I'.'!'I '; I ' j", , I 'll, lh nc
"",' '~I Illy 11 1' II !( ' ' ;' I·, d\..'! 1' 1 nll 11d "JI' tl If , I '/"<111 \,) , Ill" '; \', !r il' l' 'I,: :d ,li' li t) Ido rs
,ln, 1 lor \ fl l c.: h t!li' f\ J1!l 'willt~ : I' k. II I.\".
~: ·ll j :. 1:-::11 \\itl h ~ d! , i l\ I ;:1\,\11 11 ' ' It\'II~ \~ ,: ;1, " ,C This
i': f ~'l l"1 i 1. '11 is (' l,) i ~ " ;1 1CI I,;. II " I' ' l ,'"t' ."t lu !\.' \11, : .. ,;_ • ,,, gil Ih e
\' ''!!,l hl ~ l!r ;: nJ1dr.; (,)l H ;d .. 1 'I\.J(I I:. ,. J'h nl,"'" I h!'\ " I,q'( 1t:rcnce
:j:l (kp. " 1.1 \' I h r jl;:11 <l l ll' ·J.H:h.. .I(,,:Y u l '1111' 1,,')1 1' , Ike, 1)I,', lt n,I!. 1 I, Ie that
;,:' '; I; l i l "I, ~ I. SSI !):i ~tl . l:X~'C roi
' p r 1 Ir<II: ~rC l l:l ll '. '. , !, i l, /t I"; ,"cry ,tt! , . ,npared
\ ill. II ,,: ',','ili; "l i"t'~\. I'hi" di:... ir:lh,d h .,.s ;.;

(1 2,28)

' ,1 , ,",, 1(\ general

II:' l;ul..:r :/;, 01 h: l clw I' " tIl ": Ii t t, 'n c.; !If' 1.\<:11 1:1 I: ' ;~j . l ::e lo w
;~ ' \~'I: " :' II ':' : Ti ~ ':,llid lo \\" thl: 1: 1'11 t~ ll! h ll ;.: !.\, 1..' I.:, "
, .' y \,, 11 ,> , llh),! iun vi' lk' t ,t :\i : l' ;; ~,
I
" ;. J I:
I ! (, ' i ,~ , "1 I
, :1; I" (
,. 1

:1!
!,
"
"

..
II t f'
: "

'I " ,
:; \ " Ilf '
"
til 1": 03
I I
"
'"
"') 1),- ",,! , " ','..I 'i )
"

:i ' II I ~' I J. >; i,' .:'( ~ \ ,1.. '. ,'I, ';,

'" 1,'1 11 ' t i:d l ; I q " . . , the loss
., ; r , (0 !h ~
"
"
~: ("11 '1(,' ~ I' c' :1:,. 1 I,' till; l ing air.
;:; i" ','I' : I '; / '~<l ll ll·l. •
" :1.
"
:: ,1 ;'I! l j'.,d :', ,: ",! I\'cc ti on
""
i, c ,• ~ 'd I,: !L" . 111'1' ;,1, .- , (' ,11d ' , 's a rc n OI

...
 ,I

TRANSFORMERS I N D ISTR IH UTION SYS1TMS 34 1

placed ~ll the ex treme to p and bottom o f th e wall s. th e reductio n in heig ht s of th e
losses to the ou tl et is more <.I c lrjlll c nl ~1I than a si milar increase in heig ht o f the inlct

il may be
I coo lin g and
;'111' maxi,mum --I
(S,d~"
] ,or h :It \\' iI

[aLi bu t there
, ]1 eed indo ors r,
\. ("")
roor, This
nee thro ugh Ihe urwenlilOled . vt l'lliiOICd

: II'C ditTerence
, 'C n o tc tha t .!_. .... .....
-~~.~-.
: F igure 12.8 Ai r 'co nvL"C lion curre nt s
small com pa red
----, temperclufe
(12,28) ; (- Ol t · IC,,~_,~~~e~. lfQ I1 .. to'fT1cr ;n ~,ce oir
I 01 1 l C,npt. Cllu '(> , ; ~ e, I.'lIc tOl>cd IrQI'I!> f o,mcr
_ _.~_ , OUlitt / '
c noted tha t the
i :, In gcn~ra l
"
,
:
' ,

~ y.
1,1
\. . U..1CC th e low
pail! ClO se o nl y .- -- - ~

I
'l'le-- ,') -~-
.• inl p"

.... !:.-,,.

12.7.3 Ventilator pos iti on

-.~ ,
Exce pt as ' no ted kt.lcr und er the effects of wind, for given ve ntilator h eig ht s and
s i ze~J h~~ri~n l ,! (ro n ~cl 9cs_: n o(. grea tl y afTeet th e Ill,iin tcmpc rature dis tri bution.
;(n y-nlaJ6r;;:'cffistfu 9Ijo il- 'lc~l ra"'=VCill where the speed of air fl ow is highest wi ll
for m H,n' obst r.lI cti Olil O now <Jnd sho uld be avoided, Icavillg'th e trans ror mer ill a
[I di rec t 'iinc o r sig ht fr om th e ve ntilat ors; however, ir we pla ce th e trall s ror me r
direc~ly-in Ihe cold air slream which Ilersisls ro r 11 0 1. 5 111 rrom lh e inlel, Ihi s may
redue~ ,n,,,
oyera ll lemperalure rise by up 10 15 %, T he besl resu hs a rc wi lh Ihe
.~ in lel al 'one-I hird 10 one- halrlhe height or Ihe Iransrorl11cr coolers, Ir we place Ihe
l _
transform er too cl ose to h wa ll, th is m ay , h owever. restri ct the air fl ow, leadin g to
°ng Ihe loss 3 to .4 0.c excess over the t e l11pcr~tures that rcs ult if the spacing or the tra nsformer
Iilati ng air. from 'the wall s is nOlless Ihan Q,5ml ' ,
:onvccti on R~T;cnt's s h ould be app lied wi tfl ca re si nce, if above th e transformer. th e
",,'n,'o, arc no t h ca~c,~ ai~' ma y tend to be rcmoved with ou t mi xi ng with th e gc ncra l air flow,
j::,.. , . • ,
r··~-
, ..: .- .
-,
, .',
.. ..
,
~

,
,J

-'
 342 MODl:.KN "0\1/1.; 1< rK ANSFO RMb H. PK M .."I ICE

which meall s th at less air. but at higher tempera tu re, is circulated and th at the
., tra nsformer temperatu re may be hig her.

