Three levels of understanding or perspective

Lesson 1: The Study of Chemistry on the nature of chemistry:

⃝ Describe how chemistry and engineering helped
transform metal into an inexpensive structural
material.
⃝ Explain the usefulness of the macroscopic,
microscopic, and symbolic perspectives in
understanding chemical systems.
⃝ Express the results of calculations using the
correct number of significant figures.

Definition of Terms
Matter is anything that has mass and can be observed.  The Macroscopic Perspective is the viewpoint of
(Q: Is light a matter?) chemistry focusing on samples of matter that are
large enough to be seen, measured, or handled
Atoms are unimaginably small particles that cannot easily.
be made any smaller and still behave like a chemical  Microscopic Perspective is the viewpoint of
system. chemistry focusing on samples of matter at the
atomic and molecular level, where samples
Molecules are groups of atoms held together so that cannot be seen, measured, or handled easily.
they form a unit whose identity is distinguish different Note that this scale is smaller than the resolution
from the atoms alone. of a traditional microscope. Also called the
particulate perspective.
Element is a substance that cannot be separated into  Symbolic Perspective is the viewpoint of
simpler substances by chemical chemistry focusing on symbolic representations
means. of the substances involved through formulas,
equations, etc.
Compound, a substance composed of atoms of two or
more elements chemically united in fixed proportions. Classifications of Matter:

Mixture is a combination of two or more substances.

Homogeneous Mixture is a mixture in which the

composition is uniform. Also called a solution.

Heterogeneous Mixture is a mixture in which the

composition varies.
Chemistry: A Science for Twenty-First Century
 Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes
it undergoes. Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
 Chemistry is the science of the composition and Matter can be classified as:
structure of materials and of the changes that 1. Substance- is a form of matter that has a definite
materials undergo. (constant) composition and distinct properties.
 Chemistry is often called the “central science”, Substance can be:
because a basic knowledge of chemistry is  element is a substance that cannot be
essential for students of biology, physics, geology, separated into simpler substances by
ecology, and many other subjects. chemical means.
 Chemistry is the science of matter, and since all  substance composed of atoms of two or
engineering designs involve matter, the links more elements chemically united in fixed
between chemistry and engineering are many. proportions.
 Chemistry is an empirical science. It relies on 2. Mixture- is a combination of two or more
experimental observations to develop an substances in which the substances retain their
understanding of matter. distinct identities. Mixtures can be :
Chemistry for Engineers
  homogeneous mixture in which the
composition of the mixture is the same Three States of Matter:
throughout.
 heterogeneous mixture because the
composition is not uniform.

Basic Properties of Matter

Substances are identified by their properties as well
as by their composition. All properties of matter are
either extensive or intensive and either physical or
chemical. Extensive properties, such as mass and
volume, depend on the amount of matter that is
being measured. Intensive properties, such as
density and color, do not depend on the amount of
matter. Both extensive and intensive properties are
physical properties, which means they can be
measured without changing the substance’s chemical
identity.. The three states of matter can be inter-converted
1. Physical property - Property that can be observed without changing the composition of the substance.
or measured while the substance being observed Upon heating, a solid (for example, ice) will melt to
retains its composition and identity. form a liquid (water). (The temperature at which this
 Extensive Property – vary with the amount of transition occurs is called the melting point. ) Further
the substance heating will convert the liquid into a gas. (This
 Mass (m) conversion takes place at the boiling point of the
 Volume (V) liquid.) On the other hand, cooling a gas will cause it
 Intensive Property - do not depend on the to condense into a liquid. When the liquid is cooled
amount of the substance further, it will freeze into the solid form.
 Color
 Density (ρ or D) Measurement
 Melting point/boiling point The measurements chemists make are often used in
 Electrical conductivity calculations to obtain other related quantities.
2. Chemical property - Property of a substance that is Different instruments enable us to measure a
associated with the types of chemical changes that substance’s properties: The meterstick measures
the substance undergoes. length or scale; the buret, the pipet, the graduated
 Heat of combustion is the energy released when cylinder, and the volumetric fl ask measure volume;
a compound undergoes complete combustion the balance measures mass; the thermometer
(burning) with oxygen. The symbol for the heat measures temperature. These instruments provide
of combustion is ΔHc. measurements of macroscopic properties, which can
 Chemical stability refers to whether a compound be determined directly. Microscopic properties, on the
will react with water or air (chemically stable atomic or molecular scale, must be determined by an
substances will not react). Hydrolysis and indirect method
oxidation are two such reactions and are both
chemical changes. SI Units
 Flammability refers to whether a compound will In 1960, the General Conference of Weights and
burn when exposed to flame. Again, burning is a Measures, the international authority on units,
chemical reaction—commonly a proposed a revised metric system called the
high-temperature reaction in the presence of International System of Units (abbreviated SI, from
oxygen. the French Système Internationale d’Unites).
 The preferred oxidation state is the
lowest-energy oxidation state that a metal will Measurements that we will utilize frequently in our
undergo reactions in order to achieve (if another study of chemistry include time, mass, volume,
element is present to accept or donate density, and temperature.
electrons).
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 3. Density
 The equation for density is d = m/V, where d,
m, and V denote density, mass, and volume,
respectively. Because density is an intensive
property and does not depend on the quantity of
mass present, for a given substance the ratio of
mass to volume always remains the same; in
other words, V increases as m does. Density
usually decreases with temperature.
 The SI-derived unit for density is the kilogram per
cubic meter (kg/m3).

