Module 6

Transducers
Hrs. 8
• Electrical Transducers,
• Active & Passive Transducers,
• Resistive Transducer-Potentiometer,
• Resistance Pressure Transducer,
• Resistive Position Transducer,
• Temperature Transducer- Resistance Thermometer,
Thermistor, Thermo couple, RTD,
• Inductive Transducer-Using Self Inductance, Variable
Reluctance type, Differential Output Transducers, LVDT, RVDT,
• Capacitive Transducer-Capacitive Pressure Transducer Piezo
Electric Transducer, Photo Electric Transducer (Photo
emissive, Photo Conductive, Photo Voltaic)
 What is a Transducer ?

• A device which
transforms a non-
electrical physical
quantity (temperature,
sound or light) into an
electrical signal
(voltage, current)
 Transducer Structure
• Made of three blocks:
– Input Information
– Sensor
– Output Information
Important parameters of a transducer

• Static response: response to slowly variable signals, is

it precise and accurate

• Dynamic response: response to quickly variable signals

• Environmental factors: intensity of affecting

transducer performance

• Reliability: ability to work without failure or MTBF

(Mean Time Between Failure)
 Basic requirements of a transducer
• Linearity : characteristics between input and output.
• Ruggedness : ability to withstand overload and protection
measures.
• Repeatability : ability to produce same output for same input
at different times and environment.
• High stability & reliability :output should not be affected by
temperature, vibration, other environmental conditions, with
minimal error.
• Good dynamic response :ability to change output quickly for
dynamic variation in input with respect to time.
• Convenient instrumentation :high analog output, direct
measurement or after amplification.
• Good mechanical characteristics :ability to withstand
deformation and deterioration in performance caused by
various mechanical strains.
Transducer Classification
 Classification of Transducer

• On the basis of transduction principle used.

• Primary and secondary transducer
• Active and passive transducers.
• Analog and digital transducers.
• Transducers and inverse transducers.
 1. Based upon Transduction Principle
• Resistive Transducer - strain gauge, Resistance
thermometer, Thermister, Photoconductive cell,
Potentiometer devices etc.

• Capacitive Transducer - Variable capacitance pressure

gauge, Capacitor microphone, Dielectric gauge.

• Inductive Transducer - Magnetic circuit transducer,

Differential transformer,
 2. Primary & Secondary transducers

• Primary Transducer:
– Consists of mechanical devices.
– Mechanical devices change physical input quantities into a
mechanical signal.
– This mechanical device is known as primary transducers.

• Secondary Transducer –
– Converts the mechanical signal into an electrical signal.
– Magnitude of the output signal depends on input
mechanical signal.
Example: Measurement of variable pressure
through bourdon tube

• Bourdon Tube : converts pressure into displacement

by movement of free end.
• This displacement is transferred to iron core of LVDT.
• LVDT converts displacement to voltage.
• Here bourdon tube acts as primary transducer and
• LVDT acts as secondary transducer.
 1. Active Transducers
• Do not need any external source of power for
their operation.

• Also called self generating type transducers.

• output of active transducers: equivalent electrical

output signal

• e.g. Thermocouple , Piezoelectric

Classification of Active transducers
 Passive Transducers
• Needs external source of power for their operation.

• Not self generating type transducers.

• External power source used:

– DC power supply or
– an audio frequency generator

• Produces output signal in the form of variation in

resistance, capacitance, inductance or some other electrical
parameter in response to the quantity to be measured.
• eg: Resistive, Capacitive, Inductive.
Classification of Passive transducers
 4. Analog & Digital
• Analog transducers: converts input quantity
into an analog output which is continuous
function of time.
eg: strain gauge, LVDT, Thermocouple.
Thermister.

• Digital transducer: converts input quantity into

an electrical output in the form of pulses
eg: any transducer consisting of analog to digital
converter.
5. Transducers & Inverse Transducers
• Transducers : Converts non electrical quantity
into electrical quantity
• Eq. Generator
• Inverse transducers: opposite of transducers
• converts electrical quantity in non electrical
quantity.
• eg: Motor
 Resistive Transducer
• Resistance change due to change in some physical
phenomenon.
• Used for measuring physical quantities like
temperature, displacement, vibration etc.
• Converts physical quantities into
variable resistance which is easily measured by meters.
• Can work both as primary as well as secondary
transducer.
• Primary transducer changes physical quantities into a
mechanical signal, and secondary transducer directly
transforms it into an electrical signal.
Working Principle of Resistive Transducer
• Works on principle R=ρL/A
• Resistance of element is directly proportional to
length of conductor and inversely proportional to
area of conductor.
• Where R – resistance in ohms.
A – cross-section area of conductor in meter square.
L – Length of conductor in meter square.
ρ – resistivity of conductor in materials in ohm meter.
• Resistive transducer is designed by considering
variation of length, area and resistivity of the metal.
 Advantages of Resistive Transducer