12.7.4 Calculatio n of nuturall)' convcclil'C now

Essentia ll y. the calculation is an itera tive met hod with the foll owing steps: (I)
assume a reduced rating. (2) calc ulate th e transfo rmer tempera ture rise at th is
rating. the perm issible .~ir temperatu re rise for the transformer h O I ~ spo t limi t
(a ll owing for jet effects direct on th e transrormer. etc.). (3) ca lcula te the wa ll and
roar loss and (4) arrive at the loss to be dissipa ted by co nvec ti on. T he effective
height between inl et and outlet is th en applied 10 find th e effec tive area of
ventilators required ,
Ir the ca lculatio ns arc repea ted ro r a second red uced rating a nd the outdoor
rating is used as a third point with infini te venti lator area, this enables the
co nstructio n orn curve of I/ A;against PI which may be used to read off either the
red uced rating with a particula r ventilator size or the ventilator size to be fitt ed for
a particula r required ra ting.
Full delails or the calculation meth od a re gi ven in rererence 7. Metriea ted
versions of the essential formu lae are appended here fo r co nvenience of
conversion when util ising Iha,t referen ce. The co nvectio n loss is. with the symbols
given above,

p, = ( 12.29)

( 12.30)

( J2.3 J)

Representati ve va lues of K v arc given in table 12.6. or reference may be made 10

tex tbooks on ve ntila tion.
TAll l E 12.6

ClulII {J l' (~r sect JOIl K.

slw rp-cdgcd o rifice 2
per fora ted sc reen 1.5- 2
plai n louvres 1.5- 2
gri ll es 2.2- 3.5
st:llled fa n 10- 1.2
wi ndm ill fan 3-4
sq uare-edged ctlt ry to duct 0.5
pi pe proj ec lin g int o space '· 0.8
stream line narc o
exit fro m d uct to large :-; pa cc
righI -angle bend
dll CI length (for each du ct length . or
lifty limes di ame ter of' duct)
 TI{ ANSFO RM ERS I N DISTR I BUT ION SYSTEM S

hat the 12.7.5 Forced ventilation

T he air circulati on will be substant ia lly independellt of air temperatures wit h
hi gher air velocit ies and consequent tu rbulence. Alm os t all the air. except th e co ld
j et st rea m from the in lct, will be at almost th e Sam e lcmpcr:Ll life. I t is i m po rl ~l l1 t In
'S steps: ( t ) avo id the r os~ ib jl it y of un airstrea m wh ich Ic,l \'cs th e Ira ll SrOl flier ill <I SIa l ic air
;c al thi s zone. Sn, unless th e trall sfo rm er call be sit ed di rectl y ill th e ink l fl ow, il is wise I II
. pot limit install lo uvres or ba lllcs to brcak \ q) th e inco mi ng je t of cold ai r to secu re
he wa ll and ~lli c q ll atc mixing and circu lati on. II is preferable to arran ge that. wi th out th e fan .
effecti ve
' ,n th e na tural air fl ow is a ma xi mum u ~ ill !; Ihe p r il1 c irl c~ st;tt ed earl ier.
arca o f T he usual choice.! of 1:111 is a t th e inlet wherc m:tint clwlH':I..' and phys ical
arra nge ment is usua lly ea sies t. T his also lead s to slight prc ss urisati on. \\'l1ich. in
'le outd oor dusty situa tions, perm its th e use of an air intak e fi lter as a rcady mea ns of
bles the red ucing d ust ingress. T here should be no add it io nal unblo wn inlets.
,. • ilher the Propeller fans arc preferred . Large r diameters with slower speeds arc quieter
Je ft lled for and offe r less resistance to co nvec ti ve ai r now whe n switched ofr, pa rticularl y if
the bearings arc rree enough to perm it the ran to 'windm ill '. Howeve r, other
, trica ted choices may bc necessary with lo ng dueling run s wh ere higher pressure head s arc
cn iencc of necessary.
sy mbols
12.7.6 Calcul at ion of forced ,'cntilalio n n Ol'

( 12.29) C alc ula tion is easier since tll c no w or a ir is tl O W co n tro ll ed. Utl (,:c lite fl uw ral e hits
bee n calc ula ted . the next larger stillld :trd fa n is chose ll . If we assumc the
\ ( 12.30) tra nsform er is no t directl y in th e incomi ng co ld jctstrta m. the l11el ri ca tcd
for mulae of re rerence 7 becomc for the fau di scha rge
(12.3 1) v ~ 0.S4P,((i" - (I,). ' x 10 · ' 112.32)
a l i.l press u re hea d
)c made to
(J ~ k( V/ A.)' ( 12.33 )
where k ~ 0.58 if" is ill newt ons per sq uare Illetre ork = 0.06 il'" is ill milli metres
or wa ter head .

12.7,7 Undergronnd sub-stati ons

The principles are no differe nt from th ose alread y coveJ'ed , except that the inlet
must be by a shaft rca chi ng nC 3r th e ba se of til e chamber: as for cl chimney thi s
shaft should be therm ally ins ula ted rrom the main ni r space 10 red uce pre-l1cil tin g
which would reduce air circ ulati on. Precaut ions should be taken to <!void th e
entry of rubbi sh and rain water through ventilat ors.