Sample Problem:
Gold is a precious metal that is
chemically unreactive. It is
used mainly in jewelry,
dentistry, and electronic
1. Mass and Weight devices. A piece of gold ingot
 Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an with a mass of 301 g has a
object volume of 15.6 cm3. Calculate
 Weight is the force that gravity exerts on an the density of gold.
object
 The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). Unlike Sample Problem:
the units of length and time, which are based on The density of mercury, the
natural processes that can be repeated by only metal that is a liquid at
scientists anywhere, the kilogram is defined in room temperature, is 13.6
terms of a particular object. g/mL. Calculate the mass of
1 kg = 1000 g = 1 × 10^3 g 5.50 mL of the liquid.

2. Volume
 The SI unit of length is the 4. Temperature Scales
meter (m), and the SI-derived  Three temperature scales are currently in use:
unit for volume is the cubic 1. °F (degrees Fahrenheit)- most commonly
meter (m3). used scale in the United States outside the
laboratory, defines the normal freezing and
boiling points of water to be exactly 32°F and
 Another common unit of 212°F, respectively.
volume is the liter (L). A liter is 2. °C (degrees Celsius)- divides the range
the volume occupied by one between the freezing point (0°C) and boiling
cubic decimeter. One liter of point (100°C) of water into 100 degrees.
volume is equal to 1000 3. K (kelvin)- is the SI base unit of temperature:
milliliters (mL) or 1000 cm3: it is the absolute temperature scale. By absolute
we mean that the zero on the Kelvin scale,
denoted by 0 K, is the lowest temperature that
can be attained theoretically
 and one milliliter is equal to one  To convert degrees Fahrenheit to degrees
cubic centimeter: Celsius:

Chemistry for Engineers

 To convert degrees Celsius to degrees Scientific Notation
Fahrenheit: When working with very large and very small
numbers, we use a system called scientific notation.
Regardless of their magnitude, all numbers can be
expressed in the form
N × 10n
 To convert degrees Celsius to kelvin: Where N is a number between 1 and 10 and n, the
exponent, is a positive or negative integer (whole
number). Any number expressed in this way is said to
be written in scientific notation.

(1) Express 568.762 in scientific notation:

(2) Express 0.00000772 in scientific notation:

Addition and Subtraction

To add or subtract using scientific notation, we first
write each quantity—say N1 and N2—with the same
exponent n. Then we combine N1 and N2; the
exponents remain the same. Consider the following
examples:

Multiplication and Division

To multiply numbers expressed in scientific notation,
we multiply N1 and N2 in the usual way, but add the
exponents together. To divide using scientific
notation, we divide N1 and N2 as usual and subtract
Sample Problem: the exponents. The following examples show how
(a) Solder is an alloy made of tin and lead that is used these operations are performed:
in electronic circuits. A certain solder has a melting
point of 224°C. What is its melting point in degree
Fahrenheit?

(b) Helium has the lowest boiling point of all the

elements at 2452°F. Convert this temperature to
degrees Celsius.

(c) Mercury, the only metal that exists as a liquid at

room temperature, melts at 238.9°C. Convert its Significant Figures
melting point to kelvins.  It is important to indicate the margin of error in a
measurement by clearly indicating the number of
significant figures, which are the meaningful
digits in a measured or calculated quantity.
Chemistry for Engineers
 When significant figures are used, the last digit
is understood to be uncertain.

Guidelines for Using Significant Figures

We must always be careful in scientific work to write
the proper number of significant figures. In general, it
is fairly easy to determine how many significant
2. In multiplication and division, the number of
figures a number has by following these rules:
significant figures in the final product or quotient is
determined by the original number that has the
1. Any digit that is not zero is significant. Thus, 845
smallest number of significant figures. The following
cm has three significant figures, 1.234 kg has four
examples illustrate this rule:
significant figures, and so on.

2. Zeros between nonzero digits are significant. Thus,

606 m contains three significant figures, 40,501 kg
contains five significant figures, and so on. 3. Keep in mind that exact numbers obtained from
definitions or by counting numbers of objects can be
3. Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not considered to have an infinite number of significant
significant. Their purpose is to indicate the placement figures. For example, the inch is defined to be exactly
of the decimal point. For example, 0.08 L contains 2.54 centimeters; that is, 1 in is 2.54 cm
one significant figure, 0.0000349 g contains three
significant figures, and so on. Sample Problem:
Carry out the following arithmetic operations to the
4. If a number is greater than 1, then all the zeros correct number of significant figures:
written to the right of the decimal point count as (a) 11,254.1 g 1 0.1983 g
significant figures. Thus, 2.0 mg has two significant (b) 66.59 L 2 3.113 L
figures, 40.062 mL has five significant figures, and (c) 8.16 m 3 5.1355,
3.040 dm has four significant figures. If a number is (d) 0.0154 kg 4 88.3 mL
less than 1, then only the zeros that are at the end of (e) 2.64 3 10^3cm - 3.27 3 10^2 cm
the number and the zeros that are between nonzero
digits are significant. This means that 0.090 kg has
two significant figures, 0.3005 L has four significant
figures, 0.00420 min has three significant figures, and
so on.

