1.

Fuels and Combustion

1. FUELS AND COMBUSTION

Syllabus

Introduction to Fuels, Properties of Fuel oil, Coal and Gas, Storage, handling and
preparation of fuels, Principles of Combustion, Combustion of Oil, Coal, and Gas

This chapter is a prelude to boilers and furnaces

1.1 Introduction to Fuels

The various types of fuels like liquid, solid and gaseous fuels are available for firing in
boilers, furnaces and other combustion equipments. The selection of right type of fuel
depends on various factors such as availability, storage, handling, pollution and landed cost
of fuel.

The knowledge of the fuel properties helps in selecting the right fuel for the right purpose
and efficient use of the fuel. The following characteristics, determined by laboratory tests, are
generally used for assessing the nature and quality of fuels.

1.2 Properties of Liquid Fuels

Liquid fuels like furnace oil and LSHS are predominantly used in industrial application. The
various properties of liquid fuels are given below.

Density

Density is the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the fuel at a reference
temperature typically 15°C. The knowledge of density is useful for quantity calculations and
assessing ignition quality. The unit of density is kg/m3.

Specific gravity

This is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil to the weight of the same
volume of water at a given temperature. The measurement of specific gravity is generally
made by a hydrometer. The density of fuel, relative to water, is called specific gravity. The
specific gravity of water is defined as 1. Since specific gravity is a ratio, there are no units.

Higher the specific gravity higher will be the heating values. Its main use is in calculations
involving weights and volumes. The specific gravity of various fuel oils are given in Table
1.1.

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Table 1.1 Specific Gravity of Various Fuel Oils

Fuel Oil L.D.O Furnace oil L.S.H.S

Light Diesel Oil Low Sulphur
Heavy Stock
Specific Gravity 0.85-0.87 0.89-0.95 0.88-0.98

Viscosity

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow. Viscosity depends on
temperature and decreases as the temperature increases. Any numerical value for viscosity
has no meaning unless the temperature is also specified. Viscosity is measured in Stokes /
Centistokes. Sometimes viscosity is also quoted in Engler, Saybolt or even Redwood. Each
type of oil has its own temperature - viscosity relationship. The measurement of viscosity is
made with an instrument called Viscometer.

Viscosity is the most important characteristic in the fuel oil specification. It influences the
degree of pre-heat required for handling, storage and satisfactory atomization. If the oil is too
viscous it may become difficult to pump, hard to light the burner, and operation may become
erratic. Poor atomization may result in the formation of carbon deposits on the burner tips or
on the walls. Pre-heating is necessary for proper atomization.

Flash Point

The flash point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be heated so that the
vapour gives off flashes momentarily when an open flame is passed over it. Flash point for
furnace oil is 66oC.

Pour Point

The pour point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow when cooled
under prescribed conditions. It is a very rough indication of the lowest temperature at which
fuel oil is readily pumpable

Specific Heat

Specific heat is the amount of kcals needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of oil by 1oC. The
unit of specific heat is kcal/kgoC. It varies from 0.22 to 0.28 depending on the oil specific
gravity. The specific heat determines how much steam or electrical energy it takes to heat oil
to a desired temperature. Light oils have a low specific heat, whereas heavier oils have a
higher specific heat.

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Calorific Value

The calorific value is the measurement of heat or energy produced, and is measured either as
gross calorific value or net calorific value. The difference being the latent heat of
condensation of the water vapour produced during the combustion process. Gross calorific
value (GCV) assumes all vapour produced during the combustion process is fully condensed.
Net calorific value (NCV) assumes the water leaves with the combustion products without
fully being condensed. Fuels should be compared based on the net calorific value.

The calorific value of coal varies considerably depending on the ash, moisture content and
the type of coal while calorific value of fuel oils are much more consistent. The typical Gross
Calorific Values of some of the commonly used liquid fuels are given below:

Fuel Oil Calorific Value (kCal/kg)

Kerosene - 11,100
Diesel Oil - 10,800
L.D.O - 10,700
Furnace Oil - 10,500
LSHS - 10,600

Sulphur

The amount of sulphur in the fuel oil depends mainly on the source of the crude oil and to a
lesser extent on the refining process. The normal sulfur content for the residual fuel oil
(furnace oil) is in the order of 2-4 %.

Typical figures are:

Fuel oil Percentage of Sulphur
Kerosene 0.05—0.2
Diesel Oil 0.3 – 1.5
L.D.O 0.5 – 1.8
Furnace Oil 2.0 – 4.0
LSHS < 0.5

The main disadvantage of sulphur is the risk of corrosion by sulphuric acid formed during
and after combustion, and condensing in cool parts of the chimney or stack, air pre heater and
economiser.

Ash Content

The ash value is related to the inorganic material in the fuel oil. The ash levels of distillate
fuels are negligible. Residual fuels have more of the ash-forming constituents. These salts
may be compounds of sodium, vanadium, calcium magnesium, silicon, iron, aluminum,
nickel, etc.

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Typically, the ash value is in the range 0.03-0.07 %. Excessive ash in liquid fuels can cause
fouling deposits in the combustion equipment. Ash has erosive effect on the burner tips,
causes damage to the refractories at high temperatures and gives rise to high temperature
corrosion and fouling of equipments.

Carbon Residue

Carbon residue indicates the tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous solid residue on a hot
surface, such as a burner or injection nozzle, when its vaporisable constituents evaporate.
Residual oil contain carbon residue ranging from 1 percent or more.

Water Content

Water content of furnace oil when supplied is normally very low as the product at refinery
site is handled hot and maximum limit of 1% is specified in the standard.

Water may be present in free or emulsified form and can cause damage to the inside furnace
surfaces during combustion especially if it contains dissolved salts. It can also cause
spluttering of the flame at the burner tip, possibly extinguishing the flame and reducing the
flame temperature or lengthening the flame.