12.7.8 Er"'ironlllent . ) efrec ts

Altill/des
Alth ough I he lower air densit y reduces th e coo b llt cfl 'cct s .. t hig her :tltil tH.l cs. the
 344 M O DERN Po wER TRAN SFO RMl. R PRA CTICE

ambie nt temperature is genera ll y also I'cclllt:~ t.l to more than compensa te. In
general , altitude need 110 t be co nsidered.

J J-j/illd
Wind is critical in its effec t on natural air ci rcu lati on. generatin g press ures wh en
blowing onl o it ven til ator. and ilml.l Y genera te high- or low-press ure zo nes due 10
surroullding stru ctllres. G rollnd drag will res ult in diflc rin g press ures on
venti/lit ors a t dille ront hei ghts (sec li gures 12. 10 a nd J2. 11)..
'0r----

a
... e1oci 1y '0110

Figu re 12. 10 Effec t or groun d drag o n wind

Fi gure 12. I I Typic.1I acrody na lnic press ure effec ts

In general, if inlet and outlet vent pairs nrc On th e saine ve rt ica l fa ce of a

slructure, littl e di01cull Y will be l11 el. In certain cases an o ut lei baillc 'my be
necessary. Roof ventilat ors require specia l care.

Solar heating
Solar healing is o r minimal clreet wit h hcnvy structu res ill temperal urc zones. but.
 ,
TRAN S fOR~l 1:. R.S I N 0 lS1 RIB UT ION SY& I I ~IS 345
, cJI11Pcnsato. In where required, an .allowance of additiollal heal input should he made (for th e
area of' roof' and zeni th facing wall) or 800 'V\' m - ~ II I low lalilUdl!s and of
400 W m -2 in tempera te latitud es. with a mea n eITeel (wit hin heavy s tru c tures) of
10 % of these values.
g n cssurcs wh en
s : zones due to E S ln'lIl(! cold
n press ures on Extreme co ld increa ses th e vis'cos it y of coo ling oil to ti lt.: poi nt wh ere raci ialOr
circulati on is inhibited while th e corc and coi ls ove rh eat. In th ese ex treme cases it
may be ncces!\a ry to prov ide tH nk hea ters wh en loads arc ill SlIllicic nl to maintain
Ihe oil tempera tu re ~lbovc the critic.:a l poin tll,

Humidit y
- «( ( Humidity is not no rma ll y a problem to loaded transfo rmers. Cycl ica ll y loaded
transformers will brea the, and, if th ere is no dehyd rating brea th er, an oil-
immersed tran sformer fc eding a dayt ime load may brei:l th e in moist air at dusk.
H owever, frcc- breathing oil-immcrsed transform ers ~re ·co nfined to lower
voltages wh ere moisture coutent oroil be low s:lIurat ion docs not usually give ri se
to trouble. Dry-t ype transform ers arc usua lly confin ed to indoor si tuations
pro vided with other heat ing. If ot'her hea tin g ma y be off fo r ex tended periods
when the tran sformer is not loa ded. co nd iti onin g hea ters ma y be advi sa ble to
prevent th e possibility of co ndensati o n.
Scaled type and dehydrating-breather type transrormc rs arc not affec ted,
Wh ere transformer losses arc uti lised to kee p dry the remainder of a single-
I e ha mber sub-s tH lion, t he onset of a warm weI mass of aIr [I t ti mes o rlow stru et lire
tem pera ture and low load will lead to conde nsa ti on. \\' herc thi s co mbinati on of
circumstan ces ca n occu r oth er mean s orei th er cOlldit ioning or eq uipment , which
.1
I
ca n with stand co nd ensatio n, must be supplied.

~
12.8 TRANSfORMER fAULTS AND I'IWTECi'ION

, .II.~
12.8.1 Transformer faults
Faults which ma y arise may be classi fi ed as fo llo ws.
low

(I) Phase· to- phase faults o n hig h-volt age wi ndings o r co nnecti o ns.
, (2) . Ea rt h fau lts o n hi gh-vo lta ge windin gs o r connections.
Is
(3) Phase- to-phase fault s on lo w-vo ltage windings or co nnec ti o ns.

\ ~ical fu ce of n
(4)
(5)
Earth fau lts o n low-volt age wind ings or connecli ons. •
Pha se-to-phasc fau lts on lap-chan ge gear.
Ie, 'bame ma y be (6) Ear th fau lts o n tap-c ha nge gear. r.
(7) Interturn fault s in main tank .
(8) Inl er turn fault s in tap-change co mpartmenl.
'(9) Co re fault s.'
'faturc lones, bu t,
( 10) Lo w o il.
 346 MODERN P6W ER TRANSFO RMER I' KACl IC E