5. For numbers that do not contain decimal points,

the trailing zeros (that is, zeros after the last nonzero
digit) may or may not be significant. Thus, 400 cm
may have one significant figure (the digit 4), two
significant figures (40), or three significant figures Lesson 2: Atoms and Molecules
(400). We cannot know which is correct without more ⃝ Explain the difference between a molecular
information. By using scientific notation, however, we formula and empirical formula
avoid this ambiguity. In this particular case, we can ⃝ Determine the number of atoms in a molecule
express the number 400 as 4 × 10^2 for one from its chemical formula
significant figure, 4.0 × 10^2 for two significant ⃝ Use standard chemical nomenclature to deduce
figures, or 4.00 × 10^2 for three significant figures. the name of simple inorganic compounds from
their formula or vice versa
A second set of rules specifies how to handle
significant figures in calculations: Definition of Terms
1. In addition and subtraction, the answer cannot Atom is the basic unit of an element that can enter
have more digits to the right of the decimal point into chemical combination
than either of the original numbers. Consider these
examples:
Chemistry for Engineers
Lesson 2: Atoms and Molecules atoms of one element are different from the atoms of
⃝ Explain the difference between a molecular all other elements.
formula and an empirical formula. 3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than
⃝ Determine the number of atoms in a molecule one element. In any compound,
from its chemical formula the ratio of the numbers of atoms of any two of the
⃝ Use standard chemical nomenclature to deduce elements present is either an
the names of simple inorganic compounds from integer or a simple fraction.
their formulas or vice versa. 4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation,
combination, or rearrangement
Definition of Terms of atoms; it does not result in their creation or
Atom The basic unit of an element that can enter into destruction.
chemical combination.
Law of Definite Proportion/ Law of Constant
Atomic Number The number of protons in a particular Composition
atom.  Different samples of the same compound always
contain its constituent elements in the same
Electron A subatomic particle that has a very low proportion by mass. Thus, if we were to analyze
mass and carries a single negative electric charge. samples of carbon dioxide gas obtained from
different sources, we would find in each sample
Isotopes Atoms of the same element that have the same ratio by mass of carbon to oxygen.
different numbers of neutrons.  It stands to reason, then, that if the ratio of the
masses of different elements in a given
Mass Number The combined total of protons and compound is fixed, the ratio of the atoms of
neutrons. these elements in the compound also must be
constant.
Nucleus The central core of an atom.  Also known as the law of definite proportions.
 The elemental composition of a pure substance
Neutron A subatomic particle that bears no net never varies.
electric charge. Its mass is slightly greater than a  In a given compound, the relative numbers and
proton’s. kinds of atoms are constant.
 Basis of Dalton’s Postulate #4
Proton A subatomic particle having a single positive
electric charge. The mass of a proton is about 1840 Law of Multiple Proportions
times that of an electron.  If two elements can combine to form more than
one compound, the masses of one element that
The Atomic Theory combine with a fixed mass of the other element
 Democritus (Greek philosopher) believed that are in ratios of small whole numbers. Dalton’s
there was a smallest particle—“atomos” theory explains the law of multiple proportions
(uncuttable, indivisible)—that made up all of quite simply: Different compounds made up of
nature. the same elements differ in the number of atoms
 Experiments in the eighteenth and nineteenth of each kind that combine.
centuries led to an organized atomic theory by  For example, carbon forms two stable
John Dalton in the early 1800s, which explained compounds with oxygen, namely, carbon
several laws known at that time: monoxide and carbon dioxide. Modern
1. The law of constant composition measurement techniques indicate that one atom
2. The law of conservation of mass of carbon combines with one atom of oxygen in
3. The law of multiple proportions carbon monoxide and with two atoms of oxygen
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory: in carbon dioxide.mThus, the ratio of oxygen in
1. Elements are composed of extremely small carbon monoxide to oxygen in carbon dioxide is
particles called atoms. 1:2. This result is consistent with the law of
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having multiple proportions ( Figure 2.2 ).
the same size, mass, and chemical properties. The  If two elements A and B combine to form more
than one compound, the masses of B that can
Chemistry for Engineers
 combine with a given mass of A are in the ratio of How to interpret the Periodic Table of
small whole numbers. Elements