Typical specification of fuel oil is summarised in the Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 Typical Specification of Fuel Oils

Properties Fuel Oils

Furnace LS.H.S. L.D.O.
Oil
Density (Approx. kg/m3 at 150C) 0.89-0.95 0.88-0.98 0.85-0.87

Flash Point (0C) 66 93 66

Pour Point (0C) 20 72 12 (Winter)

18 (Summer)

G.C.V. (Kcal/kg) 10,500 10,600 10,700

Sediment, % Wt. Max. 0.25 0.25 0.1

Sulphur Total, % Wt. Max. Upto 4.0 Upto 0.5 Upto 1.8

Water Content, % Vol. Max. 1.0 1.0 0.25

Ash % Wt. Max. 0.1 0.1 0.02

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Storage of Fuel oil

It can be potentially hazardous to store furnace oil in barrels. A better practice is to store it in
cylindrical tanks, either above or below the ground. Furnace oil, that is delivered, may
contain dust, water and other contaminants.

The sizing of storage tank facility is very important. A recommended storage estimate is to
provide for at least 10 days of normal consumption. Industrial heating fuel storage tanks are
generally vertical mild steel tanks mounted above ground. It is prudent for safety and
environmental reasons to build bund walls around tanks to contain accidental spillages.

As a certain amount of settlement of solids and sludge will occur in tanks over time, cleaning
should be carried out at regular intervals-annually for heavy fuels and every two years for
light fuels. A little care should be taken when oil is decanted from the tanker to storage tank.
All leaks from joints, flanges and pipelines must be attended at the earliest. Fuel oil should be
free from possible contaminants such as dirt, sludge and water before it is fed to the
combustion system.

LOSS OF EVEN ONE DROP OF OIL EVERY SECOND CAN

COST YOU OVER 4000 LITRES A YEAR

Removal of Contaminants

Furnace oil arrives at the factory site either in tank lorries by road or by rail. Oil is then
decanted into the main storage tank. To prevent contaminants such as rags, cotton waste,
loose nuts or bolts or screws entering the system and damaging the pump, coarse strainer of
10 mesh size (not more than 3 holes per linear inch) is positioned on the entry pipe to the
storage tanks.

Progressively finer strainers should be provided at various points in the oil supply system to
filter away finer contaminants such as external dust and dirt, sludge or free carbon. It is
advisable to provide these filters in duplicate to enable one filter to be cleaned while oil
supply is maintained through the other.

The Figure 1.1 gives an

illustration of the duplex
system of arrangement of
strainers.

Figure. 1.1 Duplex Arrangement of Strainers in a Pipeline

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The Table 1.3 gives sizing of strainers at various locations.

Table 1.3 Sizing of Strainers

Location Strainer Sizes

Mesh Holes/Linear
inch
Between rail/tank lorry decanting point
and main storage tank 10 3
Between service tank and pre-heater 40 6
Between pre-heater and burner 100 10

Pumping

Heavy fuel oils are best pumped using positive displacement pumps, as they are able to get
fuel moving when it is cold. A circulation gear pump running on LDO should give between
7000-10000 hours of service. Diaphragm pumps have a shorter service life, but are easier and
less expensive to repair. A centrifugal pump is not recommended, because as the oil viscosity
increases, the efficiency of the pump drops sharply and the horsepower required increases.
Light fuels are best pumped with centrifugal or turbine pumps. When higher pressures are
required, piston or diaphragm pumps should be used.

Storage Temperature and Pumping Temperature

The viscosity of furnace oil and LSHS increases with decrease in temperature, which makes
it difficult to pump the oil. At low ambient temperatures (below 25o C), furnace oil is not
easily pumpable. To circumvent this, preheating of oil is accomplished in two ways: a) the
entire tank may be preheated. In this form of bulk heating, steam coils are placed at the
bottom of the tank, which is fully insulated; b) the oil can be heated as it flows out with an
outflow heater. To reduce steam requirements, it is advisable to insulate tanks where bulk
heating is used.

Bulk heating may be necessary if flow rates are high enough to make outflow heaters of
adequate capacity impractical, or when a fuel such as Low Sulphur Heavy Stock (LSHS) is
used. In the case of outflow heating, only the oil, which leaves the tank, is heated to the
pumping temperature. The outflow heater is essentially a heat exchanger with steam or
electricity as the heating medium.

Temperature Control

Thermostatic temperature control of the oil is necessary to prevent overheating, especially

when oil flow is reduced or stopped. This is particularly important for electric heaters, since
oil may get carbonized when there is no flow and the heater is on. Thermostats should be
provided at a region where the oil flows freely into the suction pipe. The temperature at
which oil can readily be pumped depends on the grade of oil being handled. Oil should never

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be stored at a temperature above that necessary for pumping as this leads to higher energy
consumption.

1.3 Properties of Coal

Coal Classification

In general there are three main coal classes: anthracite, bituminous, and lignite, but no clear-
cut line exists between them, and we have other coals classed as semi anthracite, semi
bituminous, and sub bituminous. Anthracite is the oldest coal, geologically speaking. It is a
hard coal composed mainly of carbon with little volatile content and practically no moisture.
Coming up the scale toward the youngest coal (lignite), fixed carbon content decreases and
volatile matter and moisture increase. Fixed carbon refers to carbon in its free state, not
combined with other elements. Volatile matter refers to those combustible constituents of
coal that vaporize when coal is heated.

The chemical composition of coal has a strong influence on its combustibility. The properties
of coal are broadly classified as

1. Physical properties
2. Chemical properties

Physical Properties

Heating Value:

The heating value of coal varies from country to country and even from mine to mine within
the same country. The typical GCVs for various coals are given in the Table 1.4.

