IB CHEMISTRY

Topic 2 Atomic structure

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Higher level
 2.1 The nuclear atom
OBJECTIVES

• Atoms contain a positively charged dense nucleus composed

of protons and neutrons (nucleons).
• Negatively charged electrons occupy the space outside the
nucleus.
• The mass spectrometer is used to determine the relative
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atomic mass of an element from its isotopic composition.
• Use of the nuclear symbol notation to deduce the
number of protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms and ions.
• Calculations involving non-integer relative atomic masses
and abundance of isotopes from given data, including mass
spectra.
 Atomic Structure
Atoms are very small ~ 10-10 metres
All atoms are made up of three sub-atomic particles:
protons, neutrons, and electrons

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Label this diagram:

• The protons and neutrons form a small positively charged

nucleus
• The electrons are in energy levels outside the nucleus
 Subatomic particles
• The actual values of the masses and charges of the sub-
atomic particles are shown in your data booklet:

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• A meaningful way to consider the masses of the sub-atomic
particles is to use relative masses
• Element (X)

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• Atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus
of an atom. It is also known as the proton number. No. of
protons always equals the no. of electrons in any neutral
atom of an element.

• Mass number (A) is the sum of the number of protons and

the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. Some
periodic tables have Z above A. Remember A will always be
the biggest number.
Problem:
Calculate the number of protons and neutrons in:

Z = number of protons = 17 protons

A = number of protons and neutrons = 35
Number of neutrons = A - Z= 35 - 17 = 18 neutrons
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 Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same atomic
number, but different mass numbers, i.e. they have different
numbers of neutrons.

Each atom of chlorine contains

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35 Cl 37 Cl
17 17

17 protons 17 protons
17 electrons 17 electrons
18 neutrons 20 neutrons

The isotopes of chlorine are often referred to as chlorine-35 and chlorine-37

 Some Isotopes of Carbon

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 Properties of isotopes
• Isotopes of an element have the same chemical
properties because they have the same number of
electrons. When a chemical reaction takes place, it is
the electrons that are involved in the reactions.
• However isotopes of an element have the slightly
different physical properties because they have different
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numbers of neutrons, hence different masses.
• The isotopes of an element with fewer neutrons will
have:
• Lower masses
• Faster rate of diffusion
• Lower densities
• Lower melting and boiling points
 Radioisotopes
Radioisotopes are isotopes that have unstable nuclei and
therefore emit radiation when then break up.

• Radioisotopes are very useful in society:

– 14C is used in radiocarbon dating14C is used in radiocarbon dating
– Detecting gas leaks
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– Industrial quality control
– 60Co is used in radiotherapy

– 131I and 125I are used a medical tracers

– Nuclear power

• Radioisotopes can also be very dangerous to living things:

– Radioactive contamination of the environment
– Radiation poisoning
 Industrial use: detecting blockages in underground
pipes
A radioactive isotope which is a gas gets passed down
the pipe, where it concentrates the blockage is present.

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 Industrial use: Quality Control
The radioactive isotope is used as a source of
radiation and the amount penetrating the material
gives a measure of it’s thickness.

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 Radiotherapy
A cobalt-60 source can be rotated around the patient. The gamma
rays emitted are focussed on the tumour. Healthy surrounding
tissue receives a much smaller dose. The cells in the tumour are
damaged while surrounding tissue is not.

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A radioactive sample can be swallowed. The chemical
chosen will be one that concentrates in a particular area.
For example, cancer of the thyroid can be treated using
iodine-131.

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 Mass Spectrometer

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When charged particles pass through a magnetic field, the particles are
deflected by the magnetic field, and the amount of deflection depends upon
the mass/charge ratio of the charged particle.
Problem1: Determine the relative atomic mass of boron from
the following spectrograph:
m/z value 11 10
Relative 18.7 81.3
abundance %

Ar of boron = (amu1 x %1) + (amu2 x %2)

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= (11 x 18.7) + (10 x 81.3)
(18.7 + 81.3)
= 205.7 + 813
100
Ar = 1018.7 = 10.2
100
Problem 2: A mass spec chart for a sample of neon shows that
it contains 90.9% 20Ne, 0.17% 21Ne, and 8.93% 22Ne. Calculate
the relative atomic mass of neon.