• Both AC and DC, current or voltage is appropriate for

measurement of variable resistance.
• Gives fast response.
• Available in various sizes and having a high range of
resistance.
 Applications of Resistive Transducer
• Potentiometer – Resistance of their conductor varies
with variation in their lengths
– used for measurement of displacement.

• Strain gauges – Resistance of material changes when

strain occurs on it.
– used for measurement of pressure, force-displacement etc.

• Resistance Thermometer – Resistance of metals

changes because of changes in temperature.
– used for measuring temperature.

• Thermistor – Works on principle that temperature

coefficient of thermistor material varies with
temperature. Has negative temperature coefficient
 Capacitive Transducer
• Measurand is converted to change in capacitance.
• Capacitance in terms of size of capacitor plate,
amount of plate separation, and dielectric is:
• C = εoεrA / d
• d: separation distance of plates (m)
• C : capacitance (F, Farad)
• ε0: absolute permittivity of vacuum
• εr: relative permittivity
• A : effective (overlapping) area of capacitor plates
(m2)
 Capacitive Transducer
• Movable diaphragm forms one
plate of capacitor.
• Distance between diaphragm
and static plate changes when a
force applied to diaphragm.
• Change in capacitance is
measured with an ac bridge
circuit.
• Can measure both static and
dynamic changes.
• Drawback: Sensitive to
temperature variations
 Inductive Transducer
• work on principle of inductance
change due to any appreciable
change in the quantity to be
measured i.e. measured.
• example, LVDT
• measures displacement in terms of
voltage difference between its two
secondary voltages.
• inductive transducers can be made
to work by changing flux with the
help of measurand and this
changing flux changes inductance
and this inductance change can be
calibrated in terms of measured.
 Temperature Transducer
• Converts thermal quantity into electrical
signals
• Input to them are always thermal quantities
• Usually used for measurement of temperature
and heat flow
• Types:
▫ Thermocouples
▫ Resistance - Temperature Detectors (RTD)
▫ Thermistors
Basic Scheme of Temperature Transducers
• Sensing Element :
– whose properties change with change in
temperature.
– Example- Resistance Thermometers sensing
element is Platinum metal.
• Desirable Conditions for Choosing Sensing Element:
– Change per unit resistance of material per unit
change in temperature should be large
– material should have high resistivity so that
minimum volume of material is used for its
construction
– material should have continuous and stable
relationship with temperature
Cont..
• Transduction Element:
– transforms output of sensing element into electrical
quantity.
– change in property of sensing element acts as output for it.
– It measures change in the property of sensing element.
– Output of transduction element is then calibrated to give
change in thermal quantity.

• Example- In thermocouple potential difference

produced across two terminal is being measure by
voltmeter and magnitude of voltage produced after
calibration gives idea of change in temperature.
 Thermistor

• Also called Thermal Resistor.

• Resistance changes with change of temperature.
• Have high sensitivity so widely used for temperature
measurements.
• Usually called the ideal temperature transducer.
• Composed of mixture of metallic oxides.
 Properties of Thermistors
• Have Negative Thermal Coefficient
– resistance of thermistor decreases with increase
in temperature
• Made up of semiconductor materials
• Sensitive than RTD (Resistance Thermometres)
and Thermocouples
• Resistance lies between: 0.5Ω to 0.75 MΩ
• Temperature range: -60o•C to 15•
oC
 Thermocouples

• Temperature sensitive device

• Works on Seebeck effect:

• “a voltage is generated in a circuit containing
two different metals by keeping the junctions
between them at different temperatures”
• Consists of two junctions of dissimilar metals,
such as copper and constantan that are welded.

• One junction is kept at constant temperature

called the reference (Cold) junction, while the
other measuring (Hot) junction.
• Works on seebeck Effect
• When two junctions are at different
temperatures, a voltage is developed across the
junction which is used to measure temperature.
types of thermocouples
 Main Features of Thermocouples
• Temperatures range: -200oC to +2000oC
advantage over both RTD and Thermistor

• They are Active Transducers so don’t require any

external source for measuring temperature as like
RTD’s and Thermistors.

