CHEM 15 Chapter 1-1

CHEM 15 Classification and Physical States of Matter

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Matter - has physical material of the universe, has mass, and occupies space. It is classified by
state (solid, liquid or gas) or by composition (element, compound or mixture).
Chemistry - study of properties of materials and changes that they undergo.
We study chemistry because: States of matter - solids, liquids and gases.
1. It provides important understanding of our world and how it works. It has considerable Gas - limited to those substances that exists in the gaseous state at room temperature.
impact on society (health care, food, clothing, conservation of natural resources, Vapor - gaseous state of a substance that is generally a solid or liquid at room temperature.
environmental issues, etc.).
2. It is an essential part of your curriculum. It serves biology, engineering, agriculture, geology, Properties described on the macroscopic level:
physics, etc. Chemistry is the central science. 1. Gas - no fixed volume or shape, conforms to shape of container, compressible.
2. Liquid - volume independent of container, no fixed shape, incompressible.
Major Areas of Chemistry: 3. Solid - volume and shape independent of container, rigid, incompressible.
1. Organic chemistry - study of matter that is composed principally of carbon and hydrogen.
2. Inorganic chemistry - study of matter that consists of all the elements other than carbon Properties described on the molecular level:
and hydrogen and their combinations. 1. Gas - molecules far apart, move at high speeds, collide often.
3. Analytical chemistry - involves the analysis of matter to determine its composition and the 2. Liquid - molecules closer than gas, move rapidly but can slide over each other.
quantity of each kind of matter that is present. 3. Solid - molecules packed closely in definite arrangements.
4. Physical chemistry - study of the physical principles that underlie the structure of matter,
energy changes, and chemical transformations. Composition of Matter
5. Biochemistry - study of life in the molecular level and the processes associated with life, 1. Pure substances - matter with fixed composition and distinct proportions.
such as reproduction, growth and respiration. a. Elements - cannot be decomposed into simpler substances and cannot be broken down
by chemical reaction, made up of only one kind of atom.
Scientific method - a systematic approach to the discovery of new information. It is an b. Compounds - consist of two or more elements and can be broken down by a chemical
organized approach to solving scientific problems. reaction. They have different properties than their component elements. For example,
1. Observation. water is liquid which can be broken down to hydrogen and oxygen which are both gases
2. Look for patterns, try to explain them and develop a hypothesis - a tentative explanation of at the same temperature and pressure.
certain facts that provides a basis for further experimentations. Law of Constant Proportions - a compound always consists of the same number and
3. Test hypothesis through experimentation (collect data and analyze), refine it. combination of elements (e.g. water is always 11% H and 89% O).
4. Bring hypotheses together into a theory - a well established hypothesis that explains general
principles of certain phenomena with considerable evidences or facts to support it. 2. Mixtures - combination of two or more pure substances where each substance retains its
5. Bring all information together into a scientific law - a concise statement or equation that own identity.
summarizes tested hypotheses. a. Heterogeneous - do not have uniform composition, properties and appearance (e.g.
A law addresses how matter behaves while a theory addresses why it behaves that way. sand and alcohol).
b. Homogeneous - uniform throughout (e.g. coffee in water).

Figure 1.1 The scientific method

 CHEM 15 Chapter 1-2

Figure 1.2 Classification scheme of matter

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

Each substance has a unique set of physical and chemical properties.
1. Physical properties – quality or condition of a substance that can be observed or measured
without changing its composition (e.g. color, density, odor, melting point, malleability,
ductility, etc.). Figure 1.3 Changes of state
2. Chemical properties - describe how substances react or change to form different
substances (e.g. resistance to corrosion, flammability, etc.).
2. Chemical change - substances transform into chemically different substances (e.g. burning
Properties may also be categorized as: of wood, rusting of iron nail, growth of plants).
1. Intensive properties - do not depend on amount of substance present and can be used to
establish the identity of the substance (e.g. temperature, melting point, density, etc.). Separation of Mixtures
2. Extensive properties – properties that depend on quantity of substance present (e.g. mass, Separation of Heteregeneous Mixtures:
volume, etc.). USEFUL MNEMONIC: EXAM - EXtensive property depend on the AMount of 1. Filtration - removal of a solid from liquid hetereogeneous mixture through a medium from
substance. which only the liquid can pass.
Intensive properties give an idea of the composition/identity of a substance whereas extensive 2. Decantation - separation of liquid from heavier solid by carefully pouring the liquid from the
properties given an indication of the quantity of substance present. container in order to leave the solid in the bottom of the original container.