Table 1.4 GCV for Various Coals

Parameter Lignite Indian Coal Indonesian South

Coal African
Coal
GCV 6,300 4,000 5,500 6,000
(kcal/kg)

Analysis of Coal

There are two methods: the ultimate analysis splits up the fuel into all its component
elements, solid or gaseous; and the proximate analysis determines only the fixed carbon,
volatile matter, moisture, and ash percentages. The ultimate analysis must be carried out in a
properly equipped laboratory by a skilled chemist, but proximate analysis can be made with
fairly simple apparatus. It should be noted that proximate has no connection with the word
“approximate”.

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Measurement of Moisture

A sample of raw coal is crushed until it passes through a 20-mesh screen (20 holes per linear
inch). A definite amount is weighed, placed in a covered crucible, and dried in an oven at
about 105oC for 1 hr. Then the sample is cooled to room temperature and weighed again.
The loss in weight represents moisture.

Measurement of Volatile Matter

Fresh sample of crushed coal is weighed, placed in a covered crucible, and heated over a
large Bunsen burner until all the volatile gases are driven off. The sample is cooled and
weighed. Loss of weight represents moisture and volatile matter. The remainder is coke
(fixed carbon and ash).

Measurement of Carbon and Ash

The cover from the crucible used in the last test is removed and the crucible is heated over
the Bunsen burner until all the carbon is burned. The residue is weighed, which is the
incombustible ash. The difference in weight from the previous weighing is the fixed carbon.

Proximate Analysis

Proximate analysis indicates the percentage by weight of the Fixed Carbon, Volatiles, Ash,
and Moisture Content in coal. The amounts of fixed carbon and volatile combustible matter
directly contribute to the heating value of coal. Fixed carbon acts as a main heat generator
during burning. High volatile matter content indicates easy ignition of fuel. The ash content
is important in the design of the furnace grate, combustion volume, pollution control
equipment and ash handling systems of a furnace. A typical proximate analysis of various
coal is given in the Table 1.5.

Table1.5 Typical Proximate Analysis of Various Coals

(In Percentage)
Parameter Indian Coal Indonesian South
Coal African Coal
Moisture 5.98 9.43 8.5
Ash 38.56 13.99 18
Volatile matter 20.70 29.79 23.28
Fixed Carbon 34.69 46.79 51.22

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Significance of Various Parameters in Proximate Analysis

a) Fixed carbon:

Fixed carbon is the solid fuel left in the furnace after volatile matter is distilled off. It
consists mostly of carbon but also contains some hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen
not driven off with the gases. Fixed carbon gives a rough estimate of heating value of
coal

b) Volatile Matter:

Volatile matters are the methane, hydrocarbons, hydrogen and carbon monoxide, and
incombustible gases like carbon dioxide and nitrogen found in coal. Thus the volatile
matter is an index of the gaseous fuels present. Typical range of volatile matter is 20 to
35%.

Volatile Matter
• Proportionately increases flame length, and helps in easier ignition of coal.
• Sets minimum limit on the furnace height and volume.
• Influences secondary air requirement and distribution aspects.

c) Ash Content:

Ash is an impurity that will not burn. Typical range is 5 to 40%

Ash
• Reduces handling and burning capacity.
• Increases handling costs.
• Affects combustion efficiency and boiler efficiency
• Causes clinkering and slagging.

d) Moisture Content:

Moisture in coal must be transported, handled and stored. Since it replaces combustible
matter, it decreases the heat content per kg of coal. Typical range is 0.5 to 10%

Moisture
• Increases heat loss, due to evaporation and superheating of vapour
• Helps, to a limit, in binding fines.
• Aids radiation heat transfer.

e) Sulphur Content:

Typical range is 0.5 to 5% normally.

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Sulphur
• Affects clinkering and slagging tendencies
• Corrodes chimney and other equipment such as air heaters and economisers
• Limits exit flue gas temperature.

Chemical Properties

Ultimate Analysis:

The ultimate analysis indicates the various elemental chemical constituents such as Carbon,
Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sulphur, etc. It is useful in determining the quantity of air required for
combustion and the volume and composition of the combustion gases. This information is
required for the calculation of flame temperature and the flue duct design etc. Typical
ultimate analyses of various coals are given in the Table 1.6.

Table 1.6: Typical Ultimate Analyses of Coals

Parameter Indian Coal, % Indonesian Coal, %
Moisture 5.98 9.43
Mineral Matter (Ash) 38.63 13.99
Carbon 41.11 58.96
Hydrogen 2.76 4.16
Nitrogen 1.22 1.02
Sulphur 0.41 0.56
Oxygen 9.89 11.88

Table 1.7 Relationship Between Ultimate Analysis and Proximate Analysis

%C = 0.97C+ 0.7(VM+0.1A) - M(0.6-0.01M)

%H2 = 0.036C + 0.086 (VM -0.1xA) - 0.0035M2 (1-0.02M)

%N2 = 2.10 -0.020 VM

where
C = % of fixed carbon
A = % of ash
VM = % of volatile matter
M = % of moisture

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Storage, Handling and Preparation of Coal

Uncertainty in the availability and transportation of fuel necessitates storage and subsequent
handling. Stocking of coal has its own disadvantages like build-up of inventory, space
constraints, deterioration in quality and potential fire hazards. Other minor losses associated
with the storage of coal include oxidation, wind and carpet loss. A 1% oxidation of coal has
the same effect as 1% ash in coal, wind losses may account for nearly 0.5 – 1.0% of the total
loss.

The main goal of good coal storage is to minimise carpet loss and the loss due to spontaneous
combustion. Formation of a soft carpet, comprising of coal dust and soil causes carpet loss.
On the other hand, gradual temperature builds up in a coal heap, on account of oxidation may
lead to spontaneous combustion of coal in storage.