Law of Conservation of Mass

 Matter can be neither created nor destroyed.
Because matter is made of atoms that are
unchanged in a chemical reaction, it follows that
mass must be conserved as well. Dalton’s brilliant
insight into the nature of matter was the main
stimulus for the rapid progress of chemistry
during the nineteenth century. Atomic Mass
 The total mass of substances present at the end This number provides the average mass in amu of an
of a chemical process is the same as the mass of atom of the element. If you look up Carbon in the
substances present before the process took periodic table inside the back cover of this book, you
place. will find the box shown in Figure 2.2. The atomic
 Basis of Dalton’s Postulate #3 mass appears under the symbol: 12.011. But the
 Can’t create matter in a chemical reaction! mass of an atom of carbon-12 is exactly 12 amu, and
that of carbon-13 is 13.0036 amu. So the value of
The Structure of Atom 12.011 does not seem to be the mass of any
Atom is the basic unit of individual atom of carbon.
an element that can
enter into chemical Naturally occurring isotopes of some selected
combination. Dalton elements and their atomic masses
imagined an atom that
was both extremely
small and indivisible.
However, a series of
investigations that began in the 1850s and extended
into the twentieth century clearly demonstrated that
atoms actually possess internal structure; that is, they
are made up of even smaller particles, which are How are atomic masses defined and
called subatomic particles. This research led to the determined?
discovery of three such particles—electrons, protons, The atomic mass is defined as the average mass of an
and neutrons. atom of a particular element.
Carbon has two stable isotopes with masses of
The atom is composed of a small, compact core called 12.0000 and 13.0036 amu, respectively.
the nucleus surrounded by a disperse cloud of So why is the average mass 12.011 and not
electrons. The nucleus is composed of two types of something closer to 12.5? The answer is that when
particles: protons and neutrons. There is so much we take the average mass, we must account for the
space between the electrons and the nucleus that it is relative abundance of each isotope.
impossible to show it to scale in an illustration.
Sample Problem:
Mass and Charge of Subatomic Particles
Suppose that we could measure the mass of a
100-atom sample. Based on
the isotopic abundances, we would expect to have 99
atoms of carbon-12 and only a
single atom of carbon-13. In any sample that we can
The General Atomic Symbol actually weigh, the number of
atoms will be far greater than 100. Even using the
best available laboratory balances,
the smallest quantity of matter that can be weighed is
about a nanogram, or 10−9 g. A
Chemistry for Engineers
nanogram of carbon would contain more than 1013
atoms.
Answer:
For such large numbers of atoms, it is safe to assume
that the fraction of each isotope present will be
determined by the natural abundances. For carbon,
the fact that we only need to consider two stable
isotopes makes the calculation fairly simple. We can
multiply the mass by the fractional abundance to
weight each isotope’s contribution to the atomic
mass.

The value of 12.011 found in the periodic table is

obtained using additional significant figures on the
isotopic abundance numbers.

Sample Problem:
The chlorine present in PVC has two stable isotopes.
35Cl with a mass of 34.97 amu makes up 75.77% of
the natural chlorine found. The other isotope is 37Cl,
whose mass is 36.95 amu. What is the atomic mass of
chlorine?
Answer:
First, we calculate the abundance of the chlorine-37
isotope:
Abundance of 37Cl = 100% − 75.77% = 24.23%
35Cl: 34.97 × 0.7577 = 26.50
37Cl: 36.95 × 0.2423 = 8.953
Weighted average mass = 26.50 + 8.953 = 35.45
So the atomic mass of chlorine is 35.45 amu.

Sample Problem:
Magnesium is a macromineral needed in the
contraction of muscles and metabolic reactions. Using
the data below, calculate the atomic mass for
magnesium using the weighted average mass
method.

Answer:

Chemistry for Engineers

Lesson 3: Periodic Table based on both physical as well as chemical
⃝ Familiarize the different periods and families or properties.
groups in the Periodic Table of Elements.  Dobereiner found that the atomic masses of
⃝ Explain the difference between a molecular these three elements, as well as other triads,
formula and an empirical formula. formed a pattern.
⃝ Determine the number of atoms in a molecule  While Dobereiner's system would pave the way
from its chemical formula for future ideas, a limitation of the triad system
⃝ Use standard chemical nomenclature to deduce was that not all of the known elements could be
the names of simple inorganic compounds from classified in this way.
their formulas or vice versa.
John Newlands (1838 - 1898)
Definition of Terms  John Newlands (1838 - 1898) ordered the
elements in increasing order of atomic mass and
Allotrope is one of two or more distinct forms of an noticed that every eighth element exhibited
element. similar properties. He called this relationship the
"Law of Octaves". Unfortunately, there were
Anion A negatively charged atom or group of atoms. some elements that were missing and the law did
not seem to hold for elements that were heavier
Cation A positively charged atom or group of atoms. than calcium.
 Newlands' work was largely ignored and even
Group/Family The elements in a vertical column of ridiculed by the scientific community in his day. It
the periodic table. was not until years later that another, more
extensive periodic table effort would gain much
Ion An atom or a group of atoms that has a net greater acceptance and the pioneering work of
positive or negative charge. John Newlands would be appreciated.

Metalloid An element with properties intermediate Dmitri Mendeleev (1836 - 1907)

between those of metals and nonmetals.  In 1869, Russian chemist and teacher Dmitri
Mendeleev (1836 - 1907) published a periodic
Metals Elements that are good conductors of heat and table of the elements.
electricity and have the tendency to form positive ions  The following year, German chemist Lothar
in ionic compounds. Meyer independently published a very similar
table.
Nonmetals Elements that are usually poor conductors  Mendeleev is generally given more credit than
of heat and electricity. Meyer because his table was published first and
because of several key insights that he made
Period A horizontal row of the periodic table. regarding the table.

Periodic Law: when properly arranged, the elements The Modern Periodic Table of Elements
display a regular and periodic variation in their
chemical properties. Column 1. Alkali Metals (Group 1A)
Column 2. Alkali Earths (Group 2A)
Periodic Table A chart in which elements having Columns 3- 12. Transition Metals
similar chemical and physical properties are grouped
together. Column 17. Halogens (Group 7A)
Column 18. Noble Gases (Group 8A)
History and development of the periodic table Row 8. Lanthanides
Johann Dobereiner (1780 - 1849) Row 9. Actinides
 In 1829, a German chemist, Johann Dobereiner
(1780 - 1849), placed various groups of three
elements into groups called triads. One such triad
was lithium, sodium, and potassium. Triads were

Chemistry for Engineers

 Molecular and structural formula of four
common molecules

Sample Problem:
Write the empirical formulas for the following
molecules: (a) acetylene (C2H2), which is used in
welding torches; (b) glucose (C6H12O6), a substance
known as blood sugar; and (c) nitrous oxide (N2O), a
gas that is used as an anesthetic gas (“laughing gas”)
The elements can be divided into three
and as an aerosol propellant for whipped creams.
categories—metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. A
Solution:
metal is a good conductor of heat and electricity while
To write the empirical formula, which is the simplest
a nonmetal is usually a poor conductor of heat and
form, the subscripts in the molecular formula must be
electricity. A metalloid has properties that are
converted to the smallest possible whole number.
intermediate between those of metals and
nonmetals.