Physical and Chemical Changes Separation of Homogeneous Mixtures:

1. Physical change - substance changes physical appearance without altering its identity (e.g. 1. Distillation - a process exploiting the differences between the boiling points of the
change in shape or color, changes of state). components of the mixture. The component that boils off first is the distillate while the one
that remains in the original container is the residue.
2. Solvent extraction (liquid-liquid extraction) - is a method to separate compounds based on
their relative solubilities in two different immiscible liquids usually water and an organic
solvent.
3. Adsorption - a process where a solid is used to remove a soluble substance from an
aqueous solution.

Measurement: Units and Handling Numbers

Units of Measurement
A measured quantity must have both a number and a unit. The units most often used for
scientific measurement are those of the metric system.
 CHEM 15 Chapter 1-3
SI Units EXERCISE 1.2
All scientific units use Système International d’Unités (SI units) as of 1960 from which smaller and Complete the following unit equations:
larger units are obtained by decimal fractions or multiples of the base units. 1. 1 kg = ______ g 3. 1 s = ______ ns
2. 1 cm = ______ m 4. 1 L = ______ ML
Table 1.1 SI base units
Physical Quantity Name of Unit Abbreviation Uncertainty in Measurement
Mass Kilogram kg Two types of numbers:
Length Meter m 1. Exact numbers - obtained from counting or defined as conversion factor.
Time Second s 2. Inexact numbers - derived from measurement. All measurements have some degree of
Temperature Kelvin K uncertainty or error associated with the instrument used and is thus inexact.
Amount of substance Mole mol
Electric current Ampere A Precision and Accuracy
Luminous intensity Candela cd Precision - how well measured quantities agree with each other.
Accuracy - how well measured quantities agree with the “true value.”
SOME UNIT CONVERSIONS
Length Mass
2.54 cm = 1 in 2.2 lbs = 1 kg
12 in = 1 ft