The measures that would help in reducing the carpet loses are as follows:
1. Preparing a hard ground for coal to be stacked upon.
2. Preparing standard storage bays out of concrete and brick

In process Industry, modes of coal handling range from manual to conveyor systems. It
would be advisable to minimise the handling of coal so that further generation of fines and
segregation effects are reduced.

Preparation of Coal

Preparation of coal prior to feeding into the boiler is an important step for achieving good
combustion. Large and irregular lumps of coal may cause the following problems:

1. Poor combustion conditions and inadequate furnace temperature.

2. Higher excess air resulting in higher stack loss.
3. Increase of unburnts in the ash.
4. Low thermal efficiency.

(a) Sizing of Coal

Proper coal sizing is one of the key measures to ensure efficient combustion. Proper coal
sizing, with specific relevance to the type of firing system, helps towards even burning,
reduced ash losses and better combustion efficiency.

Coal is reduced in size by crushing and pulverizing. Pre-crushed coal can be economical for
smaller units, especially those which are stoker fired. In a coal handling system, crushing is
limited to a top size of 6 or 4mm. The devices most commonly used for crushing are the
rotary breaker, the roll crusher and the hammer mill.

It is necessary to screen the coal before crushing, so that only oversized coal is fed to the
crusher. This helps to reduce power consumption in the crusher. Recommended practices in
coal crushing are:

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1. Incorporation of a screen to separate fines and small particles to avoid extra fine
generation in crushing.
2. Incorporation of a magnetic separator to separate iron pieces in coal, which may
damage the crusher.

The Table 1.8 gives the proper size of coal for various types of firing systems

Table 1.8 Proper Size of Coal for Various Types of Firing System

S. No. Types of Firing System Size (in mm)

1. Hand Firing
(a) Natural draft 25-75
(b) Forced draft 25-40
2. Stoker Firing
(a) Chain grate
i) Natural draft 25-40
ii) Forced draft 15-25
(b) Spreader Stoker 15-25

3. Pulverized Fuel Fired 75% below 75 micron*

4 Fluidized bed boiler < 10 mm
*1 Micron = 1/1000 mm

(b) Conditioning of Coal

The fines in coal present problems in combustion on account of segregation effects.

Segregation of fines from larger coal pieces can be reduced to a great extent by conditioning
coal with water. Water helps fine particles to stick to the bigger lumps due to surface tension
of the moisture, thus stopping fines from falling through grate bars or being carried away by
the furnace draft. While tempering the coal, care should be taken to ensure that moisture
addition is uniform and preferably done in a moving or falling stream of coal.

If the percentage of fines in the coal is very high, wetting of coal can decrease the percentage
of unburnt carbon and the excess air level required to be supplied for combustion. Table 1.9
shows the extent of wetting, depending on the percentage of fines in coal.

Table 1.9 Extent of Wetting: Fines Vs

Surface Moisture in Coal
Fines (%) Surface Moisture (%)
10 - 15 4 - 5
15 - 20 5 - 6
20 - 25 6 - 7
25 - 30 7 - 8

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(c) Blending of Coal

In case of coal lots having excessive fines, it is advisable to blend the predominantly lumped
coal with lots containing excessive fines. Coal blending may thus help to limit the extent of
fines in coal being fired to not more than 25%. Blending of different qualities of coal may
also help to supply a uniform coal feed to the boiler.

The proximate and ultimate analysis of various coals are given in Table 1.10 and 1.11.

Table 1.10 Proximate Analysis of Typical Coal

Lignite Bituminous Bituminous Indonesian

coal (Sample I) Coal Coal
(Sample II)
Moisture (%) 50 5.98 4.39 9.43
Ash (%) 10.41* 38.65 47.86 13.99
Volatile matter 47.76* 20.70 17.97 29.79
(%)
Fixed carbon (%) 41.83* 34.69 29.78 46.79
*Dry Basis

Table 1.11 Ultimate Analysis of Typical Coal

Lignite Bituminous Bituminous Indonesian

Coal (Sample Coal Coal
I) (Sample II)
Moisture (%) Dry basis 5.98 4.39 9.43
Mineral matter 10.41 38.63 47.86 13.99
(%)
Carbon (%) 62.01 42.11 36.22 58.96
Hydrogen (%) 6.66 2.76 2.64 4.16
Nitrogen (%) 0.60 1.22 1.09 1.02
Sulphur (%) 0.59 0.41 0.55 0.56
Oxygen (%) 19.73 9.89 7.25 11.88
GCV 6301 4000 3500 5500
(Kcal/kg)

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1.4 Properties of Gaseous Fuels

Gaseous fuels in common use are liquefied petroleum gases (LPG), Natural gas, producer
gas, blast furnace gas, coke oven gas etc. The calorific value of gaseous fuel is expressed in
Kilocalories per cubic meter (kCal/Nm3) i.e. at normal temperature and pressure.

Calorific Value

Since most gas combustion appliances cannot utlilize the heat content of the water vapour,
gross calorific value is of little interest. Fuel should be compared based on the net calorific
value. This is especially true for natural gas, since increased hydrogen content results in high
water formation during combustion.

Typical physical and chemical properties of various gaseous fuels are given in Table 1.12.

Table 1.12 Typical Physical and Chemical Properties of Various Gaseous Fuels.

Fuel Gas Relative Higher Air/Fuel Flame Flame

Density Heating ratio- Temp. Speed
Value m3 of air o
C m/s
kcal/Nm3 to m3 of
Fuel
Natural Gas 0.6 9350 10 1954 0.290
Propane 1.52 22200 25 1967 0.460
Butane 1.96 28500 32 1973 0.870

LPG

LPG is a predominant mixture of propane and Butane with a small percentage of unsaturates
(Propylene and Butylene) and some lighter C2 as well as heavier C5 fractions. Included in the
LPG range are propane (C3H8), Propylene(C3H6), normal and iso-butane (C4H10) and
Butylene(C4H8).