Common monatomic ions arranged according

to their positions in the periodic table
Naming Compounds
 Organic compounds contain carbon, usually in
combination with elements such as hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur (H, O, N, S). All
other compounds are classified as inorganic
compounds
 To organize and simplify our venture into naming
compounds, we can divide inorganic compounds
into four categories: ionic compounds, molecular
compounds, acids and bases, and hydrates.

Chemical Formula Naming Compounds: For Ionic Compounds

Molecular Formulas  For ionic compounds to be electrically neutral,
shows the exact number of atoms of each element the sum of the charges on the cation and anion in
in the smallest unit of a substance. each formula unit must be zero. If the charges on
Empirical Formulas the cation and anion are numerically different,
tells us which elements are present and the we apply the following rule to make the formula
simplest whole-number ratio of their atoms, but not electrically neutral: The subscript of the cation is
necessarily the actual number of atoms in a given numerically equal to the charge on the anion, and
molecule. the subscript of the anion is numerically equal to
the charge on the cation. If the charges are
Empirical formulas are the simplest chemical formulas; numerically equal, then no subscripts are
they are written by reducing the subscripts in the necessary. This rule follows from the fact that
molecular formulas to the smallest possible whole because the formulas of ionic compounds are
numbers. Molecular formulas are the true formulas of usually empirical formulas, the subscripts must
molecules. always be reduced to the smallest ratios.
 Let us consider some examples

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1. Potassium Bromide. The potassium cation K+ and Molecular Compounds
the bromine anion Br- combine to form the ionic We place the name of the first element in the formula
compound potassium bromide. The sum of the first, and the second element is named by adding -ide
charges is +1 + (-1) = 0, so no subscripts are to the root of the element name.
necessary. The formula is KBr.

2. Zinc Iodide. The zinc cation Zn2+ and the iodine

anion I- combine to form zinc iodide. The sum of the HCl hydrogen chloride
charges of one Zn2+ ion and one I- ion is +2 + (-1) = HBr hydrogen bromide
+1. To make the charges add up to zero we multiply SiC silicon carbide
the -1 charge of the anion by 2 and add the subscript CO carbon monoxide
“2” to the symbol for iodine. Therefore the formula CO2 carbon dioxide
for zinc iodide is ZnI2. SO2 sulfur dioxide
SO3 sulfur trioxide
3. Aluminum Oxide. The cation is NO2 nitrogen dioxide
Al3+ and the oxygen anion is O2-. N2O4 dinitrogen tetroxide
The following diagram helps us
determine the subscripts for the
compound formed by the cation and
the anion. The sum of the charges is 2(+3) + 3(-2) =
0. Thus the formula for aluminum oxide is Al2O3.
The following guidelines are helpful in naming
compounds with prefi xes:
 The prefix “mono-” may be omitted for the first
element. For example, PCl3 is named phosphorus
trichloride, not monophosphorus trichloride. Thus,
the absence of a prefix for the first element
Names and Formulas of Some Common usually means there is only one atom of that
Inorganic Cations and Anions element present in the molecule.
 For oxides, the ending “a” in the prefi x is
sometimes omitted. For example, N2O4 may be
called dinitrogen tetroxide rather than dinitrogen
tetraoxide.

Chemistry for Engineers

Module 4A: Chemical Equations and Molecular Weight
Stoichiometry  The mass, in atomic mass units, of one molecule
of a nonionic (molecular) substance. Numerically
⃝ Explain balancing a chemical equation as an equal to the mass, in grams, of one mole of such
application of the law of conservation of mass. a substance.
⃝ Write balanced chemical equations for simple  This number is obtained by adding the atomic
reactions, given either an unbalanced equation or weights of the atoms specified in the formula.
a verbal description.
⃝ Interpret chemical equations in terms of both Molecule The smallest particle of an element or
moles and molecules. compound that can have a stable independent
⃝ Interconvert between mass, number of existence. Percent Composition The mass percentage
molecules, and number of moles. of each element in a compound.