(I I) Overl oad. L·
112) Tap-change mecllHn ism, 'I
r, t tc·
The ca uses o rthese fault s may be insulat io n dctcri()r~lIjon. f~lult y manufilc turc for e
or maintena nce, or excess applied voltage. avel
Ovcr- vollHges may be ei th er due to lightning or to switchin g surg!.!s. Swit chin g A
surges arc usua lly no prob lel11 on systems or 33 k V or bcknv, oil· JjJ ktl circui t eha!
breakers act (:1$ a dampin g re sist or durin g cl earance, and current choppi ng is chat
unlik ely. The majori ty of li ght ning surges are due 10 indu ced rath er than due to prot
direct strokes. For smal l ro lc- mo unt ed transform ers th e no rmal equipment rc;!1
.. I illdu dcs a dupil.:x h orn gap w h i(; h will nut hI.: S(,: Jr-I.:I!.:;\I ill g. but owing to lil t: wi<h:r
" '"
usc or autO-rcclosill g this is n01 a grea t di sadvanla gr.::. 12.8
For larger trtlns form ers a cable co nn ec ti on is some protection. but surge
protec ti on is fitled at th e point of connec ti on of ca ble and over head line. With Wit
direct connecti on to an overh e~d line lightning "rrestcrS (surge diver ters) should red
be provided a t the transformer terminal s; an a ve rage wavefront of 2 kA p S - 1 des t
woul d ca lise a 60kY drop in 30 m of connecti on, thereby' red ucing the whe
elrcctivcncss or th e voltage surge by th is amo un t. Tile flnes ter earths should also ded
be bonded direct to th e tran sformers for the S<l me rea son. At hi gher vollages tabl
arresters become ex pensive and co-ordinatin g rod gaps are used, mounted as mOl
above. Th ese sho uld not be co nfused wit h rod gaps provided fo r bushing
protec ti on.
T ran sformers co nnccted direct to systcms whi ch :lrc illllllldc rgrouno Illay not 12.9
require surge pro tec ti on.
Ma
f~!il
12.8.2 Fa ult proll'ction
li fe.
With good desig n phase- to-phase wi nding fault s arc un like ly. It is therefore th e ext]
practice, at oth er than the highest Voltage. to omi l overall dillere ntial protec ti on not
and toprovide high-speed cart h fault protcc ti on ror ca ch windi ng. rely ing on inti
back-up over-current pro tecti on to clear the less likely phase-to-phase I:HI It s. CXCJ
I nterturn rau lts give litt le over-curren t externa lly and arc not detected by overall relr
or ear th protec ti on. To prov ide ror thc ~c ca ses the !, urgc of oil crcrll cc! by th e and
sudden heat at the fa ult positio n is used to operat e a pr .:: s ~ urc·:l c tlla tl.:d pro tcctive eire
rclay (Buchho lz relay). O il surge protect ion can opera te on release orai r pockets I,
due to hea ting on load; it is preferable to precede commission in g by vacuum if n.
trea tm ent to avo id thi s nuis;lIlce tri ppin g on all but small tran sfor mers. mu!
On final distributi on transformers an intcnul'll l:tult may O CC LlI' at mid- ma i
winding, pa rticularl y if tappings exi st. The resulting exceptiona lly heavy current
in the sh ort ed sin gle tu rn, toget her with th e loss of mag net ic ba l<ll1 ce, cau se s an
electromagn etic hammering e ffec t which ca n rapidly wreck a winding, givin g an AP
Hppcara m:c Qf a failure d ue to a th rough shon circui t. FA
Co re fault s creat e a loca l hot spo t wh ich decomposes the oil in to gas at a
relatively slow ra te. T he gas may be col lected ill a gas-actuated rclay (Buchholz T he
rclay) to give an alarm. ind'
 TRANSFO RM e RS IN l;ISTRIIJUT ION S\, S', Lhi S 347
Low oil -will operate the surge fl oa t.
The measu re of over- load is winding ICl11pCnlturc. 1\ suitable relia ble device is
fill ed to read the temperature accura tely und er all co ndit ions. Jt is used for
It .,\ nanufacture
forced -cooling control. alarm anu fina ll y a trip. 1\ mos t unusual case of
overheating is due to ferroresonance: C(lSCS ha ve been reported of such cvcnts 9 .
I
url'('s. Swlt' e Ilin
' g
Any rault s that occur in the tap-chan ge compartIllent ora delta or line-end tap
)i :illed circui t changer arc readily det ected, li1 tcrlappin g 1" lIlt s or rau lts on a neutral ·end tap 'C
n~ chopping is
changer arc not so easily seen by electric protecti ve devices: where o il surge
,ther than d ue to
protective dev ices arc provided. care Illust be t:lk clI til;1t t;lppill g orH.:r:lt ions ;11
~n cqui pm ent t.
pt:ak load do !l ot cau se any al.:li,·ali l )ll,
in :0 t he wider

'II
r ti c . but surge
line. With
'v rlers) sho uld
, ' tor2kA~ s- 1
]2.8.3 Ac.ion following relu)' operation
With any relay operation involving so lid in sulation it is most unlikely that
rcclosure will be success rul. Unsuccessful reclosure leads to further dama ge and
destruction or evidence of the cause, Acti on is therefore con fined to determine
S .t. J
r
•

j ueing the whether so lid insulation is not inyolvcd and succcss rull'ec loSlife is likely and to
tiL should also deduce the type or fault. The initial acti on is 10 consider relay indica tions (sec
highe r voltages table 12,7) which may require gas anal ys is, An y subseq uent actions may include
:II lounl ed as more sophist icat cd methods I 0, Il
1 "bushing

- -o"·,d may not 12,9 MAINTENANCE

Mainlen:lncC will be rein ted to the cost and co mplexi ty ol" cq uipmcnt. The cos t of
failure of a pole-mo unted transformer Tn:.ly nOI justify :lIly maintenance during
I life. However, la rge generator or tran smiss ion tr:lll sfofmcrs merit the other .r
..; 1. .':l'cforc the ex treme ore xpenditure. It is impo rtant to en sure that even at this le vel the unit is
nliiIl protection not ovcrmainlained, si nce each .maint enance opcr:l li on has its own risk of
IfI rc IYlIlg
' 011 introduci ng a ea use of railure. Eac h undertaking ha s usually performed the
pi se falili s, exerci se of ex tending maintel1<ll1cc periods unti l rault rates increase and then or
ected by overall retraci ng o ne step. The periods adopt ed will depend on ell yiron ment, Oil luudi ng
- rr"',cd by the and on mode of usc, Table 12,8 sho uld I hCl'c fo rc be conside red in tile light ol'loc<ll
tc protecti ve circumstance.
e 01 a ir pockets In most ",.ses the procedure is to inspect the possible cau ses off"ilure and, only
I b
tn!i
,
Y vacuum ir necessa ry, to carryon to rurther work. As with all maint enancc schemes there
.rl :1'5, must be a system or reporting defec ts round, wit h a feedback 10 the originator to
vee ~ at mid~ majlltain confidence in the scheme.
I
I heavy current