Ar of neon = (amu1 x %1) + (amu2 x %2) + (amu3 x %3)

total %
= (90.9 x 20) + (0.17 x 21) + (8.93 x 22)
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= 1818 + 3.57 + 196.46
100
Ar = 2018.03 = 20.18
100
 2.2 Electron configuration
OBJECTIVES
• Emission spectra are produced when photons are emitted from atoms as excited electrons
return to a lower energy level.
• The line emission spectrum of hydrogen provides evidence for the existence of electrons in
discrete energy levels, which converge at higher energies.
• The main energy level or shell is given an integer number, n, and can hold a maximum number
of electrons, 2n2.
• A more detailed model of the atom describes the division of the main energy level into s, p, d
and f sub-levels of successively higher energies.
• Sub-levels contain a fixed number of orbitals, regions of space where there is a high
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probability of finding an electron.
• Each orbital has a defined energy state for a given electronic configuration and chemical
environment and can hold two electrons of opposite spin.
• Description of the relationship between colour, wavelength, frequency and energy across the
electromagnetic spectrum.
• Distinction between a continuous spectrum and a line spectrum.
• Description of the emission spectrum of the hydrogen atom, including the relationships
between the lines and energy transitions to the first, second and third energy levels.
• Recognition of the shape of an s atomic orbital and the px, py and pz atomic orbitals.
• Application of the Aufbau principle, Hund’s rule and the Pauli exclusion principle to write
electron configurations for atoms and ions up to Z = 36.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum

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short long
 Wavelength (λ)
In the data booklet:

E=hν and c=νλ

(where ν is the frequency, and h and c are constants)

(ν is the small greek letter N, not v for velocity, pronounced nu, λ

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is pronounced lambda)

• It follows then that the shorter the wavelength, the higher

the frequency of the wave, and the more energy it
contains.
 Emission spectra
When electrons are excited to a higher energy
level, and then return to a lower energy level,
they release a photon of a specific energy, as
shown by a specific frequency of light.
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 Spectroscopy
Continuous spectrum Emission (line) spectrum

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Absorption spectrum
 Spectral line series

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 Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen - convergence
Electrons moving back to the lowest energy states and over
the longest distances release the highest E (short λ).
In each series the lines converge meaning higher
levels/shells get closer together.

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 Actual values

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 Convergence

Outer shells
become closer
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together, so
spectral lines get
closer together –
called convergence.
Spectral fingerprint of the elements

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 Spectrophotometer with discharge
lamps

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Periodic table of element emission and
absorption spectra

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 Electron Shells
Although simplistic, a useful way to look at
shells is to use the periods in the Periodic table.

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 Electron Configuration
• Electrons go in shells or energy levels. The
energy levels are called principle energy levels,
1 to 4. The maximum number of electrons an
energy level (n) can hold is 2n2.
The energy levels contain sub-levels.
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Principle Maximum Number of
energy number of sub-levels
level electrons
1 2 1 These sub-
levels are
2 8 2 assigned the
letters,
3 18 3 s, p, d, f
4 32 4
 Sublevels
• Each type of sub-level can hold a different
maximum number of electron.
Maximum
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Sub-level number of
electrons
s 2
p 6
d 10
f 14
 Electron Configuration
• The energy of the sub-levels increases from
s to p to d to f. The electrons fill up the
lower energy sub-levels first.

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 Electron Configuration
• Let’s take a look at the Periodic Table to see
how this fits in.

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 (One of these needs to be memorized)

This diagram helps you to work out the order in which orbitals fill:
1s 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, …..

2s 2p However, it can be easier to read across the periodic table, but remember
that the first transition metal row is 3d:
3s 3p 3d
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4s 4p 4d 4f
1s 1s
5s 5p 5d 5f 2s 2p

6s 6p 6d 3s 3p

4s 3d 4p
7s 7p
 Electron Configuration
• So how do you write it?