Definition of Terms: Product is the substance formed as a result of a

chemical reaction.
Chemical Equation uses chemical symbols to show
what happens during a chemical reaction. Reactants are the starting materials in a chemical
reaction.
Chemical Reaction A process in which a substance (or
substances) is changed into one or more new Stoichiometric Amount Amount that is in the
substances. proportions indicated by the balanced
equation.
Empirical Formula The smallest whole-number ratio
of atoms present in a compound; also called empirical Atomic Mass
formula.  Atomic Mass (sometimes called atomic weight) is
the mass of the atom in atomic mass units (amu).
Excess Reactant The reactants present in quantities  One atomic mass unit is defined as a mass
greater than necessary to react with the quantity of exactly equal to one-twelfth the mass of one
the limiting reagent. carbon-12 atom.
 Carbon-12 is the carbon isotope that has six
Formula Weight protons and six neutrons. Setting the atomic
 The mass, in atomic mass units, of one formula mass of carbon-12 at 12 amu provides the
unit of a substance. standard for measuring the atomic mass of the
 Numerically equal to the mass, in grams, of one other elements.
mole of the substance (see Molar mass).  Atomic masses do not convert easily to grams
 This number is obtained by adding the atomic  They can’t be weighed (they are too small)
weights of the atoms specified in the formula. Why do we need to use atomic mass?
 Masses give information about # of p+, n0, e–
Limiting Reactant The reactant that is completely  It is useful to know relative mass
consumed in a reaction. The available amount of it  It is useful to associate atomic mass with a mass
determines the maximum possible reaction yield. in grams. It has been found that 1 g H, 12 g C, or 23
g Na have 6.02 x 1023 atoms
Molar mass The mass of substance in one mole of the
substance; numerically equal to the formula weight of THE MOLE (n)
the substance. Avogadro’s Number and the Molar Mass of an
Element
Mole  In chemistry, particles such as atoms, molecules,
 6.022 x 1023 (Avogadro’s number of) formula and ions are counted by the mole (abbreviated
units (or molecules, for a molecular substance) of mol in calculations), which contains 6.022 x 1023
the substance under discussion. items. This value, known as Avogadro’s number,
 The mass of one mole, in grams, is numerically is a very big number because atoms are so small
equal to the formula (molecular) weight of the that it takes an extremely large number of atoms
substance.
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 to provide a sufficient amount to weigh and use Molar mass of Li2CO3 is the sum of the masses of
in chemical reactions. each element:
 Avogadro’s number is named for Amedeo
Avogadro (1776–1856), an Italian physicist.
 6.02 x 1023 is a “mole” or “Avogadro’s number”  The molar mass of an element is one of the most
“mol” is used in equations, “mole” is used in useful conversion factors in chemistry because it
writing; one gram = 1 g, one mole = 1 mol. converts moles of a substance to grams, or
6.022 x 1023 = 602 200 000 000 000 000 000 000
grams to moles. For example, 1 mol of silver has
Using Avogadro’s Number as a Conversion Factor
a mass of 107.9 g. To express molar mass of Ag
as an equality, we write
1 mol Ag = 107.9 g Ag
From this equality for the molar mass, two conversion
factors can be written as:
Example:
How many molecules are present in 1.75 mol of
carbon dioxide?
Conversion between moles and grams:
Example
Moles of Elements in a Chemical Compound Silver metal is used in the manufacture of tableware,
mirrors, jewelry, and dental alloys. If the design for a
piece of jewelry requires 0.750 mol of silver, how
many grams of silver are needed?
Solution:
Conversion factor:

Molar Mass (MM)

To determine the molar mass of a compound,
multiply the molar mass of each element by its Just select the proper conversion factor to convert
subscript in the formula and add the results. moles to grams.
 Molar mass is the quantity in grams that equals
the atomic mass of that element. We are
counting 6.022 x 1023 atoms of an element when
we weigh out the number of grams equal to its Conversion between mass and moles of a
molar mass. compound:
 For example, carbon has an atomic mass of
Example
12.01 on the periodic table. This means 1 mol of
carbon atoms has a mass of 12.01 g. Then to A salt shaker contains 73.7 g of NaCl. How many
obtain 1 mol of carbon atoms, we would need to moles of NaCl are present?
weigh out 12.01 g of carbon. Thus, the molar Solution:
mass of carbon is found by looking at its atomic First, determine the Molar Mass of NaCl and form
mass on the periodic table. conversion factors.
MM is 58.44 g/mol
Example
Calculate the molar mass for lithium carbonate,
Li2CO3, used to treat bipolar disorder.
From here, we now can convert grams to moles.

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Converting between grams of compound and Use the formula above to find the mass % of each
grams of element: element:
Example:
Hot packs are used to reduce muscle aches,
inflammation, and muscle spasms. A hot pack
consists of a bag of water and an inner bag containing
10.2 g of CaCl2. When the bag is broken, the CaCl2
dissolves in the water and heat is released. How
many grams of Cl are in the CaCl2 in the inner bag?
Solution:
conversion factors for molar mass and mole factors The total mass percent for all the elements in the
are obtained for this example: compound should equal 100%. In some cases,
because of rounding off, the sum of the mass
percents may not total exactly 100%.

Example :
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) cures scurvy. It is composed
We can proceed to the conversion: of 40.92 percent carbon (C), 4.58 percent hydrogen
(H), and 54.50 percent oxygen (O) by mass.
Determine its empirical formula.
Solution:
Basis: 100 g of Ascorbic Acid

Mass Percent Composition

we can calculate its mass percent composition or
mass percent, which is the mass of an element
divided by the total mass of the compound and
multiplied by 100%.
To simplify the subscript is to divide all the subscripts
by the smallest subscript. In this case, 3.406

Example
The odor of pears is due to the compound propyl
acetate, which has a formula of C5H10O2. What is Next, we need to convert 1.33, the subscript for H,
the mass percent composition of propyl acetate? into an integer. This can be done by a trial-and-error
Solution procedure. From which, you can see that only by
Determine the total mass of each element in the multiplying each subscript by 3 can we acquire an
molar mass of a formula. integer or whole number. Therefore the empirical
formula for ascorbic acid is: C3H4O3

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Calculating the Molecular Formula Procedure for calculating the empirical
Example formula of a compound from its percent
Melamine, which is used to make plastic items such compositions
as dishes and toys, contains 28.57% C, 4.80% H, and
66.64% N. If the experimental molar mass is 125 g,
what is the molecular formula of melamine?
Solution:
1. Obtain the empirical formula and calculate the
empirical formula mass
Basis: 100 g of this compound, therefore, there are
28.57 g of C, 4.80 g of H, and 66.64 g of N.