LPG may be defined as those hydrocarbons, which are gaseous at normal atmospheric
pressure, but may be condensed to the liquid state at normal temperature, by the application
of moderate pressures. Although they are normally used as gases, they are stored and
transported as liquids under pressure for convenience and ease of handling. Liquid LPG
evaporates to produce about 250 times volume of gas.

LPG vapour is denser than air: butane is about twice as heavy as air and propane about one
and a half times as heavy as air. Consequently, the vapour may flow along the ground and
into drains sinking to the lowest level of the surroundings and be ignited at a considerable
distance from the source of leakage. In still air vapour will disperse slowly. Escape of even
small quantities of the liquefied gas can give rise to large volumes of vapour / air mixture and
thus cause considerable hazard. To aid in the detection of atmospheric leaks, all LPG’s are

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required to be odorized. There should be adequate ground level ventilation where LPG is
stored. For this very reason LPG cylinders should not be stored in cellars or basements,
which have no ventilation at ground level.

Natural Gas

Methane is the main constituent of Natural gas and accounting for about 95% of the total
volume. Other components are: Ethane, Propane, Butane, Pentane, Nitrogen, Carbon
Dioxide, and traces of other gases. Very small amounts of sulphur compounds are also
present. Since methane is the largest component of natural gas, generally properties of
methane are used when comparing the properties of natural gas to other fuels.

Natural gas is a high calorific value fuel requiring no storage facilities. It mixes with air
readily and does not produce smoke or soot. It has no sulphur content. It is lighter than air
and disperses into air easily in case of leak. A typical comparison of carbon contents in oil,
coal and gas is given in the table 1.13.

Table 1.13 Comparison of Chemical Composition of Various Fuels

Fuel Oil Coal Natural Gas

Carbon 84 41.11 74
Hydrogen 12 2.76 25
Sulphur 3 0.41 -
Oxygen 1 9.89 Trace
Nitrogen Trace 1.22 0.75
Ash Trace 38.63 -
Water Trace 5.98 -

1.5 Properties of Agro Residues

The use of locally available agro residues is on the rise. This includes rice husk, coconut
shells, groundnut shells, Coffee husk, Wheat stalk etc. The properties of a few of them are
given in the table 1.14 and 1.15.

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Table 1.14 Proximate Analysis of Typical Agro Residues

Deoiled Bran Paddy Husk Saw Dust Coconut Shell

Moisture 7.11 10.79 37.98 13.95
Ash 18.46 16.73 1.63 3.52
Volatile Matter 59.81 56.46 81.22 61.91
Fixed Carbon 14.62 16.02 17.15 20.62

Table 1.15 Ultimate Analysis of Typical Agro Residues

Deoiled Bran Paddy Husk Saw Dust Coconut Shell

Moisture 7.11 10.79 37.98 13.95
Mineral Matter 19.77 16.73 1.63 3.52
Carbon 36.59 33.95 48.55 44.95
Hydrogen 4.15 5.01 6.99 4.99
Nitrogen 0.82 0.91 0.80 0.56
Sulphur 0.54 0.09 0.10 0.08
Oxygen 31.02 32.52 41.93 31.94
GCV (Kcal/kg) 3151 3568 4801 4565

1.6 Combustion
Principle of Combustion
Combustion refers to the rapid oxidation of fuel accompanied by the production of heat,
or heat and light. Complete combustion of a fuel is possible only in the presence of an
adequate supply of oxygen.
Oxygen (O2) is one of the most common elements on earth making up 20.9% of our air.
Rapid fuel oxidation results in large amounts of heat. Solid or liquid fuels must be
changed to a gas before they will burn. Usually heat is required to change liquids or
solids into gases. Fuel gases will burn in their normal state if enough air is present.
Most of the 79% of air (that is not oxygen) is nitrogen, with traces of other elements.
Nitrogen is considered to be a temperature reducing dilutant that must be present to
obtain the oxygen required for combustion.
Nitrogen reduces combustion efficiency by absorbing heat from the combustion of fuels
and diluting the flue gases. This reduces the heat available for transfer through the heat
exchange surfaces. It also increases the volume of combustion by-products, which then
have to travel through the heat exchanger and up the stack faster to allow the introduction
of additional fuel air mixture.
This nitrogen also can combine with oxygen (particularly at high flame temperatures) to
produce oxides of nitrogen (NOx), which are toxic pollutants.

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Carbon, hydrogen and sulphur in the fuel combine with oxygen in the air to form carbon
dioxide, water vapour and sulphur dioxide, releasing 8084 kcals, 28922 kcals & 2224
kcals of heat respectively. Under certain conditions, Carbon may also combine with
Oxygen to form Carbon Monoxide, which results in the release of a smaller quantity of
heat (2430 kcals/kg of carbon) Carbon burned to CO2 will produce more heat per pound
of fuel than when CO or smoke are produced.

C + O2 → CO 2 + 8084 kCals/kg of Carbon

2C + O2 → 2 CO + 2430 kCals/kg of Carbon
2H 2 + O2 → 2H2O + 28,922 kCals/kg of Hydrogen
S + O2 → SO2 + 2,224 kCals/kg of Sulphur

Each kilogram of CO formed means a loss of 5654 kCal of heat.(8084-2430).

3 T’s of Combustion

The objective of good combustion is to release all of the heat in the fuel. This is
accomplished by controlling the "three T's" of combustion which are (1) Temperature
high enough to ignite and maintain ignition of the fuel, (2) Turbulence or intimate mixing
of the fuel and oxygen, and (3) Time sufficient for complete combustion.

Commonly used fuels like natural gas and propane generally consist of carbon and
hydrogen. Water vapor is a by-product of burning hydrogen. This robs heat from the
flue gases, which would otherwise be available for more heat transfer.

