Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering I

Lecture 5
 DC Behavior of Reactive Elements
Objective:
• Learn how to simplify and analyze reactive
circuits in DC steady state

© G. Berdibekov
 Steady State
• A circuit “in steady state” has an ongoing persistent
behavior
• Direct current (DC) steady state means all currents and
voltages are constant
• Alternating current (AC) steady state means all voltages
and currents are sinusoidal with the same frequency
• Assumed when
– All transients have died out
– There has been no change to the circuit for “a long time”
– The circuit is “at rest”

© G. Berdibekov
 DC Steady State for Inductors
• All derivatives are zero
𝑑𝑖
𝑣=𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡
• Inductors behave like short circuits

© G. Berdibekov
 DC Steady State for Capacitors
• For constant voltage,
𝑑𝑣
𝑖=𝐶 =0
𝑑𝑡
• Capacitors behave like open circuits

© G. Berdibekov
 Example: DC Steady State
• For the circuit below, find the voltage 𝑣 and
the current 𝑖, when the circuit is in DC steady
state

© G. Berdibekov
DC Steady State
𝑅2
𝑣= 3𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

3𝑉
𝑖=
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

© G. Berdibekov
 DC Steady State
• Assume the circuit below is at rest. Find 𝑖1 and 𝑖2 .

© G. Berdibekov
 Quiz
Using SC circuit analysis, find the value of 𝑖 in
steady state.

© G. Berdibekov
 Key concepts
• To analyze a circuit in DC steady state,
– Redraw the circuit
– Replace capacitors with open circuits
– Replace inductors with short circuits

© G. Berdibekov
 Continuity In Reactive Elements
Objectives:
• Introduce the unit step function
• Know when the voltage or current cannot
change discontinuously

© G. Berdibekov
 Continuity In Reactive Elements
Builds on:
• The integral I V relationships for capacitors and
inductors
𝑡
1
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣(𝑡0 )
𝐶
𝑡0
𝑡
1
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑖(𝑡0 )
𝐿
𝑡0

© G. Berdibekov
 The Unit Step Function
• Also known as the Heaviside function
• Used in describing a source
• Defined:
0 𝑡<0
𝑢 𝑡 =
1 𝑡>0

© G. Berdibekov
 The “Running” Integral
• “t” appears in the integral only as its upper
limit
𝑡

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝑡0
• As 𝑡 increases, more area is “captured”

© G. Berdibekov
 Integral of the Unit Step Function
𝑡

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞

• The integral is a ramp that is continuous at

𝑡 = 0, and we say 𝑦 0− = 𝑦(0+ )
© G. Berdibekov
Voltage is Continuous in Capacitors
𝑡
1
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣(𝑡0 )
𝐶
𝑡0
Example: 𝐶 = 2𝐹, 𝑣 0 = −2𝑉

© G. Berdibekov
Current is Continuous in Inductors
𝑡
1
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑖(𝑡0 )
𝐿
𝑡0
1
Choose the current, 𝑖 𝑡 , when 𝑖 0 = 1𝐴, 𝐿 = 𝐻
3

© G. Berdibekov
 Key Concepts
• Because of the integral in the VI relationship,
the following cannot change discontinuously:
– Voltage in a capacitor
– Current in an inductor

© G. Berdibekov
 Switching With Reactive Elements
After DC
• Learn what happens when a switch changes,
in a circuit with capacitors and inductors that
has been in DC steady state.

© G. Berdibekov
 Switching With Reactive Elements
After DC
Builds on:
• Inductor current is continuous
• Capacitor voltage is continuous
• An inductor behaves as a short circuit to a DC
current
• A capacitor behaves as an open circuit to a DC
current

© G. Berdibekov
Single-pole single-throw (SPST) Switch
• Initially closed, opens at 𝑡 = 0

• Initially open, closes at 𝑡 = 0

© G. Berdibekov
 Single-pole double throw (SPDT)
Switch
• Node 𝑎 is connected to Node 𝑏 for 𝑡 < 0

• Node 𝑎 is connected to Node 𝑐 for 𝑡 > 0

• The change is assumed to be instantaneous

© G. Berdibekov
 General Approach
• Redraw circuit prior to switch change
• Assume the circuit is in “DC steady state” or is “at rest”
– All derivatives are zero
– Inductors are short circuits
– Capacitors are open circuits
• Calculate the inductor current or the capacitor voltage
• Redraw circuit AFTER switch change
• Use the respective current or voltage as the initial
condition

© G. Berdibekov
 Example RC Circuit
• Before the switch changes
state, assume the circuit is at
rest
• Determine 𝑣(0+ )

© G. Berdibekov
 Example RL Circuit
• Before 𝑡 = 0, assume
the circuit is at rest
• Determine 𝑖(0+ )

© G. Berdibekov
 Test
• What is the voltage 𝑣𝑐 immediately after the
switch is opened?