Temperature Volume
K = °C + 273 1 L = 1000 cm3
5
°C = (°F - 32) 1 mL = 1 dm3
9

9
°F = 5 °C + 32

Figure 1.4 Illustration on accuracy and precision

Table 1.2 Selected prefixes used in metric system
Significant Figures
Prefix Abbreviation Meaning
In a measurement, it is useful to indicate the exactness of the measurement. This exactness is
Giga- G 109
reflected in the number of significant figures. The number of significant figures is the number
Mega- M 106
of digits known with certainty plus one uncertain digit. For example, 2.2405 g means we are sure
Kilo- K 103
the mass is 2.240 g but we are uncertain about the nearest 0.0001 g. Final calculations are only
Deci- d 10-1
as significant as the least significant measurement.
Centi- c 10-2
Milli- m 10-3 Rules on determining the number of significant figures:
Micro- μ 10-6 1. Nonzero numbers and zeros between nonzero numbers are always significant.
Nano- n 10-9 2. Zeros before the first nonzero digit are not significant (e.g. 0.0003 has one SF).
Pico- p 10-12 3. Zeros at the end of the number after a decimal point are significant (e.g. 1.00 has three SF).
Femto- f 10-15 4. Zeros at the end of a number before a decimal point are ambiguous. Exponential notation
eliminates this ambiguity (e.g. 10 300 - number of SF cannot be determined; suppose you
 CHEM 15 Chapter 1-4
wish to express this number in three SF, you write 1.03 x 104). An electron’s mass = 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 91
Method: kg
1. Write the number in scientific notation.
2. The number of digits remaining is the number of significant figures. Also, it's not clear how many significant figures (SF) there are in some measurements. To handle
2.50 x 102 cm has three SF 1.03 x 104 g has three SF such numbers, we use a system called scientific notation wherein numbers can be expressed in
4
1.030 x 10 lb has four SF 1.0300 x 104 in has five SF the form N x 10n where N (digit term) - a number from 1 to 9 such that there can only be one
number to the left of the decimal point (e.g. 6.02XX) and n (exponent) - a positive or a negative
Rounding off non-significant digits integer (whole number).
How do we eliminate nonsignificant digits?
1. If first nonsignificant digit < 5, just drop ALL nonsignificant digits. To express a number in scientific notation, count the number of places you must move the
2. If first nonsignificant digit ≥ 5, raise the last significant digit by 1 then drop ALL nonsignificant decimal point to get N.
digits.  Move the decimal point to the right if the number is less than 1 = negative exponent.
 Move the decimal point to the left if the number is greater than 1 = positive exponent.
EXERCISE 1.3
Express each of the following with the number of SF indicated. Express measurements in scientific EXERCISE 1.1
notation when necessary to make it clear how many significant figures there are in the Express the following numbers in scientific notation:
measurement. 1. 555,000 ______________________
a. 376.276 to 3 SF _______________________ 2. 0.000888 ______________________
b. 500.072 to 4 SF _______________________ 3. 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 ______________________
c. 0.00654321 to 3 SF _______________________
d. 1,234,567 to 5 SF _______________________ Multiplying or dividing with exponential numbers
e. 2975 to 2 SF _______________________ When multiplying or dividing measurements with exponents, use the digit term (N in N × 10n) to
determine number of significant figures.
Significant Figures in Calculations
1. Multiplication and Division - report to the least number of significant figures. (6.02 × 1023)(4.155 × 109) = 2.50131× 1033
e.g. 6.221 cm x 5.2 cm = 32 cm2
How do you calculate this using your scientific calculator?
2. Addition and Subtraction - report to the least number of decimal places. 1. Enter “6.02 × 1023” by pressing 6.02 then EE or EXP (which corresponds to “× 10”) then 23.
e.g. 20.4 g – 1.322 g = 19.1 g Your calculator should read or something similar.
2. Multiply by pressing ×.
EXERCISE 1.4 3. Enter “4.155 × 109” by pressing 4.155 then EE or EXP (which corresponds to “× 10”) then
a. 106.61 + 0.25 + 0.195 = 107.055 9.
107.055 to the correct number of SF ____________________ 4. Get the answer by pressing =.
b. 725.50 – 103 = 622.50
622.50 to the correct number of SF ____________________ Your calculator should now read: 2.50131 33 or 2.50131 E 33
Or something similar indicating: 2.50131 × 10 33
In multiple step calculations always retain an extra significant figure until the end to prevent Thus, the answer with the correct SF ____________________
rounding errors.
Be sure you can do exponential calculations with your calculator. Many of the calculations we do
Scientific Notation in chemistry involve very large and very small numbers with exponential terms.
Some numbers are very large or very small and are thus difficult to express such as:
Avogadro’s number = 602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 particles/mol EXERCISE 1.5
 CHEM 15 Chapter 1-5
1. (3.75 × 1015)(8.6 × 104) = 3.225 × 1020 conversion with the following conversion factors 1 m = 100 cm and 1 in =
with the correct SF ____________________ 2.54 cm.

2. (3.75 × 1015) ÷ (8.605 × 104) = 4.357931435 × 1010 The calculation would involve both conversion factors and the units of the final answer will be
with the correct SF ___________________ inches:

 100 cm  1in 
( givenmeters)    ____ in
Dimensional Analysis/Factor Label Method  1m  2.54cm 
Dimensional analysis - a method of calculation utilizing the knowledge of units. Given units can Using dimensional analysis in problem solving:
be multiplied and divided to give the desired units and conversion factors are used to manipulate 1. Write the units for the answer.
units: 2. Determine what information to start with.
Desired unit = Given unit x Conversion factor 3. Arrange all other unit factors, showing them as fractions, with correct units in the numerator
and denominator so all units cancel except for the units needed for the final answer.
The conversion factors are simple ratios 4. Check for correct units and number of significant figures in the final answer.
Desired unit
Conversion factor  EXERCISE 1.6
Given unit
1. If a marathon is 26.2 miles, how many inches are in the marathon? (1 mi ≡ 5280 ft)
Unit equations and unit factors 2. The speed of light is about 3.00 x 108 m/s. Express this speed in mi/hr. (1.609 km = 1 mi,
Unit equation - a simple statement of two equivalent values. 1000 m ≡ 1km)
Unit factor - a ratio of two equivalent quantities.