Natural gas contains more hydrogen and less carbon per kg than fuel oils and as such
produces more water vapor. Consequently, more heat will be carried away by exhaust
while firing natural gas.
Too much, or too little fuel with the available combustion air may potentially result in
unburned fuel and carbon monoxide generation. A very specific amount of O2 is needed
for perfect combustion and some additional (excess) air is required for ensuring good
combustion. However, too much excess air will result in heat and efficiency losses.
Not all of the heat in the fuel are converted to heat and absorbed by the steam generation

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equipment. Usually all of the hydrogen in the fuel is burned and most boiler fuels,
allowable with today's air pollution standards, contain little or no sulfur. So the main
challenge in combustion efficiency is directed toward unburned carbon (in the ash or
incompletely burned gas), which forms CO instead of CO2.

1.7 Combustion of Oil

Heating Oil to Correct Viscosity

When atomizing oil, it is necessary to heat it enough to get the desired viscosity. This
temperature varies slightly for each grade of oil. The lighter oils do not usually require
pre-heating. Typical viscosity at the burner tip ( for LAP, MAP & HAP burners) for
furnace oil should be 100 Redwood seconds-1 which would require heating the oil to
about 105oC.

Stoichiometric Combustion

The efficiency of a boiler or furnace depends on efficiency of

the combustion system. The amount of air required for Rules for combustion of oil
complete combustion of the fuel depends on the elemental
1. Atomize the oil
constituents of the fuel that is Carbon, Hydrogen, and completely to produce a
Sulphur etc. This amount of air is called stoichiometric air. fine uniform spray
For ideal combustion process for burning one kg of a typical 2. Mix the air and fuel
fuel oil containing 86% Carbon, 12% Hydrogen, 2% Sulphur, thoroughly
theoretically required quantity of air is 14.1 kg. This is the 3. Introduce enough air for
combustion, but limit the
minimum air that would be required if mixing of fuel and air excess air to a maximum
by the burner and combustion is perfect. The combustion of 15%
products are primarily Carbon Dioxide (CO2), water vapor 4. Keep the burners in good
(H2O) and Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), which pass through the condition
chimney along with the Nitrogen (N2) in the air,.

After surrendering useful heat in the heat absorption area of a furnace or boiler, the
combustion products or fuel gases leave the system through the chimney, carrying away a
significant quantity of heat with them.

Calculation of Stoichiometric Air

The specifications of furnace oil from lab analysis is given below:

Constituents % By weight
Carbon 85.9
Hydrogen 12
Oxygen 0.7
Nitrogen 0.5
Sulphur 0.5
H2O` 0.35
Ash 0.05

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GCV of fuel : 10880 kcal/kg

Calculation for Requirement of Theoretical Amount of Air

Considering a sample of 100 kg of furnace oil. The chemical reactions are:

Element Molecular
Weight
kg / kg mole
C 12
O2 32
H2 2
S 32
N2 28
CO2 44
SO2 64
H2O 18

C + O2 CO2
H2 + O H2O
S + O2 SO2

Constituents of fuel

C + O2 CO2

12 + 32 44

12 kg of carbon requires 32 kgs of oxygen to form 44 kg of carbon dioxide therefore 1 kg

of carbon requires 32/12 kg i.e 2.67 kgs of oxygen

(85.9) C + (85.9 x 2.67) O2 314.97 CO2

2H2 + O2 2H2O
4 + 32 36

4 kg of hydrogen requires 32 kgs of oxygen to form 36 kg of water, therefore 1 kg of

hydrogen requires 32/4 kg i.e 8 kgs of oxygen

(12) H2 + (12 x 8) O 108 H2O

S + O2 SO2

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32 + 32 64

32 kg of sulphur requires 32 kgs of oxygen to form 64 kg of sulphur dioxide, therefore 1

kg of sulphur requires 32/32 kg i.e 1 kgs of oxygen

(0.5) S + (0.5 x 1) O2 1.0 SO2

Total Oxygen required = 325.57 kg

(229.07+96+0.5)

Oxygen already present in

100 kg fuel (given) = 0.7 kg

Additional Oxygen Required = 325.57 – 0.7

= 324.87 kg

Therefore quantity of dry air reqd. = (324.87) / 0.23

(air contains 23% oxygen by wt.)
= 1412.45 kg of air

Theoretical Air required = (1412.45) / 100

= 14.12 kg of air / kg of fuel

Calculation of theoretical CO2 content in flue gases

Nitrogen in flue gas = 1412.45 – 324.87

= 1087.58 kg

Theoretical CO2% in dry flue gas by volume is calculated as below :

Moles of CO2 in flue gas = (314.97) / 44 = 7.16

Moles of N2 in flue gas = (1087.58) / 28 = 38.84
Moles of SO2 in flue gas = 1/64 = 0.016

Theoretical CO2 % by volume = Moles of CO2

Total Moles (Dry)

7.16 X 100
= ---------------------------
(7.16 + 38.84 + 0.016)

= 15.5 %

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 1. Fuels and Combustion

Calculation of constituents of flue gas with excess air

% CO2 measured in flue gas = 10% (measured)

Theoretical CO2%
% Excess Air = (---------------------- - 1) X 100
Actual CO2%

15.5
% Excess Air = (------------- -1) X 100
10

= 55.0%

Theoretical air required for 100 kg

of fuel burnt = 1412.45 kg

Total qty. of air supply reqd.

with 55% excess air = 1412.45 X 1.55
= 2189.30 kg

Excess air quantity = 2189.30 – 1412.45

= 776.85 kg.

O2 = 776.85 X 0.23 = 178.68

N2 = 776.85 - 178.68
= 598.17 kg

The final constitution of flue gas with 55% excess air for every 100 kg fuel.