• Cheaper than both RTD’s and Thermistors.

• Less accurate compared to RTD’s and Thermistors

so generally are not used for high precision work.
 Resistance Temperature Detectors
(RTDs)
• RTD’s are precision temperature sensors
• made from high-purity conducting metals
such as platinum, copper or nickel wound into
a coil and whose electrical resistance changes
as change of temperature, similar to
thermistor.
 Construction RTD
• RTD elements are usually long, spring- like wires
surrounded by an insulator and enclosed in a sheath of
metal.
• coil is protected by stainless steel sheath or a protective
tube.
• So that, the physical strain is negligible as the wire expands
and increase the length of wire with the temperature
change.
• If the strain on the wire is increasing, then the tension
increases.
• Due to that, resistance of the wire will change which is
undesirable.
• So, we don’t want to change the resistance of wire by any
other unwanted changes except the temperature changes.
 Cont….
• Has platinum element that is surrounded by a porcelain
insulator.
• Insulator prevents short circuit between the wire and metal
sheath.
• Inconel, a nickel-iron-chromium alloy, normally used in RTD
sheath because of its inherent corrosion resistance.
• When placed in a liquid or gas medium, the Inconel sheath
quickly reaches the temperature of the medium.
• Change in temperature will cause the platinum wire to heat
or cool, resulting in a proportional change in resistance.
 Features of RTD’s
• Highly sensitive and very cheap as compared
to thermistors and thermocouples
• Measure temperature from -182.96o•C to
630.74•oC
 PRTs ( platinum RTDs )
• most popular RTD
• Nearly linear over a wide range of
temperatures
• Small enough to have response times of a
fraction of a second
• Among most precise temperature sensors
available with resolution
• Usually they are provided encapsulated in
probes
• They have an external indicator, controller or
transmitter, or enclosed inside other devices
where they measure temperature as a part of
the device's function (i.e. temperature
controller, precision thermostat... )
 Inductive Transducers
• work on the principle of inductance change due
to any appreciable change in the quantity to be
measured.

• example, LVDT, a kind of inductive transducers,

measures displacement in terms of voltage
difference between its two secondary voltages.
• Secondary voltages are nothing but the result of
induction due to the flux change in the secondary
coil with the displacement of the iron bar.
• inductive transducers made to work by
changing flux with the help of measured
• this changing flux changes the inductance and
• this inductance change can be calibrated in
terms of measured.
 Change of Self Inductance of
Inductive Transducer
• self inductance of a coil is given by

• Where, N = number of turns. R = reluctance of the magnetic

circuit.
• reluctance R is given by

• Where,
– μ = effective permeability of the medium in and around the coil
– Where, G = A/l and called geometric form factor.
– A = area of cross-section of coil.
– l = length of the coil.
 Change of Self Inductance of
Inductive Transducer
• self inductance can be varied by:
– Change in number of turns, N,
– Changing geometric configuration, G, =A/l
– Changing permeability

• To measure displacement by inductive transducers:

– Inductor should be changed by any of the above parameter
 LVDT
Linear Variable Differential Transformer

• Most widely used inductive transducer that converts

linear motion into electrical signal.
• Output across secondary is differential
• very accurate inductive transducer compared to
other inductive transducers.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=anCnrtjNLQM
 Construction of LVDT
Main Features of Construction
• Transformer consists of primary winding P and two
secondary windings S1 and S2 wound on a cylindrical
former (which is hollow in nature and contains core).

• Both secondary windings have an equal number of

turns, and placed on either side of primary winding

• Primary winding is connected to AC source which

produces a flux in air gap and voltages are induced in
secondary windings.

• A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former

and displacement to be measured is connected to iron
core.
LVDT
• Iron core is generally of high permeability
which helps in reducing harmonics and high
sensitivity of LVDT.

• LVDT is placed inside stainless steel housing

because it will provide electrostatic and
electromagnetic shielding.

• Both secondary windings are connected in

such a way that resulted output is difference
between the voltages of two windings.
 Principle of Operation and Working
• As primary is connected to an AC source
alternating current and voltages are produced
in secondary of LVDT.
• Output in secondary S1 is e1 and
• secondary S2 is e2.
• So the differential output is,
Three cases according to locations of core
➢CASE I: When core is at null position (for no
displacement)
➢flux linking with both the secondary windings is equal
➢so the induced emf is equal in both the windings.
➢So for no displacement the value of output eout is zero as
e1 and e2 both are equal.
➢So it shows that no displacement took place..
➢CASE II : core moved upward of null position

➢Flux linking with secondary winding S1 is more as

compared to flux linking with S2.
➢Due to this e1 will be more as that of e2.
➢Due to this output voltage eout is positive.
• CASE III: When core moved downward

– magnitude of e2 will be more thane1.