Unit equation Unit factor Conversions Involving Volume

We often will encounter conversions from one measure to a different measure.
2.54cm 1in
2.54 cm = 1 in or For example, suppose that we wish to know the mass in grams of 2.00 in3 of gold given that the
1in 2.54cm density of the gold is 19.3 g/cm3.
1doz 12eggs
1 dozen = 12 eggs or We could do this conversion with the following conversion factors: 2.54 cm = 1 in and 1 cm3 =
12eggs 1doz
19.3 g gold. The calculation would involve both of these factors:
3
 2.54cm   19.3g 
Equivalents are exact if we can count the number of units equal to another or the units are in the (2.00in 3 )   3 
 ______ g
 1in   1cm 
same system (metric or English). Exact equivalents have an infinite number of SF - never limit the
number of significant figures. When the relationship between two units or items is exact, the “≡” Note that the calculation will NOT be correct unless the centimeter to inch conversion factor is
(meaning “equals exactly”) is used instead of the basic “=” sign. cubed! Both the units AND the number must be cubed.

Approximate equivalents do limit the significant figures for the final answer.

Using Two or More Conversion Factors

We often need to use more than one conversion factor in order to complete a problem. When
identical units are found in the numerator and denominator of a conversion, they will cancel. The ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
final answer MUST have the correct units. 1. Match the following characteristics to one or more of the three states of matter:
a. Has no shape of its own
Suppose that we want to convert length in meters to length in inches. We could do this b. Definite shape
 CHEM 15 Chapter 1-6
c. Occupies the total volume of a container
d. Partially takes on the shape of a container 8. The temperature on a spring day is around 22 °C. What is this temperature in degrees
e. Does not take on the shape of a container Fahrenheit and Kelvin?
f. Readily compressible
g. Slightly compressible 9. Which has the greater mass, 2.0 cm3 of iron (density = 7.9 g/cm3) or 1.0 cm3 of gold (density
h. Essentially incompressible = 19.32 g/cm3)?

2. Match the term with the best identifying phrase. 10. Make the following conversions:
Terms: Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture a. 1 ML to cm3 c. 0.0001 g to kg
Mixture Substance b. 10.5 L to mL d. 50 kg to lbs
Element Compound
Phrases:
a. Any kind of matter that is pure and has a fixed composition
b. Cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical changes
c. A solution of uniform composition
d. Can be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical changes
e. Any kind of matter that can be separated into simpler substances by physical means
f. Non-uniform composition

3. Are the following changes physical or chemical?

a. The vaporization of solid carbon dioxide
b. Explosion of solid TNT
c. The aging of an egg with a resultant unpleasant smell
d. The formation of a solid when honey is cooled

4. Classify each of the following as an element, compound, or mixture.

a. A 100% silver bar c. Wine
b. Gasoline d. Carbon dioxide

5. Which quantity of each pair is larger? Show your solution.

a. 1 nm or 1 m c. 1 pg or 1 cg
b. 1 Mg or 1 mg

6. How many significant figures does each number possess? Write the numbers using scientific
notation.
a. 225 d. 1.0025
b. 14,100.0 e. 10,004
c. 0.002500 f. 0.0025
7. Round the answers in the following problems to the correct number of significant figures.
a. 12.25 + 1.32 + 1.2 d. (1.256)(2.42)
b. 13.7325 – 14.21 e. (16.231)/2.20750
c. 12300 + 2.11 f. [(1.1)(2.62)(13.5278)]/2.650