2. Divide the moles of each element by the smallest

number of moles, 2.38, to obtain the subscripts of
each element in the formula.

the empirical formula for melamine as CH2N2.

Lesson 4B: Chemical Equations and
3. Now we calculate the molar mass for this empirical Stoichiometry
formula as follows: CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
A chemical change occurs when a substance is
converted into one or more new substances. For
4. Divide the molar mass by the empirical formula example, when silver tarnishes, the shiny silver metal
mass (Ag) reacts with sulfur (S) to become the dull, black
substance we call tarnish (Ag2S).

WRITING A CHEMICAL EQUATION

5. Multiply the empirical formula by this factor to
Consider what happens when hydrogen gas (H 2)
obtain the molecular formula. Because the
burns in air (which contains oxygen, O 2) to form
experimental molar mass is close to 3 times the
water (H 2 O). This reaction can be represented by
empirical formula mass, the
the chemical equation
subscripts in the empirical formula are multiplied by 3
to give the molecular formula, C3H6N6.
where the “plus” sign means “reacts with” and the
arrow means “to yield.” Thus, this symbolic
expression can be read: “Molecular hydrogen reacts
with molecular oxygen to yield water.” The reaction is
assumed to proceed from left to right as the arrow
indicates Generally, each formula in an equation is
followed by an abbreviation, in parentheses, that
gives the physical state of the substance: solid (s),
liquid (l), or gas (g). If a substance is dissolved in
water, it is in an aqueous (aq) solution. The delta sign
(∆) indicates that heat was used to start the reaction.
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Lesson 5: Energy 5. Nuclear energy
⃝ Identify energy as potential or kinetic; convert  is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom—the
between units of energy. energy that holds then nucleus together. Large
⃝ Calculate the specific heat for a substance. amounts of energy can be released when the
⃝ Use specific heat to calculate heat loss or gain. nuclei are combined or split apart.
⃝ Define state functions and explain their 6. Gravitational energy
importance.  is energy stored in an object's height. The higher
⃝ Explain the economic importance of conversions and heavier the object, the more gravitational
between different forms of energy and the energy is stored.
inevitability of losses in this process  When a person rides a bicycle down a steep hill
and picks up speed, the gravitational energy is
ENERGY converting to motion energy.
 “Energy” is a much-used term that represents a  Hydropower is another example of gravitational
rather abstract concept. energy, where gravity forces water down through
 energy is known and recognized by its effects. It a hydroelectric turbine to produce electricity.
cannot be seen, touched, smelled, or weighed. 7. Radiant energy
 All forms of energy are capable of doing work  is electromagnetic energy that travels in
(that is, of exerting a force over a distance), but transverse waves.
not all of them are equally relevant to chemistry.  Radiant energy includes visible light, x-rays,
 is usually defined as the capacity to do work and gamma rays, and radio waves.
work as “force x distance,” butthere are other  Light is one type of radiant energy. Sunshine is
kinds of work. radiant energy, which provides the fuel and
 Forms of energy: warmth that make life on earth possible.
1. Kinetic energy 8. Thermal energy or heat
 the energy produced by a moving object—is one  is the energy that comes from the movement of
form of energy that is of particular interest to atoms and molecules in a substance.
chemists. Others include radiant energy, thermal  Heat increases when these particles move faster.
energy, chemical energy, and potential energy. Geothermal energy is the thermal energy in the
2. Potential energy earth.
 is energy available by virtue of an object’s 9. Sound
position.  is the movement of energy through substances in
 For instance,because of its altitude, a rock at longitudinal (compression/rarefaction) waves.
the top of a cliff has more potential energy and  Sound is produced when a force causes an object
will make a bigger splash if it falls into the water or substance to vibrate. The energy is transferred
below than a similar rock located partway down through the substance in a wave. Typically, the
the cliff. energy in sound is smaller than in other forms of
 Chemical energy can be considered a form of energy.
potential energy because it is associated with the 10. Electrical energy
relative positions and arrangements of atoms  is delivered by tiny charged particles called
within a given substance. electrons, typically moving through a wire.
3. Chemical energy  Lightning is an example of electrical energy in
 is energy stored in the bonds of atoms and nature.
molecules.
 Batteries, biomass, petroleum, natural gas, and All forms of energy can be converted (at least in
coal are examples of chemical energy. principle) from one form to another. Although energy
 Chemical energy is converted to thermal energy can assume many different forms that are
when people burn wood in a fireplace or burn interconvertible, scientist have concluded that energy
gasoline in a car's engine. can be neither destroyed nor created. When one form
4. Mechanical energy of energy disappears, some other form of energy (of
 is energy stored in objects by tension. equal magnitude) must appear, and vice versa. This
 Compressed springs and stretched rubber bands principle is summarized by the Law of Conservation of
are examples of stored mechanical energy. Energy: the total quantity of energy in the universe is
assumed constant.
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Sources of Energy energy, it doesn't disappear. Energy changes from
1. Non-renewable one form of energy into another form of energy.
 Most of our energy is nonrenewable
 Most energy sources for doing work are 2. Converting one form of energy into another
nonrenewable energy sources:  Energy efficiency is the amount of useful energy
Petroleum obtained from a system. A perfectly
Hydrocarbon gas liquids energy-efficient machine would convert all of the
Natural gas energy put into the machine to useful work. In
Coal reality, converting one form of energy into
Nuclear energy another form of energy always involves a
 These energy sources are called nonrenewable conversion into useable (or useful energy) and
because their supplies are limited to the amounts unusable (or unuseful) forms of energy.
that we can mine or extract from the earth.  Most energy transformations are not efficient.
 Coal, natural gas, and petroleum formed over The human body is a good example. The human
thousands of years from the buried remains of body is like a machine, and the fuel it requires is
ancient sea plants and animals that lived millions food. Food gives person energy to move, breathe,
of years ago. That is why we also call those and think. However, the human body isn't very
energy sources fossil fuels. efficient at converting food into useful work. The
 Most of the petroleum products consumed are human body is less than 5% efficient most of the
made from crude oil, but petroleum liquids can time. The rest of the energy is converted to heat,
also be made from natural gas and coal. which may or may not be useful, depending on
 Nuclear energy is produced from uranium, a how cool or warm a person wants to be.
nonrenewable energy source whose atoms are
split (through a process called nuclear fission) to HEAT AND ENERGY
create heat and, eventually, electricity.  Heat is the energy associated with the motion of
 Scientists think uranium was created billions of particles or the flow of energy between two
years ago when stars formed. Uranium is found objects.
throughout the earth’s crust, but most of it is too  An ice cube feels cold because heat flows from
difficult or too expensive to mine and process your hand into the ice cube. The faster the
into fuel for nuclear power plants. particles move, the greater the heat or thermal
energy of the substance. In the ice cube, the
2. Renewable particles are moving very slowly. As heat is added,
 There are five major renewable energy sources: the motion of the particles in the ice cube
Solar energy from the sun increases. Eventually, the particles have enough
Geothermal energy from heat inside the earth energy to make the ice cube melt as it changes
Wind energy from a solid to a liquid.
Biomass from plants
Hydropower from flowing water UNITS OF ENERGY
 They are called renewable energy sources The SI unit of energy and work is the joule (J). The
because they are naturally replenished. Dayafter joule is a small amount of energy, so scientists often
day, the sun shines, plants grow, wind blows, use the kilojoule (kJ), 1000 joules.
and rivers flow.
 Renewable energy was the main energy source Conversions
for most of human history. Throughout most of
human history, biomass from plants was the
main energy source, which was burned for heat
and to feed animals used for transportation and
plowing.