CO2 = 314.97 kg

H2O = 108.00 kg

SO2 = 1.0 kg

O2 = 178.68 kg

N2 = 1087.58 + 598.17 = 1685.75 kg

Calculation of Theoretical CO2% in Dry Flue Gas By Volume

Moles of CO2 in flue gas = 314.97/44 = 7.16
Moles of SO2 in flue gas = 1/64 = 0.016

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 1. Fuels and Combustion

Moles of O2 in flue gas = 178.68/32 = 5.58

Moles of N2 in flue gas = 1685.75/28 = 60.20
Theoretical CO2% by volume = Moles of CO2
Total Moles (dry)
= 7.16
-----------------------
(7.16+0.016+5.58+60.20)
= 7.16 / 72.956
= 10%
Theoretical O2% by volume = 5.58 / 72.956
=7.5%

Optimizing Excess Air and Combustion

For complete combustion of every one kg of fuel oil 14.1 kg of air is needed. In practice,
mixing is never perfect, a certain amount of excess air is needed to complete combustion
and ensure that release of the entire heat contained in fuel oil. If too much air than what is
required for completing combustion were allowed to enter, additional heat would be lost
in heating the surplus air to the chimney temperature. This would result in increased
stack losses. Less air would lead to the incomplete combustion and smoke. Hence, there
is an optimum excess air level for each type of fuel.

Control of Air and Analysis of Flue Gas

Thus in actual practice, the amount of combustion air required will be much higher than
optimally needed. Therefore some of the air gets heated in the furnace boiler and leaves
through the stack without participating in the combustion

Chemical analysis of the gases is an objective method that helps in achieving finer air
control. By measuring carbon dioxide (CO2) or oxygen (O2) in flue gases by continuous
recording instruments or Orsat apparatus or portable fyrite, the excess air level as well as
stack losses can be estimated with the graph as shown in Figure 1.2 and Figure 1.3. The
excess air to be supplied depends on the type of fuel and the firing system. For optimum
combustion of fuel oil, the CO2 or O2 in flue gases should be maintained at 14 -15% in
case of CO2 and 2-3% in case of O2.

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 1. Fuels and Combustion

100
90
80
70
Excess air %

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
8.4 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Carbon dioxide %

Figure 1.2 Relation Between CO2 and Excess Air for Fuel Oil

250

200
Excess air (%)

150

100

50

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Residual Oxygen (%)
Figure 1.3: Relation between Residual Oxygen and Excess Air

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Oil Firing Burners

The burner is the principal device for the firing of fuel. The primary function of burner is
to atomise fuel to millions of small droplets so that the surface area of the fuel is
increased enabling intimate contact with oxygen in air. The finer the fuel droplets are
atomised, more readily will the particles come in contact with the oxygen in the air and
burn.

Normally, atomisation is carried out by primary air and completion of combustion is

ensured by secondary air. Burners for fuel oil can be classified on the basis of the
technique to prepare the fuel for burning i.e. atomisation.

Figure 1.4 shows a simplified burner head. The air is brought into the head by means of a
forced draft blower or fan. The fuel is metered into the head through a series of valves. In
order to get proper combustion, the air molecules must be thoroughly mixed with the fuel
molecules before they actually burn. The air in the center is the primary air which is sued
for atomization and the one surrounding is the secondary air which ensures complete
combustion.

Figure 1.4 Burner Head

The mixing is achieved by burner parts designed to create high turbulence. If insufficient
turbulence is produced by the burner, the combustion will be incomplete and samples
taken at the stack will reveal carbon monoxide as evidence.

Since the velocity of air affects the turbulence, it becomes harder and harder to get good
fuel and air mixing at higher turndown ratios since the air amount is reduced. Towards
the highest turndown ratios of any burner, it becomes necessary to increase the excess air
amounts to obtain enough turbulence to get proper mixing. The better burner design will
be one that is able to properly mix the air and fuel at the lowest possible air flow or
excess air.

An important aspect to be considered in selection of burner is turndown ratio.

Turndown ratio is the relationship between the maximum and minimum fuel input
without affecting the excess air level. For example, a burner whose maximum input is
250,000 Kcals and minimum rate is 50,000 Kcals, has a ‘Turn-Down Ratio’ of 5 to 1.

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 1. Fuels and Combustion

1.8 Combustion of Coal

Features of coal combustion

1 kg of coal will typically require

7-8 kg of air depending upon the
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen and sulphur content for
complete combustion. This air is
also known as theoretical or
stoichiometric air.

If for any reason the air supplied is

inadequate, the combustion will be
incomplete. The result is poor
generation of heat with some
portions of carbon remaining
unburnt (black smoke) and forming
carbon monoxide instead of carbon
dioxides.
Figure 1.5 Coal Combustion

As in the case of oil, coal cannot be burnt with stoichiometric quantity of air. Complete
combustion is not achieved unless an excess of air is supplied.

The excess air required for coal combustion depends on the type of coal firing equipment.
Hand fired boilers use large lumps of coal and hence need very high excess air. Stoker
fired boilers as shown in the figure 1.5 use sized coal and hence require less excess air.
Also in these systems primary air is supplied below the grate and secondary air is
supplied over the grate to ensure complete combustion.

Fluidised bed combustion in which turbulence is created leads to intimate mixing of air
and fuel resulting in further reduction of excess air. The pulverized fuel firing in which
powdered coal is fired has the minimum excess air due to high surface area of coal
ensuring complete combustion.