© G. Berdibekov
 Key concepts
• Re-draw the circuit twice:
– BEFORE the switch change
– AFTER the switch change
• The inductor current or the capacitor voltage
BEFORE the change will be the initial condition
AFTER the switch change

© G. Berdibekov
 First-Order RC Circuits
Objectives:
• Find the time response of the first-order RC
circuit
• Plot the response using the time constant

© G. Berdibekov
Two definitions of a First-Order Circuit
• A circuit with effectively just one storage
element

• A circuit modeled by a first-order differential

equation
𝑑𝑣
+ 3𝑣 𝑡 = 4
𝑑𝑡
© G. Berdibekov
First Step: get the Equivalent RC Circuit
• Get the Thevenin’s equivalent of the part
connected to the capacitor

© G. Berdibekov
First Step: get the Equivalent RC Circuit
• Get the Thevenin’s equivalent of the part
connected to the capacitor

© G. Berdibekov
 Get the Differential Equation
𝑑𝑣
• Using KVL and 𝑖 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡

• Use standard form:

𝑑𝑣 1
+ 𝑣=𝐾
𝑑𝑡 𝜏
© G. Berdibekov
 Solution for the Standard Form
• Generic case with a constant forcing function:
𝑑𝑦 1
+ 𝑦 𝑡 =𝐾
𝑑𝑡 𝜏
• Solution for 𝑡 ≥ 0:
−𝑡 𝜏
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾𝜏 + 𝑦 0 − 𝐾𝜏 𝑒
• 𝑦 0 is the “initial condition”
• 𝜏 is the “time constant”
• 𝐾𝜏 is the “DC steady state value”
© G. Berdibekov
 Test
Given the differential equation below, what is
the steady-state value? What is the time
constant?
𝑑𝑦
+ 100𝑦 = 200 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 0 = 1
𝑑𝑡

© G. Berdibekov
 RC Example
• Find 𝑣(𝑡), for 𝑡 ≥ 0, given v(0)=2V, for
the circuit below.

• Recall 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾𝜏 + 𝑦 0 − 𝐾𝜏 𝑒 −𝑡 𝜏
• If 𝑅𝑡ℎ is in Ohms and 𝐶 is in Farads, 𝜏
is in seconds and 𝑣(𝑡) is in Volts
𝜏 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ 𝐶 = 0.12 sec 𝐾𝜏 = 𝑣𝑂𝐶 = 5𝑉

© G. Berdibekov
 Test
A system has the following differential equation:
𝑑𝑦
+ 20𝑦 = −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 0 = 2
𝑑𝑡
Find the steady-state value and time constant.

© G. Berdibekov
 RC Quiz
• Which graph of 𝑣(𝑡) is
possible, given 𝑣(0) = −3𝑉,
for the circuit below.

© G. Berdibekov
 Test
• If 𝑅 = 20Ω, C = 0.1𝐹 and 𝑣𝑠 = 10𝑉. What is
the time constant of the 𝑅𝐶 circuit?

© G. Berdibekov
 Test
The differential equation for this circuit is of the
𝑑𝑣
form + 𝑎𝑣 = 𝐾. If 𝑅 = 20Ω, 𝐶 = 0.1𝐹 and
𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑠 = 10𝑉. Find the value of 𝑎 and K.

© G. Berdibekov
 Key concepts
• General approach: replace the circuit
connected to the capacitor with its Thevenin’s
equivalent
• Identify 𝜏 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ 𝐶 and 𝐾𝜏 = 𝑣𝑂𝐶
• Just write the solution
• Plot, using the horizontal asymptote, and
mark the time constant to show when
solution is 2/3 of the way to its final value
© G. Berdibekov
 First-Order RL Circuits
Objectives:
• Find the time response of the first-order RL
circuit
• Plot the response using the time constant

© G. Berdibekov
 First-Order RL Circuits
Builds On:
• Norton’s Equivalent circuit
• I V relationship for the inductor
• Standard form of first-order differential equation and its
solution

𝑑𝑖
𝑣=𝐿
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦 1
+ 𝑦 𝑡 =𝐾
𝑑𝑡 𝜏
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾𝜏 + 𝑦 0 − 𝐾𝜏 𝑒 −𝑡 𝜏

© G. Berdibekov
 First Step: Find the equivalent RL
Circuit
• Get the Norton’s equivalent of the part
connected to the inductor

© G. Berdibekov
 First Step: Find the equivalent RL
Circuit
• Get the Norton’s equivalent of the part
connected to the inductor