– Due to this output eout will be negative
 LVDT characteristics:
Output VS Core Displacement

• Curve is linear: shows that output voltage

varies linearly with displacement of core.
 Magnitude and Sign of voltage
induced in LVDT
• Amount of change in voltage either negative
or positive is proportional to the amount of
movement of core and indicates amount of
linear motion.
• By noting the output voltage increasing or
decreasing the direction of motion can be
determined
• Output voltage of LVDT is linear function of
core displacement .
 Advantages of LVDT
• High Range – used for measurement of displacements ranging
from 1.25 mm to 250 mm
• No Frictional Losses – As core moves inside a hollow former
so there is no loss of displacement input as frictional loss so it
makes LVDT as very accurate device.
• High Output and High Sensitivity – Output of LVDT is so high
that it doesn’t need any amplification.
– Possesses high sensitivity which is typically about 40V/mm.
• Repeatability is excellent under all conditions
• Low Power Consumption – The power is about 1W which is
very as compared to other transducers.
• Direct Conversion to Electrical Signals – convert linear
displacement to electrical voltage which are easy to process
 Disadvantages of LVDT
• Sensitive to stray magnetic fields so it always
requires a setup to protect them from stray
magnetic fields.

• Gets affected by vibrations and temperature.

 Applications of LVDT
• Measurement of ranging from a fraction of mm to few cms.

• LVDT acting as a primary transducer: converts displacement

to electrical signal directly.

• LVDT can also act as a secondary transducer.

• E.g. the Bourbon tube which acts as a primary transducer
and it converts pressure into linear displacement and then
LVDT coverts this displacement into an electrical signal
which after calibration gives the readings of the pressure of
fluid.
 RVDT
Rotary Variable Differential Transformer
• I/P is differential value of rotary variable i.e. angular
rotation (dƟ)
• Senses angular displacement of conductor
• Electromechanical transducer
• Gives linear output proportional to input angular
displacement.
• working of RVDT is similar to LVDT.
• only difference is :
– LVDT uses soft iron core for measuring displacement,
– RVDT uses can shape core rotated between primary and
secondary winding with the help of the shaft.
 Resistive Transducers
• Resistive Transducer-Potentiometer
• Resistance Pressure Transducer
• Resistive Position Transducer
How Potentiometer is used as Transducer
• one of the most common applications of potentiometer is
measurement of displacement.
• To measure displacement of the body which is moving, is
connected to sliding element of potentiometer.
• As the body moves, position of slider located on
potentiometer also changes so resistance between fixed
point and slider changes.
• Due to this voltage Vo across these points also changes.
• The change in voltage or the resistance is proportional to
change in displacement of the body.
• Thus voltage change indicates displacement of the body.
• It can be used for measurement of translational as well as
well rotational displacement.
• Since these potentiometers work on principle of resistance,
they are also called as resistive potentiometers
potentiometric resistor sensor
 Potentiometric transducer
• Is mechanically driven variable resistor.
• It consists of wire-wound fixed resistor and wiper
arm that slides over it
• it taps a different segment of the resistor,
• Displacement to be measured is linked by a shaft
to wiper arm,
• Displacement Measure= fractional resistance KR
or the fractional voltage KV
• K : fraction of resistor that is tapped.
potentiometric resistor sensor
Resistance Type Pressure Transducers
Strain Gauge
• is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force; It converts
force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical
resistance which can then be measured.
• When external forces are applied to a stationary object, stress and
strain are the result.
• Stress is defined as the object's internal resisting forces, and
• strain is defined as the displacement and deformation that occur.
• Fine wire usually arranged in the form of grid.
• Pressure change causes resistance change due to distortion of
wire.
• Value of pressure can be found by measuring change in resistance
of wire grid.
• Most strain gauges are made from a constantan alloy
• used for the measurement of strain.
• "strain" consists of tensile and compressive
• strain, distinguished by a positive or negative
sign.
• Thus, strain gauges can be used to pick up
expansion as well as contraction.
 Pressure (length/area) to resistance relationship.

• where
• R = resistance of wire grid in ohms
ρ = resistivity constant for particular type of wire grid
L = length of wire grid
A = cross sectional area of wire grid
• As wire grid is distorted by elastic deformation, its
length is increased, and its cross-sectional area
decreases.