,14 c~ u.ses an
I gl VlIl g ~n APPENDIX A12.1 EXAMPLE OF ESTIMATION OF LOSS LOAD
FACTOR
jnln g ,il S at a
.y Buchholz The netwo rk exa mined was of mixed dorhc~lic, small CO l1lmercial nnd slllall
indus tri al loads in a tempcra te zonc. A rul e-o f-thumb lirsl approximation ofl oss

. ~.
 348 MODERN POWER TRA NS I·QR ME R P RACTICE

TABLE 12.7 Relay i lllliclI(;(JII .\' WItJ cOl/seqllt'l/( action,';

#'I"a>, oprralllm I lil/k Uli(ln flJrI/wr U ('/WII

curren t opera ted fault in zonc insu l;1 l1on le( l; m OS1 irllclnal check
clUllmnlC: cnbk; rau Jl ~ further
check ~;1 $ lor
dl~~\lh e d 10=:,'1

.,
oit surge Il~ lIns .... erc pUIllP ~ s HIILln~ " pump surge )'(5
;lIr " .. cu urn lre;,lmenl en trained "ir )'c5
rclcll ~(' d by
hClL IU11' o r
1', hrarlOn
uil b ren~do\\n wn s th ere an I1 lU hu I'cr 110m yes
Clternlll \'oll:1['c b:lre eonneclion
s ur be''.'
solid insula lion see fur ther if no currenl-
b reakdown tesling opc:rBled rclay
opera t ion - "0
in tcrt u rn fault .
cart h r:l uh m:.1t
neutmlor
l1ud ·del tll

811 ,~ alar m ai r a ~ Above li S Above

(swilch o ut
Y"
oil brc.1k d o \t'n switc h in wit h overhearctl
AS soo n as min imum l ime ~e ll, n,,~ cOllnecli(ln-
poui blel ir no m o re @as Yll!' ~ il e llel ioll
th e' I C II th ro ugh muy be pOSSIble
fault '!
ir morc g.ls. switch
OU I. dr o p oil IC\'d.
open ilt \ llCctiun cote r:lul\
hat c h, energise III
10Yl \'O h llgC with
mn~ i mllm tile pr n'lIt!·
, l ioliS includ ing C0 1
a tx)\'t' oil; 1mel'

.'
!.
~
:,~\
-
i
hubhle5 -ir o n cOle
to p this mny be:
Ic nm"ablc cause,

'"
Iio-
I ~oljd ins u tlll io n d e\'etopinl) raut t "0
b reakdnwn

.".
I,' between turns
or ne;1( nculr;t "
winding check lo ad o\'el · load yes,
' tc mper:Hure 1I(lcr
\no ita~) I'l'u ueiut(
lond
\ check couler I'ah'e ..... rongly
i~o l:l\ jo n I'A I"es dosed
check operation o r au:uliary ycs
(o rccd cooling fa ilure
check te mpe rature WT , fnitu re ye~
rise by olher mcan s
i( temperature hiSh sludge ycs,
check oilllcidity but 1:1ke
(urthe r
3Cl io n

Incl udes (au ll bel wee n conductors o f adjllcen t turns or mut!l ·~ llH 1 winding ..... it h \'OI!:1SC of o ne tu rn, impedance t('
cnds of winding and b.:td: givi ng unusually limi ted currenr.
 TRANSFORMERS I N I)I S1 RIIl UTl ON SYSTEMS 349

I, II TABLE 12.8

J1 Rl'do:f(' II C!m Period FirM ,waw S{'(' (JIttl ,\/{Igl',

IlI'r/'~ .\//I·.I'
if

,I check
(unhcr
small pole- rllfnJJjl cd \ i .~II: d ill ~ rc(, li {ln polin!
I ~J'(\\lll d - IlI\ IUJ1IC d up h )C: II S Oill cl- I .wd oi l IrCalUl(' Ilt, paiul
II ,
to 15 kV \ i ~ u td check
:Ibovc 15kY 2 years oil ICS\ :tnd oil treatment , p;unt
yes
yes
\'jl>u;)1 chec l.;
tl l' hydrating l'In'lIlhcr s 111(1111111) d'~'I" c" I~lur "r cha nge brc:lIh cr
sdH.:a };cI cleme nt
forccd coo ling I year rUIl up fall Ju briclIti ul1.
on l yes
to nt aclor COl1 1acl5,
" ·-;.« (u con lro l rcr.,)' da:ck
con trOl reln'ys ' 4 )'ears con tnct and
,. pi vo l check.
fune lio nal check
oil surge relay 4 ycars funcli ollrd test by
inj ec ted pressure
wa ve
QIP bushings 4 yea rs modern 1),lles.
Y"
no m:lin lcnnncc
I1Cl.:cssary: older
,1, on-load tllp-chau};cr
types, oil ch:lIIgc

mechani sm:
, .. ) in air :! ) eMS inspect. lubrica te
(b) in oil ..\ )ea rs ins pect
currcnt -brcakinl!
cOnl:lcts:

I: (n) inductor
,type
~ )cnrs
or 10 000
in spect contacts
filter oi l and
ope rations test
(b) high-speed :! ~ear s o il lest
..\ }cars inspect contacts,
"" resis tor
or 20000 filt er oi l and
" y~$, ClJXr:lli ons ICl> 1
after se lector conta cts ~ )cars oil lest
reducing ..... hcr(: seletJors 8 )I:'U S iuspcct con tacts
toad
in separate chamber

