Geotechnical engineering, also known as geotechnics, is the application of scientific methods

and engineering principles to the acquisition, interpretation, and use of knowledge of materials of
the Earth's crust and earth materials for the solution of engineering problems and the design of
engineering works. It is the applied science of predicting the behavior of the Earth, its various
materials and processes towards making the Earth more suitable for human activities and
development.
Geotechnical engineering embraces the fields of soil mechanics and rock mechanics, and has
applications in the fields of geology, geophysics, hydrology, and other related sciences.
Geotechnics is practiced by both engineering geologists and geotechnical engineers.
Examples of the application of geotechnics include: the prediction, prevention or mitigation of
damage caused by natural hazards such as avalanches, mud
flows, landslides, rockslides, sinkholes, and volcanic eruptions; the application
of soil, rock and groundwater mechanics to the design and predicted performance of earthen
structures such as dams; the design and performance prediction of the foundations of bridges,
buildings, and other man-made structures in terms of the underlying soil and/or rock; and flood
control and prediction.
Geotechnical engineering is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering
behavior of earth materials. Geotechnical engineering is important in civil engineering, but also
has applications in military, mining, petroleum and other engineering disciplines that are
concerned with construction occurring on the surface or within the ground. Geotechnical
engineering uses principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to investigate subsurface
conditions and materials; determine the relevant physical/mechanical and chemical properties of
these materials; evaluate stability of natural slopes and man-made soil deposits; assess risks
posed by site conditions; design earthworks and structure foundations; and monitor site
conditions, earthwork and foundation construction. [1][2]
A typical geotechnical engineering project begins with a review of project needs to define the
required material properties. Then follows a site investigation of soil, rock, fault distribution
and bedrock properties on and below an area of interest to determine their engineering
properties including how they will interact with, on or in a proposed construction. Site
investigations are needed to gain an understanding of the area in or on which the engineering
will take place. Investigations can include the assessment of the risk to humans, property and the
environment from natural hazards such as earthquakes, landslides, sinkholes, soil
liquefaction, debris flows and rockfalls.
A geotechnical engineer then determines and designs the type of foundations, earthworks,
and/or pavement subgrades required for the intended man-made structures to be built.
Foundations are designed and constructed for structures of various sizes such as high-rise
buildings, bridges, medium to large commercial buildings, and smaller structures where the soil
conditions do not allow code-based design.
Foundations built for above-ground structures include shallow and deep foundations. Retaining
structures include earth-filled dams and retaining walls. Earthworks
include embankments, tunnels, dikes and levees, channels, reservoirs, deposition of hazardous
waste and sanitary landfills. Geotechnical engineers are extensively involved in earthen and
concrete dam projects, evaluating the subsurface conditions at the dam site and the side slopes
of the reservoir, the seepage conditions under and around the dam and the stability of the dam
under a range of normal and extreme loading conditions.
Geotechnical engineering is also related to coastal and ocean engineering. Coastal engineering
can involve the design and construction of wharves, marinas, and jetties. Ocean engineering can
involve foundation and anchor systems for offshore structures such as oil platforms.
The fields of geotechnical engineering and engineering geology are closely related, and have
large areas of overlap. However, the field of geotechnical engineering is a specialty
of engineering, where the field of engineering geology is a specialty of geology. Coming from the
fields of engineering and science, respectively, the two may approach the same subject, such as
soil classification, with different methods.
 Contents

 1History
 2Practicing engineers
 3Soil mechanics
o 3.1Soil properties
 4Geotechnical investigation
 5Building foundations
o 5.1Shallow foundations
 5.1.1Footings
 5.1.2Slab foundations
o 5.2Deep foundations
 6Lateral earth support structures
o 6.1Gravity walls
o 6.2Cantilever walls
o 6.3Excavation shoring
 7Earthworks
 8Ground improvement
 9Slope stabilization
o 9.1Slope stability analysis
 10Offshore geotechnical engineering
 11Geosynthetics
 12Observational method
 13See also
 14Notes
 15References
 16External links