1s2 Example
For magnesium:
Number of
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1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2

Energy level
Sub-level
 Electron Configuration
• The electronic configuration follows a pattern – the order
of filling the sub-levels is 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p…
• After this there is a break in the pattern, as the 4s fills
before 3d (The electrons fill up the lower energy sub-
levels first)
• Taking a look at the table below can you work out why this
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is?
• This is because the 4s
sub-level is of
lower energy than the
3d sub-level.
 Electrons and Sub-Levels
Ionisation energy
Energy

4f

4d

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3d
4p

4s
3p
4s of "lower"
3s energy than 3d

2p

2s

1s

Distance from nucleus

 Writing Electronic Configurations

• The order in which the energy levels are

filled is called the Aufbau Principle.
• Example (Sodium: 2, 8, 1)
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 Writing Electronic Configurations

• There are two exceptions to the Aufbau principle.

• The electronic configurations of chromium and
copper do not follow the pattern – they are
anomalies!
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• Chromium – 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d5, 4s1
• Copper – 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2. 3p6, 3d10, 4s1
Writing Electronic Configurations for ions

• When an atom loses or gains electrons to

form an ion, the electronic configuration
changes:
- Positive ions: formed by the loss of e-
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1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1  1s2 2s2 2p6

Na atom Na+ ion

- Negative ions: formed by the gain of e-

1s2 2s2 2p4  1s2 2s2 2p5

O atom O- ion
Writing Electronic Configurations for transition metals

• With the transition metals it is the 4s

electrons that are lost first when they form
ions:
– Titanium (Ti) - loss of 2 e-
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1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2
Ti atom Ti2+ ion

– Chromium (Cr) - loss of 3 e-

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3
Cr atom Cr3+ ion
Writing Electronic Configurations – Condensed form

• Abbreviations can also be used in electron

configuration for simplicity sake.
– Titanium (Ti):
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1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2  Ar] 3d2 4s2 or [Ar] 4s2 3d2

 [Ar] always represents 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

 Other noble gases in the VIII group of the

periodic table are used as well, such as, [He], [Ar],
[Kr], [Xe], etc.
 Orbitals
• The energy sub levels are made up of orbitals,
each which can hold a maximum of 2 electrons.
• Different sub-levels have different number of
orbitals:
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No. of Max. no. of
Sub-level
orbitals electrons
s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14
 Energy Levels and Sub-levels
Max. no. of Max. no. of Max. no. of
Main energy
Sub-levels electron pairs electrons in electrons in
level in sub-level sub-level main level
1 s 1 2 2
s 1 2
2 8
p 3 6
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s 1 2
3 p 3 6 18
d 5 10
s 1 2
p 3 6
4 32
d 5 10
f 7 14
Shapes of the orbitals

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 Orbital diagrams
• Within a sub-level, the electrons occupy orbitals
as unpaired electrons rather than paired electrons
and these all spin in the same direction. (This is
known as Hund’s Rule).
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• We use boxes to represent orbitals:

2p  

2s 


Electronic configuration of
1s   carbon, 1s2, 2s2, 2p2
 Orbital diagrams
• The arrows represent the electrons in the orbitals.
• The direction of arrows indicates the spin of the
electron.
• Paired electrons will have opposite spin, as this
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reduces the mutual repulsion between the paired
electrons (This is known as the Pauli exclusion
principle)
Notice how the arrows
2p   in each box of the 1s2
Electron  & 2s2 are opposite
configuration of 2s  which means opposite
carbon: 
 spin
1s
1s2, 2s2, 2p2
Problem: Using boxes to represent orbitals, give the
full electronic configuration of the following atoms:
a) lithium
b) fluorine
c) potassium
d) nitrogen
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e) oxygen 2p

2s

1s
Lithium: 1s2, 2s1 2p

2s 



1s

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Fluorine: 1s , 2s 2p
2 2, 5

2p   


2s 




1s
 4s 
Potassium: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s1
3p   
3s 
2p   
2s 
1s 
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Nitrogen: 1s2, 2s2, 2p3
2p   

2s 




1s
Oxygen: 1s2, 2s2, 2p4
2p   

2s 




1s

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 Orbital diagram review
• Electrons enter the lowest energy orbital
available (Aufbau principle).
• Electrons prefer to occupy orbitals on their own,
spin in the same direction, and only pair up
when no empty orbitals of the same energy are
available (Hund's Rule).
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Paired electrons have the opposite spin
(Pauli exclusion principle).

• In ions, the electrons in the highest energy

levels are lost first, but when losing electrons,
electrons are lost from 4s before 3d (the energy
levels are very close, and when electrons fill
them, 4s goes above 3d).