Y"

I Y" =
load faelor would give K, OJ. Dellliled enquiry revea led a hi gh ofT-peak
yes, heating load : Ihe revi sed . ; Iimale was K . = 0.2S.
I but lake
rurther
If we take load curves at \arious dales duri ng the yc:u and manually integrate
action llie square of tlie load (see equ.tion 12. 14), tliis resu lted in K, = 0.22. where
ollie turn, impedance I'b
Kp = 0.4, a = 0.2S, b = O.iS (sec equa lion 12. I S).
Using a n sq uare-ampere hour meier, a mei er readi ng of 171S1.2 per phase was
ob lained, the meter being co nnccled to th e secondary o f a 1600 to 5 current
. transrormer. The annual peak load ing was 1m = 9S0 A. From Ihe load
 350 MODERN POW ER TRANSFORMER PRACT ICE

c urve 10 % oflosses Occ ur at lower e nergy rat e. Equa tin g the right-hand sides of
equa ti ons 12.11 and 12. 16, we obtain for K" with C, J = O. I . = I ", and ( vary ing
from x to T in the second integral,

(J(i')dl x C,., f.Tj(l 2)d(

K
Cw ' Jo .,\ __ _
• C f 'T
", ..'" m

Therefore, with C•• = 0.iJ0305U m kWh - ' , C,2 = O.00360U",kWh - ' and th e
val ues slaled above. K ~ is evaluated as
, = (0.00305 x 0.9 + 0,(>0360 x 0.1) x 17 15 1.2 x (l6(H ) '5 )' = 0.2 18
K, 0.00305 x 950' x 8760
Tht! usc o f a mel..l¥.lI'« fr preferably meters swi tc hed to correspond to dilTcrcnt
tarifT times) provides a result beller tha n the besl est ima te without the labo rio us
work involved, and this e liminates Ihe errors that arc a lways possible with
estimation.

APPENDIX A12.2 EXAMPL E OF DETERMINATION OF

JUSTIFIABLE COSTS OF CHAN GING A TRANSFORM ER

In monetary units Um wi th larirT and load rac t or ~ as shown in table t\ 12. 1, the
relative costs of transformers supplying the sa llle load arc as follows.
TAOLE 1\ 12.1

EXisting available .\'t(l/Idard 500 . 750 1000

loss transformers (k VA)

7h llzs!ol'mer price multiplied lJy ;'1((" (,.';( dllll'{}£, 80 110 130

Fixed loss cost per Wlillml 50.67 69:85 87.07
Variab le loss cost per (llIl/tlllI 245.97 151.39 106.01
10tql dwrgcs per (1111111111 376.64 331.24 323.08
- ->
J 1l .~ tifiClble cost of change 171.96 30.9

(5 year pay-back period) 202.86

•
Existing maximu m load 6OOkVA, well wj lhil1 present loading limit s for a 500k,VA Iran sfollller.
However, il would be wo rt hwhile 10 chan ge an exi sting 500 k VA trall sformer 1('1 1000 kVA if the costs
of changing arc 200 U", or less. .
The actual existi ng transformer iso f7 50 k VA rating: change to 1000 k VA cannol be jusl irlcd if costsof
changing arc 30 U", or mOre.
C.. _ 18U.. Ir:W - ' (". I · OOOJ05 U",Ir:Wh - ' O"IOJ60 U", " Wh -
(' . 1 - 1
J.. - 8~" D _ 1. 1 X, . 0.31 8

It is entirely feasib le to prepare sets of tab les for ready usc in the field or 10 usc
comp uter mcthods. Both methods ha vc been examined .
 TRANS I'()RMERS IN D1S'rRIII UT I(1N ~Y!-n EMS
\
~l gnl - lIarlU sides of
APPENDIX A12.3 EXAMPLE OF DI::TERMI NATION OF
and ( varying
INITIAL 'RATING

One example is given in ru ll ill table A 12.2: the comparison is as follows.

,
Sta",/"rt/ loss (typical)
Case A 31516 sou 10 ROOkVA 1580.66 U",
"
kW h - I a nd Ihe
, Case Il SOO I () ~O() k Vt\ 1707.1~ lJ", .. r
Case C 8UO kVA 21S5.66 U",

5)' = 0.2 18 U)lV losses (Iypical)

,I ' :'l-f5'l iM(OO 10 8oo k VA 1462 .38 U",
Case D
:po 1 to
ditTerenl Case E 500 10 8oo k VA 1562.94 U",
lout the laborio lls 800 kVA 19 12.89 U",
Case F
'OIS ' ossible with
T his is based on a slarl ing load 01' 200 A per phase laken up 10" poin l where all
:I ; methods require th e sa me-size transform er. si r
F Und er the co nditions stated low- loss transro rmers wo uld be used. star ting wi th
' Ell a 315 kVA ra ling.
.1
,I

1 to e AI2. 1, the APPENDIX A12.4 EXAMPLE OF LOSS CA PITALISATION

1'011 .S.
I
7ill'UT
.10 1000 CD= 18U m kW - 1 C w l = 0.00390U",kW h - ' for 5590 h (day)
Cw ' = 0.00335 U", kWh - 1 ror 2720 h (ni ght )
;1 C w ) = 0.00 53~ U", kWh - 1 1'", 450 h (peak)
10 ! 130
~98 -8707
,1.3, 106.0 1
S)'s t t!UI

ll.24 323.08 D = 1.35 K" = 0.4 (/ = 0.2 I> = 0.8

Mode of lise
Install at 63 %; change a t l oo % (80 % util isation fa clOr).
12.86
--, Fillancia l
Ok ' transrormer.
000 k V I\. irthe costs The discou nling rate is 10 %, and the Iransfor mer li fe is 40 years.

x:jU, lied ircosts-:>r FiX(fd-loss ca pitalisa tion r.