© G. Berdibekov
 First Step: Find the equivalent RL
Circuit
• Get the Norton’s equivalent of the part
connected to the inductor
• Reconnect the inductor and analyze the
smaller circuit

© G. Berdibekov
Differential Equation for the RL Circuit
𝑑𝑖
• Using KCL and 𝑣 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡

© G. Berdibekov
 Write the Solution
• Recall the standard form and its solution
𝑑𝑦 1
+ 𝑦 𝑡 =𝐾
𝑑𝑡 𝜏
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾𝜏 + 𝑦 0 − 𝐾𝜏 𝑒 −𝑡 𝜏
𝑑𝑖 𝑅𝑡ℎ 𝑅𝑡ℎ
• RL equation: + 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑠𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
𝐿
• 𝜏= 𝐾𝜏 = 𝑖𝑠𝑐
𝑅𝑡ℎ

© G. Berdibekov
 Test
Consider the 𝑅𝐿 circuit below where 𝑅 = 10Ω, L=0.1H and
𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝑠 = 5𝑉. Differential equation is given in the form: + 𝑎𝑖 = 𝐾.
𝑑𝑡
Determine the steady state value and time constant of the
current. Find the value of 𝑎 and 𝐾.

© G. Berdibekov
 RL Numerical Example
• Find 𝑖(𝑡), for 𝑡 ≥ 0, given 𝑖 0 = 10𝐴, for the
circuit below.

• Recall 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖𝑠𝑐 + 𝑖 0 − 𝑖𝑠𝑐 𝑒 −𝑡 𝜏 , where

𝜏 = 𝐿/𝑅𝑡ℎ
• If 𝑅 is in Ohms and 𝐿 is in Henrys, 𝜏 is in seconds

© G. Berdibekov
 RL Numerical Example
• Find 𝑖(𝑡), for 𝑡 ≥ 0, given 𝑖 0 = 10𝐴,
for the circuit below.

• Recall 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖𝑠𝑐 + 𝑖 0 − 𝑖𝑠𝑐 𝑒 −𝑡 𝜏 ,

where 𝜏 = 𝐿/𝑅𝑡ℎ
• If 𝑅 is in Ohms and 𝐿 is in Henrys, 𝜏 is
in seconds

© G. Berdibekov
 RL Quiz
• What is the time constant for the circuit
below?

© G. Berdibekov
 Key Concepts
• General approach: replace the circuit
connected to the inductor with its Norton’s
equivalent
• Identify 𝜏 = 𝐿/𝑅𝑡ℎ and 𝐾𝜏 = 𝑖𝑠𝑐
• Just write the solution
• Plot, using the horizontal asymptote, and
mark the time constant to show when the
solution is 2/3 of the way to its final value
© G. Berdibekov
 Transient Response on Non-Reactive
Elements

In this case, two steps required to this problem.

• First, find the capacitor voltage using method that we
already know.
• Once the capacitor voltage is known, write node or mesh
equations to express the response in terms of the input and
the capacitor voltage.

© G. Berdibekov
Transient Response on Non-Reactive
Elements

© G. Berdibekov
 Six Step Analysis
This will only work for a first order circuit (one C or L) with DC sources.
• Assume that the solution will use the equation:
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 ∞ + 𝑥 0 − 𝑥 ∞ 𝑒 −𝑡 𝜏
• Assume that the circuit has reached a steady state before the switch moves. So the
capacitor can be replaced by and open circuit and the inductor can be replaced by
a short circuit. Draw the circuit without them, and find the initial voltage on the
capacitor or the initial current in the inductor.
• Draw the circuit with the switch in the new position. Replace the capacitor with a
voltage source 𝑉𝑐 initial. Replace the inductor with a current source 𝐼𝐿 initial. Then
find the initial value for the variable 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥(0+ ).
• Assume that the circuit has reached a steady state in the second switch position.
So the capacitor can be replaced by and open circuit and the inductor can be
replaced by a short circuit. Draw the circuit without them, and find the steady
state value for the variable 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥( ).
• Find the Thevenin resistance using the capacitor or inductor as the load. Then
𝝉 = 𝑹𝑻𝑯𝑪 or 𝝉 = 𝑳 / 𝑹𝑻𝑯 .
• Using the result, get equation 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 ∞ + 𝑥 0 − 𝑥 ∞ 𝑒 −𝑡 𝜏

© G. Berdibekov
Transient Response on Non-Reactive
Elements

© G. Berdibekov
Example
• Find 𝑉𝑅

© G. Berdibekov
© G. Berdibekov
© G. Berdibekov
© G. Berdibekov