LAWS OF ENERGY
1. Energy is neither created nor destroyed
the law of conservation of energy says that energy is
neither created nor destroyed. When people use
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Example
A defibrillator gives a high-energy shock of 360 J.
What is this quantity of energy in calories?
SOLUTION
Since:

Then:

Specific Heat and Heat Capacity

 The specific heat (s) of a substance is
temperature of one gram of the substance by
one degree Celsius.

 The heat capacity (C) of a sub temperature of a Example

given quantity of the substance by one degree A 466-g sample of water is heated from 8.50°C to
Celsius J/°C. Specific heat is an intensive 74.60°C. Calculate the amount of heat absorbed (in
property whereas heat capacity is an extensive kilojoules) by the water.
property. The relationship between SOLUTION
C=ms We know the quantity of water and the specific heat
Where: of water. With this information
m= mass of the substance in grams and the temperature rise, we can calculate the
For example, the specific heat for water is 4.184 amount of heat absorbed (q).
J/g°C.

 If we know the specific heat and the amount of a

substance, then the change in the sample’s
temperature (∆T) will tell us the amount of heat
(q) that has been absorbed or released by that
particular process.

 The equations for calculating the heat change are CALCULATING SPECIFIC HEAT
given by Example
What is the specific heat, in J/g °C, of lead if 57.0 J
raises the temperature of 35.6 g of lead by 12.5 °C?

Where ∆T is the temperature change:

HEAT EQUATION
 The sign convention for q is positive for
endothermic processes and negative for The heat lost or gained, in calories or joules, is
exothermic processes. obtained when the units of grams and °C in the
numerator cancel grams and °C in the denominator of
specific heat in the heat equation.

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CALCULATING HEAT LOSS
Example
During surgery or when a patient has suffered a
cardiac arrest or stroke, lowering the body
temperature will reduce the amount of oxygen
needed by the body. Some methods used to lower
body temperature include cooled saline solution, cool
water blankets, or cooling caps worn on the head.
How many kilojoules are lost when the body
temperature of a surgery patient with a blood volume
of 5500 mL is cooled from 38.5 °C to 33.2 °C?
(Assume that the specific heat and density of blood is
the same as for water.)

USING HEAT EQUATION:

Example
When 655 J is added to a sample of ethanol, its
temperature rises from 18.2 °C to 32.8 °C. What is
the mass, in grams, of the ethanol sample

HEAT EXCHANGE: HEAT GAIN EQUALS HEAT

LOSS
If a piece of metal is dropped into a container of cold
water, the metal cools and the water warms until they
are both at the same temperature. We assume that
the heat lost by the metal is equal to the heat gained
by the water. The heat equation allows us to calculate
the heat gained by the water. Because the heat loss
and heat gain are equal, we can use the heat
equation again to calculate the specific heat of the
metal.

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