I With eq uations 12.6, 12.7 and 12.24
.525U", kW h- 1
•
I C r, = (C" +C,,) L
,. 1
1/ (1 -1- 11)"
' fil 1 or lo use
= 51.32 ~ 9.779 =-50 1. 86 U", kW - '
 ,,
',,",
352 M ODE RN I'OWE I{ " KA NSFQ RM I.!H PRA CTI CE

T AUL E " 12.2 Ex alll ple of de / crmi lWl ioll oI init ial l'ati ll (J (C(l Sl' A)

r((, ~ Grow/I! /J1 ,\~'(I""r 111(11/ /11)

-(I.. -
I'A)
- --1-'1\ ('11
('Ol'/
~

------
L '.I:;
I cu ll/hil' "/ylnl D,:,:ruum rd
t Um ) I(},\l dC'IIl/m ll I'IIU!/ ,' / 0 111 / (U"' )

0 I I 20() 31S 65y

I
2
1.05
1.1 0
0,1)09
O.SUI
21 0
220
() S'I
35.'1'1
35 ~~
111<5
l J no
, :Uti
1350
('(1.1,'
62 .. 11
'".s
5-1.61
I.(,~

,
3 1.1 6
1.22
0.751
O.6M3
2.12
' .,2 44
H .91)
3591)
,., 34
I H7
14.)(N
16 46
65..2 1
MU!
4897
Jo.66
S 1.28 0.62 1 2S6 35IJCJ t 7,47 IIi.13 7U9 44.46
6 1.34 O.•~ 64 268 3599 lY.lO 20.03 HJ~ 42.4)(
7 1.41 0.5 13 2112 .H'I9 ..' 1 2! 22 ()2 79} \ 4 (1 !,J

••
() 4e)7 :·' ·11
, - 10
I 41i
US (I " ~ 4
2t,16
310
.1'i" "
loS.l)y
: I ~5
2H]
;;s S6
26.1-0
101) 7
ilK 1-2
.l'J ~ I
'7 _~i
1.6) 0.385 326 35.(,1\) 2'1.6·1 94 1'1 Jo 20
II 1.71 0.350 342 )5.99 3 1.4 3 32.62 IOO.a.1 35.0 1
1.80
"13 1.89
0.3 19
0,290
JW
318
35.99
35.9'}
34.M
]8.20
35.94
39.M
106 57
111 10
34.00
3J.OI
1.98 0.263 '- '<1«( 42.14 121.86
"
IS 2.0g 0.239
39.
'" SOO 311
35.99
52.95 26.35
4' .73
27.35 417.65
32.05
99.82
16 2.18 0. 2 1 ~ 43. 52.95 2~ . 95 ) 0.{)4 1 1 1.9~ 24.40
17 2.29 0.198 ' S, 52.95 )1.1}4 )). 15 11 8J ~ 2137
IS 2.41 O.IRO 52.95 Jl,.s() 12.04

"
20
2.5)
2.65
0.16·j
0.149
'"
S06
05 30
52 905
52.95
]~ . 2]
JII1I4
42.71l
40.'0
44.39
IJ2.(N
140.12
22.405
21.M
20.1S8
21 2.79 0.135 SS' 5VJS 47.42 49.20 149.$7 20.19
22 2.93 0.123 S86 52.95 52.12 54.011 159.15 19.58
23
2'
2S
3.07
3.22
3.39
0. 11 2
0.102
0.092
."
64'
678
52.9S
52.95
52.95
57.41
6335
6'.1.110
59.58
65.74
72.4 3
1 69.9 ~
182{)J
J95. 11S
19.03
111.S7
17.95
", 0.0114 800 44 1 37. "

10580.60

Ba sed n n K , _ 0.3, g = 0.05, II _ 0. 1.

O lhcr quanlit ics as appc ndj)i A 12.2: tra nsformer prkcs as in table A 12. 1; c h :l n gCt'OSI, 100 U". Ch :lIl g C
trllllS fOlmcr al l,n " 100 % of r:llcd va lue.

V~"'i {/ble- Io.'is ca pil alist1tiofl

With equa tio ns 12. 10. 12. 16. 12.2 5 a nd 12.24

,
C", = (C", +C,,) /,~.. I 1/ (1 + 11 )-'
,- I
= 16.983 x 0.654 x 9,779 .= 108 .53 Uon k W -.1
I(

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AC KN O WL E D GE M EN T

The a uth or wishes to th a nk th e p resent an d previous chi c f c nginecrs o f th e No rth -

Western E lectri cit y Board fo r per missio n to p ubl ish ;1I1d fo r faci lities g rant l.~ d .
Opini ons ex pressed a"d me th ods qu oted a rc no t necessar il y policies o f Ih e
NO rt!l-Wcstern E lect ri cit y Boa rd .
.
02
~