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 1. Fuels and Combustion

1.9 Combustion of Gas

Combustion Characteristics of Natural Gas

The stoichiometric ratio for natural gas (and most gaseous fuels) is normally indicated by
volume. The air to natural gas (stoichiometric) ratio by volume for complete combustion vary
between 9.5:1 to 10:1

Natural gas is essentially pure methane, CH4. Its combustion can be represented as follows:

CH4 + O2 = CO2 + 2H2O

So for every 16 kgs of methane that are consumed, 12 kgs of carbon are released (as carbon
dioxide) and 44 kgs of carbon dioxide are produced. (Remember that the atomic weights of
carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are 12, 16 and 1, respectively.)

Methane burns, when mixed with the proper amount of air and heated to the combustion
temperature. Figure 1.6 shows the process with the amount of air and fuel required for perfect
combustion.

Figure 1.6 Combustion of Natural Gas

Low-And High-Pressure Gas Burners.

The important thing in all gas-burning devices is a correct

air-and-gas mixture at the burner tip. Low-pressure
burners (figure 1.7), using gas at a pressure less than 0.15
kg/cm2 (2 psi), are usually of the multi-jet type, in which
gas from a manifold is supplied to a number of small
single jets, or circular rows of small jets, centered in or
discharging around the inner circumference of circular air
openings in a block of some heat-resisting material. The Figure 1.7 Low Pressure Gas Burner

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 1. Fuels and Combustion

whole is encased in a rectangular cast-iron box, built into the boiler setting and having louver
doors front to regulate the air supply. Draft may be natural, induced, or forced.

In a high-pressure gas mixer (figure 1.8),

the energy of the gas jet draws air into the
mixing chamber and delivers a correctly
proportioned mixture to the burner. When
the regulating valve is opened, gas flows
through a small nozzle into a venturi tube
(a tube with a contracted section).
Entrainment of air with high-velocity gas in
the narrow venturi section draws air in
through large openings in the end. The
gas-air mixture is piped to a burner. The
gas-burner tip may be in a variety of forms.
In a sealed-in tip type, the proper gas-air
mixture is piped to the burner, and no Figure 1.8 High Pressure Gas Mixer
additional air is drawn in around the
burner tip. Size of the air openings in the venturi tube end is increased or decreased by
turning a revolving shutter, which can be locked in any desired position. Excess air levels in
natural gas burner is in the order of 5%.

1.10 Draft System

The function of draft in a combustion system is to exhaust the products of combustion into
the atmosphere. The draft can be classified into two types namely Natural and Mechanical
Draft.

Natural Draft

It is the draft produced by a chimney alone. It is caused by the difference in weight between
the column of hot gas inside the chimney and column of outside air of the same height and
cross section. Being much lighter than outside air, chimney flue gas tends to rise, and the
heavier outside air flows in through the ash pit to take its place. It is usually controlled by
hand-operated dampers in the chimney and breeching connecting the boiler to the chimney.
Here no fans or blowers are used. The products of combustion are discharged at such a height
that it will not be a nuisance to the surrounding community.

Mechanical Draft

It is draft artificially produced by fans. Three basic types of drafts that are applied are :

Balanced Draft: Forced-draft (F-D) fan (blower) pushes air into the furnace and an induced-
draft (I-D) fan draws gases into the chimney thereby providing draft to remove the gases
from the boiler. Here the furnace is maintained at from 0.05 to 0.10 in. of water gauge below
atmospheric pressure.

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 1. Fuels and Combustion

Induced Draft: An induced-draft fan draws enough draft for flow into the furnace, causing
the products of combustion to discharge to atmosphere. Here the furnace is kept at a slight
negative pressure below the atmospheric pressure so that combustion air flows through the
system.

Forced Draft: The Forced draft system uses a fan to deliver the air to the furnace, forcing
combustion products to flow through the unit and up the stack.

1.11 Combustion Controls

Combustion controls assist the burner in regulation of fuel supply, air supply, (fuel to air
ratio), and removal of gases of combustion to achieve optimum boiler efficiency. The amount
of fuel supplied to the burner must be in proportion to the steam pressure and the quantity of
steam required. The combustion controls are also necessary as safety device to ensure that
the boiler operates safely.
Various types of combustion controls in use are:

On/Off Control

The simplest control, ON/OFF control means that either the burner is firing at full rate or it is
OFF. This type of control is limited to small boilers.

High/Low/Off Control

Slightly more complex is HIGH/LOW/OFF system where the burner has two firing rates. The
burner operates at slower firing rate and then switches to full firing as needed. Burner can
also revert to low firing position at reduced load. This control is fitted to medium sized
boilers.

Modulating Control

The modulating control operates on the principle of matching the steam pressure demand by
altering the firing rate over the entire operating range of the boiler. Modulating motors use
conventional mechanical linkage or electric valves to regulate the primary air, secondary air,
and fuel supplied to the burner. Full modulation means that boiler keeps firing, and fuel and
air are carefully matched over the whole firing range to maximize thermal efficiency.

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 1. Fuels and Combustion

QUESTIONS

1) Name two liquid fuels, solid fuels and gaseous used in boilers?

2) Which parameter influences the Viscosity of liquid fuel?

3) Which element in fuel oil influences corrosion?

4) What is the significance of pre-heating furnace oil before burning?

5) What are the effects of contaminants in liquid fuels?

6) Explain the difference between gross calorific value and net calorific value.

7) What is the difference between proximate analysis and ultimate analysis of coal?

8) What are the uses of proximate and ultimate analysis?

9) Explain why natural gas requires least amount of excess air?

10) What is the effect of fines on coal combustion and how to overcome them?

11) What are the major constituent of LPG and Natural gas?

12) Why excess air is required for complete combustion?

13) What is the typical stoichomatric air fuel ratio for furnace oil?

14) The measured CO2 is 8% in an oil fired boiler flue gas. Theoretical CO2 content for
the fuel fired is 16%. Estimate the %excess air level?

REFERENCES

1. Combustion Engineering and Fuel Technology, Oxford & IBH Publishing Company -
A.K.Shaha

www.pcra.org

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