• These changes cause an increase in resistance of the

wire of strain gauge.

• This change in resistance is used as variable

resistance in a bridge circuit that provides an
electrical signal for indication of pressure.
• Increase in pressure at inlet of bellows causes bellows to
expand.
• Expansion of bellows moves a flexible beam to which a strain
gauge has been attached.
• Movement of the beam causes resistance of strain gauge to
change.
• Strain gauges, which are nothing more than resistors, are used
with bridge circuits
Temperature compensating gauge compensates for the
heat produced by current flowing through the fine wire
of the strain gauge.
 Bellows Resistance Transducer

• Made up of an alloy with high strength and ductility.

• Commonly used material brass or phosphor bronze
• As pressure changes, bellows will either expand or
contract.
• This expansion and contraction causes attached
slider to move along the slidewire, increasing or
decreasing the resistance, and thereby indicating an
increase or decrease in pressure.
 Bellows

• It can be manufactured form a single piece of thin metal.

• For industrial purposes, the commonly used bellow elements are:
• By turning from a solid stock of metal
• By soldering or welding stamped annular rings
• Rolling a tube
• By hydraulically forming a drawn tubing

• Is one-piece, collapsible, seamless metallic unit that has deep folds

formed from very thin-walled tubing.
• Diameter of bellows ranges from 0.5 to 12 in. and may have as
many as 24 folds. System or line pressure is applied to the internal
volume of the bellows. As the inlet pressure to the instrument
varies, the bellows will expand or contract.
• As the inlet pressure to bellows varies, bellows
will expand or contract.
• Moving end of bellows is connected to
mechanical linkage assembly.
• As bellows and linkage assembly moves, either
an electrical signal is generated or a direct
pressure indication is provided.
• The flexibility of a metallic bellows is similar in
character to that of a helical, coiled compression
spring.
 Resistive Position Transducer
• Principle: Physical variable under measurement
causes a resistance change in sensing element.
• Uses resistive element with sliding contact or wiper
linked to the object being monitored or measured.
• Resistance between slider and one end of
resistance element depends on position of object.
• Output voltage depends on wiper position and is
therefore a function of the shaft position.
• This voltage measured by voltmeter calibrated in cms
for visual display.
• If circuit is unloaded, output voltage Vo is a certain
fraction of Vt,depending upon position of the wiper.
• Therefore,

• When applied to resistive position sensors, this

equation shows that output voltage is proportional to
R2, i.e. position of the wiper of the potentiometer.
• If resistance of transducer is distributed uniformly
along the length of travel of the wiper, the resistance is
perfectly linear.
 Capacitive Transducer
• Capacitive Pressure Transducer
• Piezo Electric Transducer,
• Photo Electric Transducer (Photo emissive,
Photo Conductive, Photo Voltaic)
 Capacitive Transducer
• Used for measurement of displacement, pressure and other
physical quantities.
• Is a passive transducer: requires external power for operation.
• Works on the principle of variable capacitances.
• Capacitance of capacitive transducer changes because of
many reasons like overlapping of plates, change in distance
between the plates and dielectric constant.
• Capacitive transducer contains two parallel metal plates.
• These plates are separated by dielectric medium which is
either air, material, gas or liquid.
• In normal capacitor distance between plates are fixed, but in
capacitive transducer the distance between them are varied.
• It uses capacitance for converting mechanical movement into
an electrical signal.
• Input quantity causes change of capacitance which is directly
• Capacitors measure both static and dynamic
changes.
• Displacement is also measured directly by
connecting measurable devices to the
movable plate of capacitor.
 Principle of Operation

• Capacitance between plates of a capacitor is

• Where A – overlapping area of plates in m2

d – the distance between two plates in meter
ε – permittivity of the medium in F/m
εr – relative permittivity
ε0 –permittivity of free space
• Change in capacitance occurs
because of physicals variables like
– displacement, force, pressure, etc.
• Capacitance of transducer also
changes by variation in their
dielectric constant which is usually
because of measurement of liquid
or gas level.
• capacitance of the transducer is
measured with bridge circuit.
• output impedance of transducer is

•
• Where, C – capacitance
f – frequency of excitation in Hz.
Capacitive Pressure Transducer
Working Principle
 Diaphragm pressure transducer
• Used for low pressure measurement.

• Commonly used materials for making

diaphragm : polythene, neoprene, animal
membrane, silk, and synthetic materials.