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 I
T IlA NS I·ORMERS I N D1STlt lB UT ION SVSTFM!'i 353
l
REFERENCES·
-
," 1",,/
I Duco l/ llfea
IO rn l (U.. )
(Rererence numbers preceded by the letter G arc li sted in sec ti on 1.1 4.)
6 ~Q
Ir
,(
(>\l. t"
6~A 9
'"54.(17
51.6:/
t . ,1. Dritish EleCl rici ty Supply IIH.III stI'Y. L'SI 35 - 1. Dis triblitiolJ Trtlll.~·/fll'I/lt ' '''\
(ji'om I 6kVA / 0 IUOUkVA ) (1971)
S 65.2 1 <lR.n
6 MU2 ,16.M) b. British Elect ri city Supply Industry. ESI35- 2. COllliIlIlOIl.'i l:."lI {' r~c!II()'
3 71.59 4.1..1 6 Rated System TraIlS/<H'm('I'S ( 24 A-I VA 10 11 k I ' ddlo - Sill/' or sW r - ,,"((II'
75. 32 .1 2 oi l(
71}.;! l .1(1(,01 I'ol/I/('(' /('d) , /.I'SI/(' 2 ( 197 1)
3 tI.l.tl7 3\1.2 1
c , Dritis h Electricity Supply In du stry, ESI- 3. C"ble Box('s
0 1>8.f12 37.51
4 94,19 36.26 d, Brilish E lectricity S uppl y Industry, BEBS T2, Tral/s/ormersalld R('ac/ors
2 ()(),04 35.01 (34 parts)
4 06.57 34.00
4 1).11) 33.0 1 c, British Electrici ty Supp ly Industry, J)(!,,:/gll'rifJj(Undergrolllld Distribution
3 )21.86 nos Systems
,
5 ~ 17.65 99.82
24.40 (Alf lh ese a re ob ta inable from th e E lec lri city Cou ncil, 30 Millbank. London,
S ' 118.04
/1.9' 23.31 Great Dritain) I
S 24.74 22.45 I .'
) 3209 21.66 2. Davis, P. A., Design phi losophy or the integra ted syste m tran s rormer.
I ,40.12 20.88 £lew, Rev., 179 ( 1966) 494
) 19.57 20.19
!9.15 19.58 3. Szwander, W., Valuation and cnpila lisation of transformer losses. ! I/st ,
\9.94 19.03 Elew. Ellg .. 92. Part II (1945) 125
.. g2J)4 111.57
95. 18 17.95 4. Berry, R. N., Economics or
high-voltage tr;tn smi ssion, J . ill Jf, Electr . Eng.,
37,1)
94, !.'art II (1947) 573 I
5. de Vlieger, H . c., a nd de Kcyzer, A . J. M .. Technica l and economic
15110.66
considera ti ons abou t di s tributi o n tran sformers, UNJPD£ Pap., No. (8;
I
"
~ 5t, 100 Um : c hant,:c October ( 1972)
6. Chang, N . E., Dynamic ana lysis or eco nomic load in g or di stribul ion I~
Ii
lransrormers, JEEE POlI'er EII9, Sec t. WillieI' Meel. Pap., No. C73 002- 1 ,.
January (1973)

,I 7. Dickson, M. R., Ventilation of 1;'(llls/ol'mcr S ub-SlatioIlS. Elec tr, Res. Assoc.

Rep., No. 5096 (1964)
8. Eas tga le, c., Sub-zero opera ti on of o il-immersed transrormers, Eleclr. /( ev.,
181 (1 967) 648
9. Dolan. E. J., G illies, D, II., and Ki l1lbark, E. W., Ferrorcsooance in a
\ . transrormer, IEEE TrailS. POlI'er Appal'. S>'SI :. 91 3 (1972 - 3)
I 10. Waters, M ., Farr, J. c., Stalewski, II., a nd Whitaker, J. 0" Shorl-circl/il

J Testing l lll d Detectioll ami wc:ariofl of Damage, CIGRE Rep., .No. 12-05
(1968)
11 . Hall, A. c., a nd Parratt , P. G" Experiellce lI'illi Lo" '-vol/ag,,' ~mlJ/"'\'e Testillg
'/

0/ POlI'er Tral/s/ormers, /IISI. Electr , £lIg. COl/I Pllhl., No. 94 (1973)

II
neers orthe North -
, l 'lities granted.
i - l ,olicies or the • Sec Oltso references G 1.2. G 1.6. G I. 7, G 1.10. G 1.1 2, G I. i4. G 1.17, G 1.1 B. G 1.21, G 1. 22, G2.2. G2.17.
G2.2' nnd G3.2.

l
, i
I
I
 , .':'1

) ,; t t UiP i "~; 1"1\\ J'I' t /( /\NS I OR MJ:H PR ACTI CE

i' t' -) GHAI't1 i'

Jh\ !II.\ H, d . .I .• J::II'( 'I"' i('all~l/iI'" ;'i " !I I~c() flOlI/ i('s, C hapl11~lI1 Hilt! I-fall , L ondon, 2nd
.. dll ~ 1'},1(\)
i I JI ('W 1) \(')" , ( '. i\1.. 'Thc P I obkm or lo,J\) isc wit h Particular Refe rcnce to Trunsfor-
,,,,,,,; AI 1' 111, No. 3;' (\:nlral ~ICC1 .. i(' ily Research Labom lorics (1956)
! 1 I ,ln l : ' '1, I., D., 'OiSlribH!ioll of """;,:. \ in Transfo rmer Insulation', Electr. Tin1t!s,
I 1 II. ," i and 839 ( / 1(,.' 1
·i~i .. !~. r. i.. Trallv, "'(1 ; '/ I ,hl ll' fO lI I so/a l iolt Mllf ('ria/s Central Electricity
I '. ,,, h '-"/"" a, OI 'e, / LC;"i)l, hea") Report No. RD/ I/ RI511 (1968)
,. 1/, I, I" j " , 1; 11 0 'It Powl; r Tran sform ers', Proc, In'll , Eleclf, Ellg .• 114, 42 8
I - '- _,K«(
,1\ l '" i "ra lk li llg l Jlad-t:lp-changing Tmnsformcrs, Allis Chalmers
I', ::"~' i I tl'r( ' ~5 4 )
. .,\, St, t il /I"g uin/iollS, Brilish Elec tri cit y Supply Induslry,
'.' " { • . -lt d !"1 ! () I
, " / I
."""1'('111('11/, BE AMA Ltd Pub. No. 227, ( 1968)

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