History[edit]
Humans have historically used soil as a material for flood control, irrigation purposes, burial sites,
building foundations, and as construction material for buildings. First activities were linked to
irrigation and flood control, as demonstrated by traces of dykes, dams, and canals dating back to
at least 2000 BCE that were found in ancient Egypt, ancient Mesopotamia and the Fertile
Crescent, as well as around the early settlements of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa in the Indus
valley. As the cities expanded, structures were erected supported by formalized
foundations; Ancient Greeks notably constructed pad footings and strip-and-raft foundations.
Until the 18th century, however, no theoretical basis for soil design had been developed and the
discipline was more of an art than a science, relying on past experience. [3]
Several foundation-related engineering problems, such as the Leaning Tower of Pisa, prompted
scientists to begin taking a more scientific-based approach to examining the subsurface. The
earliest advances occurred in the development of earth pressure theories for the construction
of retaining walls. Henri Gautier, a French Royal Engineer, recognized the "natural slope" of
different soils in 1717, an idea later known as the soil's angle of repose. A rudimentary soil
classification system was also developed based on a material's unit weight, which is no longer
considered a good indication of soil type.[3][4]
The application of the principles of mechanics to soils was documented as early as 1773
when Charles Coulomb (a physicist, engineer, and army Captain) developed improved methods
to determine the earth pressures against military ramparts. Coulomb observed that, at failure, a
distinct slip plane would form behind a sliding retaining wall and he suggested that the maximum
shear stress on the slip plane, for design purposes, was the sum of the soil cohesion, , and
friction  , where  is the normal stress on the slip plane and  is the friction angle of the soil. By
combining Coulomb's theory with Christian Otto Mohr's 2D stress state, the theory became
known as Mohr-Coulomb theory. Although it is now recognized that precise determination of
cohesion is impossible because  is not a fundamental soil property, [5] the Mohr-Coulomb theory is
still used in practice today.
In the 19th century Henry Darcy developed what is now known as Darcy's Law describing the
flow of fluids in porous media. Joseph Boussinesq (a mathematician and physicist) developed
theories of stress distribution in elastic solids that proved useful for estimating stresses at depth
in the ground; William Rankine, an engineer and physicist, developed an alternative to
Coulomb's earth pressure theory. Albert Atterberg developed the clay consistency indices that
are still used today for soil classification.[3][4] Osborne Reynolds recognized in 1885 that shearing
causes volumetric dilation of dense and contraction of loose granular materials.
Modern geotechnical engineering is said to have begun in 1925 with the publication
of Erdbaumechanik by Karl Terzaghi (a mechanical engineer and geologist). Considered by
many to be the father of modern soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering, Terzaghi
developed the principle of effective stress, and demonstrated that the shear strength of soil is
controlled by effective stress. Terzaghi also developed the framework for theories of bearing
capacity of foundations, and the theory for prediction of the rate of settlement of clay layers due
to consolidation.[3][5][6] In his 1948 book, Donald Taylor recognized that interlocking and dilation of
densely packed particles contributed to the peak strength of a soil. The interrelationships
between volume change behavior (dilation, contraction, and consolidation) and shearing
behavior were all connected via the theory of plasticity using critical state soil mechanics by
Roscoe, Schofield, and Wroth with the publication of "On the Yielding of Soils" in 1958. Critical
state soil mechanics is the basis for many contemporary advanced constitutive
models describing the behavior of soil.[7]
Geotechnical centrifuge modeling is a method of testing physical scale models of geotechnical
problems. The use of a centrifuge enhances the similarity of the scale model tests involving soil
because the strength and stiffness of soil is very sensitive to the confining pressure. The
centrifugal acceleration allows a researcher to obtain large (prototype-scale) stresses in small
physical models.

Practicing engineers[edit]
Geotechnical engineers are typically graduates of a four-year civil engineering program and
some hold a masters degree. In the US, geotechnical engineers are typically licensed and
regulated as Professional Engineers (PEs) in most states; currently
only California and Oregon have licensed geotechnical engineering specialties. The Academy of
Geo-Professionals (AGP) began issuing Diplomate, Geotechnical Engineering (D.GE)
certification in 2008. State governments will typically license engineers who have graduated from
an ABET accredited school, passed the Fundamentals of Engineering examination, completed
several years of work experience under the supervision of a licensed Professional Engineer, and
passed the Professional Engineering examination.[8]

Soil mechanics[edit]

A phase diagram of soil indicating the weights and volumes of air, soil, water, and voids.
Main articles: Soil mechanics and Rock mechanics
In geotechnical engineering, soils are considered a three-phase material composed of: rock
or mineral particles, water and air. The voids of a soil, the spaces in between mineral particles,
contain the water and air.
The engineering properties of soils are affected by four main factors: the predominant size of the
mineral particles, the type of mineral particles, the grain size distribution, and the relative
quantities of mineral, water and air present in the soil matrix. Fine particles (fines) are defined as
particles less than 0.075 mm in diameter.

Soil properties[edit]
Main article: Soil mechanics
Some of the important properties of soils that are used by geotechnical engineers to analyze site
conditions and design earthworks, retaining structures, and foundations are: [2]
Specific weight or Unit Weight
Cumulative weight of the solid particles, water and air of the unit volume of soil. Note that
the air phase is often assumed to be weightless.
Porosity
Ratio of the volume of voids (containing air, water, or other fluids) in a soil to the total
volume of the soil. Porosity is mathematically related to void ratio the by [9]
here e is void ratio and n is porosity
Void ratio
The ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solid particles in a soil mass. Void ratio
is mathematically related to the porosity by[9]
Permeability
A measure of the ability of water to flow through the soil. It is expressed in units of
darcies (d). Permeability of 1 d allows the flow of 1 cm3 per second of fluid with 1 cP
(centipoise) viscosity through a cross-sectional area of 1 cm2 when a pressure gradient
of 1 atm/cm is applied.[10]
Compressibility
The rate of change of volume with effective stress. If the pores are filled with water, then
the water must be squeezed out of the pores to allow volumetric compression of the soil;
this process is called consolidation.
Shear strength
The maximum shear stress that can be applied in a soil mass without causing shear
failure.[11]
Atterberg Limits
Liquid limit, Plastic limit, and Shrinkage limit. These indices are used for estimation of
other engineering properties and for soil classification.

Geotechnical investigation