• The common range for pressure measurement

varies between 50 Pa to 0.1 MPa.
• Enclosed in an airtight container is a metallic diaphragm which moves
when pressure is applied to the chamber
• This diaphragm is used as one plate of a variable capacitor.
• Its distance from stationary plate to its left, as determined by pressure
applied to the unit, determines capacitance between two plates.
• The monitor indicates the pressure equivalent of the unit’s capacitance by
measuring the capacitor’s reactance to the ac source voltage.
• (The portion of the chamber to the left of the moving plate is isolated
from the side into which the pressurised gas or vapour is introduced.
Hence, the dielectric constant of the unit does not change for different
types of pressurised gas or vapour. The capacity is purely a function of the
diaphragm position.)
• This device is not linear.
• Changes in pressure may be easily detected by the variation of capacity
between a fixed plate and another plate free to move as pressure changes.
• resulting variation follows basic capacity formula.
• Where A = area of one side of one plate in cm2
• n= number of plates
• t = thickness of dielectric in cm
• K= dielectric constant
 Piezo Electric Transducer
• used for conversion of pressure or mechanical
stress into an alternating electrical force.
• Used for measuring physical quantity like force,
pressure, stress, etc.,
• Converts the physical quantity into an electrical
voltage which is easily measured by analogue and
digital meter.
• uses piezoelectric material which has a special
property, i.e. the material induces voltage when
pressure or stress applied to it.
• Material which shows such property is known as
electro-resistive element.
• Quartz is examples of natural piezoelectric
crystals
 Piezo Electric Transducer
• Rochelle salts, ammonium dehydration,
phosphate, lithium sulphate, dipotassium
tartrate are examples of the made crystals.
 Piezoelectric Effect
• EMF develops because of displacement of
charges.
• effect is changeable, i.e. if varying potential
applies to a piezoelectric transducer, it will
change dimension of the material or deform it.
• This effect is known as piezoelectric effect.
• Pressure is applied to the crystals with the help of
force summing devices for examples the stress is
applied through mechanical pressure gauges and
pressure sensors, etc.
• The deformation induces EMF which determines
value of applied pressure.
Theory of Piezo-Electric Transducer
• voltage sensitivity of the crystals is expressed by ratio of
electric field intensity and pressure.
• When mechanical deformation occurs in the crystals, it
generates charges.
• And this charge develops the voltages across the
electrodes.
• The Piezoelectric crystal is direction sensitive.
• polarity of voltage depends on direction of the force which
is either tensile or compressive.
• magnitude and polarity of charges depend on magnitude
and direction of applied force.
 Photo Electric Transducer
• Definition: converts light energy into electrical
energy.
• It is made of semiconductor material.
• Uses a photosensitive element, which ejects the
electrons when the beam of light absorbs through it.
• Discharges of electrons vary the property of
photosensitive element.
• Hence the current induces in the devices.
• Magnitude of current is equal to total light absorbed
by photosensitive element.
• Photoelectric transducer absorbs radiation of light
which falls on their semiconductor material.
• Absorption of light energises electrons of the
material, and hence electrons start moving.
• Mobility of electrons produces one of three effects.
• The resistance of the material changes.
• The output current of the semiconductor changes.
• The output voltage of the semiconductor changes.
 Photoemissive Cell
• Converts photons into electric energy.
• It consists anode rod and cathode plate.
• anode and cathode are coated with a Photoemissive
material
• When radiation of light fall on cathode plates
electrons starts flowing from cathode to anode.
• Both anode and cathode are sealed in a closed,
opaque evacuated tube.
• When radiation of light fall on sealed tube,
electrons starts emitting from cathode and moves
towards anode.
• anode is kept to positive potential.
• Thus, photoelectric current starts flowing through
anode.
• Magnitude of current is directly proportional to
intensity of light passes through it.
 Photoconductive Cell
• Converts light energy into an electric current.
• It uses semiconductor material like cadmium
selenide, Ge, Se, as a photo sensing element.
• When beam of light falls on semiconductor material,
their conductivity increases and material works like
a closed switch.
• current starts flowing into the material and deflects
the pointer of the meter.
 Photo-voltaic cell
• Is the type of active transducer.
• current starts flowing into
photovoltaic cell when load is
connected to it.
• silicon and selenium are used as a
semiconductor material.
• When semiconductor material
absorbs heat, free electrons of
material starts moving.
• This phenomenon is known as
photovoltaic effect.
• Movements of electrons develop
current in the cell, called as
photoelectric current.